Water Chemistry LFKS 18May2

8/3/2019 Water Chemistry LFKS 18May2

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Ian Guisseppi Millichip

Water-Water-

Quality and ChemistryQuality and ChemistryLFKSLFKS

18 May 201118 May 2011

Water Quality and Chemistry


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AimsAims1.1. Emphasise the wonders of water andEmphasise the wonders of water and

some science of water.some science of water.

2.2. De-mystify some parts of waterDe-mystify some parts of waterchemistry and show patternschemistry and show patterns

3.3. BUT.some bits will confuse evenBUT.some bits will confuse evenmore!more!

4.4. Explain the meaning and Relationship ofExplain the meaning and Relationship ofcommon water quality parameterscommon water quality parameters

5.5. Discuss the measurement and relation ofDiscuss the measurement and relation ofwater parameters to fish healthwater parameters to fish health

6.6. Set a platform for future studySet a platform for future study



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OverviewOverview

Water. The MagicWater. The Magic Chemical DirectionsChemical Directions Measurements and MeaningMeasurements and Meaning pH/Acidity/Basicity/AlkalinitypH/Acidity/Basicity/Alkalinity pH BufferspH Buffers HardnessHardness RedoxRedox

Methylene blueMethylene blue

Nitrogen Cycle and filtrationNitrogen Cycle and filtration Water Treatment/Chlorine/chloramineWater Treatment/Chlorine/chloramine Magnesium/Calcium complex convolutionMagnesium/Calcium complex convolution



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Some Food for ThoughtSome Food for Thought

(first)(first)



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If the pH is acidic does all ammonia existIf the pH is acidic does all ammonia existas ammonium?as ammonium? NO *NO *

Can pH be low and Alkalinity be high?Can pH be low and Alkalinity be high?

YESYES

Can you have Soft Alkaline water?Can you have Soft Alkaline water? YESYES

If you measure pH, can you know howIf you measure pH, can you know how

much acid is in the aquarium?much acid is in the aquarium? NO *NO *



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Water IsWater Is

OxidaneOxidane

An AnomolyAn Anomoly

Water Liquid at Room TempWater Liquid at Room Temp Hydrogen Sulphide toxic gasHydrogen Sulphide toxic gas

Selenium Hydride toxic flammable gasSelenium Hydride toxic flammable gas



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Water IsWater Is MagicalMagical Great Solvent (but not for water)Great Solvent (but not for water) Specific heat capacity (High)Specific heat capacity (High)

Heat of Vaporization ~ HumidityHeat of Vaporization ~ Humidity Air Miscibility and condensation /Air Miscibility and condensation /From Ice to GasFrom Ice to Gas Density of Water vs Ice (4 C)Density of Water vs Ice (4 C)

Low CompressibilityLow Compressibility Cohesion and adhesionCohesion and adhesion Surface tensionSurface tension ((cohesive strength)cohesive strength) Capillary action (adhesive strength)Capillary action (adhesive strength)



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Water IsWater Is LifeLife Cradle of LifeCradle of Life

Vital BiochemicalVital Biochemical Water to OxygenWater to Oxygen

Oxygen to WaterOxygen to Water

Hydrolysis/CatalystHydrolysis/Catalyst

SubstrateSubstrate

Destroys CellsDestroys Cells



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Chemistry is aboutChemistry is aboutChangesChanges

But Change cannot be anyBut Change cannot be any

old Change.old Change.

Chemistry in 3 Human ScenariosChemistry in 3 Human Scenarios



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ChangeChange



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ChangeChange


In Short..In Short..Chemistry isChemistry is A downhillA downhillslippery and messy slopeslippery and messy slopewithwith

Getting to EquilibriumGetting to Equilibriumandand

Having MinimumHaving MinimumEnergy ANDEnergy AND

Giving out the MostGiving out the MostUseable EnergyUseable Energy

With the MaximumWith the MaximumEntropy (=mess orEntropy (=mess orchaos)chaos)

HIGH ENERGYHIGH ENERGY

LOW ENERGYLOW ENERGY


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Change Change Rule is:Rule is: 1/3 downstairs1/3 downstairs



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Getting Down to BusinessGetting Down to Business


W Q li d Ch i


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Starting WithStarting With Getting some waterGetting some water


R.O. UnitR.O. Unit

Fish TankFish Tank

Water ConditionerWater Conditioner

Water/Metals/Chlorine/Chloramine/Salts/Water/Metals/Chlorine/Chloramine/Salts/

Acids/Bases/Carbonates/other moleculesAcids/Bases/Carbonates/other moleculesWater/Water/MetalsMetals//ChlorineChlorine//ChloramineChloramine/Salts//Salts/

Acids/Bases/Carbonates/other moleculesAcids/Bases/Carbonates/other molecules

?? What is in it ???? What is in it ??

W t Q lit d Ch i t


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What is in the Bucket?What is in the Bucket?


W t Q lit d Ch i t


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ConditionersConditioners

DechlorinationDechlorinationSodium thiosulphateSodium thiosulphate (produces ammonia from Chloramines)(produces ammonia from Chloramines) Sodium hydrosulphiteSodium hydrosulphite (eg Seachem Prime(eg Seachem Prime as a complex)as a complex)

Sodium hydroxymethylsulfinateSodium hydroxymethylsulfinate (eg AquaSafe)(eg AquaSafe)

Sodium hydroxymethanesulfonateSodium hydroxymethanesulfonate (eg Amquel(eg Amquel))

Heavy Metal RemovalHeavy Metal Removal In some, but not all. Organic or Synthetic Chelating agents.In some, but not all. Organic or Synthetic Chelating agents.

Slime Coat ProtectionSlime Coat Protection

aloe vera and other herbalsaloe vera and other herbals carboxymethylcellulosecarboxymethylcellulose

PolyvinylpyrrolidonePolyvinylpyrrolidone

Other AdditivesOther Additives


W t Q lit d Ch i t


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Ammonia + Chlorine + HCl ChloraminesAmmonia + Chlorine + HCl Chloramines

Ian Millichip

RO System & ChloraminesRO System & Chloramines


~ pH~ pH

ActivatedActivated

CarbonCarbon(Low Peroxide No.)(Low Peroxide No.)

pH > 7.5pH > 7.5

Ammonia (UIA)Ammonia (UIA)

ToTo

RO UnitRO Unit

Ammonia + ^pHAmmonia + ^pHLower pH >Lower pH >

AmmoniumAmmonium

And reduceAnd reduce

MembraneMembrane

SwellingSwelling

RO MembraneRO Membrane



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Acids/BasesAcids/Bases et alet alpHpH one of theone of themeasures of acidity/basicitymeasures of acidity/basicity

- log- log1010 {Hydrogen ion}{Hydrogen ion} (( approx = - logapprox = - log1010 [Hydrogen ion][Hydrogen ion] )) Affected by Temperature / Concentration / ionic strengthAffected by Temperature / Concentration / ionic strength

Acid Acid Donate a hydrogen ion to solution (classical understanding); ORDonate a hydrogen ion to solution (classical understanding); OR Accepts an electron pair (eg Aluminium Chloride)Accepts an electron pair (eg Aluminium Chloride)

Base Base Accepts a hyrdrogen ion; ORAccepts a hyrdrogen ion; OR Donates an electron pairDonates an electron pair

pH Buffer pH Buffer ResistsResists changes of pH on addition of achanges of pH on addition of a small amountsmall amount of acid or baseof acid or base

Often mix of a weak acid or weak base and the salt of a weak acid or weakOften mix of a weak acid or weak base and the salt of a weak acid or weakbasebase

Alkalinity Alkalinity Type of buffering. MEASURE..solutions ability to neutalise an acid.Type of buffering. MEASURE..solutions ability to neutalise an acid. Linked in Aquaria to Carbonate buffering (and hardness)Linked in Aquaria to Carbonate buffering (and hardness)




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HardnessHardness

Classically.Hard to form a latherClassically.Hard to form a lather Temporary HardnessTemporary Hardness

Easily removed by boilingEasily removed by boiling heating decomposes soluble Bi-carbonates (Hydrogenheating decomposes soluble Bi-carbonates (HydrogenCarbonates) to insoluble CarbonatesCarbonates) to insoluble Carbonates

Permanent HardnessPermanent Hardness Soluble calcium and magnesium saltsSoluble calcium and magnesium salts

eg Calcium and Magnesium chlorides and sulphateseg Calcium and Magnesium chlorides and sulphatesRemoved byRemoved by

Distillation/De-ionisation/Ion Exchange/RO/Chemical ReactionDistillation/De-ionisation/Ion Exchange/RO/Chemical Reaction

Measuring.. KH vs GH.depends exactly on what isMeasuring.. KH vs GH.depends exactly on what isbeing measured by a Test Kit.being measured by a Test Kit. GH and KH are NOT chemically or mathematically relatedGH and KH are NOT chemically or mathematically related..

Different units used in different test (DH. ppm, Clarkes)Different units used in different test (DH. ppm, Clarkes)




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HardnessHardness Contributes or AffectsContributes or AffectsGeneral stabilityGeneral stability

pHpH

pH BufferingpH Buffering

AlkalinityAlkalinity

RedOx and RedOx BalanceRedOx and RedOx Balance

Ionic balance/conductivity/TDSIonic balance/conductivity/TDS

Diffusion/OsmosisDiffusion/Osmosis Nutrient UptakeNutrient Uptake

Supply of vital minerals: calcium & magnesiumSupply of vital minerals: calcium & magnesium




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ConductivityConductivity (and TDS ?)(and TDS ?)


Carnegiella marthae (hatchetfish)

Chocolate Gourami

Pterophyllum altum

Symphysodon discus

Three-lined pencilfish

Cardinal tetra

Clown Loach

Dwarf Gourami

Ram CichlidSymphysodon aequifasciatus

Corydoras julii

Pearl Gourami

Tiger Barb

Pterophyllum scalare

Apistogramma sp

Glass catfish, Ghostfish

Neon Tetra

Most Corydoras

Kribensis Cichlid

Red piranha

Rosy barb

Siamese fighting fish

Three-spot gourami

Zebra Danio

20-50 S/cm

50-100 S/cm

100-200 S/cm

Malaw i CichlidsIndian glass fish

Firemouth & Convict Cichlid (a

som e other Cichlosoma type

cichlids)

Platy & Swo rdtail

Most Rainbow Fish

Wh ite cloud mountain minnow

American Flag Fish(Jordanellafloridae)

Scatophagus argus

Celebes Rainbow Fish

Molly & Guppy

Goldfish

Tanganyikan Cichlid

> 500 S/cm

200-500 S/cm

Conductivity Affected by..Conductivity Affected by.. Changing pH (up/down)..messingChanging pH (up/down)..messing Changing HardnessChanging Hardness Balancing Alkalinity, Mg and Ca etcBalancing Alkalinity, Mg and Ca etc Topping up water/ lack of water changesTopping up water/ lack of water changes



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RedOxRedOx RedOx =RedOx = RedReduction anduction and OxOxidationidation RedOx Balance is vitally important.RedOx Balance is vitally important.ComplexComplex RedOx Potential (ORP)RedOx Potential (ORP)

Potential to Donate Electrons (Reducing Environment)Potential to Donate Electrons (Reducing Environment)

Potential to Accept Electrons (Oxidising Environment)Potential to Accept Electrons (Oxidising Environment) Is just a measure (and askwhat is measured?)Is just a measure (and askwhat is measured?)

+300 (Ox) to -100(Red) mV (marine); +125 to -200 mV (freshwater)+300 (Ox) to -100(Red) mV (marine); +125 to -200 mV (freshwater) Reducing Environment is ideal for fish healthReducing Environment is ideal for fish health Oxidising Environment is good for sterilisingOxidising Environment is good for sterilising

RedOx balance can get run-down with time.RedOx balance can get run-down with time. Regular Partial Water changes; good aerationRegular Partial Water changes; good aeration Having a good bufferHaving a good buffer Monitoring and maintain pH, Alkalinity, Hardness help.Monitoring and maintain pH, Alkalinity, Hardness help.




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RedOxRedOx

Vital ConsiderationVital Consideration The basis of life existing pivots around RedOx PotentialsThe basis of life existing pivots around RedOx Potentials General Health and Water QualityGeneral Health and Water Quality In AquariaIn Aquaria(for examples).(for examples).

Exchange across GillsExchange across Gills Interaction at mucous layerInteraction at mucous layer Dropsy/Kidney Function/Dropsy/Kidney Function/ Exploitation of substrate bufferingExploitation of substrate buffering Old-Water syndromeOld-Water syndrome

Biological FiltrationBiological Filtration Decay upsets RedOx BalanceDecay upsets RedOx Balance Treatment of DiseaseTreatment of Disease Treatment of certain poisoningsTreatment of certain poisonings




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Methylene BlueMethylene Blue


Key Treatment in Aquaria Stain for microscopy and clinicaldiagnosis

Redox Indicator **

Methaemoglobinaemia / CyanidePoisoning / Carbon MonoxidePoisoning **

** = my academic area of study

Photosensitiser Hepatitis C/ Kaposi's sarcoma/inactivates Staphylococcusaureus

Anti-Malarial Induces Cancer Cell Apoptosis ** Protects against Mustard AlkylatingAgent Neurotoxicity ** Mono Amine Oxidase Inhibitorused to make anti-psychotic drugs **

RedOxRedOx AgentAgent



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Test IndicatorsTest Indicators


A pH Indicator (Thymol Blue)A pH Indicator (Thymol Blue)

General Hardness IndicatorGeneral Hardness Indicator

Nitrte/Nitrate TestNitrte/Nitrate Test



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Test Kits (Hints)Test Kits (Hints)


Take Note of Best Before Date; Store as directedTake Note of Best Before Date; Store as directed Keep ALL documentationKeep ALL documentation Use a syringe to measure water sample.Use a syringe to measure water sample. Do not cross-use (cross-contaminate) test phialsDo not cross-use (cross-contaminate) test phials

View test-results in good lightView test-results in good light

Be aware that test kits are not 100% accurate, and areBe aware that test kits are not 100% accurate, and are

100% specific.100% specific.

Take special note if aquarium water is tintedTake special note if aquarium water is tinted If using drop-by-drop count, let drops simply dropIf using drop-by-drop count, let drops simply drop



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Test Kits (Hints)Test Kits (Hints)


Thoroughly clean all phials immediately after use inThoroughly clean all phials immediately after use inRO/DI water; and dry phialsRO/DI water; and dry phials Monthly, soak phials in distilled vinegar and rinse inMonthly, soak phials in distilled vinegar and rinse inRO/DI water; dry phials.RO/DI water; dry phials.

For probe-based equipmentFor probe-based equipment Make sure calibration fluids are proper standardsMake sure calibration fluids are proper standards Rinse in old calibration fluids before calibrating.Rinse in old calibration fluids before calibrating. Clean using distilled vinegar and store in RO/DI waterClean using distilled vinegar and store in RO/DI water Have water stirred whilst testingHave water stirred whilst testing Treat as a Delicate InstrumentTreat as a Delicate Instrument

Precision versus Accuracy?Precision versus Accuracy?



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Which Are Acids and Bases?Which Are Acids and Bases?Aluminium chloride ACID Lobe -LUMO Lewis acids

Ammonia (NH 3) BASE Lobe -HOMO Lewis bases

Ammonium ion [NH 4]+ ACID Onium Ion Lewis acids

Benzene BASE HOMO Lewis bases

Calcium Ion (Ca2+

) ACID s-LUMO Lewis acids

Chloride (Cl -) BASE Lobe -HOMO Lewis bases

Cyanide (CN-) BASE Lobe -HOMO Lewis bases

Ferric (Iron III) chloride (FeCl 3), ACID Lobe -LUMO Lewis acids

Ferric Ion (Fe3+

); Cupric Ion (Cu2+

); Ferrous Ion(Fe 2+); Lead II ion (Pb 2+);Silver ion (Ag

+)

ACID Heavy Metal Lewis acids

Hydride Ion (H-) BASE s-HOMO Lewis bases

Hydrogen (H 2) BASE s-HOMO Lewis bases

Hydrogen Ion or Proton (H+) ACID Proton Lewis acid

Hydroxide ion (OH -) BASE Lobe -HOMO Lewis bases

Magnesium Ion (Mg 2+) ACID s-LUMO Lewis acids

Mercury (Hg); Iron metal (Fe) ACID Heavy Metal Lewi s acids

Methane (CH 3) BASE Lobe -HOMO Lewis bases

Nitrite ion [NO 2]- BASE Lobe -HOMO Lewis bases

Oxonium ion [OH 3]+ ACID Onium Ion Lewis acids

Sodium ion (Na+) ACID s-LUMO Lewis acids

Water (H 2O) BASE Lobe -HOMO Lewis bases




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Acids in WaterAcids in Water

ate Qua ty a d C e st y



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pH (Strong Acid)pH (Strong Acid)

Q y y

Grams HCl ~ pH3700 1.00

1850 1.30

370 2.00

37 3.00

3.7 4.00

0.37 5.00

0.037 5.96

0.0037 6.70

0.00037 6.96

0.000037 7.00

0.0000037 7.00

0.00000037 7.00

0 7.00

1000 litres1000 litres

HCl + Pure WaterHCl + Pure Water

Hyrogen Chloride (HCl)Hyrogen Chloride (HCl)

In waterIn water

= Hydrochloric Acid= Hydrochloric Acid

(1 mole HCl = 36.5g)(1 mole HCl = 36.5g)



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pH (Weak Acid)pH (Weak Acid)

Q y y

1000 litres1000 litres

HAc + Pure WaterHAc + Pure Water

Acetic Acid (HAc)Acetic Acid (HAc)(1 mole HAc= 60g)(1 mole HAc= 60g)

pKa = 4.75pKa = 4.75

Grams HAc ~ pH

6000 2.88

3000 3.03

600 3.38

60 3.88

6 4.38

0.6 4.88

0.06 5.37

0.006 5.85

0.0006 6.29

0.00006 6.63

0.000006 6.85

0.0000006 6.95

0 7.00

BB



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pH (Weak Acid as Buffer)pH (Weak Acid as Buffer)

Q y y

pKa1 2.1

pKa2 7.2

pKa3 12.4

Baseconj

A

Acidconj

H

Acid

HA aqaqaq

'')(

)()()(

+

+

}{

}}{{

HA

AH

Ka

+

=

)(10 aa KLogpK =

)}{(10 aKHALogpH =



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Nitrogenous CompoundsNitrogenous Compounds Amino Acids from Proteins >Amino Acids from Proteins >

Building Proteins/ Converted to Fat or Sugars or otherBuilding Proteins/ Converted to Fat or Sugars or other

biochemicalsbiochemicals

Compromise energy and water needs in disposal.Compromise energy and water needs in disposal.

Surplus amino acids need to be excreteddepends uponSurplus amino acids need to be excreteddepends uponthe bodys water demands and supply.the bodys water demands and supply. Reptiles > urates/uric acid with very little waterReptiles > urates/uric acid with very little water

Marine Fish > dimethyl amine or as urea in bloodMarine Fish > dimethyl amine or as urea in blood

In humans > urea dissolved in plenty of waterIn humans > urea dissolved in plenty of water

Freshwater fish > direct movement of ammonia out of gills (Freshwater fish > direct movement of ammonia out of gills (mainlymainly

by passive diffusionby passive diffusion))

Diffusion of Ammonia out of fish depends on ammonia inDiffusion of Ammonia out of fish depends on ammonia in

outside water and pH.outside water and pH.

y y



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Nitrogenous CompoundsNitrogenous Compounds

Amino Acids / Waste / Dead fish / uneaten foodAmino Acids / Waste / Dead fish / uneaten food

In the AquariumIn the Aquarium

Ammonia (NHAmmonia (NH33))

AmmonificationAmmonification

[RAPID][RAPID]

NitrosoficationNitrosofication

((Nitroso-Nitroso-bacteriabacteria

++ OxygenOxygen))

Nitrous Acid/Nitrites (NONitrous Acid/Nitrites (NO22))

NitrificationNitrification

((Nitro-Nitro-bacteriabacteria

+ Oxygen)+ Oxygen)Nitric Acid/Nitrates (NONitric Acid/Nitrates (NO33))

0.06 mg/L0.06 mg/L

0.5 mg/L0.5 mg/L

90.0 mg/L90.0 mg/L



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AmmoniaAmmonia

Total Ammonia = Ammonia + AmmoniumTotal Ammonia = Ammonia + Ammonium

UIA = AmmoniaUIA = Ammonia



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Filter MediaFilter Media

InertInert{all are mechanical}{all are mechanical}

Inert Rocks/PebblesInert Rocks/Pebbles SpongeSponge

WoolWool Ceramic or special glass chipsCeramic or special glass chips MembranesMembranes {eg Reverse Osmosis; removes selected molecules}{eg Reverse Osmosis; removes selected molecules}



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Filter MediaFilter Media (or similar)(or similar)

ActiveActive{all are mechanical/ many will allow nitrogenous oxidising activity}{all are mechanical/ many will allow nitrogenous oxidising activity}

Peat or living mossPeat or living moss {^acids; soften; ^ organic compounds}{^acids; soften; ^ organic compounds} PlantsPlants {lower nitrates}{lower nitrates} Activated CarbonActivated Carbon {catalyst; remove certain chemicals}{catalyst; remove certain chemicals}

ClayClay {softens; remove chemicals; add minerals}{softens; remove chemicals; add minerals} Calcium Carbonate chipsCalcium Carbonate chips {Redox & Alkalinity Buffer}{Redox & Alkalinity Buffer} ## Aluminium oxide or Ferric oxide base.## Aluminium oxide or Ferric oxide base.{Phosphate}{Phosphate} ## Denitrifying Modified Beds## Denitrifying Modified Beds {Nitrate Removal}{Nitrate Removal}

Sulphur-source or Carbon-source addedSulphur-source or Carbon-source added Deep anaerobic filter bedDeep anaerobic filter bed

# Zeolites/Molecular Sieves# Zeolites/Molecular Sieves {remove ammonia etc;{remove ammonia etc;removes and exchanges various ionsremoves and exchanges various ions}}

# = Care - nutrient hazard ## = Extra Care - toxic hazard# = Care - nutrient hazard ## = Extra Care - toxic hazard



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Name a SeeminglyName a Seemingly

Complicated Problem inComplicated Problem in

Marine Aquaria?Marine Aquaria?



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Calcium/ Magnesium/Calcium/ Magnesium/

Alkalinity/ pHAlkalinity/ pH

A Complex ConvolutionA Complex Convolution Measurement Artifacts by not considering significance of changes.Measurement Artifacts by not considering significance of changes. Saturation of Calcium and solubility changesSaturation of Calcium and solubility changes (Mg increases Ca Solubility)(Mg increases Ca Solubility)

Incorporation of Magnesium and Strontium into CoralsIncorporation of Magnesium and Strontium into Corals

Ion-Pair interactions changing solubilities and pH BufferingIon-Pair interactions changing solubilities and pH Buffering pH affecting solubilitiespH affecting solubilities

Nitrogen Cycle; Water Changes; Diurnal Changes; Carbon Dioxide..etcNitrogen Cycle; Water Changes; Diurnal Changes; Carbon Dioxide..etcetcetc


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Calcium/ Alkalinity Balanced AdditivesCalcium/ Alkalinity Balanced Additives

0

50

10 0

15 0

20 0

25 0

30 0

35 0

40 045 0

50 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

T ime

Ca2+

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Alk

Ca 2 + p p m Al ka li ni ty (m e q /l

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400450

500

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

T ime

Ca2+

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Alk

Ca 2 + p p m Al ka li ni ty ( m e q /l

Calcium Steady; Alkalinity Crash !Calcium Steady; Alkalinity Crash !(halves in a week)(halves in a week)

Do NOT just increase AlkalinityDo NOT just increase Alkalinity

Increase BOTH calcium andIncrease BOTH calcium andAlkalinity Balance (1:1 formula)Alkalinity Balance (1:1 formula)

Calcium Steady; Alkalinity RiseCalcium Steady; Alkalinity Rise(doubles in a week)(doubles in a week)

Probably too much BalancedProbably too much BalancedAdditiveAdditive

Reduce Balanced AdditiveReduce Balanced Additive



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SummarySummary1.1. No amount of Knowldege can make up for poor WaterNo amount of Knowldege can make up for poor Water

Management.Management.

2.2. Water ChemistryWater Chemistry isis complexcomplex Standard Text Book chemistry does not necessarily applyStandard Text Book chemistry does not necessarily apply

1.1. Water Chemistry is not an option. !!Water Chemistry is not an option. !! You may not want to know it.You may not want to know it.

But your Fish DO.But your Fish DO.1.1. Do not mess with Water Chemistry unless oneDo not mess with Water Chemistry unless one

understands the implicationsunderstands the implications

2.2. Understanding the complexity may help explainUnderstanding the complexity may help explainunexplainedunexplained

3.3. Know the requirements of your fishKnow the requirements of your fish

4.4. Linking the Science to the Experience will help developLinking the Science to the Experience will help developAquatic HusbandryAquatic Husbandry

5.5. Many apologies for use of technical or scientificMany apologies for use of technical or scientificterminology.it is not jargon and allows communicationterminology.it is not jargon and allows communicationwith a wider audiencewith a wider audience

Water Chemistry LFKS 18May2

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Transcript of Water Chemistry LFKS 18May2