Water Pollution Control in the Netherlands 2001
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Transcript of Water Pollution Control in the Netherlands 2001
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Water pollution control
in the Netherlands
Policy and practice 2001
Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Mana gement
RIZA Institute for Inland Water Mana gement a nd Waste Water Treatment
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Water pollution control
in the Netherlands
Policy and practice 2001
Henk Warmer & Rona ld van Dokkum
March 2002
RIZA report 2002.009
ISBN 9036954290
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RIZA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RIZA 2
The a cronym RIZA stands for Rijksinstituut voor Integ raa l Zoetw at erbeheer
en Afvalwaterbehandeling (Institute for Inland Water Mana gement and Waste
Water Treat ment ). RIZA is the research and a dvisory bo dy for the Ministry
of Transport, Public Works and Wat er Mana gement for inland w at er in the
Netherlands and is a leading international centre of knowledge for integrated
w ater management.
The institute collects da ta on a nd cond ucts research into w at er q uality a nd
q uantity. On the b asis of t hese dat a, RIZA makes recommendat ions
concerning the mana gement of inland w ater in the Netherlands a nd a broad.This wide-rang ing remit requires a m ulti-disciplina ry a pproa ch. From
biochemists and hydrologists to computer professionals and management
experts, RIZA's sta ff represents a w ide variety of specialisms.
RIZA ha s four ma in departments:
Wetland d evelopment and restoration: research and ad vice on the
restoration of wetlands to their natural state.
Wat er systems: research and advice on the integrated ma nag ement of
inland w at ers.
Wat er pollution cont rol: research and ad vice on w astew at er treat ment
and emissions levels. Informat ion and measurement technology: collection and processing of
data and research in specialist laboratories.
Clients of RIZA are water managers in the Netherlands: the regional
directorat es of the Directorat e-General for Public Works and Wat er
Management (Rijkswaterstaat), provinces and w at er boa rds. RIZA also
represents the Netherlands in international consultations about water
management.
RIZA w as set up in 1920. Currently it ha s about 500 employees. The hea d
off ice is loca ted in Lelysta d. There are branches in Arnhem a nd Dordrecht
and monitoring stations in Lobith and Eysden.
RIZA
P.O. Box 17
NL-8200 AA Lelystad
Tel. + 31 320 298411
www.riza.nl
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Contents
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Contents 3
Introduction 5
I Water management in the Netherlands 7
1 The historical and geographical context of water management 9
2 Institutional and planning structure 13
2.1 Institutional structure 13
2.2 Planning structure13
3 Legislation and regulations 17
II Water pollution control in the Netherlands: the policy 21
4 Integrated environmental quality objectives 23
5 General principles of the policy on water pollution control 27
5.1 Introduction 27
5.2 Reduction of pollution 285.3 Stand-still principle 31
III Water pollution control in the Netherlands: the practice 33
6 General granting of permits 35
7 Outline permits 39
8 Approach to tackling diffuse sources 43
9 Coordination and harmonisation 47
10Enforcement 51
11Charging system 55
References 59
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Contents 4
I Integrated environmental quality objectives 63
II Priority substances in the field of w ater policy 69
III 132 black-listed substances 71IV Types of industry designa ted under the Industries Order 75
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Annexes 61
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Introduction
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Introduction 5
This booklet is entitled Water pollution control in the Netherlands, policy and
practice 2001. It describes the main features of Dutch water management
policy, and gives a more detailed account of Dutch emissions policies and
their implementa tion. It should be remembered, ho w ever, that some a spects
of po licy and practice may chang e in the coming yea rs as a result o f the
implementation of the European Union Water Framework Directive.
The b ooklet is divided into three pa rts:
I . Water management in the Netherlands
This part provides a brief introduction to w ater mana gement in th eNetherlands. It includes information on the historical and geographical
context of w at er mana gement (section 1), the institutional and planning
structure (section 2) and major relevant legislat ion and regulat ions (section 3).
II. Water pollution control in the Netherlands: the policy
Section 4 discusses integ rated environmenta l qua lity standa rds, w hile section
5 is devoted to the general principles of water pollution control policy.
III. Water polluti on control in the Netherlands: the practice
Sections 6 to 11 shed light on t he practice of w ater pollution control: g eneral
permitt ing requirements (section 6), out line permits (section 7), action to dea lw ith diffuse sources (section 8), coordination a nd harmonisation (section 9),
enforcement (section 10) and the charging system (section 11).
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Introduction 6
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I Water management in the Netherlands
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I Water management in the Netherlands 7
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I Water management in the Netherlands 8
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1 The historical and geographical contextof water management
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I Water management in the Netherlands 9
Wat er ha s alwa ys played a n importa nt pa rt in Dutch life. The Netherlan ds
(41,000 km2, including 3,000 km2 of fresh water and 4,000 km2 of sa lt
w at er) is a low -lying count ry in the delta o f fo ur European rivers: the Rhine,
the M euse, the Scheldt and the Ems. It is part of the North Sea ca tchment
area (figure 1). More than half of the territory of the Netherlands is prone
to flooding a nd o ne-third a ctua lly lies below mea n sea level. The location
of the country has endowed it with fertile soil and convenient waterways
for the conveya nce of g ood s and people. How ever, it also entails the risk
of flooding when river discharges and sea levels are high.
The Netherlands ha s tw enty -five centuries of experience in mana ging this
difficult mix of land and w at er. Flood defence w orks and land reclama tion
have created the country's fa mous systems of polders and dikes, w hich
allow water levels to be carefully controlled.
It is a densely populated country. During the 20th century, the population
grew from 6 million t o 16 million inhab itan ts. This sharp populat ion increase
w as linked to industrialisation, urbanisation a nd the modernisation a nd
intensification of agriculture. Industrial growth, increased domestic
consumption and the increase in agricultural production have exacerbated
the pollution o f rivers and lakes.
Althoug h w at er qua lity problems had alread y been identified prior to the
20th century, it was not until the 1960s that the deteriorating quality of the
surface waters really became apparent. By that time, the load of organic
pollutants was causing acute oxygen problems. Discharges of wastewater
from industry, agriculture, traffic and households also posed threats to the
surfa ce w at ers. Large a mounts o f hea vy meta ls, pesticides, hydrocarbons
and organic chlorine compound s w ere being discharged, causing the
disappea rance of indigeno us species, deterioration of w at er qua lity and
pollution of sediments.
By tha t t ime, in fact, pollution w as serious enoug h to jeopardise the use of
water resources for human activities such as the provision of drinking
water, agriculture, fisheries and recreation. Effective action to combat the
threat began in 1970, the year in which the Netherlands' first real piece of
environmental legislation, the Pollution of Surface Waters Act, came into
force. The Act provided the sta tutory mea ns to turn the tide of po llution
and bring about a considerable improvement in w at er qua lity.
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I Water management in the Netherlands 10
Over the years since 1970, the initial approach to tackling water pollution
has been mod ified: t here ha s been a sw itch from end-of-pipe measures to
measures to ta ckle pollution a t source, from a sectoral to an integ rated
approach, and from na tional to international/regional action.
In the 21st century, the a im is to a chieve sustainable w at er systems a ndintegrated water management will therefore be organised at an (international)
river ba sin level. The European Union' s Water Framew ork Directive (see
section 3) w ill play a ma jor role in th is respect.
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I Water management in the Netherlands 11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 1
The Sche ldt, M euse, Rhine a nd Ems river basins.
Brussel
Luxemburg
Bern
Amsterdam
NO RTH SEA
KEY
Rhine
Meuse
Scheldt
Ems
Rhine
Rhine
Ems
Rhine
Rhine
Rhine
M euse
M euse
M euse
Scheldt
Scheldt
GERMANY
BELGIUM
LUX
THE NETHERLAND S
AUSTRIA
ITALY
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND
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I Water management in the Netherlands 12
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2 Institutional and planning structure
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I Water management in the Netherlands 13
2.1 Institutional structure
The Netherlands ha s three tiers of d irectly elected g overnment : na tiona l,
provincial and municipal. Each of these has its own legislative assemblies
and executive organisations, together with a broad range of duties within
the relevant geographical area. Alongside these general-purpose government
bod ies, there are w at er boards w ith the sole task of ma nag ing w at er. They
are (financially) independent of, but supervised by, provincial government.
Members of the water boards are elected.
Wat er policy in the Netherlan ds is the responsibility of the Ministry o f
Transpo rt, Public Works and Water Mana gement and the 12 provinces. The
ministry is also responsible for the management of state waters (sea, rivers
and large lakes). The operat iona l section of the ministry is the Directora te-
General for Public Works and Wat er Mana gement (Rijkswaterstaat).
The provinces are responsible for the ma na gement o f regiona l w a ters
(small rivers and lakes, and the extensive system of canals and ditches) but
they a ll have d elega ted t his responsibility t o the w at er boards. Ma ny of
these w at er bo ards have existed for centuries. Their ma in mana gerial
responsibilities relate to dikes, water quantity and - since 1970, when thePollution of Surface Waters Act came into force (see section 3) - water
q ua lity. This third a rea of responsibility means tha t the w a ter boa rds are
responsible for the treatment o f sew ag e (other than from industrial plant s
w ith their ow n treatment fa cilities). How ever, the w at er boards are not
responsible for the provision, maintenance a nd o perat ion o f the sew ers
w hich convey w astew ater to the urban w astew ater treatment plants they
opera te. Tha t is a ma tter for the municipa lities.
2.2 Planning structure
National and provincial policy documents in the fields of w ater mana gement ,
spatial planning and environmental ma nag ement are very closely interrelat ed
(see figure 2). They a ll aim to a chieve the best po ssible mana gement o f the
physical environment, ba sed on a n integrated consideration of the va rious
interests involved. Their coordinat ion is achieved ma inly throug h a kind of
alternate 'leap-frog ging' o f na tional and provincial documents. Each new
or revised policy document spells out the consequences for policy and
plans in the other fields.
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I Water management in the Netherlands 14
National policy documents on w ater mana gement play a key role in the
Netherlands. Policy is developed via a process of broad-based consultation
betw een the ministries involved, t he w at er boa rds, provinces, municipalities
and other interested parties (including non-governmental organisations
represent ing environment a l interests, consumers, industry etc.). The process
is mana ged on b ehalf of the g overnment by the M inister of Transport,Pub lic Works and Water Ma nagement . The policy la id do w n in na tiona l
policy do cuments provide a framew ork both f or provincial policies on w ater
and for the a ctual practice of w ater management . The policy documents a lso
take explicit account of agreements and commitments made in international
forums, such a s the International Commissions fo r the Protection of the
Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt (ICPR, ICPM and ICPS), the North Sea
Ministerial Conference (NSMC) and the Convention for the Protection of
the Ma rine Environment of the North-East Atlant ic (OSPAR).
The most recent of these documents, the Fourth Na tiona l Po licy Documenton Water Management (1998-2006), entitled A Framew ork for Wat er
(NW4), is based on t he strat egy o f integrat ed w at er manag ement first
proposed in the previous national policy document. It fo cuses on a n integrated
area-specific approach and the use of hydrological processes as a guiding
principal in spatial planning.
The 12 provinces draw up reg iona l w at er mana gement plans (increasing ly
as pa rt of their integ rated environmental/spatial plans) and oversee w at er
mana gement by the w at er boards and municipal authorities. The w ater
boards then base their operational plans on the regional water management
plans a nd are responsible for the implementa tion of policies for the regionalw a ters. The municipa lities have a role in loca l land use planning.
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I Water management in the Netherlands 15
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2
Planning structure.
State
Tier ofgovernment
Type of plan
Strategic
Operational
Province
Wat er board
and municipality
Strategic
Operational
Operational
Policy fields
SpatialPlanning
National PolicyDocument onSpatialPlanning
NationalEnvironmentalPolicyPlan
Management
plan fo rstate waters
National
environmentprogramme
National PolicyDocument o nWaterManagement
Regionalspatialplan
Loca l land useplan
Management plan for local andregional waters
Provincialpolicydocument onenvironment
Provincialenvironmentprogramme
Provincialpolicy docu-ment on watermanagement
WaterManagement
EnvironmentalProtection
Lega l obliga tion to draft plan according to objectives and instructions of the higher level of go vernment
Coordination obliged by law
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I Water management in the Netherlands 16
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3 Legislation and regulations
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I Water management in the Netherlands 17
The mo st importa nt legislat ion and regulations w ith regard to integ rated
water management are:
Pollution of Surface Waters Act (PSWA, 1969/1970)
The ma in ob jective of t his act is to control the po llution o f a ll surface
w a ters. To th is end, it provides a framew ork for a tw o-track policy: the
reduction of pollution and the improvement of water quality (the 'combined
approach' , see section 5). Tw o importa nt instruments o f th e PSWA are: the
issue of discharge permits (see section 6) and the use of levies (see section 11).
Water Management Act (1989)
The Wat er Ma nag ement Act d efines the planning structure fo r w at er
management by agencies at different levels of government and lays down
rules for the q uantitative mana gement of surface w aters. It provides for the
following policy instruments: planning, permits, registration of abstractions
and discharges, w at er covenants, level decisions, a nd charges. The a ct's
provisions on the structure of planning are of major importance because
they prescribe an integ rated system of nat iona l and provincial plans under
the PSWA, the Groundw at er Act a nd the Wat er Mana gement Act itself.
The a ct a lso includes sta tutory cross-references to spat ial a nd environmenta l
planning (see section 2).
Environmental Management Act (1993)
The Environmenta l Ma na gement Act provides the lega l framew ork
for the environmenta l plans a nd programmes o f central government, the
provinces and the municipalities and lays down the regulatory procedures
for planning a nd permits. The environment al aspects of a large number
of industrial act ivities are regulated o n the ba sis of the Environmenta l
Management Act (integrated environmental legislation).
General Administrative Law Act (1994)
The G eneral Administrat ive Law Act prescribes the procedures to be
follow ed fo r the issue, mod ificat ion a nd w ithdraw al of permits under the
PSWA and t he Environmenta l Management Act. These include third-party
consultation.
Water Framework Directive of the European Union (2000)
The Wat er Framew ork Directive (WFD, 2000/60/EC) ca me into fo rce
on 22 December 2000. It sets out a new approach to w ater mana gement
and is the ba sis of the EU's wa ter mana gement strategy. It establishes a
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I Water management in the Netherlands 18
framew ork for the protection both o f a ll bod ies of surfa ce w at er (inland ,
transitional and coasta l) and of groundw at er. The WFD a ims to:
1. incorporate a ll requirements for the management of w ater stat us into a
single river basin managementsystem based on geographical and
hydrolog ical areas rather tha n a dministrative a nd na tional bounda ries;2. coordinate objectivesfor the protection of different types of water
(e.g. drinking, ba thing, surfa ce and groundw at er);
3. coordinate measuresto address individual and sectoral problems in
order to a tta in the objectives;
4. define the relat ionship betw een emission limit va lues and q uality
standards through the 'combined approach';
5. increase public participationand thereby the transparency and
enforceability of EU water legislation;
6. introduce a system of cost recovery pricingof w ater.
Figure 3 shows how the implementation of the WFD is being organised in
the Netherlands.
O ther EU d irectives relevant to w at er mana gement include the:
Dangerous Substances Directive (76/464/EEC) and its daughter directives.
Urba n Wastew a ter Treat ment D irect ive (91/271/EEC).
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive
(96/61/EC).
Nitrates Directive (Directive concerning the protection of waters against
pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources, 91/676/EEC).
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I Water management in the Netherlands 19
DGW = Directorate-General of Water Affairs of the Ministry of Transport,
Public Works a nd Wat er Ma nag ement
RBMP = River Basin Management Plan
G IS = G eog ra phic Info rma tio n System
WG = Working G roup
VROM = Ministry of Housing, Spat ial Planning a nd the Environment
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3
O rganisation of the implementa tion of t he WFD in the Netherland s.
WGLegislation
Lead: DG W
WG
Communication
Lead: DG W
WG
Emissions and huma n
impacts
Lead: RIZA
WG
Geo graphical assignment
Lead: RIZA
WGInternational
implementation
Lead: DG W
WG
Econo mic an alysis
Lead: DG W
WG
Monitoring &objectives
Lead: RIZA
WG
Administrative
organisation
Lead: VROM
WG
GIS
Lead: RIZA
M inistries
Provinces
M unicipaliti es
Water Boards
WG
Information demands for
RBMP (pilots)
Lead: RIZA
Strategic Coordinationgroup
Lead: DG W
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I Water management in the Netherlands 20
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II Water pollution control in theNetherlands: the policy
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II Water po llution control in the Netherland s:
the policy
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II Water po llution control in the Netherland s:
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4 Integrated environmental qualityobjectives
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II Water po llution control in the Netherland s:
the policy
23
Dutch policy on w at er pollution control is ba sed on a tw o-track approa ch:
one track is concerned with emissions and the other with immissions or
w a ter q uality (see a lso section 5). The emissions t rack (the source-oriented
a pproach) ta kes precedence, w hile th e immissions t rack includes a n
environmental quality standards test designed to show whether a further
source-oriented a pproach is necessary. The Fourth Nationa l Policy Document
on Water Mana gement (NW4) and the Water Framework Directive also
adopt this two-track approach.
The NW4includes general quality standards for surface w ater and sediments:the ma ximum ad missible risk w ith a ssociat ed ma ximum permissible
concentrations and the negligible risk levels with associated target values.
The calcula tion of environmenta l q ua lity sta nda rds is a tw o-sta ge process:
1. calculat ion o f risk levels (research sta ge);
2. translat ion o f risk levels into environmental q uality stand ards (policy
stage).
Figure 4 sho w s the rela tionship betw een the scientifically established risk
limits and the environmental quality standards established as the result of
policy decisions.
The ma ximum admissible risk is the minimum q ua lity ob ject ive for 2000.
The numerical va lues (maximum permissible concent rat ions) are sta ted in the
nat iona l policy documents on w at er manag ement (see annex I) and filter
through to t he wa ter manag ement authorities by w ay of t he manag ement
plans. Since this means that water management authorities have a duty to
strive to achieve the maximum permissible concentrat ions, it is importa nt to
ta ke into account t he need to achieve these w hen formulat ing cond itions
for individua l discharge permits und er the Po llution o f Surface Wat ers Act
(see section 5). The Commission on Integ rated Wat er Manag ement (see
section 9) has developed an immission test that can be used for this purpose.
The ma ximum permissible concentra tions are no t ye t being achieved f or all
substances in all surface w at ers. M oreover, the longer-term a im is to achieve
the t arget va lues (the q uality stand ards to be a chieved by 2010). For this
reason, high priority continues to be at ta ched to pollution prevention a nd
there must b e no relaxa tion of effo rt even w here concentrations of
substa nces a re below the ma ximum permissible concentrat ions. This is to
prevent problems being passed on to other w at er systems. Additiona l
requirements and further prioritisation aimed at the eventual achievement
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II Water po llution control in the Netherland s:
the policy
24
of the t arget values are being decided f or each individua l wa ter system,
ta ilored to its functions. The Dut ch parliament has d ecided tha t ad ditiona l
requirements for existing discharges can only justifiably be based on the
immission test if t he ma ximum permissible concentrat ions a re exceeded in
the recipient surface w ater. If the q uality of t he w at er system is somew here
betw een the ma ximum permissible concentration a nd the ta rget value,further emission reduction requirements must be based on advances in
technology, in accordance with the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable)
principle.
The general qua lity sta nda rds for surface wat er and sediment are listed in
annex I. Except in the case of the tributyltin compounds, these are identical
for fresh and salt w at er systems. The g eneral quality stand ards for soil and
air are set out in the National Environmental Policy Plan.
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II Water po llution control in the Netherland s:
the policy
25
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4
Relationship betw een risk limits a nd environmenta l qua lity standa rds.
Scientific risk limits Policy-based environmental
quality standards
high
low
Concentration
in the
environment
maximum admissible risk level
facto r 100
neglig ible risk level target va lues
maximum permissible
concentrations
via:
ALARA
Area-specific
prioritisation
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II Water po llution control in the Netherland s:
the policy
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5 General principles of the policy onwater pollution control
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II Water po llution control in the Netherland s:
the policy
27
5.1 Introduction
Dutch w ater mana gement policy for the next few years is outlined in the
Fourth National Policy Document on Water Ma nag ement (NW4, see
section 2). The g uiding principles a re:
pollution reduction;
the stand-still principle;
the polluter pays principle.
These principles apply to a ll sources (industrial, municipa l and diffuse).
The NW4makes a clea r plea fo r prioritisation in the reduction of emissions,
placing a duty on water management authorities to strive to achieve the
ma ximum permissible concent rations (see previous sect ion) w ithin the plan
period. In reducing emissions, priority must be given to substances where
the maximum permissible concentrations are exceeded.
In addition, the NW4focuses on the need for integrated decision-making
on environmental issues: the integrated approach. Decisions on measures
to deal with emissions to water must balance the protection of the water
system with that of the other two compartments of the environment (soil
and air) and must also take account of aspects such as energy consumptionand waste prevention. Integrated consideration of this kind is generally part
of the decision process (based on the chain management approach) preceding
the a ctua l issue of a discharge permit und er the Po llution of Surfa ce Wat ers
Act (PSWA). Guidance for integrated consideration is available in the form
of the BREF (BATreference documents) draw n up a t Europea n level fo r
each sector of industry in the context of the IPPC Directive.
PSWA permits can be rega rded as the culmination of the process of integrated
consideration. Conditions at tached to them must relate only to the protection
of water quality and to measures safeguarding the efficient functioning of
the urban w astew ater treatment plant . The level of decision-making involved
in the preparation of permits can range from the choice of techniq ues (the
means) to a chieve a desired reduction in w astew ater discharges (the end)
right through to the prioritisation of measures and investigat ions in different
areas of the environment.
Figure 5 shows a schematic outline of the policy of water pollution control
in the Netherlands.
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step 1 prevention:
(prevention of pollution)
step 2 re-use:
(re-use of water andsubstances whereverpossible)
step 3 removal :
(end-of-pipe measures)
1 impl ementation ofEsbjerg/ OSPAR:
2 abatement based on:
2a primary approach:
2b f urt her requi rem ent s
based on (= immission
test):
C in case of new orincreased discharges:
II Water po llution control in the Netherland s:
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28
BLACK-LISTED OTHER POLLUTANTS
SUBSTANCES
i
n
t
e
g
r
a
t
e
d
a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
p
r
i
o
r
i
t
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5
Schematic outline o f t he policy o f w ater po llution control in the Netherland s.
) Applies at a ny rat e to the 43 priority substa nces/groups of substances designated under the O SPAR
ag reement (see annex II).) The term Best Available Techniques (BAT), w hich is frequently used in internationa l circles, encompa sses
bot h BTM a nd BPM.) MPCs= maximum permissible concentrations
In view of t he low concentrations (largely < MPC s) in the marine environment, the obliga tion is to strive
to a chieve the t arget va lues rather than the MP Cs (letter of 18 Octo ber 1996 from the Environment
Minister to the Low er House of t he Dutch parliament ).) In the case of indirect discharges subject to PSWA permits, the immission test or water quality objectives
approach encompasses measures to safeguard the efficient functioning of the relevant urban waste-
water treatment plant as well as the protection of the receiving surface water.
source-oriented approach d irected a t: improved selection of b ase ma terials, add itives and products use of environmenta lly f riendly techno logy in the production
process, corporate practices or use phase new production process or corporate practices use of process-integrated solutions
recycling (re-use w ithin the product ion process /corpora tepractices)
re-use outside the production process / corporate practices reprocessing fo r possible re-use
wastewater treatment, purification
effort to end emissions by 2020)B substance-specific approach:
organohalogeniccompounds, mer-cury, cadmium,etc.
emissions approach
Best Technical
Means (BTM))
MPCs) or otherapplicable environ-mental qualitystandards)
no increase permit-ted withinmanagement area
sulphate, chloride,heat
water qualityobjectives approach
ad missibility o f d is-
charges and measuresto be taken dependingon target environmen-tal qua lity standa rds)
no significant d eterio-ration permitted inw ater qua lity
heavy metals,oxygen-consumingsubstances, P, N,etc.
emissions approach
Best Practicable
Means (BPM))
MPCs) or otherapplicable environ-mental qualitystandards)
no significant dete-rioration permittedin water quality
stand-still principle
pollution reduction
A general approach (chain management):
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5.2 Reduction of pollution
The 'po llut ion reduction principle dicta tes tha t pollution should alwa ys be
minimised, irrespective of the type of substance concerned (see figure 5).
In this respect, a distinction is draw n bet w een a general approach (chain
mana gement ) and a substance-specific one.
A. General approach (chain management)
The principle is increasingly be ing implement ed b y g iving priority t o
prevention and re-use. In this regard, source-oriented measures take priority
over technical treatment ones. Examples are:
selection of base materials, additives and products;
use of clean t echnolog y;
new production process or corporate practices;
use of process-integrated solutions;
closed-loop recycling; re-use.
B. Substance-specif ic approach
1 Implementation of Esbjerg/OSPAR agreements
During the fourth North Sea Ministerial Co nference in Esbjerg (1995), it
w as ag reed to strive fo r a continuous reduction of emissions, d ischarges
and losses of hazardous substances (irrespective of source) thereby moving
tow ards the ta rget of t heir cessat ion w ithin one generation (25 years) w ith
the ultimat e a im o f concentrat ions in the environment near ba ckground
values for naturally occurring substances and close to zero concentrations
for man-made synthetic substances. Over the next few years, internationalefforts w ill be mad e to identify the substances involved a nd esta blish the
priorities for ta ckling them. In 1998, a s the first sta ge of the implementa tion
of the Esbjerg Declaration, 15 substances/groups of substances were
designa ted und er the OSPAR Convention to be the subject of a n effort to
end discharges by 2020. In 2000 and 2001, OSPAR expanded this list to
include a further 12 and later 16 substances (see annex II).
The European Union has recently pub lished a list o f 34 priority substa nces
(see annex II). This list w ill fo rm part of the Water Framew ork Direct ive
and has been compiled on the basis of a risk assessment included in the
directive. It w ill be review ed every fo ur years, at w hich point new sub-
sta nces can be added to it. The list is divided into three ca teg ories:
priority hazardous substances (aim: zero discharges within 20 years);
priority substances (aim: to meet q uality stand ards, w hich have y et
to be defined); and
priority substances under evaluation (definitive classification to follow).
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2 Emissions approach or water quality objectives approach
Depending on the substance concerned an emissions approach or a water
q uality objectives approach is ado pted.
Emissions approach
The emissions approach is follow ed in virtually a ll insta nces, no t onlyof pollution by substances included in List 1 of Council Directive 76/464/EEC
or in the list of 132 substances (which a re considered 'b lack-listed' in the
Netherlands), but also of pollution of most 'other substances' (see box).
The emissions a pproach implies tha t eff orts must b e ma de t o prevent
pollution of surface waters irrespectiveof the w ater quality o bjectives to be
achieved. In the case of black-listed substances (and those with comparable
characteristics), this mea ns tha t the Best Technica l Means (BTM* ) are to be
applied, whereas in the case of the other substances to which the emissions
approach a pplies the req uirement is for an a ba tement eff ort ba sed on the
Best Practicable Means (BPM*).
In addition t o the use of BPM/BTM, t he emissions a pproach ca n a lso
encompass more fa r-reaching requirements ba sed on the prevailing w at er
q uality objectives for the receiving w at er (the w at er qua lity test o r immission
test, see section 4).
In the case of indirect discharges from designated sectors of industry (see
section 6 a nd a nnex IV), the w at er qua lity test w ill also ta ke into account
the need t o saf egua rd the efficient functioning o f the relevant urban
wastewater treatment plant.
The impact o f individual substa nces on the a q uat ic environment va ries,
w hether or not the particula r substance is black-listed. Therefore, despite
the d efinitions, it is not th e case tha t there a re tw o clearly def ined g roups
of techniq ues for the control of w astew at er discharges. Rather, there is a
broad range of technical options. The most obvious difference betw een
treat ment w ith BTM or BPM is tha t the a im in the first case is entirely to
eliminate pollution of the aquatic environment, while in the second case a
certain amount of residual discharge is expected and will be acceptable in
terms of meeting the relevant w at er qua lity o bjectives.
* Best Practi cable M eans(BPM) are defined as: 'Those techn iques w hich can be used to a chieve
the greatest reduction in emissions, taking account of economic aspects (i.e. the best techniques
that are financially acceptable to a normal company)'.
Best Technical M eans(BTM) are d efined a s: 'Those techniques w hich can fea sibly be used, a t a
higher cost, to achieve an e ven g reater reduction in emissions'. How ever, it is apparent from
the jurisprudence that it is not intended that financial and economic aspects should play no
part w hatsoever in def ining the BTM in a particular case.
The term Best Ava ilable Techn iques (BAT), w hich is freq uently used in internat ional circles,
encompasses both BTM a nd BPM.
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Black-l isted substances
Substances on the black list (i.e. included in List 1 of Council Directive
76/464/EEC) a re so ha rmful to the environment tha t emissions should,
in principle, be stopped. For these and similar substances, the aim is to
reduce discharges as close as possible to zero. Source-oriented measures
should involve the applicat ion of BTM.
The decision to b lack-list a substa nce is ba sed on a number of cha racte-
ristics (such as toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation). Accordingly,
there is a list of 132 substances which are regarded as black-listed in the
Netherlands (see annex III). However, this list is by no means exhaustive.
Indeed, substa nces such a s dioxins an d dibenzofurans are not included,
despite t heir undoubted a dverse effects on the environment.
Depending on developments in the implementation of the Water Frame-
w ork Directive, the ca teg orisation of substances may chang e (seeabove: priority or priority hazardous).
O ther substances
For the majority of the o ther substances, the req uirement is for ab at e-
ment throug h a pplicat ion of BPM. This prima rily concerns substances
which are relatively harmful and are characterised by persistence and/or
toxicity: heavy metals not included in the black list, certa in types of o rga nic
micropolluta nts, cya nide, a mmonia, o xygen-consuming substances and
nutrients (phosphate and nitrate).
Water quality objectives approach
The w at er qua lity o bjectives approa ch is used for a limited numb er
of relat ively ha rmless substa nces w hich occur naturally in surfa ce w at ers
and are only sligh tly to xic. These include sulpha tes a nd chlorides, as w ell as
discharges of hea t. The extent t o w hich measures need to be t aken to
reduce such discharges depends primarily on the relevant water quality
ob jectives for the receiving surface w at er. Co nseq uently, it is impossible to
lay dow n a general rule for the t echniq ues to be a pplied.
In the case of an indirect discharge from a designated sector of industry,
the w at er qua lity o bjectives approach w ill also ta ke into account the need
to safeguard the efficient functioning of the relevant urban wastewater
treatment plant.
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5.3 Stand-still principle
Und er the st and-still principle, ext ra req uirements ma y be necessary (in
addition to those that follow from the emissions approach or the water quality
ob jectives approa ch). The sta nd-still principle incorpora tes a distinction
betw een black-listed substa nces and o ther substances. In the case ofblack-Iisted substances (and substances with comparable characteristics), the
principle is tha t: 'The to ta l amount of d ischarge o f a ny of the substa nces or
groups of substances on the black list is not permitted to increase within a
particular management area'. With respect to other substances, the principle
is that : the w at er quality must no t det eriorate significant ly; concentrations
of substances should not be allowed to increase, even when they are
below the maximum permissible concentrations.
In the case of these substa nces not on the black list, the impact o f the sta nd-
still principle lies primarily in the duty of the water management authorityto monitor surface water quality in its management area, to identify any
significant deterioration, and to examine the possible causes in order to
assess whether the det erioration can be prevented o r is accepta ble.
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6 General granting of permits
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Under Section 1 of the Pollution of Surface Waters Act (PSWA), it is forbidden
to discharge waste matter, pollutants or hazardous substances, in whatever
form, into surface waters without a permit. For indirect discharges (discharges
via the sewage system), no PSWA permit is required unless the discharge
originates from a sector of industry designated under a general administrative
order know n a s the 'Industries O rder' (see a nnex IV). The Environmenta l
Ma nag ement Act specifies coordinat ion a rrang ements fo r those cases
where permits are required under both the PSWA and the Environmental
Management Act (see figure 6).
Cond itions att ached to such discharge permits can relat e only to the
protection of w at er qua lity and /or measures to sa fegua rd the efficient
functioning of the sewag e treatment plant . In the case of substances included
in list 1 of Directive 76/464/EEC, there are legal limit values for different
sectors of industry. For certain sectors, recommendations may be made by
the Commission on Integrated Water Management (see section 9). Work is
being done to supplement the traditiona l conditions of d ischarge w ith a new
one b ased on w hole effluent t oxicity. In a ddition t o imposing conditions, a
permit may also specify monitoring and reporting obligations.
Permits specify conditions for discharges from each individual company
and are prepared on a case-by-case ba sis.
Applicants for discharge permits or amendments to them must supply the
competent authority w ith various det ails, including informat ion on:
the nature of the company and the nature and extent of its activities;
processes and plant capa city;
the na ture, composition, properties and amo unt of ba se materials,
ad ditives, intermediate products and end products, a nd t heir locat ion
w ithin company premises. The G eneral Assessment System d evised b y
the Commission on Integrated Water Management can be used to
identify the necessary discharge reduction eff ort on the b asis of the
properties of the substances and preparations involved;
the nature and extent of pollution of surface waters as a result of the
discharges;
measures or provision to prevent or reduce the discharge of wastes;
proposed methods for measuring, recording and reporting the discharges;
trends w hich the applicant may reasona bly expect t o o ccur in relat ion
to t he discharges and w hich may be relevant to t he decision on the
application.
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Permitting t akes place in accordance w ith t he procedure laid d ow n in the
General Administrat ive Law Act (see section 3). As a rule, the applicat ion
and the dra ft decision a re published a nd a re ava ilab le fo r public scrutiny for
a period of f our w eeks, during w hich the a pplicant and third pa rties may
comment on t hem. The final decision, ta king account of the comments
received, is then available for public scrutiny for a further period of twow eeks. There is a righ t of appeal ag ainst the final decision, b ut on ly by
those parties involved at an earlier stage in the procedure.
Since 1 March 1993, the PSWA has contained provision for general regulations
to be ma de under a general administrative order (amvb) to control specific
designa ted discha rges. These general regula tions can (at least partly)
replace the individual duty to obtain a permit.
At the time of writing in 2001, general administrative orders are in force
under the PSWA (and other stat utes) in relat ion to t he prevention of w at er
pollution from: greenhouse horticulture (1994);
materials to be used for construction work in surface waters (1995);
soil remediation and the a ssociat ed removal of conta minat ed g round-
water (1997);
domestic sewa ge (1997);
cleaning and conservat ion of bridg es, sluices, land ing stag es, etc.
(1998);
field crops and livestock farming (2000).
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6
Schematic diagram of the co ordination of permits under the PSWA and EMA.
PSWA
Pollution of Surface Waters Act, 1970
s. 1a: Limi t values (17 mi nisterial decrees on
dangerous substances)
s. 18: General basis for charges relating t o
state and regional w aters
s. 19: Criteria fo r charges payable to central
government
Industries Order1983, last amended 1990
General admini strative
order for t he designation
of types of industry
requiring PSWA permit s
for ind irect di scharges
Implementa tion decree on the po llutionof state w aters (UVR)
1970, last amended in 1999
General Administrative Order on the
imp lementati on of t he PSWA i n statewaters
* Urba n Wastew at er Treatment P lant
Provincial ordersRegional w ater boa rd
orders
EMAEnvironmental Management
Act (air, waste, soil,noise), 1993
Annual environmental reporting for
main industrial sources (approx. 300)
Coordination
of
permitting
by
provinces
Indirect discharges fromcommercial enterprises and small
industries not designated underthe Industries Order
Direct dischargesto state
waters
Direct dischargesto regional
waters
STATE w aters REGIONAL w aters
Discharge orders(general regulations)
General admini strative
order on d ischarge
requirements
(general regulati ons)
UWTP*
Indirect dischargesto regional w aters
covered by theIndustries Order
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7 Outline permits
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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New w ay s are being soug ht t o control emissions and achieve ongoing
improvement s in environmenta l quality. The Nat iona l Environmenta l Policy
Plan of 1989 outlines a strategy for ensuring the environmental sustainability
of D utch society but this will require a considerab le effo rt. The only w ay to
make real progress is to develop new and cleaner processes and to supplement
or replace end-of-pipe measures by 'in process' solutions and preventive
action. This requires long -term planning a nd closer harmonisat ion w ith
corporate investment cycles.
A command and control approach is not a n effective w ay to a chieve this
long-term goal. Such an approach will not stimulate industry to identifybig step solutions. Rather, it w ill encourag e end-of-pipe solutions which
result in small step improvements. When environmental performance is
already moderately high, further steps to achieve sustainable industrial
development w ill become very expensive for industry.
Mo reover, end-of-pipe mea sures a re mostly just sing le-medium solutions
tackling, for example, air, waste or water pollution while disregarding
effects on ot her compa rtments of the environment. It has become clear
tha t a n integ rated a ssessment of measures can be highly cost-effective.
Another factor is that most companies have become tired of ongoing and
often inopportune demands for additional measures and want bettergua rantees concerning the long-term requirements of the a uthorities and
more flexibility to decide fo r themselves w hen a nd ho w to achieve the
required reductions.
A different relationship between the authorities and industry needs to be
found, therefore, and new instruments need to be developed to overcome
these objections. In practice, individual companies and authorities have
already redefined their responsibilities. Figure 7 shows how a company can
pass through various phases a s a result o f its ow n a ttitude (horizonta l axis)
and tha t o f t he a uthorities (vertical axis). Now ad ays d iscussions betw een
individual companies and authorities are no longer always based on detailed
permits. A mix of instruments is used:
1. a company environmental plan(requiring the approval of the authorities)
in which the company describes how it intends to improve its environ-
mental performance in the longer term;
2. an environmental management system(e.g. complying with EMAS and
ISO 14001) by w hich the company regulates its ow n processes;
3. an annual environmental reportdetailing the environmental performance
of the company and;
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4. the outli ne permit, which can be restricted to requirements concerning
the most important environmental issues.
This mix of instruments presents g reat po tent ial ad vanta ges for all parties
involved. The introduction of environmenta l management systems, compiling
of environmental plans a nd d rafting of annua l environmental reportscertainly imposes a considerable burden on companies but, in return, they
benefit from the greater degree of flexibility allowed by outline permits.
These ena ble them to respond more quickly to ma rket developments by
launching modified products, since their environmental permits no longer
need to be amended to take account of minor changes in the production
process. What is more, outline permits can produce cost savings, since they
allow companies to time their environmental investments to coincide more
closely w ith their corporate investment cycles. Fina lly, the inclusion of an
outline permit in the mix of instruments encourages companies to make
further improvements in their environmental performance.
In parallel with this development, the role of the authorities is evolving
away from traditional enforcement towards facilitation and checks on
environmental management systems (see section 10).
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In more detail, this can be described as:
Phase Companies stance Stance of the authorit ies
1. inactive defensive coercive
2. postulant passive encourag ing
3. novice active facilita ting
4. advanced pro-active trusting
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7
Phases in the developing relations betw een compa nies and autho rities.
authorities:
positive attitude,
trustdevelopment
company: company:
passive, defensive active, offensive
2
authorities:
negative attitude,distrust
1
3
4
: lag ga rds
: central groups
: leaders
1
2/3
4
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8 Approach to tackling diffuse sources
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For many years, industrial discharges were seen as the main causes of
poor water quality in the Netherlands. But water quality has now been
substantially improved and industry is no longer the main source of pollution.
Increasingly, it is diffuse sources that are dominating the load to surface
waters and causing breaches of water quality objectives.
The ma in causes of diffuse pollution of surface w at er are the extensive use
of ag ricultural fertilisers and pesticides, corrosion o f building ma terials
(copper and zinc), leaching of PAHs and meta ls out of impregna ted ba nk
protection ma terials, the use o f a nti-fouling paint o n boa ts, ca rgo residues,the use of zinc sacrificial anodes to protect vessels against corrosion, and
at mospheric deposition. In a ddition, stormw at er overflow s produce major
emissions of nutrients, o xygen-consuming substances and organic and
inorga nic micropolluta nts.
The o bjectives w ith rega rd to diffuse sources are spelled o ut in the Fourth
National Policy Document o n Wat er Mana gement (NW4), the Action
Programme on D iffuse Sources (1997) and na tional and regional w at er
q ua lity ma na gement plans. The ma in priorities are:
to reduce a gricultural emissions;
to promot e use of susta inab le ma terials in new building a nd renovat ionprojects;
to promote sustainable practices in inland navigation;
to encourage sustainable shipbuilding and vessel maintenance;
to improve waste collection from commercial vessels and pleasure craft;
to reduce the use of chemical weedkillers in urban areas; and
to reduce emissions to the air (and hence atmospheric deposition).
Given that the main impact of pollution from diffuse sources is on regional
water quality, a regional approach is the obvious solution. Such an approach
will take account of local circumstances. Measures will be based not only on
statutory instruments; public information campaigns, research, demonstration
projects, covenant s w ith ta rget groups, monitoring and financial instruments
(levies and subsidies) w ill also be importan t. Mea sures of this kind ca n be
used a t a ll levels of g overnment . The choice of instruments and t he timing
of their use will depend on the specific situation. In addition, a number of
general administrative orders have come into force over recent years which
can b e used to ta ckle the diffuse pollution of surface w at er in a generic
w ay. There are decrees of th is kind rela ting to ma tters such as g reenhouse
horticulture, field crops and livestock farming and materials to be used for
construction work in surface waters (see also section 6).
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For a long time there w as insufficient support to get a blanket a pproa ch to
tackling diffuse sources on the European agenda. Nevertheless, policies
were developed with regard to certain individual types of diffuse sources.
In the agricultural field, for example, they were developed both for fertilisers
and for pesticides and strict European regulations were introduced on
consumer and other products (e.g. biocides, w ashing detergents, pa int,solvents etc.). In the case of atmospheric deposition and shipping, the
nature of the source dicta tes an international approach. Sufficiently w idespread
international support is now ava ilab le to permit t he fo rmulat ion o f mo re
generalised policies w ith regard to diffuse sources and, increasing ly, the
chosen instrument for tackling such sources is BEP (Best Environmenta l
Practice).
Figure 8 provides a g eneral overview of emission rout es from sources to
surface w ater. D iag rams like this a re used both na tionally a nd internationa lly
to prioritise action to tackle sources of pollution once emissions have beenquantified.
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Entry routes to surface w at ers:
1 atmospheric deposition
2 g roundw a ter
3 discharges/drifting
4 erosion
5 drainage
6 run-off from soil
7 run-off from imperm. surfaces
8 separa te sto rm sewer
9 UWTP discharges
10 stormwa ter overflow
11 untreated discharges
12 not connected
13 direct discharges from industry
14 direct diffuse discharges
15 background loads
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 8
General overview of entry routes to surface waters.
a ir
sewer system
principal sources
surfacewaters
23
7
8
9
101112
13
14
15
soil
impermeablesurfaces
groundwater
456
agriculture
transport and
building
materials
infrastructure
households
industry
direct diffusesources
background
loads
separatesewersystem
mixedsewersystem
UrbanWastewaterTreat ment
Plant
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9 Coordination and harmonisation
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III Wat er pollution control in the Netherlands:
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47
The Co mmission o n Integrat ed Water Ma nag ement (CIW) is responsible
for coordination and harmonisation in the field of water management.
Chaired by His Royal Highness Prince Willem-Alexander, heir to the Dutch
throne, it is an advisory committee on policy implementation and devel-
opment in the field o f integrated w at er mana gement . The Co mmission
includes representat ives of all tiers of g overnment : cent ral, provincia l,
municipal and water boards.
The CIWhas a fourfold function:
1. To coordinate a nd ha rmonise existing po licies (making recommendat ionsto the authorities involved in water management with the aim of achieving
'joined up government' under the Pollution of Surface Waters Act);
2. To examine and study aspects of integrated w ater management;
3. To a dvise central government on national w ater manag ement;
4. To ha rmonise policy proposals in the field of integ rated w at er
management.
The CIWis composed of board-level representatives of authorities involved
in water quality: water boards, provinces and municipalities in the
Netherlands. The commission a lso includes d elega tes f rom the M inistry o f
Transport, Pub lic Works and Water Ma na gement, the M inistry of Housing,Spatial Planning and the Environment and the Ministry of Agriculture,
Nature Ma nag ement and Fisheries.
Most of the preparatory work relating to the CIW'sreports and recommen-
dations is done by five 'working groups' (see figure 9). Each of these deals
w ith a specific aspect of integrated w ater mana gement, but not of course in
isolation. The ta sks of the w orking group o n Water and the Environment
are:
to devise programmes or guidelines to reduce or eliminate discharges
of oxidising substances, nutrients, micropollutants and other types of
pollution to sew ers and surfa ce w at er;
to standardise or streamline technical regulations applying to permits
under the Pollution of Surface Waters Act and concerning the reduction
of discharges to sewers and surface water;
to coordinat e technical and policy a spects of enforcement relat ing to
discharges to sewers and surface water;
to coordinat e a nd stimulat e research on diffuse sources of w at er
pollution, and to initiate measures to combat such pollution;
to comment on, and if necessary initiate, international proposals and
developments, a nd t o indicate effects on the implementa tion of
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discharge reduction policies (for example, to implement BATreference
documents (BREFs) in the co ntext of the IPPC Directive);
to ad vise on, coo rdinate a nd ha rmonise efforts concerning the q uality
and quantity of surface water and aquatic soils (standards, bioassays,
area-specific policies, etc.).
The membership of the w orking group is broader tha n tha t o f the CIW
itself: it includes representa tives of industry, the Dut ch fed eration o f
agricultural and horticultural organisations (LTO) and the environmental
movement. This participation by non governmental orga nisa tions guarantees
broad-based support for CIWrecommendations.
Since the a ctivities of the w orking group a re so w ide-rang ing, the
implementation of individual tasks or actions is usually undertaken by a
project g roup (ad hoc or ot herwise), t o w hich the relevant experts a nd
interested parties can contribute. Secretarial support is often provided bythe Institute f or Inland Wat er Mana gement and Wastew at er Treat ment
(RIZA).
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9
The CIW and its wo rking g roups.
1. Institutiona l
aspects of wa ter
management
2. Water and
spatial
planning
4. Water
and the
environment
Commissionon Integrated
Water Management
5. M onitoring
and evaluation
3. Water in
urban areas
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10 Enforcement
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III Wat er pollution control in the Netherlands:
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Enforcement consists of surveillance and detection. It is a matter of using
surveillance and the means available in administrative, criminal and private
law to ensure compliance bo th w ith blanket stat utory provisions and w ith
individual directions (definition offered by the Council of Public Administration,
1998).
To ensure a proper enforcement process, the w at er authority needs to
have a clear understa nding of t he area under its control, the t arget g roups
involved and the various statutory and regulatory provisions applicable to
each of them. Compliance and risk analyses can then provide a basis on whichto set enforcement priorities, t aking into account bot h the environmenta l
relevance o f t he discharge a nd t he beha viour of the d ischarger.
There should be a surveillance plan linking the permit or reporting d at a ,
the environmental relevance of the discharge (or group of discharges), the
beha viour o f the discharger a nd the necessary surveillance act ivities. Where
a violation is identified, the processes of administrative and criminal law
enforcement should be pursued simultaneously (see figure 10). Action under
ad ministrative law w ill normally ta ke the f orm of a tw o-stag e procedure
(warning with notification that a sanction will follow if the violation continues
beyo nd a stat ed d ead line). Whether or not action under criminal law isappropriate w ill be determined by t he strateg y o f t he Pub lic Prosecutor
and the relevant list of core criteria.
Various administrativemeans of enforcement are ava ilab le to the a dmini-
strative authority (i.e. Rijkswaterstaat, the provincial and local authority or
the d istrict w a ter board). The ma in ones include:
warnings(verba l or in w riting );
administrat ive pressure(also ca lled po lice pressure). The a uthority may
w rite to the off ender ordering him to d esist from the off ence, or may
itself put a stop to it, t he costs involved being cha rged to the o ffender;
withdrawalof the permit;
amendmentof t he terms of the permit;
the imposition of financialdamages to force compliance.
In addition, serious environmental offences are subject to a considerable
range of possible judicial sanct ions. These include:
f ines(up to a bout 50,000 for private individuals and up to about
500,000 per offence for corporate bodies);
terms of imprisonment(up to a maximum of six years);
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removal ofany wrongfully obtained financial (or other) advantage
which has been gained by committing an offence;
closureof the company concerned.
As explained in section 7, a new approach is now being ad opted to
enforcement, w ith g reat er emphasis being placed on ad ministrative rathertha n physical inspection. Permitting a nd enf orcement w ill be gea red t o t he
a tt itude and beha viour of the discharger, as expressed for example in its
environmental man ag ement systems a nd company environmental plan. The
new individua lised a pproach t o permitting w ill be reflected in a similar sty le
of inspection a nd enforcement. Where the empha sis used to be simply on
checking emission va lues, it w ill now a lso be o n examining the system
underlying t hose values: w hy did an incident ha ppen, w hat action did the
company ta ke af ter it occurred a nd how does it intend to prevent anyt hing
simila r happen ing in the future? This approach w ill enab le a utho rities to
encourag e companies to show g reat er environmental aw areness and t o paymore at tent ion to cont rolling t heir processes.
Dutch environmenta l legislat ion bestow s permitting and enforcement
powers on a wide range of government bodies, including central government,
the provincial aut horities, the w a ter boards and the po lice. This situa tion
creates the risk of duplication of effort, including simultaneous (or near-
simultaneous) inspections by different en forcement autho rities. There is no
stat utory structure of cooperation to prevent this, but w ork is now being
done to promote cooperation on enforcement between the authorities
concerned. In 2001, the M inistry o f Transport, Public Works and Wat er
Ma nag ement set up a n inspectorate to operate independently of its policyand implementa tion branches and to be responsible for the enforcement of
a range of environmental and other legislation, including the Pollution of
Surface Waters Act.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 10
Administrative and juridical means of enforcement.
Instruments of enforcement
Administrativeinstruments
Judicial instruments
Warning
Administrative pressure
Withdrawal
Amendment
Financial damages
Fines
Imprisonment
Removal of advantage
Closure
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11 Charging system
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III Wat er pollution control in the Netherlands:
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The Pollution of Surface Waters Act (PSWA) provides tha t a ll dischargers to
surface w aters and to the sew erage system (households as w ell as industries)
a re liab le to pay a pollution levy. Under these provisions, w astew ater charges
have been levied since 1971 by central government authorities for discharges
to state w aters, a nd by regional w ater boa rds for discharges to the non-state
surface waters and sewerage systems.
The purpose o f cha rging is to raise revenue to finance measures necessary
for the abatement and prevention of water pollution. Up to 2000 the
revenues were used to subsidise the building of urba n w astew ater treatmentplants; now ada ys they are used to finance general wa ter management.
Althoug h this w as not a formal objective on introduction, it w as fo reseen
tha t w astew at er charges might provide an incentive for dischargers to
reduce the ir pollution load.
The essentials of the cha rging systems for all discharges a re laid d ow n in
the PSWA. Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management
(Rijkswaterstaat) is responsible for imposing a nd collecting charges f or
discharges to stat e w at ers. Since 1993 the relevant pollution paramet ers
and the tariff for discharges to state waters have required the approval of
Pa rlia ment , w hereas previously it w as t he sole responsibility ofRijkswaterstaat.
For the non-state waters, the imposition and collection of charges is in the
ha nds of the w a ter boa rds. They ha ve the sa me responsibilities in rela tion
to discharges to non-stat e w at ers as Rijksw at ersta at has fo r discharges to
state waters, but are free to set tariffs as they see fit.
In general terms, charges (for both direct and indirect discharges to non-
stat e an d sta te w at ers) are calculat ed by multiplying the po llution loa d
expressed in pollution units (p.u.) by the unit tariff (for state waters about
32/p.u. in 2001). They rela te to discha rge s of oxyg en-consuming
substa nces and hea vy meta ls (see figure 11). The PSWA a lso a llow s the
w at er boards to ad just the pollution levy to ta ke a ccount of chloride,
sulpha te, phospho rous and silver.
Und er the P SWA, the ma ximum a ssessment fo r households is 3 p.u. This is
now the standard basis for charges to households, a lthough it can be reduced
to 1 p.u. fo r one-person households on request. Ho w ever, t here is some
variation between regions in this respect.
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Small businesses prod ucing less tha n 5 p.u. a re also charged f or 3 p.u. This
ma y be reduced to 1 p.u. fo r businesses discharging 1 p.u. o r less. The levy
for heavy metals, chloride, sulphate and phosphorous, is subject to thresholds
below w hich no cha rge is imposed.
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 11
Calculation of the charge.
Oxygen-consuming substances
For oxygen-consuming substances one p.u. represents a yearly a mount of 49.6 kg
oxygen (1 p.u. of o xygen-consuming substa nces = 49.6 kg O 2/year), formulated as:
tota l amo unt of discharged o xygen-consuming substan ces (CO D + 4.57*N), in kg/year
P =
levy stand ard amo unt (= 49.6 kg/year)
where:
P = number o f p.u. of oxygen-consuming substances
COD = chemical oxygen demandN = Kjelda hl nitrog en
Heavy metals
For the hea vy meta ls mercury, cadmi um and arsenic, one p.u. represents a tot al
yea rly amount of 0.1 kg (1 p.u. of mercury, cad mium and a rsenic = 0.1 kg/year).
tota l amount of discharged mercury, cadmium and arsenic in kg/year
P =levy standa rd amount (= 0.1 kg/year)
where:
P = number of p.u. of mercury, cad mium an d a rsenic
For the hea vy meta ls chromium , copper, lead, nickel and zinc, one p.u. represents a
total yearly amount of 1 kg (1 p.u. of chromium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc =
1 kg/year).
tota l amount of discharged chromium, copper, lead , nickel and zinc in kg/yea r
P =
levy stand ard amo unt (= 1 kg/year)
where:
P = number of p.u. o f chromium, copper, lead, n ickel and zinc
In calculat ing t he amo unt of heavy meta ls discharged , a deduction is made for the
amount of heavy metals taken into a ccount w hen calculating the a mount of oxygen-
consuming substances discharged.
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References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References 59
Company environmental management as a basis for a different relationship
between companies and governmental authorities, a guide for governmental
authorities and compa nies, Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning
and the Environment, The Hague, 1995.
Fourth National Policy Document o n Wat er Mana gement , g overnment
decision, abridg ed version, Netherlands M inistry o f Transport, Public w orks
and Water Management, December 1998.
Handboek Wvo-vergunningverlening , CIW, 1999, revised version.
Handhaving Wvo, CIW, 2000.
New deal with an old enemy: w ater mana gement in the Netherlands: past,
present a nd future, RIZA, June 1999.
Water in the Netherlands, NHV, 1997.
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References 60
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Annexes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Annexes 61
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Annexes 62
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Maximum Permissible Concentration (MPC) and Target Value for Surface Water and Sediment
Ref: Staa tscourant, The Netherlands, June 2000.
Hallmarks for compounds in w ate r systems (MPC: short term, Target value: long term).
The values for tot al w ate r apply to th e stand ard cont aining 30 mg/l suspended solids.
The values for sediment apply to th e stand ard cont aining 10 % orga nic ma tter and 25 % lutum.
For stand ard suspended solids (20% organic mate rial an d 40% lutum) the va lues for met als
are a factor of 1.5 higher and for organic compounds a factor of 2 higher compared to the
values for sediment.
The target value and the M PC fo r metals include the nationa l ba ckground concentration.
SURFACE WATER SURFACE WATER SEDIMENT
TARGET TARGET TARGETVALUE MPC VALUE MPC VALUE MPC
(di ssol ved) (di sso lved ) (t ot al ) (t ot al ) (dry mat ter) (d ry mat ter)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
METALS g/l g/l g/l g/l mg/kg mg/kgcadmium 0.08 0.4 0.4 2 0.8 12 #
mercury (inorganic) 0.01 0.2 0.07 1.2 0.3 10 #
methyl-mercury 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.1 0.3 1.4
copper 0.5 1.5 1.1 3.8 36 73
nickel 3.3 5.1 4.1 6.3 35 44
lead 0.3 11 5.3 220 85 530 #
zinc 2.9 9.4 12 40 140 620
chromium 0.3 8.7 2.4 84 100 380 #
arsenic 1 25 1.3 32 29 55 #
antimony 0.4 6.5 0.4 7.2 3 15 #
barium 75 220 78 230 160 300
beryllium 0.02 0.2 0.02 0.2 1.1 1.2
cobalt 0.2 2.8 0.2 3.1 9 19
molybdenum 4.3 290 4.4 300 3 200 #
selenium 0.09 5.3 0.09 5.4 0.7 2.9
tha llium 0.06 1.6 0.06 1.7 1 2.6
tin 0.2 18 2.2 220 .. ..
vanadium 0.9 4.3 1 5.1 42 56
borium @ 6.5 650 .. .. .. ..
tellurium @ .. .. .. . . . . ..
t itanium @ .. .. .. . . . . ..
uranium @ 0.01 1 .. .. .. ..silver @ 0.0008 0.08 .. .. .. 5.5
salt w ater: 0.01 1.2 .. .. .. ..
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES
PAHs g/l g/l g/l mg/kg mg/kg
naphtha lene 1.2 0.01 1.2 0.001 * 0.1 *
anthracene 0.07 0.0008 0.08 0.001 * 0.1 *
phenanthrene 0.3 0.003 0.3 0.005 * 0.5 *
fluoranthene 0.3 0.005 0.5 0.03 * 3 *
benzo(a)anthracene 0.01 0.0003 0.03 0.003 * 0.4 *
chrysene 0.3 0.009 0.9 0.1 * 11 *
benzo(k)fluoranthene 0.04 0.002 0.2 0.02 * 2 *
benzo(a)pyrene 0.05 0.002 0.2 0.003 * 3 *
Annex I Integrated environmental quality objectives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Annex I 63
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Annex I 64
SURFACE WATER SURFACE WATER SEDIMENT
ORGANIC TARGET TARGET TARGET
SUBSTANCES VALUE MPC VALUE MPC VALUE MPC
(continued) (dissolved) (dissolved) (total) (total) (dry matter) (dry matter)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
benzo(ghi)perylene 0.03 0.005 0.5 0.08 * 8 *
indeno(123-cd)pyrene 0.04 0.004 0.4 0.06 * 6 *
chlorobenzenes ng/ l ng/ l ng/ l g/kg g/kg
pentachlorobenzene 300 3 300 1 100
hexachlorobenzene 9 0.09 9 0.05 5
chlorophenols ng/ l ng/ l ng/ l g/kg g/kg
pentachlorophenol 4000 40 4000 2 300
chloranilines g/ l g/ l g/ l g/kg g/kg
tetrachloranilines (ind) 3 0.03 3 1.7! 1220
pentachloraniline 0.1 0.001 0.1 0.6 60
chlorinated organics ng/ l ng/ l ng/ l g/kg g/kg
a ldrin 0.9 0.01 1 0.06 6dieldrin 12 0.4 39 0.5 450
endrin 4 0.04 4 0.04 4
DDT 0.4 0.009 0.9 0.09 9
DDD 0.4 0.005 0.5 0.02 2
DDE 0.4 0.004 0.4 0.01 1
-endosulphan 20 0.2 20 0.01 1-HCH 3300 33 3300 3 290
-HCH 800 9 860 9 920-HCH (lindane) 910 9 920 0.05 230
heptachlor 0.5 0.005 0.5 0.7 0.7
heptachlorepoxide 0.5 0.005 0.5 0.0002 0.02
chlordane 2 0.02 2 0.03 3
organophosphorus compounds ng/ l ng/ l ng/ l g/kg g/kgazinphos-ethyl 11 0.1 11 0.005 0.5
azinphos-methyl 12 0.1 12 0.009 0.9
chlorfenvinphos 2 0.02 2 0.0006 0.06
chlorpyriphos 3 0.03 3 0.01 1
coumaphos 0.7 0.007 0.7 0.0006 0.06
demeton 140 1 140 .. ..
diazinon 37 0.4 37 0.01 1
dichlorvos 0.7 0.007 0.7 0.00003 0.003
dimethoate 23000 230 23000 0.8 78
disulfoton 82 0.8 82 0.03 6
ethoprofos 63 0.6 63 0.003 0.3
fenitrothion 9 0.09 9 0.007 0.7
fenthion 3 0.03 3 0.004 0.4
foxim 82! 0.8! 82! 0.08! 8!heptenofos 20 0.2 20 0.003 0.3
malathion 13 0.1 13 0.009 0.9
mevinfos 2 0.02 2 0.0006 0.06
oxydemeton-methyl 35! 0.4! 35! 0.0003! 0.03!
para thion(-ethyl) 2 0.02 2 0.001 0.1
para thion-methyl 11 0.1 11 0.01 1
pyrazofos 40 0.4 40 0.02 2
tolclofos-methyl 790! 8! 800! 1! 130!
tria zophos 32 0.3 32 0.007 0.7
trichlorfon 1 0.01 1 0.00002 0.002
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Annex I 65
SURFACE WATER SURFACE WATER SEDIMENT
ORGANIC TARGET TARGET TARGET
SUBSTANCES VALUE MPC VALUE MPC VALUE MPC
(continued) (dissolved) (dissolved) (total) (total) (dry matter) (dry matter)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
organotin compounds ng/ l ng/ l ng/ l g/kg g/kg
tetrabutyltins (ind) 1600! 16! 1600! 0.8! 78!
salt w ater: 17! 0.2! 17! 0.008! 0.8!
tributyltins (ind) 14 0.1 14 0.1 10
salt w ater: 1 0.01 1 0.007 0.7
triphenyltins (ind) 5 0.05 5 0.06 6
salt w ater: 0.8 0.009 0.9 0.01 1
organo-silicium compounds g/ l g/ l g/ l mg/ kg mg/kg
octamethyltetrasiloxane 0.4 0.005 0.5 0.01 1.3
acids (fenol herbicides g/ l g/ l g/ l g/kg g/kg
& chlorfenoxycarbonacid
herbicides)
bentazone 64! 0.6! 64! 1! 130!
2.4-D 10 0.1 10 0.3 27dichlorprop 40 0.4 40 32 3200
dinoseb 0.03 0.0003 0.03 0.003 0.3
dinoterb 0.03 0.0003 0.03 0.1 11
DNO C 21 0.2 21 0.7 280
MCPA 2 0.02 2 0.05 5
mecoprop 4 0.04 4 0.02 2
2.4.5-T 9! 0.09! 9! 0.2! 50!
carbamates & dithiocarbamates ng/ l ng/ l ng/ l g/kg g/kg
a ldica rb 98 1 98 0.001 0.1
benomyl 150 2 150 0.006 0.6
carbaryl 230 2 230 0.03 3
carbendazim 110 1 110 0.03 3
carbofuran 910 9 910 0.02 2maneb as ETU .. a s ETU 2 ..
metam-Natrium 35! 0.4! 35! 0.006! 0.6!
methomyl 80 0.8 80 0.001 0.1
oxamyl 1800 18 1800 0.01 1
pirimicarb 90 0.9 90 0.02 2
propoxur 10 0.1 10 0.0001 0.01
thiram 32 0.3 32 0.008 0.8
tri-a lla te 1900 19 1900 0.2 160
zineb as ETU .. a s ETU 130! ..
t riazines, pyridazines & triazoles ng/ l ng/ l ng/ l g/ kg g/kganilazine 85 0.9 85 0.02 2
a trazine 2900 29 2900 0.2! 26
chloridazon 73000 730 73000 3 350cyanazine 190 2 190 0.01! 2
desmetryn 34000! 340! 34000! 0.08! 370!
metamitron 10000 100 10000 1 95
simazine 140! 1! 140! 0.009! 0.9!