ARGOS

List of Contents 1994 – 2002

Nr.26 (2002)Frik, J.F., [From veterinary student to Doctor Vlimmen, 1925-ca. 1960].Original title: Van veterinair student tot dokter Vlimmen, 1925-ca. 1960. p. 283-286

Kersjes, A.W., [A critical phase in the development of veterinary education. Democratization and restructuring, 1965-1985].Original title: Een kritische fase in de ontwikkeling van het veterinair onderwijs. Democratisering en herstructurering, 1965-1985. p. 286-292

Koolmees, P.A., [Aims and evaluations of veterinary teaching in Utrecht, 1821-1925].Original title: Doelstellingen en evaluaties van het veterinair onderwijs in Utrecht, 1821-1925. p. 277-282

Koolmees, P.A., 'Animals, vets and vermin in medical history'. [Report of a conference, held in Norwich, England, 28-29 April 2000].Original title: Verslag van de conferentie, gehouden in Norwich, Engeland op28en 29 april 2000. p. 293-297

Mathijsen, A.H.H.M., [The bibliography of Alexander Numan (1780-1852)].Original title: Bibliografie van Alexander Numan. p. 255-266

Teigen, Ph.M., Counting urban horses in the United States. p. 267-276

Nr.25 (2001)Koolmees, P.A., [Dr. Vlimmen, from pastoral ideology to persistent myth]. Dr. Vlimmen: van pastorale ideologie tot hardnekkige mythe. p. 219-225

Koolmees, P.A., [Report of the 32th congress of the World Association for the History of Veterinary Medicine, Oslo, Norway, August 15-18, 2001]. Verslag van het 32ste congres van de World Association for the History of Veterinary Medicine. p. 233-234

Mathijsen, A.H.H.M., [Brugmans in the Museum Boerhaave]. Brugmans in Museum Boerhave. p. 227-232

Mathijsen, A.H.H.M., [Gerrit de Hoog (1784-1812), Netherlands first veterinarian who gained a medical doctor's degree].

Original title: Gerrit de Hoog (1784-1812), Nederlands eerste gepromoveerde veearts. p. 207-218

Weijden, C.G.v.d., [Farewell to Toon Wijgergangs as curator of the Veterinary Museum]. Afscheid van Toon Wijgergangs als conservator van het Museum Diergeneeskunde. p. 235-236

Nr.24 (2001)Koolmees, P.A., [Recent [Dutch] publications in the field of agricultural history].Original title: Recente publicaties op het gebied van de landbouwgeschiedenis. p. 192-195

Locke, R.D., Veterinary philately. p. 186-191

Mathijsen, A.H.H.M., [The life history of Alexander Numan (1780-1852) during his time in Groningen].Original title: Alexander Numan (1780-1852) in zijn Groningse periode. p. 159-173

Paping, R.F.J., [Development of animal husbandry in Groningen in the 18th and 19th century; a broad outline].Original title: De ontwikkeling van de veehouderij in Groningen in de achttiende en negentiende eeuw; een grove schets. p. 175-185

Nr.23 (2000)Balogh, K.K.I.M.d., [The role of the female veterinarians in Africa].Original title: De rol van de vrouwelijke dierenarts in Africa. p. 132-137

Boor-van der Putten, I.M.E., [Colloquium in memory of Dr. Louis Willems at Hasselt].Original title: Colloquium ter herdenking van dr. Louis Willems te Hasselt. p. 148-149

Fisher, J.R., Every man his own farrier in Australia: the origins and growth of a veterinary business in colonial New South Wales. p. 138-147

Gobin, A., [Mendelism in animal breeding as developed by professor Leopold Frateur, Louvain].Original title: Leopold Frateur en het Mendelisme bij het fokken van huisdieren. p. 111-118

Jones, S.D., Gender and veterinary medicine: global perspectives. p. 119-123

Koolmees, P.A., [Feminization of veterinary medicine in The Netherlands 1925-2000].Original title: De feminisering van de diergeneeskunde in Nederland, 1925-2000. p. 125-131

Mathijsen, A.H.H.M., ["Veterinary genetics" and "Women in veterinary medicine", the main themes of the 31rst WAHVM-congress in Brno (Czech Republic)].

Original title: "Veterinaire genetica" en "De vrouw in de diergeneeskunde", hoofdthema's op het 31ste WAHVM-congres in Brno (Tsjechi‰). p. 103-109

Nr.22 (2000)Fuks, S., [Animals as symbols on hunting-portraits and still lives of game].Original title: Dieren als symbolen op jachtschilderijen. p. 80-82 )

Koolmees, P.A., [From horse doctor or cow leech to veterinary manager. Regulation of the market for veterinary services in historical perspective].Original title: Van paardendoctor-koemeester tot veterinair manager. Regulering van de veterinaire markt in historisch perspectief. p. 75-77

Meyer, H., [How artists see the eating of animals].Original title: Hoe kijken kunstenaars aan tegen het vreten der dieren? p. 79-85

Oldenkamp, E.P. et al., [Two letters from 1829 and 1830 to Aleander Numan by J.H. van Opdorp (1797-1842), surgeon at Arnemuiden (Province of Zealand)].Original title: Twee brieven aan Alexander Numan uit 1829 en 1830 van J.H. Opdorp, heel- en vroedmeester te Arnemuiden (Zeeland). p. 61-66

Pieters, F.F.J.M., [Animals held in menageries in Amsterdam, ca. 1700].Original title: De dieren in de Amsterdamse menagerie‰n rond 1700. p. 79-80

Strikwerda, R., [Personal experiences with freezing bull sperm, 1949-1984].Original title: Persoonlijke ervaringen met het invriezen van stieren-sperma, 1949-1984. p. 67-74

Nr.21 (1999)Berns, J.B., [Hanging the afterbirth in the tree: folk customs and popular language about the secundines of the horse].Original title: De nageboorte in de boom hangen: volksgebruiken en volkstaal rond de secundinae van het paard. p. 31-39

Mathijsen, A.H.H.M., [At the occasion of the 10th anniversary of the Netherlands Veterinary History Society].Original title: Bij het tienjarig bestaan van het Veterinair Historisch Genootschap. p. 7-17

Mathijsen, A.H.H.M., [Veterinary history got a chance at Mondialvet 99, 23-24 September in Lyons].Original title: De veterinaire geschiedenis kwam goed aan bod tijdens Mondialvet 99, 23-24 september in Lyon. p. 40-45

[A new public museum [at Beers, Province North-Brabant] devoted to the history of animal

breeding and artificial insemination].Original title: Een nieuw landelijk museum [te Beers, N.Br.], gewijd aan de geschiedenis van de veeteelt en de K.I. p. 17

Wentges, H. et al., [From folk medicine to pharmaceutical product. An attempt to depict the history of development of some selected drugs].Original title: Von der Volksmedizin zum pharmazeutischen Produkt. Versuch einer Darstellung der Entwicklungsgeschichte ausgew„hlter Drogen. p. 19-30

Nr.20 (1999)Editorial: a plea for a Studium Generale, including veterinary history, in the veterinary curriculum, nr. 20, p.413-414 (text in Dutch)Veterinary education

A. Mathijsen. Horse-riding schools in Utrecht and Leyden in the 18th century, next to the adventurous life of Gaspard Saunier, riding master of Leyden University from 1717 to 1737, nr. 20, p. 419-438 (text in Dutch)Period: 18th century/Country: Netherlands/Persons: Saunier, Gaspard (1663-1748)/Horsemanship

Tj. Pos. C.S.Th. van Gink (1890-1968), a central figure in the world of poultry sport, nr. 20, p. 439-445 (text in Dutch)Period: 20th century/Country: Netherlands/Persons: Gink, C.S.Th. van (1890-1968)/Poultry

A. Mathijsen. Letters from The Netherlands to professor Bernhard Bang, nr. 20, p. 446-448 (text in Dutch)Period: 19th-20th century/Persons: Bang, Bernhard (1848-1932)

Nr.19 (1998)J.D. Blaisdell. Abominable and relatively unclean flesh: parasites and the prohibition against pork in Ancient Egypt and Israel, nr. 19, p. 363-370 (text in English)Period: Antiquity/Country: Egypt/Country: Israel/Hygiene/Meat/Swine

J. Jansen. Some interesting subjects from a veterinary point of view in a manuscript from 1779, nr. 19, p. 371-374 (text in Dutch)Period: 18th century/Country: Netherlands/Cattle diseases

R. Strikwerda. Cattle in the Dutch Paterfamilial literature. Veterinary folk medicine in the 18th century, nr. 19, p.375-381 (text in Dutch)Period: 18th century/Country: Netherlands/Cattle diseases/Veterinary folk medicine

P.A. Koolmees. Veterinary medicine in The Netherlands, 1940-1945, nr. 19, p. 383-398 (text in Dutch)

Period: 20th century/Country: Netherlands/Veterinary organization

Nr.18 (1998)S.N. Milton. Western veterinary medicine in colonial Africa: a survey 1902-1963, nr. 18, p. 313-322 (text in English)Period: 20th century/Country: Africa/Tropicalveterinary medicine

P. Leeflang. The Civil Veterinary Service in the former Dutch East Indies, nr. 18, p. 323-331 (text in English)Period: 19th-20th century/Country: Netherlands East-Indies/Tropical veterinary medicine

I.J.R. Visser and J.W. Hesselink. The development of plantations and livestock on Curaçao, nr. 18, p.333-339 (text in Dutch)Country: Netherlands West-Indies/Tropical veterinary medicine

G.T. Haneveld. Toers Diesbergen Schubaert (1805-1853), prosector of the State Veterinary School, illustrator and entomologist, nr. 18, p. 341-346 (text in Dutch)Period: 19th century/Country: Netherlands/Persons: Schubaert, T.D. (1805-1853)

Nr.17 (1997)M.C. Horzinek. The beginnings of animal virology in Germany, nr. 17, p. 267-271 (text in Dutch)Country: Germany/Persons: Löffler, Friedrich (1852-1915)/Virus diseases

B. Baljet and G.C.M. Heijke. Veterinary double-monsters historically viewed, nr. 17,p. 273-280 (Text in Dutch)Abnormalities

P. Mandigers. Obstetrical observations by the cow doctor W. Munter (1767-1838) from Goudswaard (Prov. South-Holland), nr. 17, p.281-289 (text in Dutch)Period: 18th-19th century/Country: Netherlands/Persons: Munter, W. (1767-1838)/Obstetrics

Nr.16 (1997)J.R. Fisher. Of plagues and veterinarians: BSE in historical perspective, nr. 16, p. 225-235 (text in English)Cattle diseases/Epizootics

C. Huygelen. The early history of immunization against three morbillivirus diseases: measles, rinderpest and canine distemper, nr. 16, p. 237-240 (text in Dutch)Period: 18th-19th century/Immunization/Virus diseases

Ingrid J.R. Visser. Haematuria in cattle in The Netherlands in historical perspective, nr. 16, p.241-248 (text in Dutch)

Country: Netherlands/Cattle diseases

Nr.15 (1996)A. Numan. "On the duties of the veterinarian, and the rules he has to observe in the performance of his art", nr. 15, p.179-182 (text in Dutch)Ethics/Veterinary profession

B.A. Steltenpool. Servants of Aesculapius and Mars. The military veterinarian in The Netherlands East-Indies, nr. 15, p. 183-192 (text in Dutch)Period: 19th-20th century/Country: Netherlands East-Indies/Military veterinary medicine

J.D. Blaisdell. Reviled for the sake of health: distemper and the status of the dog in Ancient Israel, nr. 15, p.193-201 (text in English)Period: Antiquity/Country: Israel/Dog diseases/Distemper

P.A. Koolmees. The teaching of veterinary history restarted [in Utrecht], nr. 15, p.204-206 (text in Dutch)Country: Netherlands/Veterinary education

Nr.14 (1996)A.H.H.M. Mathijsen. The celebrations of the 50th, 100th, 125th and 150th anniversary of the Veterinary School in Utrecht, nr. 14, p. 127-134 (text in Dutch)Period: 19th-20th century/Country: Netherlands/Veterinary schools

Ingrid J.R. Visser. Organized control of communicable diseases in animals in The Netherlands in the 18th, 19th and beginning of the 20th century, nr. 14, p.135-142 (text in Dutch)Period: After 1700/Country: Netherlands/Communicable disease control

J. Hofman. The succesfull eradication of bovine tuberculosis in The Netherlands, mainly in the period after 1945, nr. 14, p. 143-152 (text in Dutch)Period: 20th century/Country: Netherlands/Cattle diseases/Tuberculosis

P. Leeflang. Argos, body-guard of Io, or how the peacock got the beautiful eyes in his fan, nr. 14, p.155-157 (text in Dutch)Period: Antiquity/Mythology

Nr.13 (1995)G.C. van der Weijden and A. Rozendal. The history of bovine obstetrics, nr. 13, p. 81-86 (text in Dutch)Cattle/Obstetrics

J. de Vries.Veterinary medicine in Friesland, 1850-1900, nr. 13, p. 87-93 (text in Dutch)

Period: 19th century/Country: Netherlands/Veterinary profession

P.A. Koolmees. Slaughtering and meat inspection in The Netherlands from the late Middle Ages until 1795, nr. 13, p. 95-104 (text in Dutch)Period: Before 1800/Country: Netherlands/Meat inspection

Nr.12 (1995)J.R. Fisher. The European Enlightment, political economy and the origins of the veterinary profession in Britain, nr. 12, p. 45-51 (text in English)Period: 18th-19th century/Country: United Kingdom/Veterinary profession

W.J. Mulder and A.P. Wijgergangs. The obstetrical instrumentation for bovines, nr. 12, p. 53-58 (text in Dutch)Cattle/Obstetrics/Instruments

J.A. Renkema. Dutch livestock industry since World War II in economic-historical perspective, nr. 12, p. 59-62 (text in Dutch)Period: 20th century/Country: Netherlands/Economics

Nr.11 (1994)A.G. Thomsen and J.D. Blaisdell. From the fangs of Cerberus: the possible origin of classical beliefs about rabies, nr. 11, p. 5-8 (text in English)Period: Antiquity/Rabies

J. de Vries. Veterinarians in Friesland, 1800-1850, nr. 11, p.9-25 (text in Dutch)Period: 19th century/Country: Netherlands/Veterinary profession

D.J. Houwers. Brucella-DNA in a waste-pit from the early 15th century, nr. 11, p. 27 (text in Dutch)Period: Middle Ages/Country: Netherlands/Archaeology/Brucellosis

Abstracts 1994 - 2002

Argos 26 (2002)

MathijsenThe bibliography of Alexander Numan (1780-1852)In commemoration of the 150th anniversary of the death of Alexander Numan, director of the Utrecht Veterinary School till 1851, a chronological list of his writings was compiled, supplemented with a subject index. The list encompasses his medical publications during his time as a general practitioner in Groningen (1804-1822). It shows the great diversity of his interests in the veterinary field, partly aroused by the problems of his time (e.g. contagious

bovine pleuropneumonia or the need for a better quality of wool), partly by his personal scientific preferences (e.g. animal reproduction, teratology or parasitology). All publications were in Dutch. Those most appreciated by his contempories were translated. His pupil Séraphin Verheyen, professor of the Veterinary School in Brussels, made several of Numan's larger studies known to the French-speaking world. The periodicals for publishing his works were chosen after the nature of the subject or the intended readership. The results of his scientific investigations were chiefly published in the proceedings of The Royal Institute of Sciences etc. (predecessor of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences). If they were of an evidently applied character preference was given toTijdschrift ter bevordering van de nijverheid (Journal for the promotion of industry). The general educated reader was addressed in De algemeene Konst- en Letterbode (General messenger for the arts and literature) or a daily newspaper. The medium par excellence to communicate veterinary matters was his own creation, the Veeartsenijkundig Magazijn or its successor (nr. 100 and 100a in the list), that he edited from 1827 until 1849.

Ph. M. TeigenCounting Urban Horses in the United StatesThe number and distribution of domestic animals is fundamental to understanding the growth and development of the veterinary profession in any country at any time. In post-Civil War United States, for example, when its veterinarian surgeons founded professional associations and educational institutions, urban horses and mules formed the basis of veterinary practice. To understand the relationship between the veterinary profession and these urban animals, as well as their respective places in American history and culture, this essay introduces the concept of animal density to veterinary and urban history. Based on the distribution of horses and mules in forty-six large American cities before 1920, this study examines the impact of horses and mules on veterinary institutions, on the urban environment, and on the development of the anti-cruelty movement.

Symposium "180 years veterinary education in Utrecht, 1821-2001"The start of a renewed curriculum in September 2001 gave occasion to review the changes that underwent the teaching programme since the beginning of the veterinary school. The 180 years were divided in periods of varying length. They were taken shorter as the changes to report had a greater significance for the present time. There were four speakers. Only the papers of the first three were available.

P.A. Koolmees. Aims and evaluations of veterinary teaching in Utrecht, 1821-1925.The theme was approached by asking which position the veterinary school, at its start, had taken in the powerplay on the market for veterinary services. At the demand side was the government and the society, i.e. the animal owners. The supply side showed a great variety of people willing to offer veterinary services (farriers, cowdoctors, herbalists etc.). The government and the animal owners demanded from the school practical training, leading to economic profit.

In this framework questions were posed regarding the changing aims of the veterinary education in the course of time, its outcome and its evaluation by the government, the society,

the teachers and the students.The following four periods were distinguished:1821-1851: The promisingl start followed by depression1851-1874: From reorganization until legislation1874-1918: Amelioration of the professional perspectives; broadening of the scientific basis; university status1918-1925: From Veterinary College to Faculty of the University.The school started with three professors, a veterinarian for clinical work and a farrier. Together they teached 16 subjects, six were theoretical and ten practical. In spite of this, the education was considered too theoretical. Most of the graduates were not able to compete with the empirists. In 1846 a majority of 712 empirists stood against 111 qualified veterinarians, unprotected by any law. In 1860, only 20% of the veterinarians could earn a living from their practice. The profession lost its attraction and the number of candidates fell down. Also the funding of the school was in danger, because the school was financed from the same fund which had to provide for indemnification for losses of cattle died from 'lung disease' (contagious bovine pneumonia). The answer of the government was cutting the schoolbudget to the half, lowering the status of the teaching personel (no longer professors, but teachers) and emphasizing that teaching practical abilities had to be the primary goal.

After a disastrous outbreak of rinderpest in 1865, in the end controled by stamping out under the guidance of one of the teachers, the parliament approved the laws for a State Veterinary Service (1870), for the regulation of the profession and the school (1874). Free practice of empirists was curbed since then. The School could unfurl again, the more so because scientific developments opened new vistas for better therapies. Veterinaians began to enjoy the confidence of the farmers and gained a permanent position in society. It can be said that their social emancipation was completed in 1918 when the School reached university status. At that time the Veterinary College had 14 professors, nine associate professors (readers, prosectors or conservators). It was understood now that veterinary education had to answer the demands of practice and of science as well. The life of the autonomous Veterinary College was only short; because of the government's retrenchment policy it was incorporated into the State University at Utrecht in 1925.In the second part of this lecture a report is given of the comments by the students on the teachers/professors and their teachings as published in the student's Veterinary Almanac, 1887-1925. In the third part the demands of the students by the School or its staff is analyzed. Next to imposing rules of conduct, the professors often played a protective role or showed a real solicitude for the moral health of their pupils. The last issue discussed is how far a general academic education can be combined with the training for a profession directed towards practical results. Traditionally, professors urged to a scientific approach and some of them stimulated the cultivation of a general academic attitude, but this endeavour mostly did not meet the market-oriented expectations of the students. The 'leitmotiv' of veterinary education during the period concerned has always been to find an equilibrium between practical and theoretical training.

J.F. Frik. From veterinary student to Doctor Vlimmen, 1925-ca. 1960

The main characteristic of this period was that the curriculum was built according to academic disciplines, and that clinical training was directed towards the individual patient, based on a sound knowledge of the healthy animal.Within the pre-war period the first years as a faculty asked for adaptations, on all levels, to the structure and life of the university; the governing body was no longer the Ministry of Agriculture, but the board of governors of the university. The greatest change after the seven glorious years of the Veterinary College was the loss of the chairs for the basic sciences (physics, chemistry, botany and zoology). These propaedeutic disciplines were now teached by professors of the Science Faculty. Then followed the economic depression in the Thirties, that did'nt leave much room for new developments. World War II formed a real breaking point in the period under review; mobilization, 'Arbeitseinsatz', hiding or resistance, followed by a time of shortage of all necessities of life, brought ultimately nearly a standstill of faculty life. The postwar period was one of recovery and advancement. For the time being, the pre-war curriculum was continued. But new subjects were added following the expansion of the sciences and new demands from society. The length of the period of study increased from five to 5½ year in 1927 and to six years in 1940. But for all that, it appeared impossible to follow all compulsory clinical work in the official time. Although the pre-war standard of ten months clinical work was reduced to 33 weeks, the curriculum remained overcrowded.Five examinations were held. Only that after the first year was in writing, the other were taken orally. An overview is given of the distribution of the examination subjects, and the changes in the course of time.On the basis of interviews, held with 54 veterinarians, who qualified before 1950, characteristics of the professors were presentend, and some anecdotes as well.

A.W. Kersjes. A critical phase in the development of veterinary education. Democratization and restructuring, 1965-1985.The need for changes in the veterinary curriculum was made evident at a congresses in 1964 and 1966, held by the Royal Netherlands Society of Veterinary Medicine (abbr. in Dutch: KNMvD). It was clear that intensive animal husbandry asked for a new approach with emphasis on disease prevention and public health aspects. Also change was foreseen in the practice of companian animal medicine, that demanded a larger degree of specialization. In the meantime staffmembers of the faculty had prepared proposals for a differentiation in the curriculum; next to a clinical variant, two others should be offered, one in public hygiene and another, called the free variant, preparing for functions in scientific research. The implication would be that only students qualifying after clinical training would be licensed to practice and call themselves dierenarts. The curriculum would consist of a common phase of 4,5 year and a differentiated phase of 1,5 year. This proposal was not followed by the council of professors. They chose for a shorter period of only a 0,5 year of differentiated training and a common certificate for all graduates. The discussion on the longer or the shorter differentiation period would occupy the faculty in the years to come, because other parties were involved as well. Firstly the KNMvD, not willing to accept splitting up the corps vétérinaire in members with separate qualifications, and the Ministry of Education, issuing numerous innovation plans for the universities as an answer to the continuing revolts taking place.

An unexspected growth of the number of first-year students (from an average of 180 to 240 in 1968) complicated matters further. Negotiations with the Ministry on increase of staffing and on regulation of the number of entering students led to inadequate results in the former, and to fairly late results in the latter case. In 1974 a numerus fixus of 150 first-year students was agreed upon. In 1976 this number was increased to 175, but the number of applications often was more than thousand. A notary public had to assign the places by lot.A new law for the administration of the universities brought the long awaited democratic structures in 1971. The first chosen faculty board undertook an innovative step by inviting the accreditation committees of the American and Canadian Veterinary Medical Associations (AVMA and CVMA) to judge the quality of the education provided. The result was that in 1973 the diploma of the Utrecht Veterinary Faculty was the first outside USA and Canada that was recognized. Septennial visits have confirmed this status since then.It lasted until the course of 1982-'83 before a new curriculum could be introduced that found approval of all parties concerned. In accordance with the law that prescribed standards for the length of university studies with a diploma after four years, the following scheme was designed: four years for the doctoral phase, followed by 1.3 year of a common programme (24.5 weeks theortecal and 31.5 weeks practical education) and 0.7 year, where a choice has to made between large animal medicine and animal production or companian animal medicine (both 29 weeks). The end-diploma shall be formally the same, but the competences for practicing would be different. People wanting to change their occupation will have to follow training again to become competent in another sphere of activites.

P.A. Koolmees'Animals, vets and vermin in medical history'. Report of a conference, held in Norwich, England, 28-29 April 2000.Summaries of sixteen lectures are given , that were presented at the conference cited above. The conference was organized by prof. dr. Roger Cooter, director of the Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine at the University of East Anglia in Norwich. Eleven speakers came from the U.K., two from the USA, and one each from France, Germany and The Netherlands. The idea of the convener was to bring together people, that study veterinary history subjects from various disciplinary backgrounds. For most of them the chosen topic belonged to a medical history problem. There was only a loose connexion among the topics. The common ground of veterinary history and the history of the life and social sciences became evident. The primary aim of the conference was to survey this wide area and stimulate contacts between the participants.

Argos 25 (2001)A.H.H.M. MathijsenGerrit de Hoog (1784-1812), Netherlands first veterinarian who gained a medical doctor's degreeBeing an orphan, De Hoog was lucky that in his native town Delft an institution was established to take care of gifted boys selected from the Dutch Reformed orphanage.This institution was founded in 1756 after the last will of a very rich and enlightened lady, Maria Duijst van Voorhout (1662-1754). She had stipulated that the largest part of the fortune she

left, should be spent for the foundation of three institutions in the towns of Delft, The Hague and Utrecht to educate clever and able boys for useful occupations as surveyor, hydraulic or fortification engineer, master builder or surgeon. These institutions became known as "Fundaties van Renswoude", after the name of the castle of her last husband.Gerrit received there a broad and solid education from his 12th until his 18th year. Then he choose to become a veterinarian. As no veterinary school was opened yet in the country, the trustees sent him to the Medical Faculty of nearby Leyden University, where he came under the guidance of prof. Brugmans. After three years he was sent to prof. G.F. Sick of the Berlin Veterinary School. He was called back after two years because he would be appointed at a planned veterinary school. However, political circumstances prevented the establishment of that school. He then received supplementary training in surgery in the military hospital in Leiden. In the mean time a veterinary examination board came into being, and De Hoog was one of the first who was officially licensed to practice. He fulfilled two jobs of a short duration, firstly as 'artiste vétérinaire' in the regiment of the horse guards, and after that in the service of the Medical Commission in the Province of South-Holland to report and take the necessary measures for the diseased domestic animals in an area, inundated after breaching way of the dikes.In 1810 he enrolled again at Leyden University and underwent the examination giving access to the doctoral degree. In May 1811 he defended a thesis on the analogy of human and veterinary medicine and the usefulness of a reciprocal knowledge of both medicines. In this article the introduction to this thesis was translated and appended.He settled in the town of Vianen, probably to practice human and animal medicine as well. His stay there was too short to leave any trace of activity. After a stay of eight months in Vianen he was conscribed to take part as a 'médecin adjoint' in the campaign of Napoleon against Russia. From there he never returned. 

P.A. KoolmeesDr. Vlimmen, from pastoral ideology to persistent mythThe story of the veterinarian Dr. Jan Vlimmen was written by the lawyer Anton Roothaert (1896-1967). The first novel on Vlimmen was published in 1936 and became a best seller. In total, 45 different editions have been printed including translations into eight different languages. After World War II, Roothaert wrote two other novels (1953, 1957) about Vlimmen. The trilogy is a nicely told story about a liberal minded veterinarian living in a narrow-minded town. The novels also became popular because the relatively unknown world of the veterinary practitioner was revealed to a broader public. In spite of considerable changes in the societal context of veterinary medicine in general and of present day practice in particular, the romantic but static image of Dr. Vlimmen has continued to play a significant role in the ideology of many veterinary graduates and practitioners. Therefore, over the last two decades, Vlimmen has a rather negative connotation among veterinary authorities because his name is still associated with a romanticised image of the practitioner, an image that differs considerably from reality. The story of Vlimmen led to an inaccurate image of the profession within the media and society and also led to false expectations among first year students. In spite of the efforts of veterinary institutions to dispel it, the myth of Vlimmen seems to persist and it may be very difficult to change the public image of modern veterinary medicine.

A.H.H.M. Mathijsen

Brugmans in the Museum BoerhaaveAn exhibition, devoted to activities and fields of interests of Sebald Johannes Brugman (1763-1819) is held in Museum Boerhaave in Leyden, the national museum for the history of science. As an introduction to the exhibition his live is shortly reviewed. Although an extraordinary man with great abilities and much influence during his lifetime, he is almost forgotten now. After obtaining doctorates at the universities of Groningen (in the sciences) and Leyden (in medicine), he was appointed as professor at the University of Franeker in Friesland at the age of 22. After a year he changed places for Leyden where he held the chairs of botany (1786), natural history (1787), medicine (1791) and chemistry (1800), all at the same time! Next to the many teaching obligations involved, he fulfilled several posts outside the university. For more than twenty years he was inspector-general of the Military Medical Service, (re)organized by him in 1795, at the start of the Batavian Republic.He paid much thought to the prevention of wound infection in hospitals, gangraena nosocomialis, that made many victims in those days. His effective hygienic measures saved many lives, especially after the Battle of Waterloo. Together with four others he compiled the first Netherlands pharmacopoea, published in 1805. The Botanical Garden underwent the biggest enlargement in its history under his directorate.Louis Napoléon, king of Holland (1806-10) made him a State Councillor.In order to illustrate his lectures he collected specimina in the fields of natural history, comparative anatomy , palaeontology and anthropolgy to such an extent that the French zoologist and palaeontologist Georges Cuvier, who visisted him in 1811, declared his collection to be the largest private collection in Europe. At his premature death in 1819 the collection comprised 4018 objects. The collection was bought for the university by king William I. In the course of time the objects became dispersed over several museums. It was considered worthwhile to bring a representative part of them together again in this exhibition in order to illustrate the scope of Brugmans' activities as a collector, and also to demonstrate the conservation techniques used in those days. Besides, many instruments, prints, paintings, busts, medals, books and documents are on show, arranged beautifully, together picturing well the atmosphere in which science was cultivated.As Brugmans was also concerned with attempts to make some provisions for veterinary medicine, until his day the responsibility of local governement only, his successes and failures are reviewed. Especially his views expressed in a report to the National Assembly, on an outbreak of rinderpest in 1796 in the neighbourhood of Nymegen, were sharply criticised.Several pamphlets to rectify, oppose or ridiculize him are reviewed.

Argos 24 (2001)A.H.H.M. MathijsenThe life history of Alexander Numan (1780-1852) during his time in GroningenUntil the time Numan took on his professorship at the newly established Veterinary School in Utrecht in 1822, he had lived in the Province of Groningen. In order to understand why the minister of Public Education appointed a village doctor from the north of the country as professor for the practice of veteriary medicine, and after some years as director of the school, it was felt essential to investigate his earlier life period. The main sources used are two obituaries, resp. written by his son who was a professor of Law at Groningen University,

and by his friend prof. Willem Vrolik who was the secretary of the Academy of Science, supplemented by family histories and some archival research.A short description of his descent, youth and education follows the main part devoted to his writings, his medical practice and membership of the Provincial Medical Commission and the Commission for Agriculture. In an appendix some genealogical data are presented on the family of his wife and their children.Alexander lost his father, who was a minister of the Reformed Church, when he was ten years old. He received his education in the circle of family members. A brother of his father, also a minister, teached him Greek and Latin. After this uncle had left the province, he lived in the home of another minister who teached him the modern languages. As this man was involved in politics of the Batavian Republic, young Alexander was exposed to many discussions on the polity of the State. After his mother had remarried with a medical doctor, this man, and also his brother who had a medical practice in another part of the province, complemented the education with an introduction in the sciences. Experiences in their dispensaries, where some knowledge of botany and chemistry could be obtained, and discussions when accompanying them on their visits to patients, were decisive in the choice of his profession. Only at the age of twenty he entered the Medical Faculty of Groningen University. Thanks to the elaborate preparatory studies, he was able to finish in three years. In 1804 he defended his thesis on a pharmaceutical subject. Immediately afterwards he set up practice in a village nearby the town of Groningen. He married two years later Catharina Dorothea Star Lichtenvoort, daughter of a wealthy lawyer. They had two children, a son, born in 1807, and a daughter, born in 1808.Alexander built a flourishing medical and obstetrical practice, extending over a very large area, He teached apprentices in his dispensary, translated articles and a book by C.W. Hufeland and published case histories from his own practice. Several lectures given at local scientific societies were published. One dealt with his thoughts on and experiences with animal magnetism, a topic very much en vogue in those days, especially in the Groningen Medical Faculty. In 1812 his translation of Allgemeines Vieharzneibuch by J.N. Rohlwes was published, showing his interest in veterinary matters. As the book appeared not to be satisfactory enough for the needs of the Dutch farmers, he was invited by the board of the 'Society for Public Welfare' (Maatschappij tot Nut van het Algemeen) to write an adapted version. This handbook (first ed. 1819) would receive many editions throughout the 19th century. This book, together with his capacities as a teacher, his broad interests in medical and agricultural affairs, great scientific curiosity and appreciation of colleagues met in the several commissions made him an obvious candidate for the new post in Utrecht. Although he felt it difficult to leave his beloved homeland and terminate his practice, he felt great pride in accepting the post that would give him the opportunity to found a new discipline in his country.To be useful to society was one of the great motives of his life.

Richard F.J. PapingDevelopment of animal husbandry in Groningen in the 18th and 19th century; a broad outlineThis overview is mainly focussed on the clay area forming the northern half of the province.

It is the wealthiest and most characteristic part, being cultured since the Middle Ages as testified by the many churches that even small villages were able to construct. About 1700 the provinve of Groningen enjoyed already a modern economy, fitting in with that of the other coastal areas of Friesland, Zeeland and Holland (the last mentioned was the richest region of the world in the 17th and 18th century). As aspects of modernity at that time can be considered: 1) the use of modern agricultural methods with higher yields per hectare and higher milk yields per cow than produced in the land provinces on the sandy soils; 2) Agriculture was aimed at earning money by selling of the prducts. In opposition to the farmers in the land provinces, who mainly produced for consumption by the own family, the farmers in the coastal areas produced for the trade; 3) A high degree of specialization was found in the rural areas. 30-40% of the families had own farms, 25% of the population were labourers, owing only small pieces of land and the rest of the working population had occupations outside agriculture (craftsmen, shopkeepers, shipmasters, merchants etc.). Whereas on the sandy soils practically every family owned a farm, be it mostly a very small one.After reviewing the changes in the period under review in the distribution of land in use for the production of fieldcrops or for meadows for keeping cattle -always in function of the market value of the products- and discussion of type of husbandry (breeding, fattening, dairying) as far as cattle is concerned, and of the lesser significance of the other domestic animals, it is concluded that a relative decrease of the importance of cattle husbandry in the clay region during the 18th-19th century can be observed. Intensification of land use had a positive effect on crop-production. The much-heard opinion that the cattle plague epizootic of 1768-1786 caused a transition in land use through a switch from animal husbandry to arable farming, is not held by the author. Economic factors were of prime importance here. The introduction of fertilizer in the 19th century took away the necessity to keep cattle. And mechanization did the same for the horse in the 20th century. In some parts of the clay region, however, cattle husbandry returned in the second half of the 20th century, due to the low prices of the fieldcrops. The arable land is then transformed again in meadows.Attention is given to the role of veterinary care given by the farmers themselves and in a later phase by veterinary professionals.

Argos 23 (2000)A.H.H.M. Mathijsen"Veterinary genetics" and "Women in veterinary medicine", the main themes of the 31st WAHVM-congress in Brno (Czech Republic)The congress, held from 6-10 September 2000 on the campus of the University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences in Brno, attracted 102 participants from 23 countries, plus 20 accompanying persons. Next to a report on some special events as visits to the Veterinary Museum and the Mendelianum, after laying a wreath at Mendel's tomb, summaries or annotations are given of the lectures presented.There were five invited speakers in the session on "Veterinary genetics" and one invited speaker in the session devoted to "Women in veterinary medicine". Three guest speakers could be invited thanks to a grant by the "History of Medicine Programme" of The Wellcome Trust in London. The total number of lectures was 34. Besides, some historical veterinary

films were shown, and 34 posters were on display. The congress was very well organized by a team presided by em.-professor Rudolf Böhm.

A.M. GobinMendelism in animal breeding as developed by professor Leopold Frateur, Louvain (1877-1946)Educated as a veterinarian at Cureghem, Leopold Frateur started his scientific career in 1899 as a professor at the Faculty of Sciences of the Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium, in charge of the course in zootechnology. After a study tour to zootechnical institutes and centres of animal breeding in Europe he was invited by the governmental department of Agriculture and the Belgian Society of Zootechnology to investigate the relevance of the Mendelian laws of heredity for the improvement of cattle breeding. In the early years of the century, Frateur conducted field research in order to determine the characteristics of the cattle breeds in Belgium. In 1908 Frateur founded the Institute of Animal Husbandry at his university. Here he worked out his programme of experimental genetics until his retirement in 1936. The last six years of his professorship he teached also agricultural economics in the Faculty of Economical Sciences.In Frateur's experimental research the following main lines can be distinguished: 1) The analysis of simple and complex hereditary factors in cattle, rabbits and poultry; 2) The study of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of importance for the improvement of animal breeds; 3) The synthesis of genetic factors from different stock in order to obtain higher yielding breeds with stable characteristics; 4) Theoretical study of the relationship between genotype and phenotype and the influence of environmental factors; 5) Theoretical exploration of the issue of variability and modification of newly formed characteristics; 6) Research leading to an explanation of telegony and atavism; 7) The formulation of a theory on the creation of new breeds in domestic animals and plants, and the relation between breed and species.Also he was responding to topical needs, e.g. he determined the causal factor of pullorum epidemic in chicken farming, or he investigated the hereditary resistance against diphteric infection amongst chickens.Frateur took the theoretical knowledge on heredity as the starting point for practical application in cattle breeding. During and right after W.W.I he stated that the current scientific knowledge is enough advanced to consider the start of a large breeding programme for the improvement of cattle livestock. In order to realise this reinstatement Frateur received important support from the authorities (Royal Decree, August 1919). From then onwards he focussed his efforts on the realisation of a national framework for improvement of cattle livestock, in collaboration with regional centres and societies for animal selection, breeding and production. Later he also started programmes for the improvement of chicken and pig breeding, again in a joint effort with official consultants and members of breeding societies. He was not only the architect of these programmes, providing the necessary scientific and technical guidance, but he had also a chair in the governing bodies, supervising the execution and control of the breeding programmes.In order to draw a picture of the research community engaged in animal breeding during the first decennia of the 20th century Frateur's contacts through study tours, congresses and

learned societies are investigated.The life and work of Frateur is described by the author in two volumes, published in 1999. The second volume consists of a reprint of 50 selected papers on animal breeding.

Susan D. JonesGender and veterinary medicine: global historical perspectivesAt the beginning of the twenty-first century, we are living through a transition in the interactions between gender and veterinary medicine. Traditionally male-dominated, veterinary medicine has recently experienced a world-wide increase in the number of women entering veterinary schools and practising in all areas of the profession. Understanding this tradition requests us to ask historical and sociological questions in order to illuminate the role of gender and the participation of women in the development of modern veterinary medicine. This paper will outline an agenda for historians interested in research on gender and veterinary medicine, focussing on three specific methodologies and using some of my own research data to illustrate them.

First, scholars around the world have begun to identify pioneer women veterinarians and write their biographies. This methodology represents the majority of the work published on this topic to date, and it is the first stage of research. It accomplishes many important goals: to recognize key historical figures previously neglected; to establish the important contributions that women have made to veterinary medicine; and to illuminate the development of veterinary ideas and practice in the process of describing women's lives.

Second, I recommend that scholars begin to study the ideological connections between gender and veterinary medicine. This cultural intellectual historical methodology promises to be a fruitful way to study gender and veterinary medicine (as it has been for the history of science and human medicine). Over different time periods and in different places, it explores the cultural gender roles and the culture of veterinary medicine and animal husbandry. By comparing the two, we can explain much about the inclusion (or exclusion) of women and the ideological meanings of veterinary medicine itself within human-animal relationships and within human social organization.

Finally, the sociological approach, encompassing the use of demographics, economics, and social history, should be applied, especially in discussing recent historical concerns. These traditional social science methods work well in answering questions about a profession, who enters it, who leaves it, and why. This methodology also allows comparision between cultures and fits together with the other methodologies I have described.

I encourage historians to explore these and other methodologies in this new and exciting area of research. Also it is our responsibility to ensure that data are being currently collected, since we are living through a transition that will greatly interest historians of veterinary medicine in the future.

Peter A. KoolmeesFeminization of veterinary medicine in The Netherlands 1925-2000The feminisation of veterinary medicine occurred in The Netherlands, as elsewhere in the world, in the course of the twentieth century. In 1930, Jeannette Voet (1907-1979) was the first female veterinarian graduate of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of Utrecht University. In contrast with the first Dutch female physician who graduated in 1878, Jeannette Voet was not an active feminist. Instead, she concentrated on the development of various fields of veterinary medicine during her career. Nevertheless, she played an important role in the acceptance of women in Dutch veterinary medicine. The integration of women into all areas of the veterinary profession was a gradual process. Meat inspection, in particular, proved to be rather conservative in its acceptance of female veterinarians.

The number of women veterinarians in the profession increased only gradually throughout the twentieth century. In 1970, women represented not more than 5% of all veterinarians in The Netherlands. A significant increase in female students was first observed in the 1980s. The large influx of city girls who are primarily interested in companion animal and horse medicine is still quite remarkable. The average percentage of female first-year students between 1988 and 1992 was 60; over the last 5 years, this increased to 70%. Between 1988 and 1999, the average percentage of female graduates grew from 35 to 60%. Consequently, the proportion of Dutch female veterinarians increased from 5 to 25% between 1970 and 2000. In spite of this development, the representation of women veterinarians among policy-making officials, leading veterinary authorities and academic staff (particularly at the professor level) is still quite low. From this point of view, veterinary medicine could still be considered as ‘a man’s job’.

Feminisation of veterinary medicine is often explained by an increase in the numbers of companion animals and horses and part-time jobs or by a different, gender-based attitude towards animals. Another, simpler, explanation is that fewer male students are attracted to veterinary medicine because they can make more money in other professions. More historical sociological research, including a comparison with feminisation in other sciences and broader society, is necessary to obtain a deeper insight into this phenomenon. Regardless, feminisation is likely to further change the veterinary profession in the near future.

K.K.I.M. de BaloghThe role of female veterinarians in AfricaWhile the number of female veterinary students has reached figures as over 80% in the Netherlands and other European countries, the number of female veterinary students in Africa is also changing but still at a slower pace. Still nowadays, according to UNICEF, two-thirds of primary school age children, denied their right to basic education, are girls. In addition, especially in rural areas in Africa, there are only few secondary schools, so that children, either have to travel over large distances on a daily basis or have to live away from their families. As girls, already from an early age, play an important role in the daily household routine, they are often not allowed to leave for schooling.

There used to be less than 10 veterinary faculties in Africa during the first half of the 20th century. These faculties were located in South Africa, Sudan, Egypt and Nigeria. For many years, African veterinarians were also trained in western countries (UK, France, USA) or in former communist countries (Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Hungary, Eastern Germany, Cuba) depending on the existence of historic or political links. A long stay abroad made it more difficult for female students, especially for those with children.

The image of the veterinary profession is different in Africa when compared to Europe or the USA. Most veterinary students in western countries expect to work in clinical practice after their graduation. In Africa on the other hand, most veterinarians work in the government structure and generally their activities are directed towards disease prevention and control as well as administrative activities. With a trend toward privatisation of government services and the increase in urbanisation, a limited number of private practices have evolved mainly in the field of small animals.

Still nowadays, female veterinarians in Africa are mostly working for the veterinary departments mainly in the urban areas. Another area were many female veterinarians can be found are governmental diagnostic and research laboratories as well as training institutions such as veterinary faculties or agricultural colleges. Generally the salaries at these institutions are very low and therefore their male colleagues have gradually shifted to work in the private sector with more competitive salaries (private clinics, pharmaceutical companies, development projects, (agricultural) banks, etc). As still in most societies, women tend to follow their husbands, most female veterinarians are bound to find employment where their husbands are based. In addition, as most postgraduate training required a prolonged stay abroad, women encountered difficulties in leaving their families behind to improve their career perspectives. Gradually, there has been an increase of possibilities of postgraduate training in the African region as well as the introduction of a modular system and perspectives for training over the internet. These developments will clearly be beneficial for women, as it will enable them to follow post-graduate training without leaving their families for extended periods.

Gradually, also female veterinarians in Africa are becoming empowered and recognise their capabilities. The understanding of the importance of gender aspects especially with regard to animal husbandry practices has opened up new opportunities for female veterinarians to work in extension services and as health promoters. The access to further education is the key to expanding their professional perspectives.

John Fisher"Every man his own farrier" in Australia: the origins and growth of a veterinary business in colonial New South WalesThe life and work is told of John Pottie (1832-1908), a Scotsman who graduated from Edinburgh Veterinary College in 1858. A year later, he contracted to provide veterinary care to a consignment of horses bound for Australia. Once there, he founded a firm that has survived to the present day, still marketing products that originated in his own veterinary

remedies.John Pottie brought with him a European tradition of livestock care and treatment that was epitomised in Clater's title and book, Every man his own farrier. His career is of interest for several reasons. Firstly it is because he used this tradition to launch a business enterprise in a new and different market in Australia. Secondly, although his training lay in what may be termed the pre-scientific era of the profession's history, he was able to adapt old traditions successfully to the changes that came in the age of Pasteur and Koch. Finally, the manner in which he did this, besides demonstrating his business acumen, also shows how the professional veterinary qualification gained in value in a new age of science.

Argos 22E.P. Oldenkamp and A.H.H.M. MathijsenTwo letters to Alexander Numan by J.H. van Opdorp, surgeon at Arnemuiden (Province of Zealand)The periodical, Veeartsenijkundig Magazijn, that Numan had started in 1828 caught the attention of a surgeon in a small town in the neighbourhood of Middelburg. In his two letters he tells about his experiences in animal healing, leaving it to Numan which use he eventually might make of these observations. In the first letter (1829) he tells how he as a ship's doctor was shipwrecked in the Indian Ocean, and put ashore on a small island, had succesfully performed an operation on an ass, suffering from a very large praeputial tumor. In his second letter (1830) he tells about his practice in Arnemuiden where he settled after leaving the navy. As there were no trained veterinarians in the surroundings, he extended his care also to animals. A case of a cow suffering from an enlarged heart was, indeed, published by Numan.A biographical sketch of Van Opdorp is added. His name is known in the medical history of the Netherlands, because he was the most fervent adherent of the teachings of Broussais, a professor of medicine in Paris. Although these teachings found many followers in the French-speaking countries, the propaganda made by Van Opdorp through his periodical, devoted to the socalled physiological medicine, did not meet with succes in The Netherlands.

R. StrikwerdaPersonal experiences with freezing bull sperm, 1949-1984The author made his career mainly in activities concerned with artificial insemination in the three northren provinces. He gives here a detailed account of the several phases in the development of the techniques to freeze the semen of the bull.The start was made after a communication by Polge and Rowson of Cambridge at the Second International Congress of Physiology and Pathology of Animal Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Kopenhagen, 1952, who advised the addition of a 10% glycerine solution to the dilutant medium as a protective agent of the spermatozoa against harmful influence of cristallization of the water. Research in the Institute of Animal Husbandry (Organization for Applied Research) in Utrecht led to a device to regulate very precisely the addition of the glycerol so that osmotic shock could be avoided. A new type of freeze chamber, based on cooling by dry ice and alcohol, was constructed after the model designed by a staff member of the Animal Health Service in the Province of Zealand. With these tools the first freezing experiences were gained at the Provincial Animal Health Service in Groningen.

In 1957 a Semen Centre for the Province of Friesland was established by the Friesian Cattle Herdbook and the 17 A.I.-societies then in existence in that province. In 1959 a more sophisticated freon-based freezing apparatus was introduced, that could reach a temperature of - 950 C. and that had a capacity to store 28,000 vials (doses) of sperm. The next step was the introduction, in 1967, of an apparatus based on liquid nitrogen that reached a temperature of -1960 C. For the packing of the sperm no longer vials were used, but droplets of 0.1 ml were formed into pellets at a temperature of -790 C. after a method introduced by the Japanese researchers Nagase et al..

After the author's change-over in 1968 to an A.I.-organization in Meppel (Province of Drenthe) two new developments in the field took place: 1) the number of bulls selected for A.I. were reduced based on insights of population genetics; 2) increase in scale necessitated, for reason of logistics, the substitution of pellets by straws. This straw method was a Danish invention, brought to great perfection in France by dr. R. Cassou. After 1972 all semen was deep-frozen. Good results were obtained after further dilution of the semen and smaller doses than earlier thought possible. The straws contained 0.25 ml semen with 25 million, or by greater extension only 10-15 million spermatozoa without reducing the rate of fertilization.During 1982/83 550,000 straws were frozen, yielded from 1600 ejaculates (i.e. 340 straws/doses pro ejaculate). The number of first inseminations was 98,500 and the non-return percentage after 56 days was 71. 5.

P.A. KoolmeesFrom horse doctor or cow leech to veterinary manager. Regulation of the market for veterinary services in historical perspectiveIn the course of the last two centuries veterinarians succeeded in gaining a monopoly with respect to a number of specific tasks within society under the motto "to the benefit of man and animal alike". Today, a veterinary infrastructure exists in the western world, which is usually taken for granted by society. Before the responsibility for maintaining animal resources and protecting both animal and human health were entrusted to veterinarians, both the process of scientific progress and professionalisation of veterinary medicine were necessary. In this paper the regulation of the market for veterinary services in The Netherlands is described.Until World War II, the military and the colonies represented a major demand for veterinary services. A healthy livestock has always been considered as a main concern by the Dutch government with respect to the domestic food supply as well as exports. State intervention concerning veterinary medicine therefore focused on the organised campaigns against livestock diseases. Early national veterinary legislation originated from this concern, as is still the case today within the EU framework. The protection of human health only became part of the veterinary professional domain at a relatively late stage. Due to a strong economic growth from the 1960s onwards, veterinary practice was extended with the care for an increasing number of companion animals. The veterinary profession and its employment are subject to changes in society, such as the number of animals and the significance that is paid to the different species. In 1900 there were 4 million production animals in The Netherlands, while the human population counted 5 million. One century later, not less than approximately 130

million farm animals and 30 million companion animals are living in this country, which now has about 16 million inhabitants. Consequently, the total number of active vets increased from about 250 to 4,000 in the same period, while the number of group and solo practices both increased.The market for veterinary services has become complicated, since it is increasingly influenced by different actors. The latter may even have conflicting interests. One of the most important actors is the state. On the one hand the state tried to stimulate the development of the profession, on the other hand it attempted to control and direct veterinary medicine by legislation. The 'Instruction for veterinarians' active in the United Kingdom of The Netherlands, which was issued in Brussels in 1819 represented the basis of this state intervention. This instruction counted 24 articles. Today, the size of veterinary regulations and legislation within the EU framework has become enormous, and is again imposed from Brussels.

F.F.J.M. PietersAnimals held in menageries in Amsterdam ca. 1700In the 17th and 18th century the Dutch East and West Indian Companies imported many exotic animals. Many citizens possessed a natural history cabinet or a menagerie. Of at least two menageries we know that they were open to the public for an entrance fee. They attracted many famous visitors. Zoologists among them found animals not yet described before. The keepers of those menageries supplied animals too, sometimes to foreign countries e.g. to the Zoological Garden Schönbronn, established in 1752. Artists and amateurs were inspired by the exotic fauna. From an amateur, called Jan Velten, an album containing ca. 180 drawings, aquarels and gouaches is preserved in the library of the Royal Zoological Society Natura Artis Magistra in Amsterdam, founded in 1838. This manuscript with the title The Wonders of Nature presents a fairly good picture of the contents of both public menageries. After restoration the manuscript is reproduced on Photo CD Its contents can be studied now without any danger for damage to the original.

S. FuksAnimals as symbols on hunting-portraits and still lives of gamePeople, grown rich or famous in the 17th century, had themselves often painted against the background of a hunting-scene and surrounded by hunting-dogs or falcons. They liked to be seen in the same manner as the nobility in the times before.

Still lives with animals are a rich source of symbolism and hidden messages. Painters who specialized in this genre were i.a. Melchior d'Hondeckoeter, Jan Baptist Weenix (1621-ca. 1660) and his son Jan Weenix, Fabritius and Willem van Aelst.

Animals often found in these paintings are: the partridge, the hare, finches, bound together by a split twig, the swan and the quail, mostly depicted together with objects used in hunting these animals, as the quail flute, different nets, sparrow catch and shot-guns.The interpretation of these compositions is possible by studying the contemporary poetry or proverbs.

A number of examples are given revealing the sexual undertones of the depictions. Some symbolism is maintained till our days, e.g. the rabbit tail of the playgirls.The author showed a composition by himself as an imitation of Fabritius.

H. MeyerHow artists see the eating of animalsFeeding and reproduction are among the most important characteristics of living organisms. Since man is keeping domestic animals, he is also responsible for their nutrition. This task of daily care leads to a strong bond between man and animal. In the course of millennia artists have tried to grasp and to depict animal eating or their feeding. Independent of a given cultural period, the artistic intentions can be quite different. We can distinguish three lines: 1) Narrative representations of daily life situations, partially to characterize the interaction between man and animal. 2) Many artists go further by giving a symbolic character to the act of alimentation, be it ironic or as an expression of care or of struggle for life. 3) If the aesthetic element is dominating the primary animalistic process is reduced.The several aspects of the theme were illustrated by fifty pictures (slides) selected from a period of five thousand years.

Argos 21 (1999) A. MathijsenAt the occasion of the 10th anniversary of the Netherlands Veterinary History Society (V.H.G.)The origin of the Society is called to mind and the people involved at that time are mentioned. It can be concluded that the intentions made at the start, to meet at least twice a year and to publish a bulletin were carried out. Also some working groups were set up and some larger studies were published in a serial publication, called V.H.G.-Cahiers.Nevertheless some critical remarks were uttered, pointing to the fact that of the 250+ membership only a few persons engaged themselves actively in historical studies. To improve this two courses were organized. As a result a greater involvement in the near future may be awaited.The assumption is made that the situation could improve also if the members would dispose of a common knowledge base of the field. As this was not provided at the time when most of the members received their veterinary education (the teaching of veterinary history started only three years ago) and no postgraduate education is offered in this subject, the only solution is self-study. Part of the article is, therefore, devoted to draw attention to the books and information tools available that can assist getting this overview, or that can help in doing historical research. In order to stimulate the imagination a list of subjects worthwhile investigating is presented.Some remarks are made on the difference in approach of the sciences and the humanities, and, specifically, on the nature of history as a discipline. Following the article by Brumme and Schäffer (Argos, nr. 8, 1993) a sketch is given of the evolution in writing on veterinary history since the Renaissance. In the last part the main trends since the beginning of the 20th century in the neighbouring countries, France, England and Germany are outlined.

Helmut Wentges and Stefan HörmansdorferFrom folk medicine to pharmaceutical product. An attempt to depict the history of development of some selected drugs.The first author started already in 1936 collecting objects and documents relating to veterinary medicine. This "Aschheim Veterinary Hospital Historical Collection" also includes materials in the fields of ethnology and folk medicine. Therefore, the history of drugs can be shown from their original uses in non-Western civilizations or in folk medicine until their application in the present time. In this article the development of four drugs, arecolin, morphin, cocain and curare is followed from their original uses, through their discovery by explorers, first experiments, isolation, chemical synthesis and application forms. Graphs are added to show the tendency of in- and decrease in the course of time for the original use in folk cultures and for their medicinal uses as well.

J.B. BernsHanging the afterbirth in the tree: folk customs and popular language about the secundines of the horseThis topic was the subject of a questionnaire sent out in 1957 by the Folklore Bureau, a department of the P.J. Meertens-Institute, working under the auspices of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences. The results were published in 1959 and 1969. The head of this Bureau at that time, and the author of these publications was J.J. Voskuil. He became a well-known writer when he started in 1996 the publication of his recollections of the daily life inside the Bureau in the form of a series of seven novels. In this article the results of the investigation are discussed. Map 1 and 2 show the geographical distribution of the modes of treatment, respectively in the past and in 1957. The different modes were: 1. hanging in a tree; 2. burying; 3. burying in the dunghill; 4. throwing away, destruction, feeding to swine etc.. Map 3 shows the use of the afterbirth of horse, cow and sheep for medicinal uses.In the last part the author explains out of his own speciality, i.e. dialectology, the derivation of the words for the afterbirth in use in the several regions of The Netherlands (map 4).

Argos 20 (1999)Editorial: a plea for a Studium Generale, including veterinary history, in the veterinary curriculumThe narrower and broader concepts of veterinary history are outlined. The history of the veterinary sciences and the veterinary profession is defined as the narrower concept, whereas the broader concept encompasses changes of human-animal relationship through time and the cultural aspects of domestic animals as well.A plea is held for bringing together in an organizational framework the study and teaching of those aspects of veterinary medicine that are of a humanistic nature. Elements already, but disconnectedly, offered in the curriculum in Utrecht, are philosophy of science, veterinary ethics, societal facets of veterinary medicine, veterinary history and veterinary legislation. Brought into an organized pattern this complex of disciplines could fill the need of a Studium generale in order to counterbalance the one-sidedness of professional training.

A. MathijsenHorse-riding schools in Utrecht and Leyden in the 18th century, next to the adventurous life of Gaspard Saunier, riding master of Leyden University from 1717 to 1737Although students had opportunities for taking lessons in horse-riding already in the 17th century, the universities of Utrecht and Leyden upgraded their facilities nearly at the same time in the beginning of the 18th century. In Leyden the first official riding master was appointed by the university in 1704 and in Utrecht in the same year an academy linked to the university, was set up to teach horse riding, fencing, dancing and fortification. Although this academy was rather short-living, horse-riding in a university setting was continued till the beginning of the 19th century. In the rivalry between the universities to attract foreign noblemen these facilities fulfilled a certain role.The best known of the riding masters of those days is the French equerry Gaspard Saunier (1683-1748), because he published three books, one on horse diseases and horse anatomy, and two on horsemanship. The first mentioned one is often criticized, a.o. because of the figures plagiarized after Ruini. He came to The Netherlands in 1709 after an adventurous life, mostly in the service of the armies under Louis XIV. His biography as told by a friend, Bruzen de la Martinière, and published in one of his posthumous works, is translated into Dutch and commented upon. His career may be called typical for a horseman of his days.

Tj. PosC.S.Th. van Gink (1890-1968), a central figure in the world of poultry sportVan Gink defended, during more than half a century, the interests of the amateurs of poultry as a journalist, organizer, teacher, breeder and competition judge, in The Netherlands and abroad. He gained worldwide fame for his drawings and paintings of poultry. His pendrawings and aquarels are certainly unique from a technical and artistic point of view.His biography is presented, together with the bibliography of his non-periodical publications. The remains of his library, 1100 items, are kept in the Utrecht Veterinary Library.

A. MathijsenLetters from The Netherlands to prof. Bernhard BangFrom the extensive correspondence left by B. Bang and preserved in Danish archives, eight letters dated between 1894 and 1901, and written by five Dutch veterinarians and one medical doctor, are summarized or transcribed. Their contents are mostly concerned with the fight against bovine tuberculosis. The discussions in the Netherlands Veterinary Association on the first legislation to fight bovine tuberculosis are mentioned. A short outline of Bang's merits for veterinary medicine are given on the basis of the laudatio at the occasion of the honorary doctorate bestowed on Bang by the Veterinary College of Utrecht in 1921.

Argos 19 (1998) J.D. BlaisdellAbominable and relatively unclean flesh: parasites and the prohibition against pork in Ancient Egypt and IsraelDespite suggestions to the contrary, the evidence strongly indicates the Jewish concern for

the pig was a public health one. The association of the concern for this animal with concerns for clean water, the dangers of diseased carcasses and the problems of leprosy suggest the Jews believed eating or even just touching this animal could cause disease. Further evidence suggests this attitude came about as a result of the Jews living in Egypt.There is no question but that the pig in Egypt did not rate the same considerations as other animals: no pigs were ritually embalmed and the only god associated with this animal was a god associated with evil and disruptive forces. Further evidence suggests the pig was considered unclean by the Egyptians from at least the Middle Kingdom, circa 2000-1700 BC. The reason for this lack of appeal among the Egyptians may have been the association of this animal with parasites such as round- and tapeworms. There is no question that such entities were considered major factors in disease causation; when this is factored into an equation that included the belief that pigs were unclean it can be suggested the Egyptians strongly associated pigs with these parasites. The fact that these animals were often associated with garbage collection around the residences of the working class only increased the possibility of this association.Lastly, since the Jewish residences of new Kingdom Egypt, circa 1500-1100 BC, were associated with the working class and thus with the unclean, garbage-eating pig, no doubt these circumstances contributed to the aesthetic sensibility of these people to this animal, as well as to the dog. Thus, the abomination of pork by the ancient Hebrews is due as much to worms as to pigs.

J. JansenSome interesting subjects from a veterinary point of view in a manuscript from 1779The author of the manuscript, Dirk Fontein, was a well educated landowner, industrialist and alderman living from 1735-1816 near Franeker in Frisia. He wrote a small treatise of 34 pages on farm management in his province with remarks on cattle diseases, especially on inoculation against rinderpest. The treatise was sent to the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture of Amsterdam, established in 1776, of which he was a honorary member.The largest part of the ms. is devoted to the manner of plowing, sowing, harvesting and threshing in the clay region, followed by a description of grassland farming. After discussing the husbandry of several domestic animal species and dairying, he continues with observations on the course of rinderpest. According to the author the disease is to be considered as an infectious disease that became endemic. Only cattle that survived an infection proved to be resistant to contamination. The author participated in inoculation trials, set up by Petrus Camper and quite succesfully carried out by Geert Reinders, who had found that inoculation was only effective in calves of cows that had survived the disease. The results of Fontein et al. confirmed these findings.

R. StrikwerdaCattle in the Dutch Paterfamilial literature. Veterinary folk medicine in the 18th century.This paper refers to the author's book on the same subject which contains the outcome of an investigation into eight Dutch books of popular nature in the field of veterinary (especially bovine) medicine which appeared between 1725 and 1802. These books reflect the veterinary

folk medecine in the Netherlands in the time before scientific publications became available. Three of them were completely or predominantly devoted to cattle diseases; the others deal as much with diseases of other domestic animals, especially horses. The study was limited to the diseases of cattle.After a description of the source materials, the author gives abstracts of their contents. For each disease or condition the various prescriptions are recorded, and explanatory notes are added as far as thought necessary.The largest part of the book consists of indexes.In the first one all subjects [110 main items] are dealt with, mainly diseases and/or symptoms (together with their synonyms) and all the substances applied. Next to this alphabetic index the clinical items are categorized after organsystem and disease group.In the second index all [294] component parts of the prescriptions are arranged, classified after their vegetable, animal, organic-chemical, mineral or compounded nature.Altogether 515 prescriptions were found consisting of one to 17 components. More than half (58,5 %) of the prescriptions contained 2 to 5 ingredients.As in the book, some characteristics of the various writings are reviewed. All seem to be free of superstition or magic. Most of the texts however are unstructured and show great diversity of terminology. Only two, one anonymous (J.W.) and the other written by a well educated farmer (PONSE) are composed after a certain scheme. Especially the latter (from 1802) contains influences of scientific writings.Of the 294 different substances used in the prescriptions, 142 were present in three authoritative pharmacotherapeutic works of the 20th century. They were still in use up to the middle of this century, be it for a narrower field of application; and 91 of them still had an officinal status.At the end of the book all of these 142 drugs are listed in an appendix. A second appendix presents all plants occurring in the texts, with their scientific names.

P.A. KoolmeesVeterinary Medicine in The Netherlands, 1940-1945The occupation of The Netherlands in World War II brought consequences for veterinary medicine from social-economic, political, and psychological points of view. The primary goal of the occupying forces was "Verflechtung", that is to interweave all sectors of the Dutch economy with the German military. Regarding veterinary medicine, "Verflechtung" entailed caring for production animals and ensuring their health, the inspection of claimed horses, and the supply of safe food of animal origin. As a result of the "Gleichschaltungs"-policy, all democratic institutions were abolished or forced into line with the Nazi ideology. This applied to all veterinary institutions too. Jews were excluded while a national-socialist veterinary organisation and journal were established. Many veterinarians, especially those in public service, found themselves faced with the moral dilemma of "resistance or collaboration?". Like the majority of the Dutch population, most of the veterinarians followed a strategy of survival, which meant that they partly cooperated in order to prevent worse things from happening.Since they considered veterinary medicine an important discipline, the policy of the Nazi's was to continue veterinary education undisturbed in order to secure future veterinary

potential. Nevertheless, the veterinary faculty was confronted with the nazification of academic education. This led to student strikes and, because of the threat of the "Arbeitseinsatz", many students and teachers went underground. Despite policy to the contrary, veterinary education was actually disrupted in the summer of 1943. It became more and more difficult to carry out a veterinary practice over the course of the war. Livestock numbers had decreased and, due to strict rationing, it was hard to obtain food, fuel, petrol, disinfectants and veterinary drugs. Cars and motorbikes were replaced by horses and bicycles. Because of increased mobility and contacts between domestic and foreign horses, numbers of diseased horses increased.

Argos 18 (1998)S.N. MiltonWestern veterinary medicine in colonial Africa: a survey 1902-1963The paper discusses the origins and often unintended consequences of the application of modern veterinary medicine in Africa during the colonial period. The specific period under review is from the end of the South African War to Kenyanindependence. Many of the European traders, invading armies and settlers that penetrated the African hinterland brought their own animals with them. These animals spread new diseases, which outflanked or overwhelmed existing biological and environmental protective barriers decimating African herds. These insurgent animals, in turn, died in their thousands from indigenous pathogens such as bovine sleeping sickness. With the establishment of the post-conquest colonial state it was the job of attendant European-trained state veterinarians to make sense of this new pathological environment and attempt to assert a degree of control - mainly in the interest of food security - as part of the wider process of colonial consolidation.A primary concern of the paper is to test the extent to which African conditions and indigenous veterinary practice influenced Western veterinary science, knowledge, training and practice. A related concern is to see where, and how, animal health in Africa was transformed by the application of colonial veterinary medicine and what the socio-economic effect of these changes were. In this respect, due regard is given to the veterinary implications of the emergence of new markets and trading networks for beef cattle and dairy products triggered by colonisation and, in particular, mining-based urbanisation.

P. LeeflangThe Civil Veterinary Service in the former Dutch East IndiesThe present State of Indonesia became independent in 1949 after more than three centuries of Dutch rule. An overview of the commercial and political relationship during this period is presented. Organised veterinary service gradually developed in the 19th century. The first government veterinarian arrived in the East Indies in 1820. In 1853 three Dutch veterinarians were recruited to build up a State Veterinary Service. However, at the beginning the veterinary service simmered, mainly because Dutch veterinarians were not interested in a career in the tropics. A severe outbreak of rinderpest, introduced through the importation of breeding Zebu cattle from the British East Indies, around 1880 forced the Colonial Office to employ a few veterinarians to serve for one or two years. The short contract and an attractive payment explain why these recruitments were succesful.

In 1907 a State Veterinary Research Institute was established in Buitenzorg on the island of Java; and in the same year a veterinary school was founded to train native veterinarians and auxillary staff. From this moment veterinary activities took off in the right direction. Due to extensive researches on bacteriology and parasitology and the development of diagnostic facilities and vaccines, infectious diseases could be prevented or combatted. Furthermore, the Veterinary Service was in charge of animal husbandry, livestock breeding and meat inspection. In between the two World Wars, a team of 70 to 100 Dutch veterinarians was employed in government service. They established their own veterinary organisation and veterinary journal. The veterinary contribution to the development of animal health and production and to the increase of the number of draught animals and of food of animal origin was recognized and highly appreciated.During the Second World War, when the Dutch veterinarians were locked up in internment camps, the native veterinarians showed their great ability and skill to maintain a favourable animal health situation. After repatriation of the last Dutch veterinarians in 1956, they left behind a solid structure of veterinary research, university training and field service.

I.J.R. Visser and J.W. HesselinkThe development of plantations and livestock on CuraçaoIn 1499 the Spanish sailors Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci discovered the Caribean islands Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao. The Spaniards introduced their domestic animals from Europe, primarily for the use of their skins. As no gold was found on the islands and after most of the original inhabitants were removed as slaves, they declared the islands to be islas inútiles and only a very few Spanish people remained. Therefore, it costed only a small effort to Dutch sailors under the leadership of Johan van Walbeeck to conquer the islands in 1634. Ever since the islands are under Dutch control (except for the period 1800-1815, when the English took over). The Dutch West Indian Company made Curaçao into a busy trade center with the slave trade as the main business. Sufficient food supply became a necessity. During the period 1660 to 1725 plantations were build. Cattle, sheep and goats were kept in growing numbers for meat production.With the growing opposition against slavery at the end of the 18th century Curaçao lost its position as an international harbour. But since 1918 oil refinery brought wealth again.The animal disease situation in the earlier period is poorly documented. At the end of the 19th century Dutch Cattle Law was introduced. The prevailing livestock diseases are discussed, some of them being typical for the Caribean.

G.T. HaneveldToers Diesbergen Schubaert (1805-1853), prosector of the State Veterinary School, illustator and entomologistSchubaert was born in Harderwijk as the son of a German fisherman. Harderwijk had a university that was closed in 1811. One of its professors, Theodoor Gerard van Lidt de Jeude (1788-1863) was appointed in 1819 to be the first director of the Veterinary School in Utrecht. He engaged the young boy to assist him in the care of his private anatomical and zoological collections. As he proved to be skilful in anatomical techniques and in drawing as well, he was appointed prosector of the School in 1822. He fulfilled this function until 1842,

when he changed over to the Medical Faculty in Utrecht. At the Veterinary School he continued work as 'repetitor' (student's coach) for the disciplines of Van Lidt de Jeude (anatomy and physiology), who disliked teaching. In fact Schubaert seems to have done most of the teaching job. He published several atlasses of horse anatomy and an atlas of his models of human brains. His wax models and injection preparations brought him some fame. For the newly founded Veterinary School in Brussels he delivered 400 preparations and in 1851 he trained Alphons Demarbaix (1825-1899), who later became professor of anatomy.At the Medical Faculty he worked under prof. J.L.C. Schroeder van der Kolk. The dissertations written under his guidance and illustrated by Schubaert, are enumerated. At the Medical Faculty he found the opportunity to do microscopical work.Next to his official duties, Schubaert formed a large anatomical and zoological cabinet of his own, auctioned after his death. The contents of his collections are described. They contained vertebrate and invertebrate specimens. He was especially interested in entomology and he presented several papers on entomological subjects in the meetings of the Dutch Entomological Society.In a last paragraph the relics of Schubaert's preparations, still kept in the university, are reported.

Argos 17 (1997) M.C. HorzinekThe beginnings of animal virology in GermanyAnimal virology started in 1898 with the discovery of FMD virus. The finding resulted from a close collaboration between Friedrich Löffler (University of Greifswald) and Paul Frosch (then at Robert Koch's institute in Berlin). Their work in Greifswald was greatly hampered by the danger of dissemination of foot and mouth disease in the surroundings. Therefore Löffler proposed to set up a research unit on the Island of Riems in the Baltic Sea. In the Fall of 1910 work could start in the Research Institute Riems Island. A great foreward step was set when Löffler's successor, prof. Otto Waldmann, succeeded in 1920 in transmitting the infection to guinea pigs by intradermal inoculation in the hind pad. Under Waldmann's aegis the Riems developed into a full-fledged FMD research station. The most important achievement for veterinary medicine was the development of a vaccine in 1938 that proved efficient and safe.Today, the Riems laboratories form part of the Federal Research Centre for Virus Diseases of Animals, together with the Tübingen Unit.

B. Baljet and G.C.M. HeijkeVeterinary double-monsters historically viewedA large number of duplication monstrosities have been observed in cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, goats, cats and dogs, ever since the publication of the famous wood cut of a swine double monster by J.S.Brant in Basel in 1496, better known as the "wunderbare Sau von Landser im Elsass". Albrecht Dürer also made a woodcut of this double monster in front of the village Landser in 1496. A picture of a deer double monster was published in 1603 by Heinrich Ulrich in Germany. In the monograph De monstrorum caussis, natura et differentiis..., published by the Italian Fortunius Licetus in 1616 pictures of double monsters being half man half dog are found. These fantasy figures have been popular for a long time and were

supposed to be really in existence. Apart from these fantasy figures many pictures are known from real veterinary double monsters. U. Aldrovandus described in 1642 in his Monstrorum historia, besides many fantasy figures, also real human and veterinary double monsters and he gave also good pictures of them.In the 19th century examples of veterinary duplication monstrosities were published by I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1832-37), E.F. Gurlt (1832), W. Vrolik (1840) and C. Taruffi(1881); they proposed also concepts concerning the etiology. In the second volume of his famous handbook of teratology (1907), E. Schwalbe described many veterinary double monsters and discussed the theories of the genesis of congenital malformations. Various theories concerning the genesis of double monsters have been given since Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). He was already familiar with embryonic chicken double monsters and suggested the possibility of joining of the two early embryos. But also supranatural and astrological causes became very popular and it was not before the beginning of the 19th century that the fission theory and the fusion theory became the two possibilities for the explanation of double monsters. G.J. Fisher stated in 1866 in his paper "Diploteratology" that: "duplex formations are invariably the product of a single ovum". In this study well-documented descriptions of duplex formations in dog, cattle, lamb, pigeon, snake, tortoise and shark were given. The current explanation for duplication monstrosities, well supported by experimental observations on fish, amphibian and chicken embryos still employs two theories, the fission theory and the collision theory, a latter modification of the disregarded idea of fusion.Another interesting phenomenon is the development of various classification systems for double monsters as well as the development of nomenclature. In France the modified system of I.Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1832) is still in use while in other countries more simple classification systems, mostly based on the classification system of E. Schwalbe (1907) were introduced.

P. MandigersObstetrical observations by the cow doctor W. Munter (1767-1838) from Goudswaard (Prov. South-Holland)Before the time that certified veterinarians from the Veterinary School of Utrecht became available, assistance with difficult parturitions of farm animals often was given by experienced cow doctors. Such a cow doctor was W. Munter, who practised at one of the islands of South-Holland. He had obtained a license for veterinary practice after being examined by the socalled Leyden Commission, in 1808 installed by King Louis Napoléon.In 1829 Munter communicated several of his case stories to Alexander Numan, director of the Veterinary School.These are edited and commented here. They shed light on the obstetrical problems Munter met in his practice and on the manner he solved them, and also on his views on the backwardness of many of his clients. It is concluded that Munter had a good practical knowledge and that he worked with accuracy.

Argos 16 (1997)J.R. FisherOf cattle plague and veterinary science: BSE in Britain in historical perspective

The title of this paper arises out of the treatment of the present BSE epizootic in sections of the British (and Australian) press. References to the 'Cattle Plague', naturally evoke the memory of the epizootic of rinderpest in the 1860's in Great Britain - and lead on to thoughts of comparative treatment. On this score, it is evident that, on anything more than the most superficial glance, the differences between the epizootics are pronounced. Analogies are unlikely to yield anything of any scientific value. Nevertheless, an attempt to set the two episodes into comparative perspective in veterinary history may have some merit. As the name applied to BSE in the press demonstrates, any similarity between the two outbreaks lies in the public responses to them. In 1865, in Britain, the credibility of professional science and knowledge came under question and public policy on animal health was found wanting. There have been like developments in 1996. These analogies are suggestive and, it is argued here that just as the rinderpest epizootic was the catalyst for major developments in veterinary science and the veterinary profession in the nineteenth century, so the BSE epizootic could occasion path-breaking changes in the late twentieth century.

C. HuygelenThe early history of immunization against three morbillivirus diseases: measles, rinderpest and canine distemperIn the eighteenth century measles, rinderpest and canine distemper were causing high morbidity and mortality in the human and animal populations of Europe. The opinion leaders of the time thought that all three diseases belonged to the pox group. Since small pox inoculation or variolation was becoming more popular toward the middle of the century, it seemed logical to extend the principle to other diseases presumed to belong to the same category. Attempts to inoculate against rinderpest and measles started in the 1750's. The first rinderpest inoculation experiments were done in England, but most later trials were carried out in The Netherlands, Northern Germany and Denmark. Rinderpest inoculation was abandoned in Western Europe before the end of the century, but continued to be applied in Russia for several decades thereafter. The first measles inoculations were performed in Scotland a few years after the first rinderpest experiments. Over a two hundred year period sporadic measles trials were carried out in various countries, but they never led to any widespread use. When Jenner's discovery of the protection afforded by vaccinia against smallpox became known, attempts were made to use vaccinia also against other diseases, particularly against dog distemper. Edward Jenner himself was the first to give a detailed description of distemper and also the first to try vaccinia to protect against it. Not surprisingly all these attempts failed. The progress in the search for effective immunization against the three diseases followed closely parallel paths. Reliably safe and effective live attentuated vaccines against all three did not become available before the second half of the twentieth century, two hundred years after the first attempts.

Ingrid J.R. VisserHaematuria in cattle in The Netherlands in historical perspectiveHaematuria (Blutharnen, Pissement du sang, bloedwateren) in cattle has been a typical vlinical phenomenon throughout the years. Especially in specific districts of the Netherlands the disease occured with a high incidence. Many theories about the origin of haematuria were

developed. These involved climatic influences, the quality of the pastures, the consumption of specific plants or the presence of different beetles and insects in the fields. A large variation of therapeutic medicines was tried, most of them with a stimulating and irritating activity. The prognosis for older animals was better than for young ones. On the basis of the 18th century Dutch paterfamilial literature and the teachings of Alexander Numan, professor at the State Veterinary School of Utrecht, the causes, prevention and treatment of haematuria in cattle are discussed. Mention is made of the discovery of the etiologic agent by Babes and of several studies by Dutch veterinarians in this century. P. Mandigers Obstetrical observations by the cow doctor W. Munter (1767-1838) from Goudswaard (Prov. South-Holland) Before the time that certified veterinarians from the Veterinary School of Utrecht became available, assistance with difficult parturitions of farm animals often was given by experienced cow doctors. Such a cow doctor was W. Munter, who practised at one of the islands of South-Holland. He had obtained a license for veterinary practice after being examined by the socalled Leyden Commission, in 1808 installed by King Louis Napolon. In 1829 Munter communicated several of his case stories to Alexander Numan, director of the Veterinary School. These are edited and commented here. They shed light on the obstetrical problems Munter met in his practice and on the manner he solved them, and also on his views on the backwardness of many of his clients. It is concluded that Munter had a good practical knowledge and that he worked with accuracy.

Argos 15 (1996)A. Numan"On the duties of the veterinarian, and the rules he has to observe in the performance of his art"To conclude his lessons on General therapeutics Alexander Numan (1780-1851), director of the Utrecht Veterinary School, was used to devote a lecture on veterinary ethics. The most important elements of a code of practice are here given already: (1) how to behave as a worthy member of the profession; (2) how to deal with the animal owner; (3) how to entertain contacts with colleagues. Most attention is given to (1); the other points are mentioned only in passing. Ad 1: He advised at the one hand to be very careful in making a diagnosis or in planning a therapy, but at the other hand to be audacious and vigorous if the life of a patient would be on stake. It was considered to be of the highest importance to win the confidence of the animal owner. If a disease was initially not understood Numan judged it permissible to conceal doubts by applying harmless treatment. The veterinarian should never boast on own successes and bear in mind that Nature could have brought about the healing earlier than the therapy applied. He insisted on the necessity to keep studying by reading the professional literature, and also by keeping a practice diary to record disease histories and to compare these with experiences of others. Numan warned his pupils for the danger of routine in their daily practice. The best antidote would be continuing learning. Ad 2: Treatment of an experimental nature should only be performed after gaining consent of the animal owner. (In fact only the Veterinary School would be the right place to do experiments). He warned for the ignorance and the superstitious beliefs of many farmers. Of all people the veterinarian would be in the best position to instruct them. Ad 3: The brothers in the profession were there

to consult with. If disagreements arose, only rational arguments were allowed to come into play. In a separate chapter Numan summs up the requirements he thought essential for a good veterinarian. The transcript is made after an autograph kept in the Library of the Veterinary Faculty in Utrecht.

B.A. SteltenpoolServants of Aesculapius and Mars. The military veterinarian in The Netherlands East-IndiesThirty years later than in patria the Veterinary Corps of the Royal Netherlands Indian Army was formed. Its members became officers belonging to the Military Medical Service. Before 1845 the horse doctors were under the command of officers of the cavalry. In the following period until 1921 a slow but steady emancipation of the Corps took place. The number of horse doctors increased from three in 1830 to twelve in 1921; the rank that could be attained was that of a captain in 1859, of a major in 1904 and of a lieutenant-colonel in 1914. In 1890 the responsabilities were precisely circumscribed in the Regulations for the Military Veterinary Service. Several garnisons got their animal hospitals with an own corps of nursing horse orderlies of about 70 persons. In 1921 the Military Veterinary Service was made to an independant unit, with an own inspectorate, inside the War Department. Until the begin of the 20th century the horses most in use were ponies of many native breeds (from Timor, Sumbawa, Bali, Java or Makassar). Then horses from of greater height were imported from Australia, and during the First World War also from Mongolia. Horses were in use with the cavalry, artillery and infantry. The cavalry, building only 3% of the total army force, nevertheless had 800-1000 horses. They were concentrated on the Island of Java in four garrisons (Batavia, Bandung, Salatiga and Malang); next to these there were, mostly for ceremonial reasons, cavalry units in Djokjakarta and Soerakarta. As mechanical traction gradually was introduced for the field artillery, horse-traction kept its importance for the mountain-artillery. Until the Japanese invasion in 1942 the mountain-artillery had 157 Australian and 411 native horses. Besides the use of horses by the officers of the infantry, here horses were used as baggage carriers (a battalion needed about 110 horses). Already in 1817 a start was made with a remonte, set up at Salatiga. Annual statistics of disease occurrences, as far as the garrisons were concernerd, were reported since 1890 (for the time after 1910 only stationary patients were taken into account). The diseases were classified in twelve main categories. The number of horses that needed treatment was considerable; the averages for the five-year periods 1891/1895 and 1905/1909 are given, being resp. 3495 and 6080 for 1500 and 2350 horses. In 1911 for the 2030 horses present, 3521 times stationary treatment was necessary. The surgical cases were reported separately. One of the greatest problems was caused by Pseudomonas malle infections. As the Australian horses were free of malleus, much attention was given to hygiene in order to prevent that they became infected. In 1902 the mallene test was introduced. But the Australian horses showed a great sensibility to a disease, now termed "Bran disease", "Miller's disease" or "Big head", then described as osteomalacia or osteoporosis, caused by maladaptation to a new diet. Next to their normal tasks the military horse doctors were active in the Veterinary Association of the Netherlands East-Indies, established in 1885. A great number of articles in its journal bear testimony of their scientific interests. They teached hippology and horseshoeing in their garrisons. They

played their role in commissions to acquire new horses for the army. Also they accomplished tasks in the food and fodder inspection. In 1950, together with the liquidation of the Royal Netherlands Indian Army, the Military Veterinary Service was abolished.

J.D. BlaisdellReviled for the sake of health: distemper and the status of the dog in Ancient IsraelTexts from the Old Testament suggest that it was believed that dogs could not only suffer from periodic outbreaks of infectious diseases, but could them transmit also to men. The question, what possible afflictions could infect both humans and dogs, is investigated. It is hypothesized that at at one time in the ancient world there existed a common ancestor of the measles-distemper-rinderpest virus, that caused serious disease in both animals and humans. The ancient Hebrews saw the dog as a carrier of this affliction. Evidence for the occurrence of a contagious disease among dogs is to be found in the dog cemetry at Ashkelon (Israel).

P.A. KoolmeesThe teaching of veterinary history restarted [in Utrecht]With the introduction of a new curriculum in the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of Utrecht University a number of optional subjects are given to the students of the first year. One of them is veterinary history. The article by the teacher of this subject reports on the goals set, the methods used and the results.

Argos 14 (1996) A.H.H.M. MathijsenJubilees on the establishment of a school for veterinary education in The Netherlands in the past (1872, 1921, 1946, 1971)In view of the celebration in May 1996 of the 175th anniversary of veterinary education in The Netherlands, an overview is given of the festivities to commemorate the golden jubilee, the centennial, the hundred twenty fifth and the sesquicentennial anniversary. The programs are described and compared in relation to the social conditions of the school, the aims of the organizers, the participants and the outcome in terms of contributions to the history of veterinary medicine. It is stated that the manner of celebrating reflected the self-image of the school and of the professional organization that prevailed at the time.It is significant that the celebration of the golden jubilee was one year overdue. The tide for the school was turning. Some had mixed feelings because they thought their efforts to uplift the school and the profession remained without success, others felt supported by the recent enforcement of the Contagious Disease Act and by the change in the directorate of the School.A mysterious, but comprehensible "due to circumstances" prevented a commemoration of the 75th anniversary (there were serious misunderstandings between the teachers and the director at that time).

The centenary, however, was a great manifestation, not without a certain triumphalism, because three years earlier (1918) university status was obtained.

Then in 1946, just after the war and still in impoverished conditions, a sober commemoration took place. The dean of the faculty took the opportunity to draw the lines for future developments. After a rather slow recovery during the afterwar years, the faculty could rejoice the progress made in many respects at the time of the 150th anniversary. In the programme of the festivities attention was given to all aspects of the veterinary spectrum. A very detailed new history of the School was published and presented to H.M. the Queen, who attended the official academic session. A characteristic of all celebrations was the support and active participation of the veterinary profession of the country and its association.

Ingrid J.R. VisserOrganized control of communicable diseases in animals in The Netherlands in the 18th, 19th and beginning of the 20th centuryA short review is given of the measures taken to combat infectious diseases that ravaged the cattle herds in the past. The largest part of the article focuses on rinderpest and fibrous pleuropneumonia ('lung plague'). The country was invaded by rinderpest three times in the 18th and two times in the 19th century. During the three invasions in the 18th century the losses were enormous, causing disaster in the cattle-rich areas of Holland and Frisia. People and local governements were helpless. Neither praying nor issuing decrees could do anything. Advices given by medical faculties remained without any effect. Inocculations, although not effectless, were practiced on a too small scale to be effective. In the very last year of that century the conclusion was reached that stamping out would be the only effective measure. A law was enacted to provide for a Cattle Fund to compensate for losses which farmers would suffer by enforced slaughtering. The succes of this policy was proved shortly afterwards; an outbreak caused by some cattle brought into the country by an army on its way to Waterloo, could be stopped. Pleuropneumonia caused heavy losses especially in the 19th century. From 1831 until 1886 the outbreaks of the disease occurred. As its character remained unclear it took a long time before it was decided to use the method of stamping-out. In the mean time the Cattle Fund was exhausted. As in 1865 a new outbreak of rinderpest occurred in the neighbourhood of Rotterdam by reimporting cattle from the London market, and the fight was hampered by lack of veterinary legislation, the first Contagious Animal Disease Act was enacted, coming into force on the 1st of January 1871. Then the Veterinary Service was established and a regular control system of animal diseases could be set up. The next step forward was the establishment of the Serum Institute at Rotterdam in 1904. The fight against bovine tuberculosis was started at the turn of the century in Friesland. The initiative was taken by the local dairy industry. With the support of the Frisian Agricultural Society and the Frisian Cattle Herdbook a laboratory headed by the veterinarian dr. A.H. Veenbaas, could be established in Leeuwarden in 1919. The succes of this first Provincial Animal Health Service, reducing the incidence of tuberculosis in cattle in 25 years time from 30% to 5%, served as an example for the other provinces to establish animal health services too.Their investigations and systematic campaigns contributed largely to the improvement of animal health in The Netherlands.

J. HofmanThe successful eradication of bovine tuberculosis in The Netherlands, mainly in the

period after 1945The campaign against bovine tuberculosis was the primary objective of the ten Provincial Animal Health Services established in 1946-1947, next to the Frisian Cattle Health Service, already in existence since 1919. After a short description of the disease and its implications for humanhealth, an outline is given of the steps leading to a nearly complete eradication in a relatively short time period of five years. Next to the technical and legal aspects, the financial and organizational and also the psychological factors are mentioned. The last ones are important because voluntary cooperation of the farmers is essential to fight diseases not listed in the Contagious Animal Disease Act. The right information, followed by persuasion and helped by financial stimuli led to the desired goal. Because the Animal Health Services were set up as organizations of the farmers themselves and also partly financed by them (by a levy on the milk production) the scheme took off under favourable conditions. It was experienced that a system of rewards (by certification of animals or farms free of disease) had to be given preference to a system of punishment (by punching holes in the ears of animals that showed a positive reaction to the tuberculin test). Other important factors for a succesfull campaign turned out to be a watertight system of identification and registration, backed up by a good administration, in order to be able to trace down each individual animal. Earmarks were in use since the twenties. But these could be lost and therefore a second tool was taken into use at the time the campaign started (1950/1951), viz. sketching of the patches on the hides of each animal. In 1991 sketching was abolished again to be replaced by the large earmarks at both ears. A well equiped laboratory and rooms for morbid pathology were also part of the necessary infrastucture. To compensate the farmers for the losses suffered by slaughtering the animals that presented a positive reaction to the tuberculin test, a fund was formed, partially out of "Marshall money", partially by an extra levy on milk; however, this levy could be regained, if a farm could be declared free of tuberculosis before a certain date.The author concentrates mainly on the experiences gained in the three Northern provinces of the country during the five year period of the main campaign, but data for the whole country for the follow-up period lasting until 1971, are presented as well. Although the herds were almost free of tuberculosis in the mid-fifties (the incidence was reduced from an estimated 30% in 1945 to 0.05% in 1956/57) tuberculination on a reduced scale was continued until 1992 because infection of human origin remains possible. Since 1992 control is confined to the normal meat inspection procedures in the abattoirs.

P. LeeflangArgos, body-guard of Io, or how the peacock got the beautiful eyes in his fanOne of the famous stories of Greek mythology in which a human being is transformed in an animal is retold here. It is the wonderful adventure of Io, daughter of Inachos.After having been seduced by Zeus lovely Io was changed into a silvery shining cow because Zeus himself felt catched by his suspicious spouse Hera. Moreover Zeus submitted under Hera's pressure and gave her control over the cow. Hera appointed Argos to keep guard over Io. Argos was an ideal guard because he never slept. He had hundred eyes and of these he closed only two at the same time. Io suffered very much under her fate, especially after she had met her father who could not help her. Argos carried her off to isolated meadows and

overlooked her from an hill. Zeus then gave orders to his son Hermes to liberate the unhappy Io, if necessary by force.Hermes flew to earth and metamorphosed into a sheperd. Piping alluring tones he approached Argos who invited him to sit next to him. Then he started talking and telling long-winded stories that diverted Argos' attention. With the help of his magic rod Hermes induced sleep in the guard, and with a sword, hidden under his cloak, he killed him and threw him down the hill. Hera saw what happened. She frightened Io so terribly that she fled away and kept running chased by a warble fly. She ran along the shores of a sea, later called after her the Ionian Sea. She passed the Bosporus (i.e. crossing-place of cattle) and via Asia reached Egypt, where she arrived completely exhausted. Zeus, full of compassion, swore then to Hera to remain a faithful husband and he received permission to give back the human form to Io. In Egypt Io was venerated for her beauty and they made her a queen. After her death a temple was erected in her honour, and next to hers another temple was build for her son Epaphos, born from the seed of Zeus.It was the work of Hera to ensure the memory of poor Argos by transplanting his eyes in the fan of the peacock.Many artists in Antiquity and in the Renaissance were inspired by this story; an enumeration of those art works is given.

Argos 13 (1995) J.R. FisherThe European Enlightenment, political economy and the origins of the veterinary profession in BritainThere is now a considerable secondary literature on the origins and early development of the British veterinary profession. This literature, however, is overwhelmingly supply-side orientated, accounting for the origins of the profession, and of the London Veterinary College in particular, with only a cursory acknowledgment of demand factors. This paper marks an initial attempt to right the balance.By the late 18th century, there was a potential demand for specialist veterinary services from three main sectors: agriculture, transport and the military. Of these, the first has traditionally received most attention but was probably of least significance as a source of effective demand. Rather, it was military requirements, especially during wartime, which played a crucial role in shaping the nature of the emergent profession and its incipient institutions.There was something of a paradox to this development in the context of contemporary trends in British political economy - in particular, the growing hegemony of laissez-faire ideology. This paradox is explored here and it is argued that the dependence on public demand, in the context of the political consequences of the ascendacy of laissez-faire, was a major cause of professional problems and tensions in early British veterinary history. These features became especially apparent after 1815 and underlay a continuing degree of professional backwardness by comparison to the rest of Western Europe.

W.J. Mulder and A.P. WijgergangsThe obstetrical instrumentation for bovines

Only those instruments used for the delivery of a living calf are considered here. The various types of forceps in the collection of the Utrecht Veterinary Museum are described. These forceps were designed in the first half of the 19th century. Before that time only levers were used for difficult deliveries. The first forceps described in Dutch veterinary literature (Erismann, 1793; Le Franc van Berkhey, 1808; Numan, 1819) had simple straight parallel blades resembling the instrument that Jan Palfijn (1650-1730) of Ghent developed for use in humans. Two types, resp. 69 and 93 cm in length and 2,6 and 4,8 kg in weight, are preserved. Other models are based on the instruments of the French doctor André Levret (1703-1780) or the Scottish obstetrician William Smellie (1680-1763), the major differences lying in the construction of the locks, and, of course, in their shape. As all these instruments were very heavy and impractical, and above all not adapted to the manner in which the calf presents itself at birth, they were of very limited use. Therefore, various types of extraction instruments were developed (machines of Bargeboer, of Baron or of Rancy). As accidents occurred due to the great tractive force of these machines, their use was prohibited. Nowadays, only the use of the parturition jack, if constructed according to strict regulations, is permitted.

J. A. RenkemaDutch livestock industry since World War II in economical-historical perspectiveThe developments in livestock industry were mostly determined by the following three external factors: 1. relative degrees of shortage of means of production and products as expressed in markets and prices; 2. technological developments; 3. agricultural policy. The technological developments were without doubt the main driving forces behind the enormous adaptations of the livestock industry in the period under consideration. Due to these technological innovations the consumer in 1990 had to pay only 12-50% for several agricultural products in comparison with the prices of 1950, although labor costs increased by 382% in the same period.The specific aspects of the dairy industry and of pig and poultry farming are described.As it is anticipated that markets will be glutted in the near future and prices will be under constant pressure, while at the same time governments will decrease price compensations, farmers will have to concentrate on quality and diversification of their products. The fulfilment of new tasks in the field of nature or landscape conservation can bring in new forms of income to the farmers. But an overall decrease in the number of farms can be forecasted. On the other hand these farms will be on a larger scale and will probably be more specialized.

Argos 11 (1994) A.G. Thomsen and J.D. BlaisdellFrom the fangs of Cerberus: the possible origin of the classical beliefs of rabiesThe leading classical medical authors of the first two centuries of our era reached the conclusion that rabies was caused by a poisonous substance and that this came from the fangs of a mad dog.As it was for the first time that such beliefs were expressed, and the fact that the three authors (Pliny, Celsus and Galen) do not refer to each others work, it is suggested that a common

source must have been in existence. It is hypothetized that they based their ideas on the writings on the mythical multi-headed dog of Hades, Cerberus.The characteristics ascribed to Cerberus by Homer, Hesiod, Vergil and Ovid are analysed and it is concluded that these writings may have inspired the medical authors to introduce a poisonous substance (a 'virus') as the cause of rabies.

J. de VriesVeterinarians in Friesland, 1800-1850A formal veterinary education in the Netherlands was established in 1821. Before that year veterinary medicine was practised by people with different backgrounds such as medical doctors, reverents and farmers. The largest group of people involved in practising veterinary medicine were those who had gathered their knowledge by tradition and by experience, the so-called empiricists. In the province of Friesland 38 empiricists were registered in 1812. From 1809 onwards empiricists could pass an examination which authorized them to provide veterinary care. Five of these authorized 'veterinarians' settled down in the province of Friesland in the period 1819-1823. The first two veterinarians who graduated from the State Veterinary School came to Friesland in 1826. Between 1821 and 1850 a total of 19 graduate veterinarians were allotted a post in Friesland by agricultural societies. Thirteen of them were Frisian, 6 came from other parts of the country. A national questionnaire held in 1846, which was organised to assess the extent of empiricism, showed that veterinary medicine in Friesland was practised by 11 graduate veterinarians and 53 empiricists. The authorities concluded that they could not do without the practical knowledge of the empiricists. Legal protection of the veterinary profession was therefore not established. Due to the presence of the large number of empiricists, it was rather difficult for the graduate veterinarians to establish a practice large enough to make ends meet. Furthermore, they lacked practical training. One of the main problems the veterinarians had to deal with was the contagious pleuro-pneumonia in cattle. They had no effective treatment at their disposal, a fact that damaged their reputation in the eyes of the farmers. In 1849 the Frisian veterinarians established a society. It lasted, however, only a couple of years. Attempts to establish a provincial veterinary service failed. Around 1850 the perspectives for veterinarians were rather bad. This situation would last until the 1870s when the government was more willing to protect the veterinary profession.

D.J. HouwersBrucella-DNA in a waste-pit from the early 15th centuryIn an excavated waste-pit in Breda (Province of North-Brabant, The Netherlands) a great number of bones from cattle embryos was found, indicating a high incidence of abortions. Fragments of household utensils in the pit could be dated as to be from the early 15th century. In order to find the cause of the abortions some material was analysed with the aid of the polymerase-chain-reaction (PCR)-technique. Microbial proteins of that age are decomposed, but DNA is remaining intact. Sequencing of a fragment of DNA led to the probability diagnosis of brucellosis. The disease will not have been confined to cattle, but will have infected the human population too. The low life expectancy of those days can partially be explained by the frequent occurrence of brucellosis.