WaterSmart Pastoral sm™ Handbook - Ninti One

�A pract�cal gu�de for stock water management �n desert Austral�a

WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ HandbookA pract�cal gu�de for stock water management �n desert Austral�a

Colleen JamesAndrew Bubb

�� Desert Knowledge CRC The WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Handbook

Contr�but�ng author �nformat�on

Colleen James Desert Channels Qld IncP O Box 601 Longreach Qld 4730Ph: 07 4652 7826mob: 0428 580 998email: [email protected]

Andrew Bubb Desert Knowledge CRC and Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries and MinesP O Box 3971 Alice Springs, NT 0871ph: 08 8951 8139 mob: 0438 848 023 email: [email protected]

Image contributors to this handbook can be contacted at these email addresses:Adrian James: [email protected] Deb Allen: [email protected] Desreaux: [email protected] Francis: [email protected]

The Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre is an unincorporated joint venture with 28 partners whose mission is to develop and disseminate an understanding of sustainable living in remote desert environments, deliver enduring regional economies and livelihoods based on Desert Knowledge, and create the networks to market this knowledge in other desert lands.

Information contained in this publication may be copied or reproduced for study, research, information or educational purposes, subject to inclusion of an acknowledgement of the source.

ISBN 1 74158 080 3 (print)ISBN 1 74158 081 1 (web)

C�tat�onJames C and Bubb A 2008, WaterSmart Pastoralism™ Handbook, Desert Knowledge CRC,

Alice Springs.

© Desert Knowledge CRC 2008For additional information please contactDesert Knowledge CRCPublications OfficerPO Box 3971Alice Springs NT 0871AustraliaTelephone +61 8 8959 6000 Fax +61 8 8959 6048www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au

© Desert Knowledge CRC 2008

��A pract�cal gu�de for stock water management �n desert Austral�a

ContentsL�st of tables �vL�st of f�gures �vWaterSmart Pastoral�sm™project partners 1Project products ava�lable 2Intent�on of handbook 31. S�t�ng a new bore 4

1.1 How 41.2. Capac�ty of bore 41.3. Water qual�ty 51.4. Water po�nt locat�on 6

2. Equ�pp�ng a bore 72.1 Pumps 82.2. Electr�c 102.3. Solar 102.4 W�ndm�lls 112.5. D�esel/Petrol 11

3. Water del�very 113.1 P�pes 12

4. Water storage 124.1. Dams 124.2. Tanks 144.3. Evaporat�on 154.4 Seepage 17

5. Costs of prov�d�ng water 185.1. Phys�cal �nspect�ons 195.2. Remote mon�tor�ng 21

References 25

�v Desert Knowledge CRC The WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Handbook

Table 1: Stock water consumpt�on 4Table 2: Sal�n�ty tolerances of l�vestock 5Table 3: Useful convers�ons and measurements 26

Figure 1: Benefits of strategic water point location 6F�gure 2: Total dynam�c head 9F�gure 3: Solar pump used to push water up a h�ll 10F�gure 4: Surface area measurements 13F�gure 5: Calculat�ng tank volume 14F�gure 6: Evaporat�on from dams 15F�gure 7: Example of cont�nuous plast�c sheet evaporat�on control dev�ce 16F�gure 8: Annual average evaporat�on rates 17F�gure 9: Example of dam l�ner used to control seepage losses 18F�gure 10: Water run log sheet 20F�gure 11: UHF un�t �n veh�cle �s used to remotely check water levels �n tanks 21F�gure 12: Examples of telemetry systems used to remotely mon�tor water po�nts 24

List of tables

List of figures

1A pract�cal gu�de for stock water management �n desert Austral�a

WaterSmart Pastoralism™ project partners

The WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ project �s a Desert Knowledge Cooperat�ve Research Centre (DKCRC) project funded by the Nat�onal Landcare Program and adm�n�stered by the Department of Agr�culture, F�sher�es and Forestry.

Partners are Desert Channels Queensland Inc., The South Austral�an Ar�d Lands Natural Resource Management Board, The Northern Terr�tory Department of Pr�mary Industry, F�sher�es and M�nes, and the Great Artes�an Bas�n Coord�nat�ng Comm�ttee.

Industry partners are The North Austral�an Pastoral Company, Grundfos, D�nocrete Troughs, Observant, Aqua Pump�ng & Solar, Bushmans, Mono, E P W�ndm�lls & Pumps, Stockman Telemetry, Iplex P�pel�nes, Stokcrete Troughs, Blackmore’s Power and Water, Agfloat, Darling Downs Tarpaulins and Harr�ngton Electr�cs (uSee).

Further �nformat�on on the project can be found at: http://www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/watersmartwww.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/watersmart

2 Desert Knowledge CRC The WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Handbook

Project products availableThe follow�ng WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ products are ava�lable through the DKCRC or on the WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Webs�te at: www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/watersmart

WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ FlyerReport prov�d�ng an overv�ew of WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Informat�on days that �llustrates what was ach�evedWaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Case Study report: Mount Ive Stat�onWaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Case Study report: Monk�ra Stat�onWaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Case Study report: De Rose H�ll Stat�onWaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ Case Study report: Napperby Stat�onWaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ L�terature Rev�ew: Loss of storage water through evaporat�on (Cra�g 2008)WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ L�terature Rev�ew: Water ret�culat�on equ�pment for rangeland pastoral appl�cat�on (W�ll�ams & Pezzan�t� 2008)WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ L�terature Rev�ew: Groundwater sal�n�ty, desal�nat�on equ�pment and pract�ces appl�cable to the rangelands pastoral �ndustry (de Vr�es 2008a)WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ L�terature Rev�ew: Impact of art�f�c�al water po�nts on rangeland b�od�vers�ty (Howes & McAlp�ne 2008)WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ L�terature Rev�ew: Telemetry systems for remote water mon�tor�ng control equ�pment (de Vr�es 2008b)

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Intention of handbookWater ava�lab�l�ty and management has always been a key �ssue for pastoral�sm �n the ar�d and sem�-ar�d reg�ons. Recent drought cond�t�ons throughout Austral�a have h�ghl�ghted the need to seek new and �nnovat�ve ways to plan for future challenges �n water supply management.

Th�s handbook a�ms to be an �n�t�al source of �nformat�on for pastoral�sts. It deta�ls �mportant cons�derat�ons for stock water del�very and outl�nes technolog�es wh�ch can reduce the cost of water del�very and storage. The handbook deta�ls s�t�ng a new bore, equ�pp�ng a bore, graz�ng �mpacts of a bore, an�mal water requ�rements, water storage and water po�nt mon�tor�ng.


1. Siting a new bore

1.1 HowHow and where a bore is placed is influenced by many factors, including type of country, size of property, etc. Where a bore is located will influence the management opt�ons for the property, so �mportant th�ngs to cons�der are:

What �nformat�on �s already ava�lable on groundwater �n the area?What type of pasture �s present �n terms of qual�ty and quant�ty?What �s the d�stance to ex�st�ng water po�nts?

1.2. Capac�ty of boreThe capac�ty of a bore (how much water �t can produce) w�ll determ�ne �f and how �t can be used for stock water�ng purposes. The volume of water that can be produced is termed ‘flow’.

The water demands for each water�ng po�nt and for the system as a whole must be accurately est�mated before determ�n�ng the s�ze of the p�pe and head or pressure needed to del�ver water. The system needs to be des�gned w�th the ab�l�ty to meet the absolute max�mum demand pred�cted w�th max�mum stock numbers, hot summer cond�t�ons and dry feed.

Table 1: Stock water consumption

Stock type Consumption per day (L)

Sheep

Weaners 2 – 4

Adult dry sheep 2 – 6

Grassland 4 – 12

Saltbush 4 – 10

Lactat ing ewe 4 – 10

Cattle

Grassland 40 – 100

Saltbush 70 – 140

Young stock 25 – 50

Dry stock 35 – 80

Horses

Working 40 – 50

Source: Adapted from PIRSA 2008

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1.3. Water qual�tyWater qual�ty can have a b�g �mpact on the an�mals that dr�nk �t and can have major effects on overall stat�on product�on. The factors to be cons�dered when assess�ng water for stock use are:

phys�cal causes (mater�als that are phys�cally suspended �n the water, �.e. s�lts)b�olog�cal (l�v�ng organ�sms or the�r rema�ns)bacter�olog�calchem�cal (�.e. salts)

Some of the common problems that effect water qual�ty are hardness, algae, ac�d�ty, �ron, bacter�al growth and sal�n�ty. Laboratory test�ng of water samples can determ�ne �ts qual�ty and subsequent su�tab�l�ty for stock use.

Water w�th h�gh salt concentrat�ons �ncreases the amount �nd�v�dual an�mals dr�nk and also reduces the�r food �ntake; th�s can have negat�ve �mpacts on the�r product�on. Stock that graze on saltbush or salty feeds are less tolerant of sal�ne water, whereas stock graz�ng on green feed can tolerate h�gher salt concentrat�ons than the same stock on dry feed.

To keep water sal�n�ty levels as low as poss�ble, clean tanks before summer, and scrub and flush troughs frequently. Also, check salinity levels over the summer months.

Table 2: Sal ini ty tolerances of l ivestock

Salinity tolerances of l ivestock in mill igrams per l itre (mg/L) of total soluble saltsAnimal Maximum concentrat ion

for healthy growthMaximum concentrat ion

to maintain condit ionMaximum concentrat ion

tolerated

Sheep 6000 13000 *

Beef catt le 4000 5000 10000

Dairy catt le 3000 4000 6000

Horses 4000 6000 7000

* Max�mum level depends on type of feed ava�lable – for example saltbush vs greenfeed.

Source: PIRSA 2008

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1.4. Water po�nt locat�onIn extens�ve pastoral systems, an�mals concentrate graz�ng around water�ng po�nts. Sheep concentrate the�r graz�ng w�th�n 2.5 km of the water�ng po�nt and cattle w�th�n 5 km. When an�mals are requ�red to walk further than th�s, they often expend more energy than �s ga�ned from the forage consumed.

In large paddocks the d�stance of pasture from water can l�m�t carry�ng capac�ty. Strateg�c locat�on of water po�nts w�ll use ava�lable feed wh�le reduc�ng concentrated graz�ng pressure. If stock requ�re more water due to lactat�on, sal�n�ty or dry feed, they may need to dr�nk more than once a day. Th�s w�ll also reduce the�r forage rad�us.

Opt�mal d�stance between water po�nts �s 5–8 km for sheep, and up to 10 km for cattle. The expense of water development �n poorly watered areas could be justified by improved animal performance and increased carrying capacity.

water point located in open pasture

3 km

5 km

water point located in corner paddock

grazing area within 3km of water point is 7 km2


3 km5 km

Water point located in open pasture maximises grazing area

Water point located in corner of paddock restricts grazing area

CJ01.EPS



Figure 1: Benefi ts of strategic water point locationSource: Colleen James


2. Equipping a boreThe pr�mary source of water for rangeland ret�culat�on of water �s from groundwater bores. Depend�ng on the locat�on of the bore, e�ther subartes�an or artes�an bores may be developed. Artes�an bores may exper�ence h�gh water temperature and h�gh water pressure, and requ�re spec�al �nfrastructure. Two components where problems may occur are:

cas�ngwell head.

Casing �s requ�red to prevent bore collapse and to act as a safe hous�ng for any pump �nstalled �n the bore. Cas�ng mater�als �nclude:

steelPVCthermoplast�c (ABS)f�breglass re�nforced plast�c (FRP)

Cho�ce of mater�al w�ll depend on strength requ�rements, corros�on res�stance, ease of handl�ng, cost cons�derat�ons, type of format�on, method of dr�ll�ng, bore des�gn, construct�on techn�ques, and l�cense or perm�t requ�rements.

Table 3: Bore casing material properties

Material Specific gravity

Tensile strength

(MPa)

Tensile modulus(105 kPa)

Impact strength (relative to

PVC)

Upper temp.

l imits (oC)Steel 7.85 350 2068 v.high 800–1000Stainless Steel 8.00 517 2000 v.high 800–1000PVC 1.40 55 28 x1 40ABS 1.04 31 20 x6 50FRP 1.89 115 158 x20 80

Source: W�ll �ams 2008

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A well head �s used on subartes�an wells to protect the underly�ng aqu�fer from contamination by surface water and allows flow to be controlled from artes�an wells. Artes�an wells need to be made strong enough to handle the pressure and flow, without interfering with the pump or reticulation system.

Artes�an bore water can be corros�ve and requ�res the use of qual�ty well head and valves that are rated to handle the h�gh temperature and pressure. Typ�cally, sta�nless steel �s used, although advances �n epoxy coat�ngs and electroplat�ng have allowed mater�als such as cast �ron and bronze to be cons�dered. For temperatures exceed�ng 50oC or flow exceeding 15 litres per second, a ma�n �solat�ng valve of equ�valent d�ameter to the �nner cas�ng should be �ncorporated �n the headworks between the bore cas�ng and the d�str�but�on outlets (W�ll�ams 2008).

2.1 PumpsPumps may be requ�red to draw water from the ground or del�ver water to hold�ng storages and dr�nk�ng troughs. In areas where artes�an pressure �s sufficient, pumps may not be required. The most common pumps availableThe most common pumps ava�lablehe most common pumps ava�lable that w�ll have appl�cat�on for pastoral use �nclude:

centr�fugal: moves water by us�ng a motor to rotate a propeller, wh�ch creates a vacuum allow�ng atmospher�c pressure to push the waterjet: generally surface mounted centr�fugal pumps, f�tted w�th e�ther deep well or shallow well �njector k�ts to enhance suct�on l�ftsubmers�ble borehole pumps: usually electr�cally dr�ven, they cons�st of submers�ble mult�-stage centr�fugal or m�xed flow un�ts, w�th the motor located d�rectly under the pumphel�cal rotor pumps: a pos�t�ve d�splacement type pump, where the water �s moved up the rotor by be�ng conf�ned between the rotor and stator (the part of the fan’s motor that �s stat�onary).p�ston pumps: work by draw�ng water �nto a cyl�nder on the upstroke and expell�ng �t on return (a w�ndm�ll �s a common appl�cat�on).

The d�stance and he�ght water can be pumped �s determ�ned by the ‘Total Dynam�c Head’ (TDH). Total Head �s the he�ght water needs to be pumped to, measured from the water level at the source to the h�ghest del�very po�nt. TDH takes �nto account the fr�ct�on loss created by the movement of water through the del�very p�pel�ne.

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TDH = Static lift + Static height + Friction loss

Static lift: the he�ght �n metres from the low water level to the ground level where the pump’s power source w�ll be mounted. Static height: the he�ght �n metres from where the power source w�ll be mounted to the h�ghest po�nt along the del�very p�pel�ne. Friction loss: the amount of pressure requ�red to ‘force’ l�qu�d through p�pe and fittings.Source: WD Moore 2008

TOTA

L D

YNA

MIC

HEA

D

STAT

IC L

IFT

STAT

IC H

EIG

HT

STATIC LIFT+

STATIC HEIGHT+

FRICTION LOSS=

TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD

CJ02.EPS

Figure 2: Total dynamic head Source: adapted from WD Moore 2008

Pressure: the comprehensive stress within water, defined by units of kilo pascals (kPa).

Pressure (kPa) = He�ght (m) x Grav�ty (m/s²)

Specific gravity: �s the we�ght of a l�qu�d at approx�mately 20ºC �n compar�son to water (SG=1)

Flow rate: the volume of water pass�ng a g�ven po�nt �n a g�ven t�me. Cub�c metres per second (m³/s) is the basic unit for measuring flow rate.

L�nks to fr�ct�on loss and pressure calculators are ava�lable on the WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ webs�te: www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/watersmart


Pumps can be selected based on the pressure and volume of water requ�red. These operat�ng cond�t�ons w�ll also d�ctate the power requ�red to dr�ve the pump. The ma�n forms of pump power ava�lable �nclude:

electr�csolarw�ndd�esel/petrol

2.2. Electr�cElectr�c power from the nat�onal electr�c�ty gr�d �s an �deal power source for runn�ng pumps and �s usually the cheapest. Pumps can be eas�ly set to start automat�cally �n many d�fferent cond�t�ons. Where troughs are fed v�a grav�ty from holding tanks, tanks can be filled in off-peak times, reducing pumping costs. Where poss�ble, �t �s usually cheaper to locate pumps near ex�st�ng power sources rather than runn�ng power to a new pump locat�on. However, where d�stances are large other power sources may be more appropr�ate. Pumps that run on electr�c power may be subject to power fa�lures. Electr�c motor speeds are fixed, which will influence the method of connecting the pump to the motor.

2.3. SolarSolar powered pump systems may be more expens�ve to �nstall, but are generally rel�able and requ�re l�ttle ma�ntenance. They perform best �n summer and are well su�ted to remote s�te pump�ng. Solar powered submers�ble pumps are becom�ng more popular and can replace less rel�able w�ndm�lls at stock dr�nk�ng po�nts for only a small �ncrease �n cost (typ�cal systems, �nclud�ng solar panels, are �n the order of $10 000). Backup supply, such as a d�esel generator, may be also be requ�red.

Figure 3: Solar pump used to push water up a hi l lSource: Image courtesy of Adr�an James

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2.4 W�ndm�llsInstall�ng w�nd powered pumps can be expens�ve and they may requ�re regular ma�ntenance. There may also be per�ods of low w�nd dur�ng part�cular t�mes of the year. Backup power suppl�es may be requ�red. The power that can be der�ved from trad�t�onal w�ndm�ll pumps �s determ�ned by the fan d�ameter. Typ�cally, w�ndm�lls need to be placed �n areas where turbulence �s m�n�mal, and they usually need to be located away from trees and up on h�gh towers, wh�ch may be a potent�al work hazard dur�ng ma�ntenance. Trad�t�onal w�ndm�ll-dr�ven pumps are �ncreas�ngly be�ng replaced w�th solar powered submers�ble pumps

2.5. D�esel/PetrolPetrol eng�ne–dr�ven pumps are mostly appl�cable for low use or mob�le pump�ng un�ts. D�esel eng�nes are more appropr�ate for permanent and frequent use �nstallat�ons. Costs, �nclud�ng fuel, ma�ntenance and ease of automat�on, need to be cons�dered when choos�ng between a renewable energy power supply and petrol/d�esel eng�nes. A d�esel or petrol eng�ne may be appropr�ate as a backup supply.

3. Water deliveryDue to �mprovements �n plast�c p�pe technolog�es and �n methods of deal�ng w�th h�gh temperature and h�gh pressure water, pastoral�sts now have more ret�culat�on opt�ons ava�lable to them than only us�ng open channel del�very of water. By p�p�ng water, evaporat�on and seepage losses are el�m�nated, and unnecessary wastage of water through free flowing bores is also prevented. Th�s results �n:

h�gher qual�ty water for stockreduct�on �n land degradat�on and eros�on from water flow�ng through open channelsa more flex�ble and rel�able supply of water to stockreduced numbers of pests and verm�n that are attracted to water �n open channels.

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3.1 P�pesThe �ntroduct�on of poly p�pe has transformed the way landholders manage the�r country. Early systems used class ‘B’ agr�cultural p�pe, wh�ch prov�ded a cheaper alternat�ve to class ‘A’ but w�ll not w�thstand the pressure requ�red to move water long d�stances. New poly p�pe prov�des a much w�der range of standards, d�ameters, and propert�es to meet part�cular needs, but the improvements are also reflected in the price. Making the right choices about costs and benefits is difficult, but it can be made easier by having a clear understand�ng of the relat�onsh�p between pressure, fr�ct�on and elevat�on.

Some general notes to cons�der:

Fr�ct�on loss �s the res�stance to water flow and �s expressed as he�ght �n metres per k�lometre of p�pe.For a g�ven flow rate, a LARGER d�ameter p�pe w�ll have a lower veloc�ty and p�pe fr�ct�on loss.For a g�ven flow rate, a SMALLER d�ameter p�pe w�ll have a h�gher veloc�ty and h�gher p�pe fr�ct�on loss.H�gher veloc�ty �n a larger d�ameter p�pe produces less p�pe fr�ct�on loss when compared w�th the same veloc�ty �n a smaller p�pe.H�gher p�pe fr�ct�on losses requ�re larger pumps or can reduce the flows at outlets. They can also result �n h�gher power costs to run pumps.

4. Water storageThe type of water storage used on a stat�on �s determ�ned by how much water needs to be stored at a locat�on and �f the area �s su�table for bu�ld�ng a dam. Rates of evaporation and seepage for an area can also influence whether a dam w�ll be a su�table opt�on.

4.1. DamsDams have long been used for water storage across pastoral stat�ons and �n the past have been the only pract�cal opt�on for stor�ng large volumes of water. The amount of water that �s collected �n a dam w�ll depend on the amount of runoff generated by the catchment and how efficiently this is channelled into the dam.

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When creat�ng a dam there are some po�nts to cons�der:

General topography• Des�gn shape•Preva�l�ng w�nds• Seepage•Ex�st�ng water po�nts• Stock consumpt�on•Catchment• Evaporat�on•So�l•

TRIANGULAR TRIANGULARTRIANGULAR

widthwidth

width

length

length length

Surface area = width x length 2

Surface area = width x length

Surface area = 0.8 x width x length

ROUNDRECTANGULARTRIANGULAR

CJ03.EPS

Figure 4: Surface area measurements Source: Adapted from NSW Natural Resources 2008

The volume of a dam �n cub�c metres can be calculated us�ng the follow�ng formula:

Volume (m³) = 0.4 x Surface area x depth

1 Megalitre (ML) = 1000 cubic metres (m³)

0.4 �s a convers�on factor that takes �nto account the slope of the s�des of a dam.

Rectangular or square dams: Surface area = length x width

Tr�angular dams: Surface area = width x length 2

C�rcular dams: Surface area = 0.8 x width x length

Depth: measure depth of water to the top of sed�ment �n the bottom of dam.

Unl�ke a covered water storage un�t, dams can attract feral an�mals and weed �nfestat�ons.


4.2. TanksThe use of tanks �n the pastoral �ndustry has been relat�vely low �n the past due to the cost and s�ze l�m�ts. New developments have reduced the cost and increased the size of available tanks; benefits of tanks include no seepage and no evaporat�on (when a cover �s �nstalled).

TANK VOLUME (litres) = (3.14 x RADIUS x RADIUS (m) x WATER DEPTH (m))

x 1000

Radius(half the diametre or width of tank) (metres)

Water depth(metres)

CJ04.EPSFigure 5: Calculat ing tank volume Source: Adapted from NTG 2008

Example (from NSW Natural Resources 2008)

Tank rad�us = 2 metres

Tank depth = 3 metres

Tank volume = (3.14 x 2 m x 2 m x 3 m) x 1000 = (3.14 x 4 m² x 3 m) x 1000 = (3.14 x 12 m²) x 1000 = 37.68 m³ x 1000 = 37,680 l�tres


Steel tanks can be purchased �n k�t form allow�ng for easy transport to the locat�on of construct�on. In the past, steel tanks have been subject to rust, although w�despread use of plast�c l�ners has negated th�s r�sk. Steel tanks can hold large volumes and can be qu�te econom�cal.

Concrete tanks have a longer l�fe expectancy aga�nst corros�on and damage than steel and plastic tanks. Concrete tanks can be difficult to construct in rural areas where del�very of mater�als and long construct�on t�mes can make them uneconom�cal to some pastoral operat�ons.

Polyethylene tanks have become �ncreas�ngly popular due to lower cost and corros�on res�stance. They are generally l�ght and can be eas�ly relocated. S�zes range from 26 000 to 47 000 l�tres. They must be �nstalled correctly to prevent spl�tt�ng or blow�ng away �n the event of a broken p�pe.

F�breglass tanks res�st corros�on and are generally not affected by chem�cals. F�breglass tanks are usually more expens�ve than polyethylene tanks, and as they are br�ttle they can crack or leak.

4.3. Evaporat�onThe rate of evaporat�on over most of Austral�a’s land mass �s �n excess of 2 m per year, wh�le the mean ra�nfall �s less than 500 mm per year. It has been est�mated that up to 95% of the ra�n wh�ch falls �n Austral�a �s re-evaporated and does not contr�bute to runoff (Cra�g 2008).

Water �s commonly harvested as run-off and stored �n small storages and dams, but �t �s est�mated that up to half of th�s may be lost due to evaporat�on.

TRIANGULAR TRIANGULARTRIANGULAREVAPORATION LOSS FROM 2 DAMS OF SIMILAR CAPACITY BUT DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS

Water level when full. Volume = 7100 kilolitres

Water level after 1 year of evaporation. Volume = 1386 kilolitres

Water lost due to evaporation = 5714 kilolitres or 80% of capacityDam dimensions of wide, shallow dam

Surface area = 60 m x 60 m = 3600 m2 Base area = 15 m x 15 m Depth = 4.5 m

Water level when full. Volume = 7200 kilolitres

Water level after 1 year of evaporation. Volume = 3442 kilolitres

Water lost due to evaporation = 3758 kilolitres or 52% of capacityDam dimensions of narrow, deeper dam

Surface area = 45 m x 45 m = 2025 m2 Base area = 17 m x 17 m Depth = 7 mCJ05.EPS

Figure 6: Evaporation from dams Source: Adapted from �mage by Deb Allen of Rural Solut�ons, SA


Water losses from dams can be managed by �ncreas�ng the�r depth. W�ndbreaks can also be used �n certa�n c�rcumstances, but the�r overall effect �n reduc�ng evaporat�on �s l�kely to be small, as solar rad�at�on rather than w�nd �s the key dr�ver �n evaporat�on.

Install�ng an evaporat�on control dev�ce can save up to 90% of evaporat�on losses on farm dams.

Evaporat�on control dev�ces ava�lable for the pastoral �ndustry:

cont�nuous plast�c sheets: float�ng covers act as an �mpermeable barr�er that floats on the water surface to reduce evaporat�on.suspended covers: shade structures are suspended above the surface of the water to reduce solar rad�at�on, w�nd speed and trap hum�d a�r.modular covers: compr�se mult�ple �nd�v�dual un�ts that float on the surface of the water. Performance w�ll depend on how t�ghtly the modules are packed together.chem�cal covers: form a th�n o�ly layer on water surface.

Figure 7: Example of continuous plast ic sheet evaporation control deviceSource: Image courtesy of Deb Desreaux

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Figure 8: Annual average evaporation rates Source: http://www.bom.gov.au/cg�-b�n/cl�mate/cg�_b�n_scr�pts/evaporat�on.cg�

4.4 SeepageThe loss of water through the bed and s�des of a dam �s seepage. In some s�tuat�ons seepage losses can be as h�gh as those from evaporat�on.

Water losses from dams can be managed by �nstall�ng a good qual�ty l�ner to prevent seepage. Install�ng a seepage control l�ner can reduce seepage by 100%.

There are many types and th�cknesses of l�ners ava�lable for the pastoral �ndustry. Most are UV stab�l�sed and come w�th guarantees of 5–20 years.

It �s recommended that any l�ned dams be fenced off from stock, w�ldl�fe and feral an�mals.


Figure 9: Example of dam l iner used to control seepage lossesSource: Image courtesy of Colleen James

5. Costs of providing waterThe cost of prov�d�ng water to stock represents a h�gh percentage of product�on costs. Th�s can be broken down �nto three components:

Installat�onOperat�ngMon�tor�ng

Dec�s�ons around what and where a water�ng po�nt �s �nstalled can have large �mpacts on the ongo�ng operat�ng and mon�tor�ng costs. The operat�ng costs of equ�pment w�ll be largely determ�ned by what �s �n�t�ally �nstalled. Ongo�ng mon�tor�ng costs w�ll be determ�ned by how the water�ng po�nt �s used and what level of mon�tor�ng the manager requ�res. The two bas�c opt�ons for mon�tor�ng water�ng po�nts are phys�cal �nspect�ons or remote mon�tor�ng.

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5.1. Phys�cal �nspect�onsPhys�cal �nspect�ons can be conducted by veh�cle or a�rcraft and g�ve the opportun�ty to see �f water �s present, �f there �s anyth�ng wrong at the water�ng po�nt, and also to conduct bas�c ma�ntenance of the equ�pment. How often this occurs will be influenced by a number of factors which will determine the overall cost.

The cost of phys�cal �nspect�ons of water po�nts can be calculated by collect�ng the follow�ng data:

K�lometres travelledVeh�cle costsLabour costsFuel costs

These costs can be recorded us�ng water run log books, and then the data can be transferred to a spreadsheet to calculate actual water management costs.

To est�mate water management costs, water run log books (see F�gure 10) can be kept �n stat�on veh�cles and completed every t�me a water run �s carr�ed out.

To calculate labour costs, determine a standard figure for the enterprise based on a standard wage level.

To calculate veh�cle costs, determ�ne a k�lometre rate for veh�cles �nclud�ng fuel costs, wear and tear, etc.

To calculate fuel costs (for non-renewable energy generators) est�mate an average cost per l�tre.

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▼ This section is completed for each water run

NAME ◄ Put your name here

DATE ◄ Today’s date

TIME START ◄ Time water run commenced

Water point name* × ◄ mark i f water point visi ted

Water point name* 15 ◄ Number denotes 15 l i t res of fuel added when water point visi ted

Water point name* ◄ Leave blank i f water point not visi ted

Water point name*

Water point name*

Water point name*

Water point name*

Water point name*

Water point name*

Water point name*

Water point name* * put individual water point name

KM TRAVELLED ◄ Total ki lometres travel led

TIME FINISH ◄ Time when water run completed

WEATHER

SUNNY CLOUDY ◄ Mark appl icable weather

HOT COLD

RAIN MILD

TEMPERATURE ºC ◄ Temperature in degrees Celsius

REPAIRS/MAINTENANCE OF

EQUIPMENTi .e. service motor, clean solar panel,

change belt on motor, clean trough, etc.

◄ Write in any maintenance or repairs to equipment when visi t ing water points

Figure 10: Water run log sheetSource: Colleen James


5.2. Remote mon�tor�ng. Remote mon�tor�ng

Remotely mon�tor�ng water�ng po�nts us�ng telemetry systems can allow for �ncreased management of water�ng po�nts wh�le sav�ng money. Telemetry �s a technology that allows data to be gathered and recorded w�thout hav�ng to be at the locat�on. Informat�on �s �nstead transm�tted from measur�ng dev�ces (such as flow meters) using radio or cellular phone technology.

Figure 11: UHF unit in vehicle is used to remotely check water levels in tanks Source: Image courtesy of Patr�ck Franc�s


Telemetry systems are currently capable of:

Sw�tch�ng pumps or �rr�gat�on systems on and offStart�ng generators and mon�tor�ng pressure, temperature, voltage, etc. Mon�tor�ng dam or tank levels Record�ng ra�nfallReal t�me mon�tor�ng of secur�ty dev�ces w�th an �nstant alarm �f break-�n occurs Mon�tor�ng and controll�ng operat�on of electr�c fences Remote read�ng of �nstruments such as weather and water flow gauges Mon�tor�ng the status of gates at remote locat�ons Med�cat�ng water GPS veh�cle track�ng Remotely access�ng d�g�tal cameras or a closed c�rcu�t telev�s�on camera

Telemetry can be used:

To reduce travel costsTo save t�me and labour To reduce wear and tear on veh�cles To manage �nfrastructure that �s hard to get to (due to, for example, wet season �naccess�b�l�ty) To create more secur�ty for remote �nfrastructure

The process of enqu�r�ng about a telemetry system �nvolves:

Dec�d�ng wh�ch water po�nts are to be mon�tored (e�ther now or �n the future)Collect�ng GPS coord�nates for each water po�nt (tak�ng �nformat�on from maps or Google �s not su�table)Pr�or�t�s�ng the order of �nstallat�onContact�ng telemetry prov�der w�th th�s �nformat�on

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Example of costs and benefits of a telemetry system

Stat�on Z has 15 water po�nts.

D�stance dr�ven each bore run: 480 km Average bore runs per year: 130 (average 2.5 per week)Average bore run t�me: 8 hoursVeh�cle runn�ng costs: $2.50/km (fuel, tyres, ma�ntenance, deprec�at�on, etc.)

Annual cost of bore runs �s:(Bore run d�stance) x (No. bore runs) x (Cost per km)480 x 130 x 2.5 = $156 000

Stat�on Z manager wants to �nvest �n telemetry to reduce costs.1 x Base stat�on and software $ 1 50015 x Telemetry un�ts w�th water level sensors $30 0003 x Remote start/stop un�ts for d�esel pumps $ 3 5001 x Repeater un�t to get s�gnal over h�lls $ 2 000Total cost $37 000

Manager th�nks th�s w�ll result �n 1 less bore run each week. 52 less runs each year w�ll save:480 x 52 x 2.5 = $62 400 each year.

The �nvestment w�ll pay for �tself after (37 000/62 400 = 0.59) 0.59 years, or 7 months.

It w�ll also save 8 hours of labour each week, totall�ng (8 x 52 = 416) 416 hours of labour each year.

The manager th�nks the telemetry �nvestment w�ll last at least 10 years, so the �nvestment should save Stat�on Z at least (10 x 62 400 – 37 000) $587 000.

Bore run veh�cle produces 330 grams of CO2 per k�lometre. Sav�ng (52 x 480 = 24 960) 24 960 km each year w�ll save (24 960 X 0.33 = 8236) 8236 kg carbon d�ox�de em�ss�ons each year.

A telemetry cost recovery calculator (James 2007) can be used to work out the rough costs and sav�ngs of �nstall�ng a telemetry network on your property.

The calculator �s ava�lable on the WaterSmart Pastoral�sm™ project webs�te at http://www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/research/downloads/Telemetry-Cost-Recovery-Calculator.xls.


Figure 12: Examples of telemetry systems used to remotely monitor water pointsSources: Adrian James and Patrick Francis


ReferencesCra�g, IP 2008, Loss of storage water through evaporation with particular reference to arid and semi-arid

zone pastoralism in Australia, DKCRC Work�ng Paper 19, Desert Knowledge CRC, Al�ce Spr�ngs.

De Vr�es D 2008a, Groundwater salinity, desalination equipment and practices applicable to the

rangelands pastoral industry: A review, DKCRC Work�ng Paper 16, Desert Knowledge CRC, Al�ce

Spr�ngs.

De Vr�es D 2008b, Telemetry systems for remote water monitoring control equipment, DKCRC Work�ng

Paper 17, Desert Knowledge CRC, Al�ce Spr�ngs.

Howes AL and McAlp�ne CA 2008, The impact of artificial watering points on rangeland biodiversity: A

review, DKCRC Work�ng Paper 15, Desert Knowledge CRC, Al�ce Spr�ngs.

James 2007, Telemetry cost recovery calculator, URL: http://www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/research/

downloads/Telemetry-Cost-Recovery-Calculator.xls

NSW Natural Resources 2008a, Natural Resources �n NSW, URL http://www.naturalresources.nsw.gov.

au/water/pdf/farmdams_how_b�g_are_your_ex�st�ng_dams-d.pdf

NTG 2008, Northern Terr�tory Government, URL: http://www.nt.gov.au/health/docs/env�ron_health_

factsheet_8_d�s�nfect�on_water_tanks.pdf W�ll�ams 2007, Measuring units, URL: http://www.

desertknowledgecrc.com.au/watersmart/des�gn_gu�des/measur�ng_un�ts.html

PIRSA 2008, Department of Pr�mary Industr�es, SA, URL: http://www.p�r.sa.gov.au/

WD Moore 2008, WD Moore & Co, URL: http://www.wdmoore.com.au/SelecttheR�ghtSystem/

CalculateyourTDH/tab�d/63/Default.aspx

W�ll�ams 2007, Measuring units, URL: http://www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au/watersmart/des�gn_gu�des/

measur�ng_un�ts.html

W�ll�ams R, Pezzan�t� D 2008, Water Reticulation Equipment for Rangelands Pastoral Applications: A

Review, DKCRC Work�ng Paper 18, Desert Knowledge CRC, Al�ce Spr�ngs.


Table 3: Useful conversions and measurements

Symbol When you know Multiply by To find SymbolLENGTHin inches 25.4 mil l imetres mmmm mil l imetres 0.03937 inches in f t feet 0.3048 metres mm metres 3.281 feet ftmi miles 1.609 ki lometres kmkm kilometres 0.6214 miles miAREAin² Square inches 645.2 Square mil l imetres mm²mm² Square mil l imetres 0.00155 Square inches in²f t² Square feet 0.0929 Square metres m²m² Square metres 10.764 Square feet f t²yd² Square yard 0.8631 Square metres m²m² Square metres 1.196 Square yard yd²ac acres 0.4047 hectares haha hectares 2.471 acres acmi² Square miles 2.59 Square ki lometres km²km² Square ki lometres 0.3861 Square miles mi²VOLUMEfl oz Fluid ounces 29.57 mil l i l i t res mLmL mil l i l i t res 0.0338 Fluid ounces fl ozGal ( imp) Imperial gal lons 4.542 l i tres Ll l i t res 0.22 Imperial gal lons gal ( imp)gal ( imp) Imperial gal lons 1.2 US gal lons gal (US)gal (US) US gal lons 0.833 Imperial gal lons gal ( imp)ft³ Cubic feet 0.02832 Cubic metres m³m³ Cubic metres 35.314 Cubic feet ft³yd³ Cubic yards 0.7646 Cubic metres m³m³ Cubic metres 1.3079 Cubic yards yd³MASSoz ounces 28.35 grams gmgm grams 0.03527 ounces ozlb pounds 0.4536 ki lograms kgkg ki lograms 2.204 pounds lbkg ki lograms 0.001 tonnes tonnestonnes tonnes 1000 ki lograms kgPRESSUREpsi Pound per square inch 6.895 ki lopascals kPakPa ki lopascals 0.145 Pounds per square inch psipsi Pounds per square inch 0.704 Metres of water mm Metres of water 1.42 Pounds per square inch psikPa ki lopascals 0.102 Metres of water mm Metres of water 9.797 ki lopascals kPaFLOW


Symbol When you know Multiply by To find Symbolgal/( imp)/min

Imperial gal lons per minute 0.076 Litres per second L/s

L/s Litres per second 13.2 Imperial gal lons per minute gal/( imp)/mingal/hr Gallons per hour 0.00126 Litres per second L/sL/s Litres per second 792 Gallons per hour gal/hrGal/day Gallons per day 0.0000526 Litres per secondLitres per

secondL/s

L/s Litres per second 19008.4 Gallons per hour gal/dayL/s Litres per second 0.001 Cubic metres per second M³/sM³/s Cubic metres per second 1000 Litres per second L/sL/s Litres per second 0.0864 Mega l i t res per day ML/daySALINITYEC Electr ical conductivi ty 0.64 Mil l igrams per l i t re (parts per

mil l ion)mg/l (ppm)

mg/l (ppm) Mil l igrams per l i t re (parts per mil l ion)

1.67 Electr ical conductivi ty EC

grain/gal Grains per gal lon 14.25 Mil l igrams per l i t re (parts per mil l ion)

mg/l (ppm)

mg/l (ppm) Mil l igrams per l i t re (parts per mil l ion)

0.07016 Grains per gal lon grain/gal

TEMPERATUREºF Fahrenheit (F-32)/1.8 Celsius ºCºC Celsius 1.8xC+32 Fahrenheit ºFPOWERHP horsepower 745.7 watts WW watts 0.00134 horsepower HPHEAT & ENERGYkW/hour Kilowatt hour 3.6 mega joule MJMJ mega joule 0.2777 Kilowatt hour kW/hourkW/hour Kilowatt hour 3412 Brit ish thermal unit per hour BTU/hourBTU/hour Brit ish thermal unit per hour 0.000293 Kilowatt hour kW/hour

Source: W�ll �ams 2007


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