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Waterand

Environmental Engineering

M. Habibur Rahman Abdullah Al-Muyeed

Waterand

Environmental Engineering

M. Habibur Rahman Abdullah Al-Muyeed

Waterand

Environmental Engineering

Water and

Environmental Engineering

First Edition: June 2012

Published by:

ITN-BUET

Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management,

BUET, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh

All rights reserved by

ITN-BUET

Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management

This book or any part of it cannot be reproduced in any form or by any

means without written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-984-33-4356-7

Drawing: Tahmid Ritu, Tanjil Hasan, M. Saiful Islam

Layout & Design: Tahmid Ritu, Abdullah Al-Muyeed

Print: Mati ar Manush

v

Dedicated toAll our beloved students

Water and

Environmental Engineering

First Edition: June 2012

Published by:

ITN-BUET

Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management,

BUET, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh

All rights reserved by

ITN-BUET

Centre for Water Supply and Waste Management

This book or any part of it cannot be reproduced in any form or by any

means without written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-984-33-4356-7

Drawing: Tahmid Ritu, Tanjil Hasan, M. Saiful Islam

Layout & Design: Tahmid Ritu, Abdullah Al-Muyeed

Print: Mati ar Manush

v

Dedicated toAll our beloved students

vi vii

About AuthorsProf. Dr. M. Habibur Rahman received B.Sc. Eng. (Civil) and M.Sc Eng. (Civil and Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK as a Commonwealth scholar. Immediately after graduation he joined the faculty of Civil Engineering, BUET, Dhaka, where he served as Lecturer, Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, Professor and Division Chief. He served as Director of International Training Network, ITNBUET as well, awarded Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellowship and worked as a Visiting Professor during 1999-2000 for 1 year at Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK. He has more than 30 years of teaching, research and professional experiences in Civil and Environmental Engineering. He worked as a Consultant to more than 50 major Civil, Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Management projects of national importance including some UNCRD-Japan, World Bank, IDB and WHO projects. The author worked as a Member of the PMU Steering Committee for Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (Government of Bangladesh - World Bank); Member of the Scientific and Technical Council of International Water Supply Association; Member of the Executive Board of International Water Supply Association ASCEN Region; Board Member of International Water Association; Board Member of Asian Academic Network for Environmental Safety & Waste Management; and, also as a Board Member of the Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology & Water Resources. He is also the Chairman of the Technical Committee of National Domestic Biogas and Manure Program, Member of the Technical Committee of Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant Project, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh and Member of the Trustee Board of the Climate Change Trust Fund, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. He authored or co-authored more than 160 papers in National and International Journal and Conference Proceedings and authored or co-authored chapters of more than 10 books. He is the contributory author of Bangladesh National Building Code1993. He also authored a text book titled, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Pro-Vice Chancellor of BUET. The author can be reached at the mail: habibr@ce.buet.ac.bd and habibr82@yahoo.com

Dr. Abdullah Al-Muyeed received Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering and Master of Science in Civil Engineering (Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from the

University of Tokyo, Japan, as a prestigious Monbusho scholar. His professional experiences cover graduate and post graduate level teaching and research in renowned universities of Bangladesh and abroad since 2002. The author has more than 35 technical papers in National and International Journal and Conference Proceedings. He also worked as Environmental Consultant in different projects funded by World Bank/DANIDA/JICA etc. He also worked as honorary editor and reviewer in distinguished journals of international publishers. He worked as Reviewer in the research project funded by University Grant Commission, Bangladesh. He is also a distinguished Specialist on Solid Waste Management of International Training Network, ITNBUET. He also authored a text book titled, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Associate Professor in the Dept. of Civil Engineering of the Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka. The author can be reached at the mail: muyeed.ce@aust.edu and amuyeed@yahoo.com .

vi vii

About AuthorsProf. Dr. M. Habibur Rahman received B.Sc. Eng. (Civil) and M.Sc Eng. (Civil and Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK as a Commonwealth scholar. Immediately after graduation he joined the faculty of Civil Engineering, BUET, Dhaka, where he served as Lecturer, Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, Professor and Division Chief. He served as Director of International Training Network, ITNBUET as well, awarded Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellowship and worked as a Visiting Professor during 1999-2000 for 1 year at Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK. He has more than 30 years of teaching, research and professional experiences in Civil and Environmental Engineering. He worked as a Consultant to more than 50 major Civil, Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Management projects of national importance including some UNCRD-Japan, World Bank, IDB and WHO projects. The author worked as a Member of the PMU Steering Committee for Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (Government of Bangladesh - World Bank); Member of the Scientific and Technical Council of International Water Supply Association; Member of the Executive Board of International Water Supply Association ASCEN Region; Board Member of International Water Association; Board Member of Asian Academic Network for Environmental Safety & Waste Management; and, also as a Board Member of the Asia Pacific Association of Hydrology & Water Resources. He is also the Chairman of the Technical Committee of National Domestic Biogas and Manure Program, Member of the Technical Committee of Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant Project, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh and Member of the Trustee Board of the Climate Change Trust Fund, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. He authored or co-authored more than 160 papers in National and International Journal and Conference Proceedings and authored or co-authored chapters of more than 10 books. He is the contributory author of Bangladesh National Building Code1993. He also authored a text book titled, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Pro-Vice Chancellor of BUET. The author can be reached at the mail: habibr@ce.buet.ac.bd and habibr82@yahoo.com

Dr. Abdullah Al-Muyeed received Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering and Master of Science in Civil Engineering (Environmental) from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET), Dhaka and Ph.D from the

University of Tokyo, Japan, as a prestigious Monbusho scholar. His professional experiences cover graduate and post graduate level teaching and research in renowned universities of Bangladesh and abroad since 2002. The author has more than 35 technical papers in National and International Journal and Conference Proceedings. He also worked as Environmental Consultant in different projects funded by World Bank/DANIDA/JICA etc. He also worked as honorary editor and reviewer in distinguished journals of international publishers. He worked as Reviewer in the research project funded by University Grant Commission, Bangladesh. He is also a distinguished Specialist on Solid Waste Management of International Training Network, ITNBUET. He also authored a text book titled, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, published by ITN-BUET in 2010. At present, he is working as Associate Professor in the Dept. of Civil Engineering of the Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Dhaka. The author can be reached at the mail: muyeed.ce@aust.edu and amuyeed@yahoo.com .

sanitary engineering. It also describes the general description of public health, ecology, biodiversity, aerobic-anaerobic degradation and ethics in environmental engineering profession. Special emphasis is given to this issues perspective to Bangladesh. The second chapter includes water pollution and its effects on streams, lakes, groundwater and oceans. Chapter three comprises of water demand, consumption, and frequency of water demand and estimation of demand in water supply system. The next chapter describes different source of water, aquifer and its types, safe yield and source contamination of water. Chapter five describes about pumps, classification of pumps, pump curves, flow meter and pump hydraulics.

Chapter six describes different mechanisms to treat drinking water and how to treat water from a water source following standards. Here, Bangladesh WHO and EPA standards are reported to treat water for dinking purpose. Chapter seven discusses the specific arsenic treatment technologies as it is treated as the most toxic substance present in ground water of Bangladesh. Chapter eight discusses briefly about tubewell technologies and mechanism of well construction

Distribution hydraulics and mechanism of water are explained in details in chapter nine. The following chapter discusses the plumbing system that present in Bangladesh. Chapter eleven discusses water demand management and loss control where cost, auditing and economical values of water are discussed. Chapter twelve depicts physical integrity of water where structural failure of different components of pipeline is described. Chapter thirteen describes water safety plan and components of it. The next chapter describes different options of alternative water supplies, especially water scarcity if present in the rural Bangladesh.

Finally, chapter fifteen describes briefly the sustainable water management (SuWM) of developing countries, especially for Bangladesh. In this chapter, the elements, principles, technological options, operations and maintenance of SuWM are briefly discussed.

However, in first edition of this text book, combination of SI and British unit is used in calculations and examples as both the units are widely used in the engineering curricula of Bangladesh. But, it is expected that the next edition will be separately either SI or British unit.

viii ix

PrefaceOne of the foremost objectives of International Training Network of the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (ITN-BUET) has been to reorient the curricula of environmental engineering education in Bangladesh with emphasis on low-cost technologies, community participation, community management, hygiene promotion, safety issues in both solid waste and water supply-sanitation. During the process of curricula development, ITN-BUET, BUET, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology (RUET), Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST), Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) acknowledged the need for developing textbooks on Environmental Engineering education in the academic arena of the universities to support the reoriented curricula. It was felt that there are very few standard materials available on environmental engineering, particularly focused on water pollution, water supply & demand management, distribution mechanics of water network, leakage, risk management, physical integrity of distribution main, plumbing and water safety plan issues of engineering curricula of Bangladesh. It was therefore decided to develop a textbook on Water and Environmental Engineering.

The book has been developed for both undergraduate and graduate students studying environmental engineering focused on water supply, water treatment and distribution & management in engineering aspect and their teachers at technical institutions in Bangladesh. It is also meant for professionals already working in this water sector, who can use the textbook for reference. The development of this textbook was a challenging process. All concerned authorities wanted to make sure that the textbook would be useful for the students studying in this field, teachers, technicians and professionals working in drinking water sector. To facilitate this from the beginning staff members of the ITN centre in Dhaka, faculty members from the engineering universities of Bangladesh, teachers and technical institutions, professionals working in water sector and officials from bilateral organizations were asked to prepare manuscript following the syllabus of environmental education in engineering sector and therefore the contents of the book were finalized. After, several months of cont inual e f forts f rom the authors and receiv ing comments/suggestions from professionals of this sector through both formal and informal discussion, the final manuscript of this book is updated.

This book comprises of 15 chapters where the first chapter covers general description of environmental engineering and historical background of civil and

sanitary engineering. It also describes the general description of public health, ecology, biodiversity, aerobic-anaerobic degradation and ethics in environmental engineering profession. Special emphasis is given to this issues perspective to Bangladesh. The second chapter includes water pollution and its effects on streams, lakes, groundwater and oceans. Chapter three comprises of water demand, consumption, and frequency of water demand and estimation of demand in water supply system. The next chapter describes different source of water, aquifer and its types, safe yield and source contamination of water. Chapter five describes about pumps, classification of pumps, pump curves, flow meter and pump hydraulics.

Chapter six describes different mechanisms to treat drinking water and how to treat water from a water source following standards. Here, Bangladesh WHO and EPA standards are reported to treat water for dinking purpose. Chapter seven discusses the specific arsenic treatment technologies as it is treated as the most toxic substance present in ground water of Bangladesh. Chapter eight discusses briefly about tubewell technologies and mechanism of well construction

Distribution hydraulics and mechanism of water are explained in details in chapter nine. The following chapter discusses the plumbing system that present in Bangladesh. Chapter eleven discusses water demand management and loss control where cost, auditing and economical values of water are discussed. Chapter twelve depicts physical integrity of water where structural failure of different components of pipeline is described. Chapter thirteen describes water safety plan and components of it. The next chapter describes different options of alternative water supplies, especially water scarcity if present in the rural Bangladesh.

Finally, chapter fifteen describes briefly the sustainable water management (SuWM) of developing countries, especially for Bangladesh. In this chapter, the elements, principles, technological options, operations and maintenance of SuWM are briefly discussed.

However, in first edition of this text book, combination of SI and British unit is used in calculations and examples as both the units are widely used in the engineering curricula of Bangladesh. But, it is expected that the next edition will be separately either SI or British unit.

viii ix

PrefaceOne of the foremost objectives of International Training Network of the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (ITN-BUET) has been to reorient the curricula of environmental engineering education in Bangladesh with emphasis on low-cost technologies, community participation, community management, hygiene promotion, safety issues in both solid waste and water supply-sanitation. During the process of curricula development, ITN-BUET, BUET, Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology (RUET), Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology (AUST), Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) acknowledged the need for developing textbooks on Environmental Engineering education in the academic arena of the universities to support the reoriented curricula. It was felt that there are very few standard materials available on environmental engineering, particularly focused on water pollution, water supply & demand management, distribution mechanics of water network, leakage, risk management, physical integrity of distribution main, plumbing and water safety plan issues of engineering curricula of Bangladesh. It was therefore decided to develop a textbook on Water and Environmental Engineering.

The book has been developed for both undergraduate and graduate students studying environmental engineering focused on water supply, water treatment and distribution & management in engineering aspect and their teachers at technical institutions in Bangladesh. It is also meant for professionals already working in this water sector, who can use the textbook for reference. The development of this textbook was a challenging process. All concerned authorities wanted to make sure that the textbook would be useful for the students studying in this field, teachers, technicians and professionals working in drinking water sector. To facilitate this from the beginning staff members of the ITN centre in Dhaka, faculty members from the engineering universities of Bangladesh, teachers and technical institutions, professionals working in water sector and officials from bilateral organizations were asked to prepare manuscript following the syllabus of environmental education in engineering sector and therefore the contents of the book were finalized. After, several months of cont inual e f forts f rom the authors and receiv ing comments/suggestions from professionals of this sector through both formal and informal discussion, the final manuscript of this book is updated.

This book comprises of 15 chapters where the first chapter covers general description of environmental engineering and historical background of civil and

x xi

Preface

Acknowledgement

List of Tables

List of Figures

Chapter 1 Introduction to Environmental Engineering

1.1 Environmental engineering

1.2 Sanitary engineering

1.3 Public health

1.4 Ecology and environment

1.5 Biodegradation

1.6 Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition

1.7 Climate change

1.8 Biodiversity

1.9 Ethics

1.10 Environmental engineering as a profession

1.11 Water supply and sanitation

1.12 Water supply system

1.13 Public water supply

1.14 Elements of public water supply

1.15 Planning a municipal water supply system

1.16 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2 Water Pollution

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Sources of water pollution

2.3 Effect of pollution on streams

2.4 Effect of pollution on lakes

2.5 Effect of pollution on groundwater

2.6 Effect of pollution on oceans

2.7 Heavy metals and toxic substances

2.8 Conclusion

References

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ContentsAcknowledgementWe would like to express our sincere thanks to all those who have inspired us for the development and publication of this textbook. Formal and informal comments/suggestions from friends and colleagues of BUET, AUST, DUET, CUET, RUET, KUET, SUST, NSU, IUB, DPHE, LGED, WSP-WB, UNDP, DANIDA, WHO, NGO Forum, WATER-AID, PLAN BANGLADESH, WB, ADB and other organizations to finalize this book is gratefully acknowledged. Their valuable comments and reviews have enriched the publication.

We express sincere thanks to ITN-BUET for publishing this book. Our sincere appreciation also goes to Prof. Dr. Md. Mafizur Rahman, Center Director of ITN-BUET and Engr. Sk. Abu Jafar Shamsuddin, former Center Manager for their support during process of development and getting the book published.

We are also grateful to our Dutch friend Mr. Bert Van de Wiel, for his sincere and effortless support to provide data/information and many lecture notes about Europe especially England and the Netherlands while writing this book.

Many students of AUST have assisted in preparing this textbook and the authors acknowledge their support with thanks.

The useful lecture notes of different course teachers of Environmental Engineering division of BUET, which were very helpful while preparing this manuscript, are acknowledged also with respect.

Finally, an honorable mention goes to our families and friends for their understandings and supports extended to us in completing this book. We remain indebted to all of them.

M. Habibur Rahman

Abdullah Al-Muyeed

x xi

Preface

Acknowledgement

List of Tables

List of Figures

Chapter 1 Introduction to Environmental Engineering

1.1 Environmental engineering

1.2 Sanitary engineering

1.3 Public health

1.4 Ecology and environment

1.5 Biodegradation

1.6 Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition

1.7 Climate change

1.8 Biodiversity

1.9 Ethics

1.10 Environmental engineering as a profession

1.11 Water supply and sanitation

1.12 Water supply system

1.13 Public water supply

1.14 Elements of public water supply

1.15 Planning a municipal water supply system

1.16 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2 Water Pollution

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Sources of water pollution

2.3 Effect of pollution on streams

2.4 Effect of pollution on lakes

2.5 Effect of pollution on groundwater

2.6 Effect of pollution on oceans

2.7 Heavy metals and toxic substances

2.8 Conclusion

References

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xviii

xxii

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3

7

8

8

13

14

17

20

27

33

34

54

55

55

63

65

66

69

71

71

74

86

90

92

93

96

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ContentsAcknowledgementWe would like to express our sincere thanks to all those who have inspired us for the development and publication of this textbook. Formal and informal comments/suggestions from friends and colleagues of BUET, AUST, DUET, CUET, RUET, KUET, SUST, NSU, IUB, DPHE, LGED, WSP-WB, UNDP, DANIDA, WHO, NGO Forum, WATER-AID, PLAN BANGLADESH, WB, ADB and other organizations to finalize this book is gratefully acknowledged. Their valuable comments and reviews have enriched the publication.

We express sincere thanks to ITN-BUET for publishing this book. Our sincere appreciation also goes to Prof. Dr. Md. Mafizur Rahman, Center Director of ITN-BUET and Engr. Sk. Abu Jafar Shamsuddin, former Center Manager for their support during process of development and getting the book published.

We are also grateful to our Dutch friend Mr. Bert Van de Wiel, for his sincere and effortless support to provide data/information and many lecture notes about Europe especially England and the Netherlands while writing this book.

Many students of AUST have assisted in preparing this textbook and the authors acknowledge their support with thanks.

The useful lecture notes of different course teachers of Environmental Engineering division of BUET, which were very helpful while preparing this manuscript, are acknowledged also with respect.

Finally, an honorable mention goes to our families and friends for their understandings and supports extended to us in completing this book. We remain indebted to all of them.

M. Habibur Rahman

Abdullah Al-Muyeed

Chapter 3 Water Requirement

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Factors affecting per capita consumption

3.3 Consumption categories

3.4 Water demand patterns

3.5 Fire demand

3.6 Fire hydrants

3.7 Demand calculation

3.8 Demand frequency distribution

3.9 Elements for water supply system

3.10 Designing water consumption

3.11 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4 Water Supply

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Sources of water

4.3 The hydrologic cycle and water availability

4.4 Surface water supplies

4.5 Groundwater supplies

4.6 Aquifer and its types

4.7 Hydraulic characteristics

4.8 Safe yield

4.9 Source contamination

4.10 Ground water development

4.11 Flow of groundwater

4.12 Safeguards in groundwater development

4.13 Interference between multiple extraction wells

4.14 Infiltration gallery

4.15 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5 Pumps and Pumping Machineries

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Classification of pumps

5.3 Selection of pumps

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5.4 Pump curves

5.5 Valving

5.6 Flow meters

5.7 Pumping layouts

5.8 Control

5.9 Reliability factors

5.10 Pump hydraulics

5.11 Economical diameter of pumping main

5.12 Conclusion

References

Chapter 6 Water Treatment Process

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Classification of impurities

6.3 Physical impurities

6.4 Microbiological quality of water

6.5 Indicator organism

6.6 Radioactivity in water supplies

6.7 Organic contaminants

6.8 Process selection factors

6.9 Preliminary treatment

6.10 Aeration

6.11 Coagulation and flocculation

6.12 Sedimentation basin

6.13 Filtration

6.14 Problems caused by deficiencies in washing

6.15 Disinfection

6.16 Water fluoridation

6.17 Advanced water treatment processes

6.18 Taste and odor control

6.19 Softening

6.20 Adsorption

6.21 Chemical oxidation

6.22 Membrane processes including reverse osmosis

6.23 Arsenic removal

6.24 Design Consideration of Water Treatment Plant

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xii xiii

Chapter 3 Water Requirement

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Factors affecting per capita consumption

3.3 Consumption categories

3.4 Water demand patterns

3.5 Fire demand

3.6 Fire hydrants

3.7 Demand calculation

3.8 Demand frequency distribution

3.9 Elements for water supply system

3.10 Designing water consumption

3.11 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4 Water Supply

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Sources of water

4.3 The hydrologic cycle and water availability

4.4 Surface water supplies

4.5 Groundwater supplies

4.6 Aquifer and its types

4.7 Hydraulic characteristics

4.8 Safe yield

4.9 Source contamination

4.10 Ground water development

4.11 Flow of groundwater

4.12 Safeguards in groundwater development

4.13 Interference between multiple extraction wells

4.14 Infiltration gallery

4.15 Conclusion

References

Chapter 5 Pumps and Pumping Machineries

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Classification of pumps

5.3 Selection of pumps

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101

104

107

115

130

132

133

142

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5.4 Pump curves

5.5 Valving

5.6 Flow meters

5.7 Pumping layouts

5.8 Control

5.9 Reliability factors

5.10 Pump hydraulics

5.11 Economical diameter of pumping main

5.12 Conclusion

References

Chapter 6 Water Treatment Process

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Classification of impurities

6.3 Physical impurities

6.4 Microbiological quality of water

6.5 Indicator organism

6.6 Radioactivity in water supplies

6.7 Organic contaminants

6.8 Process selection factors

6.9 Preliminary treatment

6.10 Aeration

6.11 Coagulation and flocculation

6.12 Sedimentation basin

6.13 Filtration

6.14 Problems caused by deficiencies in washing

6.15 Disinfection

6.16 Water fluoridation

6.17 Advanced water treatment processes

6.18 Taste and odor control

6.19 Softening

6.20 Adsorption

6.21 Chemical oxidation

6.22 Membrane processes including reverse osmosis

6.23 Arsenic removal

6.24 Design Consideration of Water Treatment Plant

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xii xiii

6.25 Operating considerations of a water treatment plant

6.26 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7 Arsenic Crisis

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Causes of arsenic contamination

7.3 Effects on health

7.4 Treatment of arsenic contaminated water

7.5 Arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh

7.6 Comparison of arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh

7.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8 Ground Water Extraction: Tubewell Technology

8.1 Tubewell technology

8.2 Designing of well

8.3 Cased section

8.4 Intake section

8.5 Selection of casing and screen materials

8.6 Sanitary protection

8.7 Well construction

8.8 Installing well casing

8.9 Grouting and sealing casing

8.10 Well alignment

8.11 Installation of well screens

8.12 Fishing operations

8.13 Well completion

8.14 Well maintenance and rehabilitation

8.15 Planning for Well Maintenance

8.16 Maintenance Operations of Well

8.17 Well point instal1ation in dug wells

8.18 Summary of designing and constructing tubewells in Bangladesh

8.19 Conclusion

References

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Chapter 9 Water Distribution

9.1 Surface water collection

9.2 Intakes

9.3 Water distribution: Terminology

9.4 Methods of distribution

9.5 System planning

9.6 Cross conection

9.7 Pressure regulation alternatives

9.8 Distribution mains

9.9 Distribution systems pressures

9.10 Distribution system equipment

9.11 Water pipe materials

9.12 Service connections

9.13 Forces acting on pipe

9.14 Strength of pipe

9.15 The joints

9.16 Pipe laying

9.17 Distribution system design

9.18 Main concepts and definitions

9.19 Hydraulic losses

9.20 Transmission line design

9.21 The manning equation

9.22 Comparison of the friction loss equations

9.23 Minor losses

9.24 Single pipe calculation

9.25 Serial and branched networks

9.26 Looped networks

9.27 Pressure-related demand

9.28 Thrust resistant

9.29 Hydraulics of storage and pumps

9.30 Conclusion

References

Chapter 10 Household Plumbing System and Fixtures

10.1 Plumbing system

10.2 Principles of designing household water supply connection

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6.25 Operating considerations of a water treatment plant

6.26 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7 Arsenic Crisis

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Causes of arsenic contamination

7.3 Effects on health

7.4 Treatment of arsenic contaminated water

7.5 Arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh

7.6 Comparison of arsenic removal technologies practised in bangladesh

7.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8 Ground Water Extraction: Tubewell Technology

8.1 Tubewell technology

8.2 Designing of well

8.3 Cased section

8.4 Intake section

8.5 Selection of casing and screen materials

8.6 Sanitary protection

8.7 Well construction

8.8 Installing well casing

8.9 Grouting and sealing casing

8.10 Well alignment

8.11 Installation of well screens

8.12 Fishing operations

8.13 Well completion

8.14 Well maintenance and rehabilitation

8.15 Planning for Well Maintenance

8.16 Maintenance Operations of Well

8.17 Well point instal1ation in dug wells

8.18 Summary of designing and constructing tubewells in Bangladesh

8.19 Conclusion

References

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380

381

382

402

405

408

425

428

431

434

446

454

463

464

465

469

470

480

481

Chapter 9 Water Distribution

9.1 Surface water collection

9.2 Intakes

9.3 Water distribution: Terminology

9.4 Methods of distribution

9.5 System planning

9.6 Cross conection

9.7 Pressure regulation alternatives

9.8 Distribution mains

9.9 Distribution systems pressures

9.10 Distribution system equipment

9.11 Water pipe materials

9.12 Service connections

9.13 Forces acting on pipe

9.14 Strength of pipe

9.15 The joints

9.16 Pipe laying

9.17 Distribution system design

9.18 Main concepts and definitions

9.19 Hydraulic losses

9.20 Transmission line design

9.21 The manning equation

9.22 Comparison of the friction loss equations

9.23 Minor losses

9.24 Single pipe calculation

9.25 Serial and branched networks

9.26 Looped networks

9.27 Pressure-related demand

9.28 Thrust resistant

9.29 Hydraulics of storage and pumps

9.30 Conclusion

References

Chapter 10 Household Plumbing System and Fixtures

10.1 Plumbing system

10.2 Principles of designing household water supply connection

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621

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xiv xv

10.3 Hot water connection system

10.4 Plumbing fixtures

10.5 Drainage system of building

10.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11 Water Demand Management and Loss Control

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Economic theory of supply and demand

11.3 Timing

11.4 The cost of water

11.5 Value of water

11.6 Loss control

11.7 Auditing of water

11.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12 Physical Integrity of Water

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Physical integrity

12.3 Recommendations and conclusions

References

Chapter 13 Risk Management for Distribution System

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Water safety plans

13.3 Water safety plans for distribution systems

13.4 Summary of water safety plan content

13.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 14 Alternative Water Supply Options

14.1 Deep tubewell

14.2 Shallow shrouded tubewell and very shallow shrouded tubewell

14.3 Infiltration gallery/well

14.4 Dug well

651

658

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671

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686

691

697

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701

714

715

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719

719

767

769

771

773

773

774

788

789

790

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793

794

795

795

14.5 Construction

14.6 Sanitary protection

14.7 Pond sand filters

14.8 Conventional surface water treatment plant

14.9 Household/pitcher filters

14.10 Solar disinfection

14.11 Rainwater harvesting

14.12 Rainwater availability

14.13 Rainwater catchment

14.14 Storage tank

14.15 Conclusion

References

Chapter 15 Sustainable Water Supply Management in Developing Countries

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Elements of SuWM

15.3 Principles of SuWM

15.4 The role of institutions in shaping water behaviour

15.5 Appropriate technology in SuWM

15.6 Operation and maintenance

15.7 Benefits

15.8 Management options and public/private partnerships

15.9 Conclusion

References

Appendix

List of abbreviation

795

796

798

799

799

799

800

801

803

803

805

806

807

809

809

810

812

813

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822

824

825

827

xvi xvii

10.3 Hot water connection system

10.4 Plumbing fixtures

10.5 Drainage system of building

10.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 11 Water Demand Management and Loss Control

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Economic theory of supply and demand

11.3 Timing

11.4 The cost of water

11.5 Value of water

11.6 Loss control

11.7 Auditing of water

11.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12 Physical Integrity of Water

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Physical integrity

12.3 Recommendations and conclusions

References

Chapter 13 Risk Management for Distribution System

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Water safety plans

13.3 Water safety plans for distribution systems

13.4 Summary of water safety plan content

13.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 14 Alternative Water Supply Options

14.1 Deep tubewell

14.2 Shallow shrouded tubewell and very shallow shrouded tubewell

14.3 Infiltration gallery/well

14.4 Dug well

651

658

664

671

672

673

675

679

686

691

697

698

701

714

715

717

719

719

767

769

771

773

773

774

788

789

790

791

793

794

795

795

14.5 Construction

14.6 Sanitary protection

14.7 Pond sand filters

14.8 Conventional surface water treatment plant

14.9 Household/pitcher filters

14.10 Solar disinfection

14.11 Rainwater harvesting

14.12 Rainwater availability

14.13 Rainwater catchment

14.14 Storage tank

14.15 Conclusion

References

Chapter 15 Sustainable Water Supply Management in Developing Countries

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Elements of SuWM

15.3 Principles of SuWM

15.4 The role of institutions in shaping water behaviour

15.5 Appropriate technology in SuWM

15.6 Operation and maintenance

15.7 Benefits

15.8 Management options and public/private partnerships

15.9 Conclusion

References

Appendix

List of abbreviation

795

796

798

799

799

799

800

801

803

803

805

806

807

809

809

810

812

813

813

814

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824

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xvi xvii

Table 1.1 General impacts of climate change in Bangladesh

Table 1.2 Status of inland and resident vertebrates of Bangladesh

Table 1.3 Status of marine and migratory vertebrates of Bangladesh

Table 1.4 World average annual rate of increase of selected aspects of human activities (%)

Table 1.5 Categories of water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases

Table 1.6 Drinking water supply coverage of Bangladesh

Table 1.7 Comparison of Sanitation progress reported by Sanitation Secretariat (SS) and other organizations

Table 1.8 Status of sanitary latrine in Bangladesh

Table 1.9 Composition of solid waste in Dhaka city

Table 1.10 Types of Pollutants and Applied Pollution Measure in Major Polluting Industries in Bangladesh

Table 1.11 Typical effluent quality of selected industries

Table 1.12 Linkage between diarrhoeal frequency and access to water, sanitation and hygiene

Table 2.1 Reaeration constants

Table 2.2 Diversity and equitability of aquatic organisms

Table 3.1 Water demand in the Netherlands in 2001

Table 3.2 Specific demand around Lake Victoria in Africa

Table 3.3 Domestic vs. non-domestic consumption in some African states

Table 3.4 Industrial water consumption

Table 3.5 Seasonal crop water needs

Table 3.6 Animal water consumption

Table 3.7 Water consumption in institutions

Table 3.8 Tourist water consumption in Southwest England

Table 3.9 Example of domestic unit water consumption

Table 3.10 Empirical formula for computing rate of fire demand

Table 3.11 Flow required by the national board of fire underwrites

Table 3.12 Water demand and production by DWASA

Table 3.13 Year wise water connection and water production

Table 4.1 Estimate of average permeability and porosity for selected materials

Table 4.2 Distance to source of contamination

23

27

27

35

37

40

43

44

45

46

47

54

77

84

102

104

108

112

113

113

113

114

116

130

131

146

146

159

169

List of TableTable 5.1 Information on pump selection

Table 6.1 Difference between potable and palatable water

Table 6.2 Impurities in water

Table 6.3 Difference between color and turbidity

Table 6.4 Analogy between taste and odor

Table 6.5 Water quality standards

Table 6.6 Design criteria for sedimentation tank

Table 6.7 Variable affecting filter operation and design

Table 6.8 Types of filter and characteristic difference

Table 6.9 Characteristics of private/public management options

Table 6.10 Effectiveness of various unit processes for reducing chloroform formation potentia

Table 6.11 Conventional water treatment unit processes

Table 6.12 Classification of hardness

Table 6.13 CO yields of common fuels2

Table 6.14 Species of arsenic

Table 6.15 Selection of processes in potable water treatment system

Table 7.1 Arsenic contamination situation in Bangladesh

Table 7.2 Arsenic and Iron removal efficiencies in AIRPs

Table 7.3 Arsenic and iron removal efficiencies in 18-DTP AIRPs

Table 7.4 Installation, operation and maintenance costs of selected presently operating water supply options

Table 7.5 Comparison of arsenic removal mechanisms and costs in Bangladesh

Table 8.1 Intake areas for selected widths of slot openings, (square inches per foot of screen)

Table 9.1 Pipe materials and valves

Table 9.2 Valve applications and standards

Table 9.3 Hydrant distribution

Table 9.4 Pipe type comparison

Table 9.5 Value of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.9 and 9.10

Table 9.6 Values of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.11p

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xviii xix

Table 1.1 General impacts of climate change in Bangladesh

Table 1.2 Status of inland and resident vertebrates of Bangladesh

Table 1.3 Status of marine and migratory vertebrates of Bangladesh

Table 1.4 World average annual rate of increase of selected aspects of human activities (%)

Table 1.5 Categories of water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases

Table 1.6 Drinking water supply coverage of Bangladesh

Table 1.7 Comparison of Sanitation progress reported by Sanitation Secretariat (SS) and other organizations

Table 1.8 Status of sanitary latrine in Bangladesh

Table 1.9 Composition of solid waste in Dhaka city

Table 1.10 Types of Pollutants and Applied Pollution Measure in Major Polluting Industries in Bangladesh

Table 1.11 Typical effluent quality of selected industries

Table 1.12 Linkage between diarrhoeal frequency and access to water, sanitation and hygiene

Table 2.1 Reaeration constants

Table 2.2 Diversity and equitability of aquatic organisms

Table 3.1 Water demand in the Netherlands in 2001

Table 3.2 Specific demand around Lake Victoria in Africa

Table 3.3 Domestic vs. non-domestic consumption in some African states

Table 3.4 Industrial water consumption

Table 3.5 Seasonal crop water needs

Table 3.6 Animal water consumption

Table 3.7 Water consumption in institutions

Table 3.8 Tourist water consumption in Southwest England

Table 3.9 Example of domestic unit water consumption

Table 3.10 Empirical formula for computing rate of fire demand

Table 3.11 Flow required by the national board of fire underwrites

Table 3.12 Water demand and production by DWASA

Table 3.13 Year wise water connection and water production

Table 4.1 Estimate of average permeability and porosity for selected materials

Table 4.2 Distance to source of contamination

23

27

27

35

37

40

43

44

45

46

47

54

77

84

102

104

108

112

113

113

113

114

116

130

131

146

146

159

169

List of TableTable 5.1 Information on pump selection

Table 6.1 Difference between potable and palatable water

Table 6.2 Impurities in water

Table 6.3 Difference between color and turbidity

Table 6.4 Analogy between taste and odor

Table 6.5 Water quality standards

Table 6.6 Design criteria for sedimentation tank

Table 6.7 Variable affecting filter operation and design

Table 6.8 Types of filter and characteristic difference

Table 6.9 Characteristics of private/public management options

Table 6.10 Effectiveness of various unit processes for reducing chloroform formation potentia

Table 6.11 Conventional water treatment unit processes

Table 6.12 Classification of hardness

Table 6.13 CO yields of common fuels2

Table 6.14 Species of arsenic

Table 6.15 Selection of processes in potable water treatment system

Table 7.1 Arsenic contamination situation in Bangladesh

Table 7.2 Arsenic and Iron removal efficiencies in AIRPs

Table 7.3 Arsenic and iron removal efficiencies in 18-DTP AIRPs

Table 7.4 Installation, operation and maintenance costs of selected presently operating water supply options

Table 7.5 Comparison of arsenic removal mechanisms and costs in Bangladesh

Table 8.1 Intake areas for selected widths of slot openings, (square inches per foot of screen)

Table 9.1 Pipe materials and valves

Table 9.2 Valve applications and standards

Table 9.3 Hydrant distribution

Table 9.4 Pipe type comparison

Table 9.5 Value of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.9 and 9.10

Table 9.6 Values of the coefficient c for Eqs. 9.11p

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xviii xix

Table 9.7 Values of load coefficient (e ) for concentrate and distributed 1superimpose loads

Table 9.8 (a) Crushing strength of clay and concrete pipes by the three-edge bearing test: (all strength in pounds per linear foot)

Table 9.8 (b) Absolute roughness

Table 9.9 The HazenWilliams factors

Table 9.10 Correction of the HazenWilliams factors

Table 9.11 Losses in pipe fittings and appurtenances

Table 9.12 The Manning factors

Table 9.13 Hydraulic gradient in pipe D = 300 mm, Q = 80 l/s, T = 10oC

Table 9.14 Hydraulic gradient S (-) in pipe D = 400 mm at Q = 200 l/s

Table 9.15 Soil friction and cohesion factors

Table 9.16 Reduction factors

Table 11.1 The ten key steps identified by the POLIS project to achieve water sustainability

Table 11.2 Demand management methods and their use

Table 11.3 Factors affecting water prices

Table 11.4 The benefits of water supply

Table 11.5 Type of losses in water supply

Table 11.6 Components and definitions of the water balance used in the IWA/AWWA leakage model

Table 11.7 The various options for pricing metered water

Table 11.8 Different components of domestic wastewater that can be separated and the potential for reuse

Table 11.9 Breakdown of water usage for an average US family

Table 11.10 Code of American Water Work Association

Table 12.1 Infrastructure components, what they protect against, and common materials

Table 12.2 Causes of loss in physical integrity

Table 12.3 Most common problems that lead to pipe failure for various pipe materials

Table 12.4 Potential for contaminant entry during water main activities

Table 12.5 Examples of ways to detect a loss in physical integrity

Table 12.6 Examples of ways to maintain physical integrity

Table 12.7 Material life expectancies

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Table 12.8 Use of backflow prevention devices by degree of hazard and mechanism

Table 12.9 Ways to recover from a loss in physical integrity

Table 13.1 Example of a simple risk scoring table for prioritizing risks

Table 13.2 Examples of definitions of likelihood and severity categories for risk scoring

Table 13.3 Types of monitoring in the management of distribution systems

Table 13.4 Example of verification schedule for calibration of equipment

Table 13.5 Summary of requirements of a water safety plan

Table 14.1 Arsenic contamination situation of tubewell in Bangladesh

Table 14.2 Installation, operation and maintenance costslected presently operating water supply options

Table 14.3 Advantages and disadvantages of rainwater collection system

Table 15.1 Ten SuWM principles and objectives

Table 15.2 Characteristics of private/public management options

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Table 9.7 Values of load coefficient (e ) for concentrate and distributed 1superimpose loads

Table 9.8 (a) Crushing strength of clay and concrete pipes by the three-edge bearing test: (all strength in pounds per linear foot)

Table 9.8 (b) Absolute roughness

Table 9.9 The HazenWilliams factors

Table 9.10 Correction of the HazenWilliams factors

Table 9.11 Losses in pipe fittings and appurtenances

Table 9.12 The Manning factors

Table 9.13 Hydraulic gradient in pipe D = 300 mm, Q = 80 l/s, T = 10oC

Table 9.14 Hydraulic gradient S (-) in pipe D = 400 mm at Q = 200 l/s

Table 9.15 Soil friction and cohesion factors

Table 9.16 Reduction factors

Table 11.1 The ten key steps identified by the POLIS project to achieve water sustainability

Table 11.2 Demand management methods and their use

Table 11.3 Factors affecting water prices

Table 11.4 The benefits of water supply

Table 11.5 Type of losses in water supply

Table 11.6 Components and definitions of the water balance used in the IWA/AWWA leakage model

Table 11.7 The various options for pricing metered water

Table 11.8 Different components of domestic wastewater that can be separated and the potential for reuse

Table 11.9 Breakdown of water usage for an average US family

Table 11.10 Code of American Water Work Association

Table 12.1 Infrastructure components, what they protect against, and common materials

Table 12.2 Causes of loss in physical integrity

Table 12.3 Most common problems that lead to pipe failure for various pipe materials

Table 12.4 Potential for contaminant entry during water main activities

Table 12.5 Examples of ways to detect a loss in physical integrity

Table 12.6 Examples of ways to maintain physical integrity

Table 12.7 Material life expectancies

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722

725

730

741

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Table 12.8 Use of backflow prevention devices by degree of hazard and mechanism

Table 12.9 Ways to recover from a loss in physical integrity

Table 13.1 Example of a simple risk scoring table for prioritizing risks

Table 13.2 Examples of definitions of likelihood and severity categories for risk scoring

Table 13.3 Types of monitoring in the management of distribution systems

Table 13.4 Example of verification schedule for calibration of equipment

Table 13.5 Summary of requirements of a water safety plan

Table 14.1 Arsenic contamination situation of tubewell in Bangladesh

Table 14.2 Installation, operation and maintenance costslected presently operating water supply options

Table 14.3 Advantages and disadvantages of rainwater collection system

Table 15.1 Ten SuWM principles and objectives

Table 15.2 Characteristics of private/public management options

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Figure 1.1 Human waste disposal from an old woodcut

Figure 1.2 A typical terrestrial ecosystem

Figure 1.3 Homeostatic mechanisms

Figure 1.4 Energy loss in biodegradation

Figure 1.5 Aerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles

Figure 1.6 Anaerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles

Figure 1.7 Effect of greenhouse gases

Figure 1.8 Transmission of disease from faeces

Figure 1.9 Proportion of the worlds population using improved or an unimproved drinking water source

Figure 1.10 Population using an unimproved drinking water source

Figure 1.11 Percentage of population using an unimproved drinking water source in south-east Asian countries

Figure 1.12 Coverage with improved sanitation facilities

Figure 1.13 Sanitation practice scenario by proportion of the worlds population

Figure 1.14 Sanitation coverage of South Asia

Figure 1.15 Diseases contributing to the water, sanitation and hygiene related disease

Figure 1.16 Sanitation coverage and diarrhoeal deaths in South Asian countries

Figure 1.17 Sanitation coverage and under 5 mortality rate in South Asian countries

Figure 1.18 Sanitation coverage of Bangladesh and under 5 mortality rate in different years

Figure 1.19 Diagram of public water supply chain

Figure 1.20 Different sources of water

Figure 1.21 Essential elements of water supply system

Figure 2.1 Dissolved oxygen downstream from a source of organic pollution

Figure 2.2 Amount of oxygen required at any time t(z(t)) for various deoxygenation constants (q)

Figure 2.3 Dissolved oxygen used (BOD) at any time t

Figure 2.4 Example of dissolved oxygen

Figure 2.5 Plot of 7-day, 10-year low flows, for Example 2.2

Figure 2.6 The number of species and the total number of organisms

Figure 2.7 Typical variations in nitrogen compounds

Figure 2.8 Typical temperature depth relationships in lakes

6

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63

75

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List of figure Figure 2.9 Schematic representation of lake ecologyFigure 2.10 Water quality profiles for a water supply reservoir

Figure 3.1 Flows in water supply systems

Figure 3.2 Specific consumption in Asian cities

Figure 3.3 Domestic and nondomestic consumption in The Netherlands

Figure 3.4 Water use in Europe

Figure 3.5 Domestic water use in Europe

Figure 3.6 Structure of domestic consumption in The Netherlands

Figure 3.7 Simultaneity diagram

Figure 3.8 Simultaneity diagram of various categories of accommodation

Figure 3.9 Instantaneous demand

Figure 3.10 Night-time demand during football game

Figure 3.11 Evening demand during football game

Figure 3.12 Urban demand pattern

Figure 3.13 Industrial demand pattern example from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Figure 3.14 Tourist demand pattern example from Croatia

Figure 3.15 Commercial/ institutional demand pattern example from USA

Figure 3.16 Typical structure of diurnal demand in urban areas

Figure 3.17 Peak factor diagrams of various categories from Figure 3.16

Figure 3.18 Weekly demand variations Alvington, UK

Figure 3.19 Seasonal demand variation in a sea resort

Figure 3.20 Weekly and monthly peak factor diagrams

Figure 3.21 Annual demand patterns in Ramallah, Palestine

Figure 3.22 Fire Hydrant

Figure 3.23 Hypothetical annual range of flows in a distribution system

Figure 3.24 Domestic consumption increase in some European countries

Figure 3.25 Domestic consumption increase in Germany

Figure 3.26 Water consumption of washing appliances in Europe

Figure 3.27 Population and demand growth

Figure 3.28 Consumption growthaccording to the exponential model

Figure 3.29 Example of a typical diurnal demand pattern

Figure 3.30 Example of the annual range of the peak factors

Figure 3.31 Example of the annual range of hourly demands

Figure 3.32 Frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors

Figure 3.33 Cumulative frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors

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Figure 1.1 Human waste disposal from an old woodcut

Figure 1.2 A typical terrestrial ecosystem

Figure 1.3 Homeostatic mechanisms

Figure 1.4 Energy loss in biodegradation

Figure 1.5 Aerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles

Figure 1.6 Anaerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles

Figure 1.7 Effect of greenhouse gases

Figure 1.8 Transmission of disease from faeces

Figure 1.9 Proportion of the worlds population using improved or an unimproved drinking water source

Figure 1.10 Population using an unimproved drinking water source

Figure 1.11 Percentage of population using an unimproved drinking water source in south-east Asian countries

Figure 1.12 Coverage with improved sanitation facilities

Figure 1.13 Sanitation practice scenario by proportion of the worlds population

Figure 1.14 Sanitation coverage of South Asia

Figure 1.15 Diseases contributing to the water, sanitation and hygiene related disease

Figure 1.16 Sanitation coverage and diarrhoeal deaths in South Asian countries

Figure 1.17 Sanitation coverage and under 5 mortality rate in South Asian countries

Figure 1.18 Sanitation coverage of Bangladesh and under 5 mortality rate in different years

Figure 1.19 Diagram of public water supply chain

Figure 1.20 Different sources of water

Figure 1.21 Essential elements of water supply system

Figure 2.1 Dissolved oxygen downstream from a source of organic pollution

Figure 2.2 Amount of oxygen required at any time t(z(t)) for various deoxygenation constants (q)

Figure 2.3 Dissolved oxygen used (BOD) at any time t

Figure 2.4 Example of dissolved oxygen

Figure 2.5 Plot of 7-day, 10-year low flows, for Example 2.2

Figure 2.6 The number of species and the total number of organisms

Figure 2.7 Typical variations in nitrogen compounds

Figure 2.8 Typical temperature depth relationships in lakes

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List of figure Figure 2.9 Schematic representation of lake ecologyFigure 2.10 Water quality profiles for a water supply reservoir

Figure 3.1 Flows in water supply systems

Figure 3.2 Specific consumption in Asian cities

Figure 3.3 Domestic and nondomestic consumption in The Netherlands

Figure 3.4 Water use in Europe

Figure 3.5 Domestic water use in Europe

Figure 3.6 Structure of domestic consumption in The Netherlands

Figure 3.7 Simultaneity diagram

Figure 3.8 Simultaneity diagram of various categories of accommodation

Figure 3.9 Instantaneous demand

Figure 3.10 Night-time demand during football game

Figure 3.11 Evening demand during football game

Figure 3.12 Urban demand pattern

Figure 3.13 Industrial demand pattern example from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Figure 3.14 Tourist demand pattern example from Croatia

Figure 3.15 Commercial/ institutional demand pattern example from USA

Figure 3.16 Typical structure of diurnal demand in urban areas

Figure 3.17 Peak factor diagrams of various categories from Figure 3.16

Figure 3.18 Weekly demand variations Alvington, UK

Figure 3.19 Seasonal demand variation in a sea resort

Figure 3.20 Weekly and monthly peak factor diagrams

Figure 3.21 Annual demand patterns in Ramallah, Palestine

Figure 3.22 Fire Hydrant

Figure 3.23 Hypothetical annual range of flows in a distribution system

Figure 3.24 Domestic consumption increase in some European countries

Figure 3.25 Domestic consumption increase in Germany

Figure 3.26 Water consumption of washing appliances in Europe

Figure 3.27 Population and demand growth

Figure 3.28 Consumption growthaccording to the exponential model

Figure 3.29 Example of a typical diurnal demand pattern

Figure 3.30 Example of the annual range of the peak factors

Figure 3.31 Example of the annual range of hourly demands

Figure 3.32 Frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors

Figure 3.33 Cumulative frequency distribution of the diurnal peak factors

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Figure 4.1 Distribution of Earths water

Figure 4.2 Hydrologic cycle

Figure 4.3 The flow of water through a soil sampler

Figure 4.4 Permeameter for Example 4.1

Figure 4.5a Confined and Unconfined aquifers

Figure 4.5b Drawdown in the groundwater table when water is pumped out of a well

Figure 4.6a Radial flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer

Figure 4.6b A cylinder with water flowing through its sides towards the centre

Figure 4.6c Two monitoring wells showing drawdown during extraction

Figure 4.7 Radial flow to a well in a confined aquifer

Figure 4.8 Graphical determination of safe yield by the Hill method

Figure 4.9 Interference between two extraction wells

Figure 4.10 Infiltration

Figure 5.1 Booster pump station

Figure 5.2 Single acting reciprocating pump

Figure 5.3 Double acting reciprocating pump

Figure 5.4 Hand operate reciprocating pump

Figure 5.5 Rotary pump

Figure 5.6 Volute pump

Figure 5.7 Diffuser pump

Figure 5.8 Turbine pump

Figure 5.9 Over-the-well jet pump installment

Figure 5.10 Pump curves

Figure 5.11 Pump hydraulics

Figure 5.12 Pump characteristic curves

Figure 5.13 System head curve

Figure 5.14 Determination of pump operation point

Figure 5.15 Pump characteristic curves with two pumps in parallel and in series

Figure 5.16 System head curve with two pumps in parallel

Figure 5.17 Variation curve of diameter of main and its cost

Figure 6.1 (a) Turbidimeter

Figure 6.1 (b) Mechanism in Spectrophotometer to measure turbidity

Figure 6.1 (c) Levels of turbidity in NTU/FTU

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Figure 6.2 (a) Different types of aerators

Figure 6.2 (b) Different types of aerators

Figure 6.3 The colloidal model showing zeta potential

Figure 6.4 Electrostatic repulsion

Figure 6.5 Van der Waals attraction

Figure 6.6 The energy barrier from DVLO theory

Figure 6.7 Lowering of the colloid surface charge

Figure 6.8 Flocculator used in water treatment

Figure 6.9 Schematic of rectangular setting tank

Figure 6.10 Schematic of circular setting tank

Figure 6.11 Conical sedimentation basin

Figure 6.12 Elevation of type I setting tank

Figure 6.13 Settling of different types of particles in water

Figure 6.14 Schematic of rapid sand operational controls

Figure 6.15 A slow sand filtration unit

Figure 6.16 Equipment for making mud ball volume measurements

Figure 6.17 Mud balls on filter surface

Figure 6.18 Cracks in filter beds

Figure 6.19 Relation between the loss of head and settlement of sand in filters

Figure 6.20 Cracks along sidewalls of filters

Figure 6.21 Sketch showing typical surface cracks in top 3 in of filter beds

Figure 6.22 Clogged areas in a filter bed

Figure 6.23 Sand ridged by clogged places in the filter bed

Figure 6.24 Cross section of typical pressure filter

Figure 6.25(a) Dissociation of HOCl

Figure 6.25(b) Generalized curve of chlorine

Figure 6.26 Fluoride Levels

Figure 6.27 Schematic of a groundwater treatment plant

Figure 6.28 Schematic of the particle size

Figure 6.29 Schematic of reverse osmosis

Figure 6.30 Flow diagram of removal of arsenic from groundwater

Figure 7.1 North-south cut through Bangladesh delta

Figure 7.2 Typical community arsenic and iron removal plant

Figure 7.3 18-DTP arsenic and iron removal plant

Figure 7.4 Double bucket household unit

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Figure 4.1 Distribution of Earths water

Figure 4.2 Hydrologic cycle

Figure 4.3 The flow of water through a soil sampler

Figure 4.4 Permeameter for Example 4.1

Figure 4.5a Confined and Unconfined aquifers

Figure 4.5b Drawdown in the groundwater table when water is pumped out of a well

Figure 4.6a Radial flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer

Figure 4.6b A cylinder with water flowing through its sides towards the centre

Figure 4.6c Two monitoring wells showing drawdown during extraction

Figure 4.7 Radial flow to a well in a confined aquifer

Figure 4.8 Graphical determination of safe yield by the Hill method

Figure 4.9 Interference between two extraction wells

Figure 4.10 Infiltration

Figure 5.1 Booster pump station

Figure 5.2 Single acting reciprocating pump

Figure 5.3 Double acting reciprocating pump

Figure 5.4 Hand operate reciprocating pump

Figure 5.5 Rotary pump

Figure 5.6 Volute pump

Figure 5.7 Diffuser pump

Figure 5.8 Turbine pump

Figure 5.9 Over-the-well jet pump installment

Figure 5.10 Pump curves

Figure 5.11 Pump hydraulics

Figure 5.12 Pump characteristic curves

Figure 5.13 System head curve

Figure 5.14 Determination of pump operation point

Figure 5.15 Pump characteristic curves with two pumps in parallel and in series

Figure 5.16 System head curve with two pumps in parallel

Figure 5.17 Variation curve of diameter of main and its cost

Figure 6.1 (a) Turbidimeter

Figure 6.1 (b) Mechanism in Spectrophotometer to measure turbidity

Figure 6.1 (c) Levels of turbidity in NTU/FTU

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Figure 6.2 (a) Different types of aerators

Figure 6.2 (b) Different types of aerators

Figure 6.3 The colloidal model showing zeta potential

Figure 6.4 Electrostatic repulsion

Figure 6.5 Van der Waals attraction

Figure 6.6 The energy barrier from DVLO theory

Figure 6.7 Lowering of the colloid surface charge

Figure 6.8 Flocculator used in water treatment

Figure 6.9 Schematic of rectangular setting tank

Figure 6.10 Schematic of circular setting tank

Figure 6.11 Conical sedimentation basin

Figure 6.12 Elevation of type I setting tank

Figure 6.13 Settling of different types of particles in water

Figure 6.14 Schematic of rapid sand operational controls

Figure 6.15 A slow sand filtration unit

Figure 6.16 Equipment for making mud ball volume measurements

Figure 6.17 Mud balls on filter surface

Figure 6.18 Cracks in filter beds

Figure 6.19 Relation between the loss of head and settlement of sand in filters

Figure 6.20 Cracks along sidewalls of filters

Figure 6.21 Sketch showing typical surface cracks in top 3 in of filter beds

Figure 6.22 Clogged areas in a filter bed

Figure 6.23 Sand ridged by clogged places in the filter bed

Figure 6.24 Cross section of typical pressure filter

Figure 6.25(a) Dissociation of HOCl

Figure 6.25(b) Generalized curve of chlorine

Figure 6.26 Fluoride Levels

Figure 6.27 Schematic of a groundwater treatment plant

Figure 6.28 Schematic of the particle size

Figure 6.29 Schematic of reverse osmosis

Figure 6.30 Flow diagram of removal of arsenic from groundwater

Figure 7.1 North-south cut through Bangladesh delta

Figure 7.2 Typical community arsenic and iron removal plant

Figure 7.3 18-DTP arsenic and iron removal plant

Figure 7.4 Double bucket household unit

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Figure 7.5 Stevens institute technology

Figure 7.6 Three-pitcher filter

Figure 7.7 Granular ferric hydroxide unit

Figure 7.8 Tetrahedron unit

Figure 7.9 DPHEdanida fill and draw unit

Figure 8.1 Types of tubewell technologies

Figure 8.2 A no. 6 handpump tubewell

Figure 8.3 A rower pump

Figure 8.4 Disco handpump technology

Figure 8.5 Tara handpump tubewell

Figure 8.6 Moon handpump tubewell

Figure 8.7 Mark II handpump tubewell

Figure 8.8 Fabrication of a continuous slot type of well screen

Figure 8.9 Section of continuous slot type screen showing v-shaped openings

Figure 8.10 The V-shaped openings of the continuous-slot type of screen

Figure 8.11 Louver or shutter type well screen, best used in artificially gravel packed wells

Figure 8.12 Continuous right angled slot of well axis

Figure 8.13 Slotted plastic pipe

Figure 8.14 Recommended positioning of well screens in various stratified, water bearing sand formations

Figure 8.15 Recommended sets of standard sieves for analyzing samples of water bearing sand or gravel

Figure 8.16 Typical sieve-analysis curve shows distribution of grain sizes in percent by weight

Figure 8.17 Typical sieve analysis curves for water-bearing sands and gravels

Figure 8.18 Sequence illustrates possibility of fine sand entering lip per part of lower section of screen

Figure 8.19 Sanitary protection of upper terminal of well

Figure 8.20 Sanitary well seals

Figure 8.21 Hand augers

Figure 8.22 Spiral auger

Figure 8.23 Simple tool for driving well points to depths of 15 to 30 ft

Figure 8.24 Drive-block assemblies for driving well points

Figure 8.25 Bits for jet drilling

Figure 8.26 Simple equipment for jet or rotary drilling

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Figure 8.27 Bamboo scaffolding, pivot and lever used in drilling by the sludger method

Figure 8.28 Man on scaffolding of drill at lowing drill fluid and cutiings to escape

Figure.8.29 Rotary drill bits

Figure 8.30 Roller-type rotary drill bit

Figure 8.31 Rotary drilling rig

Figure 8.32 Some other type of drilling bit available in market

Figure.8.33 Balance for determining mud weight stop watch marsh funnel

Figure 8.34 Star 91 cable-tool drilling rig

Figure 8.35 Components of a string of drill tools for cable-tool precession method

Figure 8.36 Casing drive shoe, rotary table or other support placed

Figure 8.37 Driving casing with drive clamps as hammer and drive head as anvil

Figure 8.38 Hoisting plug

Figure 8.39 Casing elevator

Figure 8.40 A gravity placement method of cement grouting well casing

Figure 8.41 Inside-tubing method of cement grouting well casing

Figure 8.42 Outside tubing method of cement grouting well casing

Figure 8.43 A plumb bob

Figure 8.44 Screen hook installation method

Figure 8.45 Pull-back method of setting well screens

Figure 8.46 Swedge block

Figure 8.47 Closed bottom plug in open hole screen casing

Figure 8.48 Wash-Down method

Figure 8.49 Jetting well screen

Figure 8.50 Double-Casing method

Figure 8.51 Elements of sand-joint method

Figure 8.52 Impression block

Figure 8.53 Tapered tap and overshots

Figure 8.54 Wall hook

Figure 8.55 Center spear

Figure 8.56 One directional flow can cause sand bridging during well development

Figure 8.57 Typical solid type surger plunger

Figure 8.58 Solid-type surge plunge ready for use in developing a well

Figure 8.59 Typical valve-type surge plunger with valve leather raised to show one port holes

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Figure 7.5 Stevens institute technology

Figure 7.6 Three-pitcher filter

Figure 7.7 Granular ferric hydroxide unit

Figure 7.8 Tetrahedron unit

Figure 7.9 DPHEdanida fill and draw unit

Figure 8.1 Types of tubewell technologies

Figure 8.2 A no. 6 handpump tubewell

Figure 8.3 A rower pump

Figure 8.4 Disco handpump technology

Figure 8.5 Tara handpump tubewell

Figure 8.6 Moon handpump tubewell

Figure 8.7 Mark II handpump tubewell

Figure 8.8 Fabrication of a continuous slot type of well screen

Figure 8.9 Section of continuous slot type screen showing v-shaped openings

Figure 8.10 The V-shaped openings of the continuous-slot type of screen

Figure 8.11 Louver or shutter type well screen, best used in artificially gravel packed wells

Figure 8.12 Continuous right angled slot of well axis

Figure 8.13 Slotted plastic pipe

Figure 8.14 Recommended positioning of well screens in various stratified, water bearing sand formations

Figure 8.15 Recommended sets of standard sieves for analyzing samples of water bearing sand or gravel

Figure 8.16 Typical sieve-analysis curve shows distribution of grain sizes in percent by weight

Figure 8.17 Typical sieve analysis curves for water-bearing sands and gravels

Figure 8.18 Sequence illustrates possibility of fine sand entering lip per part of lower section of screen

Figure 8.19 Sanitary protection of upper terminal of well

Figure 8.20 Sanitary well seals

Figure 8.21 Hand augers

Figure 8.22 Spiral auger

Figure 8.23 Simple tool for driving well points to depths of 15 to 30 ft

Figure 8.24 Drive-block assemblies for driving well points

Figure 8.25 Bits for jet drilling

Figure 8.26 Simple equipment for jet or rotary drilling

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Figure 8.27 Bamboo scaffolding, pivot and lever used in drilling by the sludger method

Figure 8.28 Man on scaffolding of drill at lowing drill fluid and cutiings to escape

Figure.8.29 Rotary drill bits

Figure 8.30 Roller-type rotary drill bit

Figure 8.31 Rotary drilling rig

Figure 8.32 Some other type of drilling bit available in market

Figure.8.33 Balance for determining mud weight stop watch marsh funnel

Figure 8.34 Star 91 cable-tool drilling rig

Figure 8.35 Components of a string of drill tools for cable-tool precession method

Figure 8.36 Casing drive shoe, rotary table or other support placed

Figure 8.37 Driving casing with drive clamps as hammer and drive head as anvil

Figure 8.38 Hoisting plug

Figure 8.39 Casing elevator

Figure 8.40 A gravity placement method of cement grouting well casing

Figure 8.41 Inside-tubing method of cement grouting well casing

Figure 8.42 Outside tubing method of cement grouting well casing

Figure 8.43 A plumb bob

Figure 8.44 Screen hook installation method

Figure 8.45 Pull-back method of setting well screens

Figure 8.46 Swedge block

Figure 8.47 Closed bottom plug in open hole screen casing

Figure 8.48 Wash-Down method

Figure 8.49 Jetting well screen

Figure 8.50 Double-Casing method

Figure 8.51 Elements of sand-joint method

Figure 8.52 Impression block

Figure 8.53 Tapered tap and overshots

Figure 8.54 Wall hook

Figure 8.55 Center spear

Figure 8.56 One directional flow can cause sand bridging during well development

Figure 8.57 Typical solid type surger plunger

Figure 8.58 Solid-type surge plunge ready for use in developing a well

Figure 8.59 Typical valve-type surge plunger with valve leather raised to show one port holes

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Figure 8.60 Arrangement for introducing acid inside well screen from bottom upwards

Figure 8.61 Dug well

Figure 8.62 Grain size distribution curve

Figure 9.1 Mass curve for determining required reservoir capacity

Figure 9.2 Frequency analysis of reservoir capacity

Figure 9.3 Typical reservoir intake

Figure 9.4 Typical lake intake

Figure 9.5 Typical submerged crib intake

Figure 9.6 Screened pipe intake

Figure 9.7 Typical intake, conduit, and pumping station

Figure 9.8 Elevated steel tank

Figure 9.9 Effect of elevated storage on pressure

Figure 9.10 Diurnal variation in water consumption

Figure 9.11 Water distribution system patterns

Figure 9.12 Double disc gate valve

Figure 9.13 (a) typical butterfly valve and (b) typical small-diameter ball valve

Figure 9.14 Schematic of typical dry- barrel fire hydrant

Figure 9.15 How water hammer can develop in a pipe line

Figure 9.16 How air chambers cushion the initial shock wave generated by water hammer

Figure 9.17 Construction conditions of pipes

Figure 9.18 Load production forces

Figure 9.19 Concentrated superimposed load vertically centered over the pipe

Figure 9.20 Distributed superimposed load vertically centered over pipe

Figure 9.21 Some methods of laying pipes

Figure 9.22 Steady and uniform flow

Figure 9.23 The continuity equation validity in tanks

Figure 9.24 The continuity equation validity in pipe junctions

Figure 9.25 The momentum equation

Figure 9.26 The bernoulli equation

Figure 9.27a Hydraulic grade line

Figure 9.27 b The hydraulic gradient

Figure 9.28 Moody diagram

Figure 9.29 Typical plan and profile drawings

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Figure 9.30 (a) Nomograph for Hazen-Williams formula in which c = 150

Figure 9.30 (b) Nomograph for Hazen-Williams formula in which c = 100

Figure 9.31 Illustration of pipe line pressure

Figure 9.32 Comparison of the friction loss equations: mid range diameters, v = 1 m/s, l = 200 m

Figure 9.33 Comparison of the friction loss equations: large diameters, v = 1 m/s, l = 2000 m

Figure 9.34 Comparison of the friction loss equations for various PVC roughness factors

Figure 9.35 Minor loss caused by valve operation

Figure 9.36 Example of minor loss diagram from valve operation

Figure 9.37 Example of a pipe chart

Figure 9.38 Equivalent diameters

Figure 9.39 Branched network with a single supply point

Figure 9.40 Branched network with two supply points

Figure 9.41 Branched network with two supply points, showing an increase of nodal flow q1

Figure 9.42 Looped network

Figure 9.43 Linear theory

Figure 9.44 Pressure-related leakage

Figure 9.45 Discharge through an orifice

Figure 9.46 Pressure-related demand relation

Figure 9.47 Negative pressures - as a result of a calculation without pressure-related demand

Figure 9.48 Pressures as the result of the calculation with pressure-related demand

Figure 9.49 Typical thrust blocking

Figure 9.50 Pipe characteristics

Figure 9.51 Capacity reduction of the system

Figure 9.52 Gravity system: regular supply

Figure 9.53 System characteristics: regular operation

Figure 9.54 Gravity system: network extension

Figure 9.55 System characteristics: network extension

Figure 9.56 Gravity system: supply from two sides

Figure 9.57 Gravity system (for example 9.24)

Figure 9.58 Pumping head

Figure 9.59 Pumping characteristics

Figure 9.60 Typical pump characteristics curve

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Figure 8.60 Arrangement for introducing acid inside well screen from bottom upwards

Figure 8.61 Dug well

Figure 8.62 Grain size distribution curve

Figure 9.1 Mass curve for determining required reservoir capacity

Figure 9.2 Frequency analysis of reservoir capacity

Figure 9.3 Typical reservoir intake

Figure 9.4 Typical lake intake

Figure 9.5 Typical submerged crib intake

Figure 9.6 Screened pipe intake

Figure 9.7 Typical intake, conduit, and pumping station

Figure 9.8 Elevated steel tank

Figure 9.9 Effect of elevated storage on pressure

Figure 9.10 Diurnal variation in water consumption

Figure 9.11 Water distribution system patterns

Figure 9.12 Double disc gate valve

Figure 9.13 (a) typical butterfly valve and (b) typical small-diameter ball valve

Figure 9.14 Schematic of typical dry- barrel fire hydrant

Figure 9.15 How water hammer can develop in a