Water Resources Planning€¦ · Figure 1-1 shows the overall water resources planning process...

Science and Technology

AWWA unites the entire water community by developing and distributing authoritative scientific and technologicalknowledge. Through its members, AWWA develops industry standards for products and processes that advance publichealth and safety. AWWA also provides quality improvement programs for water and wastewater utilities.

Water Resources Planning

AWWA MANUAL M50

Second Edition

Copyright © 2007 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.

Contents

iii

List of Figures, vii

List of Tables, xi

Foreword, xiii

Acknowledgments, xv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Water Resources Planning

. . . . . . . . . . .

1

The Water Resources Planning Process, 2References, 11

Chapter 2 Public Involvement for Water Resources Planning

. . . . . .

13

Introduction, 13Planning for Public Involvement, 15Prepare Public Involvement Work Plan, 18Implement the Public Involvement Plan, 20Case Studies, 22Supplement to Chapter 2, 35Public Consultation Addressing Historic/Cultural Resource and Environmental

Justice Issues, 35Public Involvement and Consultation Regarding Historic and Cultural

Resources, 35Public Involvement and Consultation Regarding Environmental Justice, 36Consultation/Collaboration with Federally Recognized Native American

Tribes, 37

Chapter 3 Water Demand Forecasting

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

41

Forecasting Methods, 43Data Requirements, 47Identifying Water Use Patterns, 52Compiling a Demographic Database, 60Naturally Occurring and Programmed Conservation, 61Identify System Losses, 63Complete the Integrated Forecast Model, 63Sensitivity Analysis, 67Summary, 71Suggested Additional Readings, 72Supplement to Chapter 3: Summary of IWA Best Practices for Water Loss

Control, 76Features of International Water Audit Methodology, 76Magnitude of Savings Potential, 77Major Components of Effective Loss Control, 78

Chapter 4 Water Rights and Policy

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

General Water Rights, 82Federal Water Rights, 86


iv

The Public Trust Doctrine, 88AWWA Water Policy, 90Water Quality Impacts to Water Rights, 91Suggested Additional Readings, 93

Chapter 5 Evaluation of Surface Water and Groundwater Sources

. . .

95

Surface Water, 95Groundwater, 103Aquifer Storage and Recovery Wells, 107Conjunctive Use of Groundwater and Surface Wells, 112Identification of Timing and Magnitude of New Source Development, 115References, 117

Chapter 6 Evaluation of Other Sources

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

119

Conservation, 119Reclaimed Water, 138Project Siting, 146Desalination, 151Water Marketing and Transfers, 162References, 168

Chapter 7 Water Quality

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

171

The Hydrologic Cycle and Water Quality, 171Surface Water Quality, 172Groundwater Quality, 172Physical, Chemical, and Biological Components Influencing Water Quality, 173Sources of Contaminant Loading in Water, 177Water Quality Sampling and Monitoring, 181Summary, 184Suggested Additional Readings, 184

Chapter 8 Hydrologic Modeling

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

187

Hydrologic Models: What, Why, How, and When, 188Hydrologic Models and Their Use, 191Models and the Hydrologic Cycle, 195Hydrologic Models: Data, Calibration, Sensitivity, and Errors, 211Suggested Additional Readings, 226

Chapter 9 Regulatory Issues

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

227

Clean Water Act, 228Drinking Water Quality Standards, 2301986 Amendments, 2351996 Amendments, 240Summary, 246References, 259

Chapter 10 Environmental Impact Analysis

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

261

Environmental Impact Planning, 261Preparing Environmental Impact Documentation, 264Information in Environmental Impact Documents, 268Permits and Approvals in the Environmental Process, 270


v

Chapter 11 Watershed Management and Groundwater Protection

. . .

275

Surface Water Source Protection, 276Groundwater Source Protection, 286References, 297

Chapter 12 Economic Feasibility

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

299

Multiobjective Decisions: Economics as One of Several Objectives, 299Economic Factors, 299Economic Variables: Costs and Benefits, 300Time and Discount Rate, 305Comparison Methodologies, 308Summary, 313

Chapter 13 Integrated Resource Planning

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

315

Overview of the IRP Process, 316Plan Outline, 322Forming Resource Combinations, 327Evaluating Resource Combinations, 330Selecting and Implementing a Plan, 334References, 339

Chapter 14 Case Studies

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

341

Case Study #1: City of Newport News, VA and the King William Reservoir Project, 342

Case Study #2: Case Study for Regional Water Planning in Texas, 345Case Study #3: Portland, Oregon, Regional Water Supply Plan, 347Case Study #4: City of Colorado Springs, Colorado, Integrated Resource

Plan, 348Case Study #5: Denver, Colorado, Metropolitan Area, 349Case Study #6: Kentucky–American Water Company’s Integrated Resource

Plan, 353Case Study #7: Wichita, Kansas, Integrated Resource Plan, 355Case Study #8: Ware Creek Reservoir, Virginia, 356Case Study #9: Southern Nevada Water Authority Integrated Resource

Plan, 357Case Study #10: Eugene, Oregon, Water and Electric Board Water Supply

Plan, 361

Appendix A Preliminary Cost Guide for Water Supply Dams

. . . . . .

365

Selecting the Appropriate Dam Type, 365Establishing Dam Profile Layout, 366Profile Layout and Basis for Estimating Quantity, 367Earth Fill Dam Assessment—Preliminary Layout and Opinion of Cost, 370Earth Dam—Opinion of Cost, 372

Appendix B A White Paper From the American Water Works Association Source Water Protection (approved April 11, 1997)

. . . . . . . . . . .

373

Statement of Principles, 373The Road to a Source Water Protection Program, 374Developing Resources For Source Water Protection, 375Recommendations, 375


vi

Appendix C State Wellhead and Source Water Protection ContactList

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

377

Index, 379

List of AWWA Manuals, 391


AWWA MANUAL

1

M50

1

Introduction to Water Resources Planning

According to a recent report by Johns Hopkins University, nearly half a billion peoplearound the world face water shortages today. By 2025 the number will increase fivefoldto 2.8 billion people—35 percent of the world’s projected total of 8 billion people.

Although 70 percent of the Earth’s surface is water (mostly in oceans), onlyabout 3 percent of all water on Earth is fresh water. Because much of this fresh wateris locked up in ice caps and glaciers, only about 1 percent of all fresh water isreasonably accessible for use. Only about 0.001 percent of the world’s total supply ofwater is considered easily accessible for human use.

The world’s population, now at nearly 6 billion, is increasing by about 80 millionper year. As of 1995, 31 countries, with a combined population of 458 million, facedeither water stress or water scarcity. Although the United States does not currentlyface critical shortages, there are problem areas:

• Overall, groundwater is being used 25 percent faster than it is beingreplenished. In particular, the Ogallala aquifer, which underlies parts of sixstates and irrigates 6 million hectares (14,826,300 acres), has beenoverexploited and, in some areas, half its available water has beenwithdrawn.

• The Colorado River, which flows through several southwestern states, hasfed agriculture and enabled rapid growth of desert cities such as Las Vegas,Phoenix, and San Diego. Demands have so drained the river that it nolonger consistently reaches its mouth in Mexico’s Gulf of California. Theriver’s overuse has been a source of contention between the United Statesand Mexico.

These are merely two examples of a growing water resource crisis. Water warsare being fought in the humid southeastern United States. Restrictive withdrawalpolicies are being applied to groundwater and surface water sources in nearly every

Chapter


2 WATER RESOURCES PLANNING

region. Growing demand for water is being met with growing recognition of theimpacts that unconstrained diversions have on water resources. In the United States,relatively few water projects are being planned or built to accommodate populationgrowth, certainly not enough to keep pace with the increasing water demand. In thepast, many water utilities could often rely on federal agencies, such as the US ArmyCorps of Engineers or US Bureau of Reclamation, or a state agency, to build watersupply projects. Today, that is less often the case. Water utilities, individually or withothers, are more and more often planning and building water projects.

The mission of the American Water Works Association (AWWA) has traditionallyfocused on treating water, because utility members meet the requirements of thefederal Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and respond to customer-based issues. The21st century will see an expanded focus for AWWA’s member water utilities. Virtuallyevery water utility will plan to meet growing water demands by balancing demandreduction programs and new supply development. With this manual, AWWA offers itsmember utilities a focused guidance document in the area of water resourcesplanning (WRP). Analyzing and evaluating water supply projects is complicated andincludes technical issues about yield of potential new sources as well as regulationsand permits that require extensive environmental analysis. Surface water, groundwa-ter, desalination, reuse, and other source options all have their own special issuesand concerns. Utilities must answer many questions on the impacts of proposedprojects before regulatory agencies can approve projects and grant permits.

WRP for potable water supply is a very broad topic. No one manual canincorporate all the methods or procedures that may be required. This manualattempts to introduce the utility planner to many techniques and methods that maybe needed to prepare a proper plan. Integrated resource planning (IRP) is anunderlying theme for tying all the loose ends together, but this manual also providessignificant additional technical guidance and supporting information. It providesenough information to inform a utility manager or to help a planner get started, butmanagers and planners should use the reference lists provided with the chapters topursue technical issues in greater detail. The manual is a guide and covers most, ifnot all, of the needed topics.

THE WATER RESOURCES PLANNING PROCESS_______________This manual was prepared by the Water Resources Planning and ManagementCommittee and associated volunteer authors to help water resource planners meetthe challenge of accommodating a growing demand for water, while complying withthe myriad regulations that govern the development and use of new water supplies.No two water resource plans are alike. The manual is presented in a logical order andformat; however, planners are expected to use the parts of the manual that apply totheir situations. The issues discussed in this manual should allow the planner todevelop and implement a comprehensive work plan that responds to technicalquestions that must be addressed before deciding how to develop new water supplies.

Planning Issues and Components Included in This ManualFigure 1-1 shows the overall water resources planning process advocated in thismanual. The fundamental basis of WRP for water utilities is water demandforecasting, which establishes how much water the planning area will need in thefuture. Normally, a forecast is prepared and the planning process begins following atriggering event, such as the release of new demographic forecasts that show arelatively high growth rate, a recent water shortage that indicates current suppliesare inadequate, or other problems that develop with current supply sources.


INTRODUCTION TO WATER RESOURCES PLANNING 3

Once demand forecasts are developed, the need for added supplies should beassessed. This requires estimating the yields available from current supply sources.In some cases, yields will decrease over time as a result of a number of factors,including

• sedimentation of reservoirs (storage loss, clogging of intakes)

• increased upstream diversions

• falling groundwater levels

• contamination of sources

• reallocation of water resources to other entities

• increased minimum in-stream flow or groundwater level requirements

Figure 1–1 Water resources planning process

Need for a WaterResource Plan

DemandForecast

Evaluate Need forAdded Water

Supplies

IdentifyWater Supply

Options

Water ResourcePlan

EvaluateOptions

Assess CurrentWater Supply

Yield

DemandManagement

Surface and Groundwater

Modeling

PublicInput

Regulatoryand

Policy Issues

EconomicFeasibility

Water Quality

WatershedManagement

WellheadProtection

EnvironmentalImpact



Demand-side management may reduce future water needs, allowing supplies tolast longer. Demand reduction can be treated as an additional source of water. It hasa cost, a yield, and environmental considerations, as do other sources of supply. Anearly assessment of demand reduction is appropriate, because this source mayobviate the need to develop new supplies or defer the need for a new source for anumber of years. Demand management efforts should be documented because theycan provide convincing evidence of the need for additional supplies when sourcesneed to be expanded.

The next step is to identify feasible new sources that, individually or combined,make up the identified supply deficit for an estimated future time period. These caninclude

• new or expanded surface supplies

• new or expanded groundwater supplies

• desalinated water

• reclaimed water

• conserved water

• transferred water from other water purveyors

• purchased water from other suppliers

A rigorous evaluation process should be designed, reflecting the nature of thealternative new sources identified. All relevant issues should be addressed, including

• water quality of new sources

• protection of current and new sources

• regulations

• water rights and policies

• yield of new sources and impacts on other sources (assessed throughmodeling)

• environmental impact assessments

• economic feasibility and financing considerations

• long-term viability (design life)

These evaluations are intended to identify a preferred plan that balancesconflicting factors. Criteria will generally include

• cost-effectiveness

• financial feasibility

• public acceptability

• environmental issues

As previously mentioned, IRP is the WRP process advocated in this manual.IRP is a way of tying all the issues together in a comprehensive process. A hallmarkof IRP is its open and participatory process. All interest groups, including wateragency staff, regulators, environmental groups, public interest groups, the public, andelected officials, participate in and contribute to the decision process.



Selecting the Project TeamOne of the most important issues a water resource planner must face is who toinvolve in the planning process. Those involved are called stakeholders because theyhave a vested interest in how the process turns out and which alternative is selected.No longer are plans prepared in a vacuum, released for approval after all thetechnical work is completed and the alternatives evaluated. Planners have found thatthis closed-door approach necessitates starting over when opposition to the proposedproject surfaces, possibly more than once. An open approach requires a slower, morepainstaking process. Although involving all stakeholders may slow down thetechnical work, the final decision and project approval are invariably reached soonerand more amicably.

One way to involve the stakeholders is to develop and implement a publicparticipation plan. Stakeholders are identified and may be invited to serve on anadvisory committee. The committee reviews key-issue papers and technical memo-randa, identifies additional issues that need to be addressed, and helps select therecommended plan. Supplemental techniques include newsletters, media coverage,public meetings, and hearings. The committee’s objectives are to be proactive and tosolicit input at a time when it can be helpful, not after decisions are made. Everyalternative will have its detractors. Therefore, a significant amount of listening,learning, negotiating, and balancing of conflicts is required.

Developing the Project FrameworkEvery planning process should begin with a carefully thought-out work plan. Thisplan should address issues identified in an initial scoping paper. Tasks should be laidout with detailed descriptions of activities, products, budget, schedules, and assignedresponsibilities.

Defining the need for action. The impetus for preparing a water resourceplan may come from many events or preliminary assessments. Nearly every plan is asignificant undertaking and requires approval from appointed or elected officials. Apreliminary assessment is often needed just to receive authorization to identifyissues, validate the need for the plan or a new supply, and prepare a work plan. TheNeed for Action statement is generally triggered by some event, such as a recentwater shortage, a current or potential problem with supplies, or a projected highgrowth rate, expected to outstrip the yield of current sources.

Identifying the issues. Often a white paper or scoping paper is needed todefine the issues surrounding planning for a new source. The white paper can bedeveloped by water agency staff but should involve input from key stakeholders. Itspurpose is to gather sufficient background information to prepare a work plan thatwill identify and address all issues including the need for consultation with NativeAmerican tribes, characterize relevant potential new sources, and provide asufficiently rigorous overview evaluation. The decision-making process should bethought through so decision makers have timely information to guide the processalong the way and the information for selecting the best plan.

Developing a work plan. The purpose of the work plan is to organize theefforts to complete the water resource plan. Completing the plan will involve staff,possibly consultants, and stakeholders. These people deserve a carefully thought-outwork plan so time and money are not wasted. A task-flow diagram should beprepared to identify the flow of information and analysis, leading to a decision on arecommended plan. Once tasks are identified, they should be described in sufficientdetail so that the cost of completing the work, and the time required, can bereasonably estimated. The next decision is who will do the work. This can be staff,



consultants, or both. If consultants are used, the scope of their work should bedefined, with budgets, deliverables, and schedules established. The final step in thework planning process, or one of the first tasks in the work plan, is to create a publicinvolvement plan that will involve the stakeholders previously identified.

Working With RegulatorsWater resource projects are subject to varying degrees of regulatory approval.Developing new sources or expanding withdrawals may require permits. Suchpermits could include a state water allocation or a federal Section 404 permit, oftenrequiring a long and involved approval process. Planners should address permitrequirements in the water resource plan, although detailed aspects of the permitapproval, such as detailed environmental impact analyses, will occur after the plan isapproved. Regulatory officials need to be consulted, and applicable guidelines andpermit requirements addressed, in the plan.

Understanding permit requirements. Chapters 9 and 10 can help theplanner understand the types of permits that may be required. State regulatoryofficials should be consulted as the work plan is prepared so that likely permits areidentified, and the considerations required or implied are included in the alternativesanalyses.

Assessing environmental impact. Each state has its own framework forassessing the environmental impacts of water resource projects. The state’s waterallocation agency can identify the lead permitting agency and help identify the typesof environmental work that will likely need to be performed. Detailed environmentalassessments or impact statements are not usually undertaken until after thepreferred alternative source is identified. However, the planning process leading tothat selection should include preliminary consideration of all issues likely to requiredetailed assessment. Preliminary environmental screening needs to be integratedwith the alternative assessment process. This will help justify the alternativeselection and reduce the time required to complete environmental assessments orenvironmental impact analysis for the recommended project and needed permits.

The manual follows the IRP process. Each chapter covers a part of the process.

Chapter 1—Introduction to Water Resources PlanningWRP involves many technical and nontechnical issues. The organization and order ofthe chapters in the manual generally follow the flow diagram, Figure 1-1. WRPbegins with establishing the need for a water resource plan, including a comparisonof forecasted water demands with available supplies. Techniques to evaluateidentified resource options are included in the manual. The underlying theme fordeveloping the plan is called integrated resource planning, which is described indetail in chapter 13.

Chapter 2—Public Involvement for Water Resources PlanningChapter 2 provides an understanding of public participation techniques and theimportant role it can play in water resources planning. It covers the process of settinggoals and developing work plans to involve the public in the water resourcesplanning process. It also describes the key elements of plan implementation thatinclude chartering the project team, monitoring and managing change. A variety oftechniques are illustrated in the four case studies. Finally, an appendix providessuggestions for addressing historic/cultural resources and environmental issues.



Chapter 3—Water Demand ForecastingChapter 3 begins by summarizing common forecasting methods ranging from simpleper capita models to more complex statistical forecasting methods. It then describestypes of data normally used for forecasting, including water billing data, weatherdata, demographic and economic data, and other explanatory variables, and providesexamples of forecasting with per capita coefficients, land use water factors, andregression analysis of disaggregated demand data.

Examples also are provided to illustrate the effects of seasonality, weather, andprice responsiveness. The use of dummy variables to account for factors of limitedduration is explained. Identification of indoor and outdoor water use is described.

This chapter demonstrates how planned water conservation programs areintegrated and identifies water use reductions that have occurred in the past.Sensitivity analysis is used to evaluate the variation in projections caused by errorsin the explanatory variables. Sensitivity analysis can be used to develop a confidenceinterval around the projected water demand.

Chapter 4—Water Rights and PolicyChapter 4 describes the role of water rights in water resource management. Twodistinct systems of water rights are defined and described: riparian rights, usedprimarily in the eastern United States; and appropriation doctrine, used in thewestern United States. Water rights systems for groundwater include absoluteownership, reasonable use, correlative rights, and appropriation permit systems.Federal rights also are described, including federal reserved rights, water rights forwater not reserved, rights of navigable water, and federal contract rights. Chapter 4presents the guiding principles of AWWA water policy. Also, impacts to water rightsare covered including instream uses and environmental flows and impacts of theClean Water Act and Endangered Species Act.

Chapter 5—Evaluation of Surface Water and Groundwater SourcesChapter 5 describes new conventional water sources. Included are descriptions andparameters for

• surface water, including source identification, screening, and site selectionfor direct river withdrawals, on-stream reservoirs, and pumped-storagereservoirs

• groundwater, including confined and unconfined aquifers

• conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater

Chapter 6—Evaluation of Other SourcesChapter 6 describes other sources including

• conserved water

• reclaimed water

• desalination

• water marketing and transfers

Also, chapter 6 discusses how to identify the timing and magnitude of newsource development. This includes a comparison of current yield and demand



forecasts, use of surplus/deficit projections, factors affecting project development, andproject step size considerations.

Chapter 7—Water QualityChapter 7 explains water quality interactions and the hydrologic cycle, includingphysical, chemical, and biological components. This chapter defines various measuresof water quality and describes the relationships between water uses and waterquality. In addition, impacts of natural influences, point sources, and nonpointsources on water quality are defined, as are the major factors affecting quality ofvarious types of surface water. Similarly, the major factors affecting groundwaterquality include common contaminants and transport considerations.

Chapter 8—Hydrologic ModelingChapter 8 explains when to use models, when they are cost-effective, and how muchmodeling is enough. The dominant processes of the hydrologic cycle are described,including

• precipitation

• interception

• evaporation and evapotranspiration

• infiltration

• groundwater

• runoff and streamflow

Uses of models, including data needs, calibration, sensitivity analysis, and erroranalysis, are described. Guidance for project managers includes how to conduct amodeling study, various types of models, organizations that distribute models, andcommercially available models. Steps for developing successful models are laid outfor the practitioner.

Chapter 9—Regulatory IssuesThe major federal laws affecting water resource development are the SDWA, asamended, and the Clean Water Act (CWA). The 1986 amendments to the SDWAinclude

• Volatile Organic Chemical Rule

• Surface Water Treatment Rule

• Total Coliform Rule

• Lead and Copper Rule

• Disinfectants/Disinfection By-products Rule

• Others

The 1996 amendments to the SDWA added important other rules as well asfederal funding, including

• Microbial/Disinfection By-products Rules

• Arsenic Rule

• Sulfate Rule



• Radon Rule

• Groundwater Rule

From a water supply development viewpoint, an important part of the CWA isSection 404. Other important aspects are regulation of wastewater and agriculturaldischarge upstream of withdrawal points. Section 404 regulates the discharge ofdredged or fill materials into all surface waters of the US. The US Army Corps ofEngineers issues permits for reservoirs or projects that involve changes to surfacewaters; the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) holds veto power over theprocess. For surface water source of supply projects, this process usually dominatesthe framework of the overall process.

Chapter 10—Environmental Impact AnalysisChapter 10 stresses that environmental impact analysis should be an integral part ofthe WRP process. It describes how to initiate the environmental impact documenta-tion process and explains the types of environmental documentation and the criticalissues in preparing the documents. These issues include the study area, study period,baseline conditions, and level of detail. The information in environmental documentsincludes biological, human, and physical resources. Chapter 10 also describes permitsand approvals in the environmental process, including those required by relevantfederal acts such as

• National Environmental Policy Act

• Endangered Species Act

• Clean Water Act

• Clean Air Act

• Archaeological Resources Protection Act

• Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

How these acts apply to potential projects governs the scope of the environ-mental documentation process.

Chapter 11—Watershed Management and Groundwater ProtectionWatershed management is equivalent to source protection. Chapter 11 describes theprocess to prepare a viable watershed protection plan. The following steps areexplained:

1. Delineate/characterize the watershed.

2. Identify relevant stakeholders and form a planning team.

3. Identify regulatory and desirable community goals.

4. Classify and rank goals.

5. Develop an outreach education program.

6. Compile criteria to measure achievement goals.

7. Identify activities posing a threat to achieving goals.

8. Quantify activities and impacts on goals.



9. Rank threats.

10. Identify control methods to reduce or eliminate threats.

11. Quantify efficiency and effectiveness of control measures.

12. Identify administrators of control measures.

13. Rank control measures.

14. Develop a watershed/reservoir protection plan.

15. Implement plan.

Chapter 11 also describes the state and federal regulatory efforts in groundwa-ter protection. SDWA established the wellhead protection program, and thereaftermost states have developed wellhead protection programs approved by USEPA. Thechapter describes the seven elements of a wellhead protection program.

In 1992, USEPA published guidance for a Comprehensive State Ground WaterProtection Program. This program is designed to build a comprehensive approach togroundwater protection that includes all stakeholders. States were requested tocoordinate their groundwater protection actions through six strategic activities:

1. Establish a groundwater protection goal.

2. Establish priorities to guide program efforts.

3. Define authorities, roles, responsibilities, resources, and coordinatingmechanisms.

4. Implement efforts to accomplish the state’s groundwater protection goal.

5. Coordinate information collection and management.

6. Improve public education and participation in all aspects of groundwaterprotection.

Chapter 12—Economic FeasibilityChapter 12 describes economic feasibility as one of several factors that must bedecided in WRP. Perspectives on how to portray costs and benefits are explained.Types of costs include internal costs such as capital and operations and maintenance.External costs include imposed costs to deal with project impacts and environmentalcosts. Defined benefits include the value of additional water sales associated with theproject and avoided costs and external benefits, such as recreation, flood control, andenvironmental benefits.

Methods of comparing alternatives are described. Common parameters includethe value of time and the discount rate. Methods illustrated with formulas andexamples include

• annualized costs

• present value

• benefit–cost ratio

• internal rate of return

Chapter 13—Integrated Resource PlanningIRP is described as a method that ties all the elements of water resource planningtogether. AWWA’s definition of IRP is given, and the differences between IRP and



traditional water supply planning are used to help explain IRP. The chapter includesan outline for an IRP report. The IRP process, illustrated in a diagram, includes

• forming resource combinations, including traditional and nontraditionalsources such as demand management and wastewater reclamation

• evaluating resource combinations by considering costs, reliability, environ-mental impact, public acceptability, and ranking methods

• plan selection and implementation considerations, including cost-effectiveness,environmental permitting, and financing

Chapter 14—Case StudiesThe final chapter presents several examples of WRP that have occurred recently inthe US. These examples illustrate the vast differences in WRP processes. Nojudgments are made as to whether the processes were successes or failures, as sucha determination is subjective. Case studies include

• King William Reservoir, Virginia

• Regional Water Planning in Texas

• Portland Regional Water Supply Plan, Oregon

• City of Colorado Springs, Colorado Integrated Resource Plan

• Denver Metropolitan Area, Colorado

• Kentucky–American Water Company’s Integrated Resource Plan

• Wichita Integrated Resource Plan, Kansas

• Ware Creek Reservoir, Virginia

• Southern Nevada Water Authority

• Eugene Water & Electric Board, Oregon

Each case study describes the planning process and plan outcomes.

REFERENCES ______________________________________________Engleman, R. and P. Leroy. 1995. Sustaining

Water: An Update. Washington, D.C.:Population Action International.

Henrichsen, D., B. Robey, and U.D. Upadlhyay.1997. Solutions for a Water-ShortWorld, Population Reports, Series M,No. 14. Baltimore, Md.: Johns HopkinsSchool of Public Health, PopulationInformation Program.

Pimentel, D. and M. Pimentel. 1992. Land,Energy, and Water: The ConstraintsGoverning Ideal U.S. Population Size.In Grant, L. ed. Elephants in the

Volkswagen: Facing the Tough Ques-tions About Our Overcrowded Country.New York, N.Y.: W.H. Freeman andCompany.

Postel, S. 1996. Sharing the Rivers. Peopleand the Planet. Jour AWWA 5(3):6–9.

UNESCO. 1997. Groundwater: Managingthe “Invisible” Resource. Environmentand Development Briefs, No. 2, p. 4.New York, N.Y.: United NationsEducational Scientific and CulturalOrganization.


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