FIRST LANGUAGE FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITIONACQUISITION

WEEK 1WEEK 1

Definition of LanguageDefinition of Language A consolidation of a number of possible definitions of A consolidation of a number of possible definitions of

language yields the following composite definition:language yields the following composite definition:1.1. Language is systematicLanguage is systematic2.2. Language is a set of arbitrary symbolsLanguage is a set of arbitrary symbols3.3. Those symbols are primarily vocal, but may also be Those symbols are primarily vocal, but may also be

visualvisual4.4. The symbols have conventionalized meanings to The symbols have conventionalized meanings to

which they differwhich they differ5.5. Language is used for communicationLanguage is used for communication6.6. Language operates in a speech community or cultureLanguage operates in a speech community or culture7.7. Language is essentially human, although possibly not Language is essentially human, although possibly not

limited to humanslimited to humans8.8. Language is acquired by all people in much the same Language is acquired by all people in much the same

way; language and language learning both have way; language and language learning both have universal characteristics.universal characteristics.

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION "What theory implies, quite simply, is that "What theory implies, quite simply, is that

language acquisition, first or second, occurs language acquisition, first or second, occurs when comprehension of real messages when comprehension of real messages occurs, and when the acquirer is not 'on the occurs, and when the acquirer is not 'on the defensive'... Language acquisition does not defensive'... Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. It does not occur overnight, tedious drill. It does not occur overnight, however. Real language acquisition however. Real language acquisition develops slowly, and speaking skills develops slowly, and speaking skills emerge significantly later than listening emerge significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect. skills, even when conditions are perfect.

The best methods are therefore those The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. that students really want to hear.

These methods do not force early These methods do not force early production in the second language, but production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production.forcing and correcting production.

The first language is the language a person The first language is the language a person is most comfortable with in communication.is most comfortable with in communication.

This may be the first language he or she This may be the first language he or she required but need not be so.required but need not be so.

For example, many non-Malay children in For example, many non-Malay children in Malaysia may have acquired their mother Malaysia may have acquired their mother tongue first and be most proficient in it at tongue first and be most proficient in it at the point of entry into school.the point of entry into school.

But after several years of Malay medium But after several years of Malay medium education, they may regard Bahasa Melayu education, they may regard Bahasa Melayu as their first language, although it may not as their first language, although it may not be the language they acquired first.be the language they acquired first.

The Relationship of Theory to The Relationship of Theory to PracticePractice

In deciding how to develop language teaching methods andIn deciding how to develop language teaching methods andmaterials, one can take three approaches: make use of second materials, one can take three approaches: make use of second language acquisition theory, make use of applied linguistics language acquisition theory, make use of applied linguistics research, and make use of ideas and intuition from experience. research, and make use of ideas and intuition from experience.

These approaches should in fact support each other and lead to These approaches should in fact support each other and lead to common conclusions. This book incorporates all three approaches, common conclusions. This book incorporates all three approaches, with a hope of reintroducing theory to language teachers. While with a hope of reintroducing theory to language teachers. While "most current theory may still not be the final word on second "most current theory may still not be the final word on second language acquisition," it is hoped that teachers will use the ideas language acquisition," it is hoped that teachers will use the ideas in this book as another source alongside of their classroom and in this book as another source alongside of their classroom and language-learning experiences.language-learning experiences.

We know what is involved in the process of We know what is involved in the process of language learning but unfortunately we do language learning but unfortunately we do not know exactly how a person learns a not know exactly how a person learns a language.language.

Even so, in order to make efforts to Even so, in order to make efforts to language teaching and learning effective, language teaching and learning effective, we have to base our classroom practice on we have to base our classroom practice on sound theories of learning.sound theories of learning.

Certain theories from the field of Certain theories from the field of psychology, sociology and linguistics have psychology, sociology and linguistics have had a profound effect upon what we do in had a profound effect upon what we do in the language classroom.the language classroom.

There are some major theories that had There are some major theories that had impact on language learningimpact on language learning

BehaviouristBehaviourist In early 20In early 20thth century century Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike believe that it is Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike believe that it is

possible to predict and explain the way people possible to predict and explain the way people learn by studying the behaviour of animals.learn by studying the behaviour of animals.

They believed that it is possible to train an They believed that it is possible to train an animal to behave in any desired manner by animal to behave in any desired manner by using a learning model which consists of a using a learning model which consists of a stimulus, response and reinforcement.stimulus, response and reinforcement.

In a classic experiment to support the In a classic experiment to support the behaviorist theory, a rat was used.behaviorist theory, a rat was used.

Stimulus- lightStimulus- light Response – rats goes upResponse – rats goes up Stimulus - foodStimulus - food

The bond between stimulus and the The bond between stimulus and the response is strengthened by positive response is strengthened by positive reinforcement.reinforcement.

Sequence repeated a number of times.Sequence repeated a number of times. Repetition is important to bring about habit Repetition is important to bring about habit

formation and learning.formation and learning. Skinner applied stimulus-response Skinner applied stimulus-response

reinforcement theory to the way human reinforcement theory to the way human acquire language.acquire language.

He views language as a form of behaviour He views language as a form of behaviour and language learning as a process of and language learning as a process of habit formation.habit formation.

Skinner placed great importance on Skinner placed great importance on reinforcement/ reward – a smile, a nod, reinforcement/ reward – a smile, a nod, praisespraises

Skinner showed that reinforcement is Skinner showed that reinforcement is very important in early stages of learning, very important in early stages of learning, and should be given frequently.and should be given frequently.

Each step in the learning process should Each step in the learning process should be as small as possible so that correct be as small as possible so that correct behaviour is reinforced with rewards and behaviour is reinforced with rewards and mistakes are corrected immediately.mistakes are corrected immediately.

The behaviorist theory of learning The behaviorist theory of learning provided teachers with a set of principles provided teachers with a set of principles and easy to implement classroom and easy to implement classroom procedures.procedures.

CONSTRUCTIVISMCONSTRUCTIVISM Constructivists argued that all human beings Constructivists argued that all human beings

construct their own version of reality and therefore construct their own version of reality and therefore multiple constrasting ways of knowing and multiple constrasting ways of knowing and describing are equally legitimate.describing are equally legitimate.

Emphasis on the primacy of each individual Emphasis on the primacy of each individual individual’s construction of realityindividual’s construction of reality

Constructivist perspectives are demonstrated Constructivist perspectives are demonstrated through studies of conversational discourse, through studies of conversational discourse, sociocultural factors in learning and interactionist sociocultural factors in learning and interactionist theoriestheories

Constructivists perspectives are a natural Constructivists perspectives are a natural successor to cognitivist studies of universal successor to cognitivist studies of universal grammar, information processing, memory, artificial grammar, information processing, memory, artificial intelligence and interlanguage systematicityintelligence and interlanguage systematicity

.....Constructivism.....Constructivism All three positions are seen as important All three positions are seen as important

in creating balanced descriptions of in creating balanced descriptions of human linguistic behavior.human linguistic behavior.

NATIVISTNATIVIST Noam Chomsky is perhaps the best known and Noam Chomsky is perhaps the best known and the most influential linguist of the second half of the most influential linguist of the second half of the Twentieth Century. the Twentieth Century. He has made a number of strong claims about He has made a number of strong claims about language : in particular, he suggests language : in particular, he suggests that that language is an innate faculty language is an innate faculty - that is to say - that is to say that we are born with a set of rules about that we are born with a set of rules about language in our heads which he refers to as the language in our heads which he refers to as the 'Universal Grammar'.'Universal Grammar'. The universal grammar is the basis upon which The universal grammar is the basis upon which all human languages build. all human languages build.

If a Martian linguist were to visit Earth, he would If a Martian linguist were to visit Earth, he would

deduce from the evidence that there was only deduce from the evidence that there was only

one language, with a number of local variants. one language, with a number of local variants.

Chomsky gives a number of reasons why this Chomsky gives a number of reasons why this

should be so. Among the most important of should be so. Among the most important of these these

reasons is the ease with which children acquire reasons is the ease with which children acquire

their mother tonguetheir mother tongue

He claims that it would be little short of a He claims that it would be little short of a miracle if children learnt their language in the miracle if children learnt their language in the same way that they learn mathematics or how same way that they learn mathematics or how to ride a bicycle. This, he says, is because : to ride a bicycle. This, he says, is because :

Children are exposed to very little correctly Children are exposed to very little correctly formed language. When people speak, they formed language. When people speak, they constantly interrupt themselves, change their constantly interrupt themselves, change their minds, make slips of the tongue and so on. Yet minds, make slips of the tongue and so on. Yet children manage to learn their language all the children manage to learn their language all the same. same.

Children do not simply copy the language that Children do not simply copy the language that they hear around them. They deduce rules from they hear around them. They deduce rules from it, which they can then use to produce it, which they can then use to produce sentences that they have never heard before. sentences that they have never heard before. They do not learn a repertoire of phrases and They do not learn a repertoire of phrases and sayings, as the behaviourists believe, but a sayings, as the behaviourists believe, but a grammar that generates an infinity of new grammar that generates an infinity of new sentences. sentences.

1. 2. Children are born, then, with the 1. 2. Children are born, then, with the Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar wired into their wired into their brains. This grammar offers a certain brains. This grammar offers a certain limited number of possibilities - for limited number of possibilities - for example, over the word order of a typical example, over the word order of a typical sentence. sentence.

Some languages have a basic SVO Some languages have a basic SVO structure structure

The teacher/ gave / a lecture The teacher/ gave / a lecture

S V O S V O

When the child begins to listen to his parents, When the child begins to listen to his parents, he will unconsciously recognise which kind of a he will unconsciously recognise which kind of a language he is dealing with - and he will set his language he is dealing with - and he will set his grammar to the correct one - this is known as grammar to the correct one - this is known as ''setting the parameterssetting the parameters'. '.

It is as if the child were offered at birth a certain It is as if the child were offered at birth a certain number of hypotheses, which he or she then number of hypotheses, which he or she then matches with what is happening around him. matches with what is happening around him. He knows intuitively that there are some words He knows intuitively that there are some words that behave like verbs, and others like nouns, that behave like verbs, and others like nouns, and that there is a limited set of possibilities as and that there is a limited set of possibilities as to their ordering within the phrase. This is not to their ordering within the phrase. This is not information that he is taught directly by the information that he is taught directly by the adults that surround him, but information that adults that surround him, but information that is given. It is as if the traveller were provided at is given. It is as if the traveller were provided at the beginning of his journey with a compass the beginning of his journey with a compass and an astrolabe. and an astrolabe.

This set of language learning tools, provided at This set of language learning tools, provided at birth, is referred to by Chomsky as the birth, is referred to by Chomsky as the Language Acquisition Device Language Acquisition Device ..

How did you learn to speak your native How did you learn to speak your native language? Notice, this shouldn't be such a language? Notice, this shouldn't be such a puzzling question. We often ask questions puzzling question. We often ask questions such as, do you remember when did you such as, do you remember when did you learned to tie your shoes, ride a bike, and learned to tie your shoes, ride a bike, and eat with a fork. Sometimes we can eat with a fork. Sometimes we can remember because a parent helped us remember because a parent helped us learn how to do these things. Now, since learn how to do these things. Now, since we always speak the language of our we always speak the language of our parents, they must have helped us learn to parents, they must have helped us learn to speak our first language. But do you speak our first language. But do you remember when your mother taught you remember when your mother taught you the past tense? When your father laid down the past tense? When your father laid down the rules for passive sentences? We don't the rules for passive sentences? We don't remember these important moments of our remember these important moments of our childhood because they never occurred. childhood because they never occurred.

Our parents didn't teach us how to walk Our parents didn't teach us how to walk and they didn't teach us how to talk. Yet and they didn't teach us how to talk. Yet we learned from them. How can this be? we learned from them. How can this be? Certainly there must have been a subtle, Certainly there must have been a subtle, perhaps intuitive teaching process that perhaps intuitive teaching process that neither our parents nor we were aware of. neither our parents nor we were aware of. We begin by imitating what we hear our We begin by imitating what we hear our parents say as best we can, repeating parents say as best we can, repeating random phrases. Our parents in subtle random phrases. Our parents in subtle ways punish us for the childish speech ways punish us for the childish speech errors we make (by not responding, errors we make (by not responding, correcting the error, etc.) and reward correcting the error, etc.) and reward correct phrases (by responding positively). correct phrases (by responding positively). As our speech improves, our parents As our speech improves, our parents respond more positively and less respond more positively and less negatively. No? negatively. No?

First, let's examine the assumption that First, let's examine the assumption that children begin speaking by trying to children begin speaking by trying to repeat what they have heard their repeat what they have heard their parents say. Have you ever heard a child parents say. Have you ever heard a child say things like this: say things like this:

1a Daddy go1a Daddy go 1b He hitted me1b He hitted me 1c No eat cake1c No eat cake

Who did they hear utter such phrases? Who did they hear utter such phrases? Daddy Daddy gogo is an attempt to express 'Daddy is going'. is an attempt to express 'Daddy is going'. But if the child were merely trying to repeat this But if the child were merely trying to repeat this common phrase, choosing random two-word common phrase, choosing random two-word combinations, he or she would also occasionally combinations, he or she would also occasionally say say Daddy isDaddy is or simply or simply is goingis going? Yet these two ? Yet these two phrases do not occur as normal speech errors phrases do not occur as normal speech errors of children while of children while Daddy goDaddy go is a common one. is a common one.

Second, research shows that while mothers Second, research shows that while mothers often respond to the semantic content of what often respond to the semantic content of what their children say ('No, that's not a doggie, it's a their children say ('No, that's not a doggie, it's a cow'), they very rarely respond to the cow'), they very rarely respond to the grammatical status of their children's phrases. grammatical status of their children's phrases. Indeed, when parents do respond to speech Indeed, when parents do respond to speech errors, they most often respond positively. Here errors, they most often respond positively. Here are a few advanced errors from the history of are a few advanced errors from the history of my family. What do you think our response wasmy family. What do you think our response was—correction or laughter (which I take to be a —correction or laughter (which I take to be a positive response)? positive response)?

FUNCTIONAL FUNCTIONAL Functions are the meaningful, interactive Functions are the meaningful, interactive

purposes , within a social (pragmatic) purposes , within a social (pragmatic) context, that we accomplish with the context, that we accomplish with the forms.forms.

Language acquisition is learning how to Language acquisition is learning how to express meanings acquiring the functions express meanings acquiring the functions one can perform with human language.one can perform with human language.

This perspective, of course, subordinates This perspective, of course, subordinates the acquisition of linguistic structure, the acquisition of linguistic structure, recognizing the learners can express recognizing the learners can express meanings using a variety of analyzed and meanings using a variety of analyzed and unanalyzed pieces of the lexicogrammar. unanalyzed pieces of the lexicogrammar.

Much of Halliday's early work was Much of Halliday's early work was concerned with how children acquire the concerned with how children acquire the functions of their first language. Others functions of their first language. Others have applied SF principles to second have applied SF principles to second language acquisition problems such as language acquisition problems such as defining communicative competence and defining communicative competence and investigating content based L2 instruction. investigating content based L2 instruction.

Because language is defined as a Because language is defined as a systematic resource, the organizing systematic resource, the organizing principle in linguistic description is principle in linguistic description is system (rather than structure). Since system (rather than structure). Since language is viewed as semiotic potential, language is viewed as semiotic potential, the description of language is a the description of language is a description of choice. description of choice.

Systemic linguists chart their analyses by Systemic linguists chart their analyses by diagraming the choices language users diagraming the choices language users can make in a given setting to realize a can make in a given setting to realize a particular linguistic product. particular linguistic product.

The available choices depend on aspects The available choices depend on aspects of the context in which the language is of the context in which the language is being used. Choices can be charted on being used. Choices can be charted on different levels, or strata, of language. different levels, or strata, of language.

SIMILARITIES &DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SIMILARITIES &DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 11stst AND 2 AND 2nd nd LANGUAGE ACQUISITION LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

According to some researchers, the defining According to some researchers, the defining difference between a first language (L1) and difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age at which a second language (L2) is the age at which the language was learned. For example, the language was learned. For example, linguistlinguist Eric Eric LennebergLenneberg used used second second languagelanguage to mean a language consciously to mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated language. These views are closely associated with the with the Critical Period HypothesisCritical Period Hypothesis..

According to some researchers, the According to some researchers, the defining difference between a first defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age at which the language was (L2) is the age at which the language was learned. For example, learned. For example, linguistlinguist Eric Eric LennebergLenneberg used used second languagesecond language to to mean a language consciously acquired or mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely language. These views are closely associated with the associated with the Critical Period HypothesisCritical Period Hypothesis..

A great deal of what is called 'Communicative A great deal of what is called 'Communicative Language Teaching' is based on what is Language Teaching' is based on what is essentially a 'nativist' view of second language essentially a 'nativist' view of second language (L2) acquisition. (L2) acquisition.

A 'nativist' view assumes – consciously or A 'nativist' view assumes – consciously or unconsciously – that somehow L2 learning can unconsciously – that somehow L2 learning can and should be like learning our native language and should be like learning our native language (L1). (L1).

This is wishful thinking and is based on a This is wishful thinking and is based on a profound misconception about the nature of L2 profound misconception about the nature of L2 learning - just as it is a misconception about learning - just as it is a misconception about how L1 acquisition occurs. how L1 acquisition occurs.

The best way to explore the differences The best way to explore the differences between the two processes is to view them between the two processes is to view them side-by-side – in parallel, as below.side-by-side – in parallel, as below.

L1 ACQUISITIONL1 ACQUISITION L1 acquisition is genetically triggered at L1 acquisition is genetically triggered at

the most critical stage of the child's the most critical stage of the child's cognitive development. cognitive development.

The 'engine' of language – its syntactic The 'engine' of language – its syntactic system – is 'informationally encapsulated' system – is 'informationally encapsulated' – which means that children are not even – which means that children are not even aware of developing a complex, rule-aware of developing a complex, rule-governed, hierarchical system. Most L1 governed, hierarchical system. Most L1 speakers do not even realise this is what speakers do not even realise this is what they are using. they are using.

The L1 is typically acquired at the crucial The L1 is typically acquired at the crucial period of cognitive development; pre-period of cognitive development; pre-puberty, when L1 and other crucial life-puberty, when L1 and other crucial life-skills are also acquired or learned.skills are also acquired or learned.

Children never resist L1 acquisition, any more Children never resist L1 acquisition, any more than they resist learning to walk. than they resist learning to walk.

Given even minimal 'input' during critical pre-Given even minimal 'input' during critical pre-pubescent development, all humans acquire pubescent development, all humans acquire the L1 of the society or social group they are the L1 of the society or social group they are born into as a natural and essential part of their born into as a natural and essential part of their lives. Even brain-damaged and/or retarded lives. Even brain-damaged and/or retarded children usually acquire the full grammatical children usually acquire the full grammatical code of the language of their society or social code of the language of their society or social group. group.

In short, L1 acquisition is an essential, In short, L1 acquisition is an essential, biologically–driven process. It is part of every biologically–driven process. It is part of every individual's evolutionary history and individual's evolutionary history and development in the most critical stage of that development in the most critical stage of that individual's acquisition of essential life-skills. individual's acquisition of essential life-skills.

L2 LEARNINGL2 LEARNING

L2 learning is not genetically triggered in any way L2 learning is not genetically triggered in any way unless the child grows up bi-lingually (in which unless the child grows up bi-lingually (in which case, it is not really L2 learning at all). case, it is not really L2 learning at all).

The syntax of the L2 is not acquired unconsciously The syntax of the L2 is not acquired unconsciously , or at least not in the way L1 syntax is acquired. , or at least not in the way L1 syntax is acquired. Few L2 learners develop the same degree of Few L2 learners develop the same degree of unconscious, rule-governed insight into and use of unconscious, rule-governed insight into and use of the L2 which they demonstrate with the L1. the L2 which they demonstrate with the L1.

The L2 is not learned as part of the learner's The L2 is not learned as part of the learner's general cognitive development. It is not an general cognitive development. It is not an essential life-skill in the same way that the L1 is.essential life-skill in the same way that the L1 is.

There is often great conscious or unconscious There is often great conscious or unconscious resistance to L2 learning. resistance to L2 learning.

Many highly intelligent individuals with Many highly intelligent individuals with impressive learning skills often have great impressive learning skills often have great problems learning an L2. Many L2 learners problems learning an L2. Many L2 learners 'fossilise' at some stage, so that even if they 'fossilise' at some stage, so that even if they use the L2 regularly, and are constantly use the L2 regularly, and are constantly exposed to input in it, they fail to develop full exposed to input in it, they fail to develop full grammatical or 'generative' competence. grammatical or 'generative' competence.

L2 learning is not a biologically-driven process. L2 learning is not a biologically-driven process. It is not an essential aspect of an individual's It is not an essential aspect of an individual's general development. especially when the L2 is general development. especially when the L2 is simply another subject on an already simply another subject on an already overloaded school curriculum or something that overloaded school curriculum or something that has to be undertaken by people with busy lives has to be undertaken by people with busy lives and heavy work-loads. and heavy work-loads.

SLASLA

Refer to H. Douglas Brown, pg 8 -13Refer to H. Douglas Brown, pg 8 -13 Theories on @nd language Theories on @nd language

acquisitionacquisition

- structuralism- structuralism

- rationalism- rationalism

- cognitive psychology- cognitive psychology

- constructivism- constructivism