Volume4 Issue3(1)

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Volume 4, Issue 3(1), March 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research Published by Sucharitha Publications Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Transcript of Volume4 Issue3(1)

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Volume 4, Issue 3(1), March 2015 International Journal of Multidisciplinary

Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

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Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr. Victor Babu Koppula Faculty Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam -530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. A.B.S.V.Rangarao Department of Social Work Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof.S.Prasanna Sree Department of English Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. P.Sivunnaidu Department of History Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam

Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Department Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of the UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Swami Maheshwarananda Founder and President Shree Vishwa Deep Gurukul Swami Maheshwarananda Ashram Education & Research Center Rajasthan, India Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Head Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram

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Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser Department of Geography Institute of Arab Research and Studies Cairo University, Egypt I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. G.Veerraju Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.G.Subhakar Department of Education Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University –Visakhapatnam N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam) Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.Ch.Prema Kumar Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator AP State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Dr.S.Kannan Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram

Dr. Barada Prasad Bhol Registrar, Purushottam Institute of Engineering & Technology Sundargarh, Odisha Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Dr.K.Chaitanya Postdoctoral Research Fellow Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China Dr.Merina Islam Department of Philosophy Cachar College, Assam Dr R Dhanuja PSG College of Arts & Science Coimbatore Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta Calcutta Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Dr. H.N. Vidya Government Arts College Hassan, Karnataka Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Prof. Chanakya Kumar University of Pune Pune

© Editor-in-Chief, IJMER

Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in

IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.

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C O N T E N T S

Volume 4 Issue 3(1) March 2015

S. No Page

No 1. Advertising Trends: Powerful Women in Indian

Television Commercials - An Empirical Analysis Rajeshwari R

1

2. Role of Cloud Computing in Higher Education Nalamotu Venkateswarlu

12

3. Domestic Indirect Taxes and Economic Growth: A Multivariate Vector Autoregressive Model Analysis of Ethiopian Economy

Delessa Bulcha Neger,R. Sudarsana Rao and T.Koteswara Rao

27

4. Perception of School Students About Geography through Geographical Models Of Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar: A Field Study

Dipak Bhattacharya

46

5. Exploring the Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Anxiety among Adolescents in Kolkata

Bipasha Sinha,Sunita Kejriwal and Anupriya Basu

60

6. Polyphony in Joseph Heller’s Fiction B. Narasinga Rao

73

7. Outreach Services and Sustainability: The Case of Amhara Credit and Saving Institution, Ethiopia

Fekadu Yehuwalashet Maru

83

8. Evaluating the Protection of Shareholders Rights Under the Ethiopian Share Company Law in Lights of International Benchmarks

Lemessa Berber Wogena

108

9. Influence of Celebrity Endorsement in Jewellery Advertising on Consumer Buying

Neeru Jain

117

10. Ergonomics: A Solution for Sustainable Development of Apparel Manufacturing Workers

Neha Lodha and Radha Kashyap

127

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11. An Ethnohistorical Review of Nanda Cult in Uttarakhand, India

Praveen Joshi

139

12. Institutional Framework for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in India

R.Babu,Muni Narendra and M.Venkateswarlu

151

13. Secondary School Teacher’s Attitude Towards ICT Teaching Process

Senthamarai Kannan B,Sivapragasam C and Senthilkumar R

162

14. Significance of School Complex to Provide Quality Education

M.Esther Suneela and Murali Pappala

173

15. Woman in Indian Society :A Study of Anita Desai’s Fasting, Feasting

B. Sandhya Rani

182

16. Future and Prospects of LAC Industry in The District of Purulia

Shakuntala Mahato

194

17. Modelling and Analysis of a Deep Groove Ball Bearing M. Chinnam Naidu and N.Sowjanya

202

18. War Hysteria and Disillusionment in The Poetry of First World War

P.V.Siva Giri

212

19. FDI in Retail- Behavioural Change of Consumer Mukku Syam Babu

224

20. Jashuva Kavivyam Jeeva Karunyam K. Nageswara Rao

230

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Editorial ……..

Provoking fresh thinking is certainly becoming the prime purpose of International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER). The new world era we have entered with enormous contradictions is demanding a unique understanding to face challenges. IJMER’s contents are overwhelmingly contributor, distinctive and are creating the right balance for its readers with its varied knowledge.

We are happy to inform you that IJMER got the high Impact Factor 2.972, Index Copernicus Value 5.16 and IJMER is listed and indexed in 34 popular indexed organizations in the world. This academic achievement of IJMER is only author’s contribution in the past issues. I hope this journey of IJMER more benefit to future academic world.

In the present issue, we have taken up details of multidisciplinary issues discussed in academic circles. There are well written articles covering a wide range of issues that are thought provoking as well as significant in the contemporary research world.

My thanks to the Members of the Editorial Board, to the readers, and in particular I sincerely recognize the efforts of the subscribers of articles. The journal thus receives its recognition from the rich contribution of assorted research papers presented by the experienced scholars and the implied commitment is generating the vision envisaged and that is spreading knowledge. I am happy to note that the readers are benefited.

My personal thanks to one and all.

(Dr.Victor Babu Koppula)

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ADVERTISING TRENDS: POWERFUL WOMEN IN INDIAN TELEVISION COMMERCIALS- AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS

Rajeshwari R Assistant Professor

Department of Electronic Media Bangalore University

Bangalore Introduction

Advertising is known as reflection of society. From the modern advertising era advertisements are portraying the practice of our society. Now we are living in a globalization era where we are talking about women empowerment and development etc. There is a considerable change in role of women in recent years with respect to education, politics and other various fields. Over the years there has been socio-economical change in our society, women are now taking up careers and their role in family has been changed.

Television with its audio-visual ability is considered as powerful medium. The impact of audio-visual media as a very powerful vehicle

for communicating idea and images is known to be tremendous. Television creates a world which seems very real and viewers are unable to differentiate between the contrived world and the real one. Women play a very significant role in advertising today both as consumer and as influencers. The depiction of women in Indian advertising has been a topic of debate for a while now.The experts against the indecent representation of women in advertising strongly believe that the women’s moral and social status is mainly determined on the basis of the degree of exposure of her physical form to public view. Women advertising redefine women attractiveness as something that is away from natural. (Panda T., 2013).

Advertisement not only promotes the commodities for commercial gain but it is also a medium through which culture can be promoted, demoted or redefined. This public arena is being consciously or

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unconsciously is utilized for the promotion or demotion of a particular culture. Although there are many media for advertising, but electronic media especially television captures a lion’s share. It reaches to a wide number of viewers. At a given point of time television covers millions of audience injecting uniform cultural ethos into different audience (Roy S.S., 2012).

According to the documents of the United Nations Organization, women constitute almost half of the total population of the world. But

their social, economic and political status is lower than that of men in all the member countries – be it the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China or India. Of course, women do enjoy better position in some societies than in others. The content of communication at any given time reflects the pattern of values of the society. The ways subjects dealing with women are treated indicate to get a great extent the prevailing attitude of that society towards its women (M.V. Ramanamma, 2005).

Review of Literature

From the past five decades, the depiction of women in advertising has been an important area of research. And the findings of those researches says that many advertisements show women in different roles such as housewives, cooks, maids, caretakers, dependents, ideal beauty, inferior to men as well as sex objects in order to sell product. In the beginning, advertisements were shown to sell a product. However, as years passes advertisements begin to objectify women and begin to

use women as a way to sell products.

The website World Savvy Monitor (2011) cites an UNESCO report on the global status of women that suggest that, globally, media portrays women in one of four ways: “the glamorous sex kitten, the sainted mother, the devious witch, pr the hard face corporate and political climber” (Shirley Chisholm).

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A deep look into the relationship between women and the media of today reveals a dichotomy. On the one hand, there is the traditional approach, replete with stereotypes where women are depicted in the most traditional and conservative light. On the other hand, there is the liberal approach, which attempts to break out of the stereotypical mode and portray women in the light of their socio economic role as important contributors to the polity, economy, and society of the nation. The most damaging is the perpetuation of the sex role

stereotypes by the media depicting women in domestic roles- cooking, working, and cleaning. Women are hardly ever shown in more productive roles. On the other hand, men are shown as decision makers, authorities and successful professionals. Thus an important development in society, the emergence of women on the work front has been marginalized (Singh U., 2001).

Historically, women have been more susceptible to stereotyping and marginalization than men. The history of a woman's 'usefulness' basically began with being a sexual plaything, a mother, and a caretaker. Advertisements have women selling everything from food to cars. We continue to see that women are the focus of most advertisements and the biggest selling point for the product being sold (Salome R. S., 2009).

When people perceived stereotypical traits of masculine and femine

nature on a powerful medium like television it indicated that television does highlight gender stereotypes and thereby helps to perpetuate them. Negative stereotypes have been identified the most important asset of women is physical beauty. Women’s place is in the house, their energies and intellect must be directed to finding the right man and in “keeping” him. Women are women’s worst enemies. The working women are the undesirable exception, who must be brought into the marriage fold and made to conform to social norms (Sharma A.,).

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When an advertiser chooses to portray a woman in advertising, the proper role portrayal becomes a central issue. This is particularly relevant in advertising scenarios today, since evidence indicates that women are more aware than men of stereotyped female portrayals in advertising (Lull, Hanson & Marx, 1997).

It is apparent that stereotypes exist today and the happy housewife stereotype is predominant in television commercials. While this may not be harmful, it does not reflect the total picture of women in general.

Television cultivates a view of the world. A more inclusive depiction of women would provide women in general particularly young women with options and role model.

Some research articles indicate that advertisers are now emphasising on the present role of women in advertisements. But this change is not in a significant way. With the stereotypical roles very few advertisements are concentrating on changing role of women in the society.

Theoretical frame work

Social learning encompasses both imitation and identification to explain how people learn through observation of others in their environment.

Social learning is an efficient form of stimulus-response learning, contemporary social cognitive theory argues that observers can acquire symbolic representations of the behaviour, and these ‘pictures’ provide them with information on which to base their own subsequent

behaviour. Media characters (models) can influence behaviour simply by being depicted on the screen. The audience member need not be reinforced or rewarded for exhibiting the modelled behaviour.

Gerbner defines cultivation as the creation and maintenance of stable images about life and society (and driven by everyday means of

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communication). He studied how heavy exposure to cultural imagery will shape a viewer's concept of reality. He said, "The television set has become a key member of the family, the one who tells most of the stories most of the time."

Essentially, the theory states that heavy exposure to mass media, namely television, creates and cultivates attitudes more consistent with a media conjured version of reality than with what actual reality is. Gerbner views this television world as "not a window on or reflection of

the world, but a world in itself". This created version of the world entices heavy viewers to make assumptions about violence, people, places, and other fictionalized events, which do not hold true to real life events. The combined effect of massive television exposure by viewers over time subtly shapes the perception of social reality for individuals and, ultimately, for our culture as a whole.

Objectives

After reviewing the existing literature it is found that most of the television advertisements are depicting women in stereotypical characters. Only few advertisements are representing women with strong personality. So the main objective of the study is to explore which Indian television advertisements are showing women as powerful and to find how those characters are symbolize to current status of women in the society.

Methodology

This study is empirical with exploratory cum descriptive in nature. The analysis is done after watching various kinds of advertisements repeatedly. 10 advertisements have taken for analysis. These ads were

shown on television channels usually during soap operas telecasting where women viewers will be more in number. The secondary data is availed from various books, journals and internet.

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Analysis

In real life the role of Indian women is changing rapidly. Advertisers continue using eager-to-please, submissive women to reach their target consumers. However, the trend does seem to be changing now, but very slowly.

The 10 advertisements which have taken for the study are Santoor soap, Johnson & Johnson baby soap, Vivel soap, Lacto calamine lotion, Vaseline body lotion, Android one mobile, Honda pleasure scooter, Nirma washing powder, Airtel and Fair and lovely. In these advertisements women have been shown as energetic, multi -tasker,

modern, self confident, intelligent, independent, learned, ambitious, individualistic.

Santoor body spray advertisement

Today women are strong and intelligent. Here female role is a professional. Where she will be on the way to office and struck in the traffic. Then her male colleague come and says, “You will be late to office and you can’t attend the meeting” and he goes away. Then she reaches office earlier than his male colleague in a tricky way and attend meeting, manages office work as well. To reach office earlier than her male colleague she jumps, flies and do action sequences. So this advertisement conveys the message that over the years women have become strong and this is reflecting in commercials.

Bounvita advertisement

This commercial is about a young girl training to be a boxer. The mother is portrayed as being strong, who stands by her daughter. It shows new age Indian mothers and how they think. In present scenario mothers are becoming confident individuals. They are developing their own thinking process. Today’s mother is very progressive. She has

come a long way from being just a caretaker and protector of her child.

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She now challenges and pushes her child to explore newer activities, challenges in life. She is inspiring her children to achieve something. This commercial emphasises on working mother who is motivating her daughter to work harder, preparing her to win. It makes all the moms feel good about them.

Android one mobile

This is another advertisement about strong and independent mother. How she plays a role of father in his absence. When son worried about his father’s absence since he wanted to learn a cricket’s straight and cover drive. Then mother fills the gap of the father and she learns how

to train cricket with the help of android one and coaches her son. This is best example of how today women are independent and intelligent.

Vivel soap advertisement

When we think of teacher what kind of image comes to our mind? Woman traditionally dressed in saree. This is how teachers have been shown in television advertisements. This commercial is showing woman not only as professional but also a teacher in modern dress. This conveys the message even in dressing women is taking moderate decisions.

Nirma washing powder advertisement

Portrays women are strong, confident and determined individuals. In this advertisement no men will come forward when the ambulance struck in ditch. Then a group of women comes and pushes ambulance out of trench. Though this commercial demonstrates that women are capable of being the drivers of social change and taking matters in their own hands to do so.

Airtel advertisement

This commercial is the best example of woman as multi-tasker. The female character in this advertisement manages both work and home

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front with ease. At office she is shown as a rough boss but at home as a loving and caring wife with modern dress. The advertisement showcases women on equal footing like men she can manage well at work place. Women is the boss at work but comes back to cook; portrays the man to be the boss at home no matter what women is capable of balancing a successful career alongside that of a homemaker

Fair and lovely

The focus of this commercial is not on lightening the skin tone, but on confidence level of today’s modern girls. There was a time where fair and lovely ads used to concentrate on the theme to find a good life

partner and get the girl married off. Now it follows the theme with a difference. It shows a worried father who is eager to see his daughter married and has in fact found a perfect match for her. A well settled boy with a good job and his own house. But the problem is the girl does not want to settle down because she wants to pursue a career. While she is in two minds about what to do - oblige her father’s wish or focus on her career. Instead of going for the option of settling down, she decides to pursue her career and get married after some time when she is well-established. It reflects on the transformation in Indian girls. It conveys the message that getting married should not be the ultimate aim of a woman and that instead of taking pride in others’ achievements; a woman should do something worthwhile with her life so that she can be proud of herself. It catches one’s attention because of being different. This persuades the young girl minds in a different way.

Tanishq jewellery advertisement

The Tanishq jewellery commercial conveys a courageous message,

where a dark lady with a child is getting married again in Indian tradition. This commercial on remarriage endeavours to break taboo around the subject of remarriage. At the same time it gives the message of skin colour never prevent a woman to bring out her inner beauty. It

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is the representation of how a woman living on her own terms. And also how woman can brings people together, even her to-be husband and her child. It sends the message like getting widowed or divorced is not the end of life. The women can start her life afresh on her own terms like men.

Lacto calamine lotion advertisement

This commercial portrays brave woman. Commuters including ladies, children and old aged were waiting for the bus in bus stop. When the bus comes, driver stops the bus far away from the bus stop. Everybody starts running behind the bus where aged couple couldn’t run. Then a

young lady, who was running comes to frontage of the bus and instructs driver to take back the bus to bus stop. In the beginning driver denies to go back, but when she orders confidently then frightened driver takes back the bus to bus stand. Then the lady takes those aged couple towards the bus. This advertisement teaches that women that confidence and determination can get the work done and also gives out the message that today women with self confidence can rule the world.

Hero Pleasure scooter advertisement

You don’t have freedom to live according to your wish since you are a woman. This is the usual assertion we hear in our society. By breaking the common tradition the girl in this commercial leaves home with her scooter to enjoy the ride like boys. She takes her scooter wherever she wants and then comes back to home. When her mother enquires she says I have gone to check the atmosphere. And slogan of the commercial says “why should boys have all the fun”? With this

commercial argues that there is change going on in our society. Woman is equal to man. She is ready to face challenges and do adventures.

With these examples we can come to conclusion that advertisements are changing mindsets towards looking at women. Not only the above

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examined advertisements, many advertisements are in favour of woman. Advertisement like Bharat matrimony showing the changing attitude of men towards working women and how men today were open to the idea of women following their dreams. And almost all PSAs are showing woman as strong and the change agent. Vaseline, Scooty, Dairy milk and other products are also on the follow. This is a positive development. Since people learn through their observation, media should portray the realism of society than showing the same old themes

which use to restrict women think around their family. The characters depicted in television can influence the viewers’ conduct. Therefore these types of advertisements can influence on viewers attitude. When the today’s woman role represented realistic on media, the woman in the real society in same position can feel proud of them. Also it might encourage the society to accept the modern women with new qualities. Definitely these types advertisements can bring change the attitude of the general public.

Conclusion

Commercials are powerful in creating and shaping people’s opinions. From the objectifying woman as sex symbol to the powerful advertisements have come long way. But still most of the advertisements are showing women in stereotyped characters like responsible home maker, care taker, good wife, dependant etc. Now the women status in society is changing. She is educated, empowered, professional, independent, self confident, taking important decisions,

bread earner, multi - tasker. Therefore advertiser must ensure that they depict more strong and powerful woman in commercials. Advertiser should show woman in various roles like independent, educated, decision maker etc. But advertisement should not be only urban oriented. Since the status of women is also changing, that must be taking into consideration. In total healthy depiction of woman in advertisement can bring changes in the society. In spite of many

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positive changes, much remains to be done when it comes to the status of women in society. But the fact that there has been a positive change cannot be denied.

References

1. Chisholm S., Gender and Advertising; how gender shapes meaning retrieved from Lull, J.T. Hanson, C.A., & Marx, M.J. (1977). Recognition of female stereotypes in TV commercials. Journalism Quarterly, 54, 153-157.

2. Panda, T. (2013), Role of media on indecent representation of women. Odisha review.

3. Ramanamma, M.V., (2005). Media and women development. Anmol publications Pvt Ltd., Delhi, P. 8 & 10.

4. Roy S.S., (20120. Portrayal of women in Indian media in the era of neo-liberal economy. Global Media Journal – Indian Edition/ISSN 2249-5835.

5. Salome, M.R., (2009). The unrealistic portrayal of women in the media; beauty and body image. Yahoocontributor network. http://www.bellbajao.org/portraya-of-women-in-indian-media.

6. Sharma, S.K., (2005). Dipiction of woman in Indian media, a case of introspection for media planners. Indian journal of political science, Samaja vigyan Shodh Patrika. 1(1) PP. 32-36.

7. Shrikhande V., (2003). Stereotyping of women in television advertisements.

8. Singh, U., (2001), New woman and mass media, Jaipur, Surabhi Publications, P. 13, 14, 15.

9. http://womensroleinadvertisements.blogspot.in/ 10. http://www.business-standard.com/article/management/women-in-

ads-tanishq-airtel-amongst-the-best-says-study-114121100264_1.html

11. http://www.afaqs.com/news/story/12614_Jassi-to-Jessica-The-changing- face-of-women-in-Indian-advertising

12. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1764302 13. http://krytyka.org/gender-stereotypes-in-mass-media-case-study-

analysis-of-the-gender-stereotyping-phenomenon-in-tv-commercials/

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ROLE OF CLOUD COMPUTING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Dr. Nalamotu Venkateswarlu

Principal P D R V College of Education

Harur, Dharmapuri Dt, TamilNadu

Introduction Cloud Computing refers to both the applications delivered as services over the Internet and the hardware and systems software in the data centers that provide those services. Gartner defines cloud computing as a style of computing in which scalable and elastic IT-enabled capabilities are delivered as a service using Internet technologies. According to Youseff et al. ―cloud computing can be considered a new computing paradigm that allows users to temporary utilize computing infrastructure over the network, supplied as a service by the cloud-provider at possibly one or more levels of abstraction‖. The market research company IDC for example defines cloud computing very general as ―an emerging IT development, deployment and delivery model, enabling real-time delivery of products, services and solutions over the Internet‖. Cruz (2011) specified cloud computing as a collection of applications and technologies which can be accessed and manipulated by a large number of users in real time. Some analysts and vendors define cloud computing narrowly as an updated version of utility computing: basically virtual servers available over the Internet. Others go very broad, arguing anything you consume outside the firewall is "in the cloud," including conventional outsourcing. Cloud computing can also be defined as an IT deployment model, based on virtualization, where resources, in terms of infrastructure, applications and data are deployed via the internet as a distributed service by one or several service providers. These services are scalable on demand and can be priced on a pay-per-use basis. Cloud Computing can be described as ―the long-held dream of computing as a utility. Key Characteristics of Cloud Computing: I. On-demand self-service-a consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed without requiring human interaction with each service's provider.

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II. Ubiquitous network access-capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, laptops, and PDAs). III. Location independent resource pooling -the provider's computing resources are pooled to serve all consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand. The customer generally has no control or knowledge over the exact location of the provided resources. Examples of resources include storage, processing, memory, network bandwidth, and virtual machines. IV. Rapid elasticity-capabilities can be rapidly and elastically provisioned to quickly scale up and rapidly released to quickly scale down. To the consumer, the capabilities available for rent often appear to be infinite and can be purchased in any quantity at any time. V. Pay per use-capabilities is charged using a metered, fee-for-service, or advertising based billing model to promote optimization of resource use. Examples are measuring the storage, bandwidth, and computing resources consumed and charging for the number of active user accounts per month. Clouds within an organization accrue cost between business units and may or may not use actual currency. Nist Mentioned The Following Deployment Models Of Cloud Computing: I. Private cloud-the cloud infrastructure is provisioned for exclusive use by a single organization comprising multiple consumers (e.g., business units). It may be owned, managed, and operated by the organization, a third party, or some combination of them, and it may exist on or off premises. II. Community cloud-the cloud infrastructure is provisioned for exclusive use by a specific community of consumers from organizations that have shared concerns (e.g., mission, security requirements, policy, and compliance considerations). It may be owned, managed, and operated by one or more of the organizations in the community, a third party, or some combination of them, and it may exist on or off premises. III. Public cloud-the cloud infrastructure is provisioned for open use by the general public. It may be owned, managed, and operated by a business, academic, or government organization, or some combination of them. It exists on the premises of the cloud provider.

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IV. Hybrid cloud-the cloud infrastructure is a composition of two or more distinct cloud infrastructures (private, community, or public) that remain unique entities, but are bound together by standardized or proprietary technology that enables data and application portability (e.g., cloud bursting for load balancing between clouds). Nist Mentioned The Following Service Models Of Cloud Computing: I. Software as a Service (SaaS) -the capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider’s applications running on a cloud infrastructure2. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings. II. Platform as a Service (PaaS) -the capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider.3 The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment. III. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) -the capability provided to the consumer is to provision processing, storage, networks, and other fundamental computing resources where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications; and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls). Jerry Bishop, the Chief Information Officer at Chippewa Valley Technical College in Wisconsin, specified the inter-relationships and necessary connections of the NIST cloud computing characteristics and models (Bishop, 2011). This visual demonstrates that a cloud-based strategy can take on different configurations depending on the institution’s needs.

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Figure 1-Interrelationships with Characteristics, Service Models and Deployment Models Prevalence of Software as a Service (SaaS) Cloud Computing in Higher Education. Source: - http://www.librarystudentjournal.org/index.php/lsj/article- /view/289/321#bishop2011 Over the past five years, cloud computing has become one of the defining secular trends within technology, and we believe the effects are just beginning to be felt across the industry. According to the U.S. Federal Cloud Computing Market Forecast 2013, the Federal Government cloud computing market enters into double-digit growth phase – at about 16% CAGR over the period 2013-2018.Cloud IaaS market to grow by 47.8% through 2015Gartner makes this prediction and it also advises outsourcers not moving in this direction that consolidation and cannibalization will occur in the 2013 – 2014 timeframe. The cloud computing marketplace will reach $16.7B in revenue by 2013, including the large and well-established software-as-a-service (SaaS) category, according to a research report by 451 Market Monitor, compared to a revenue of $8.7B in 2010. According to a recent Foresights survey nearly 50% of all enterprises in North America and Europe will set aside budgets for cloud investments in 2013. Also, 50% of software development companies are planning to deploy applications in the cloud. The

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security and availability concerns were mentioned as well. They indicate that the top analysts at IDC say the benefits of moving certain applications to the cloud outweigh the risks for some enterprises The cloud applications that will dominate in future and can be adopted by academic institutions are collaboration application, web servicing, cloud backup, business applications and personal productivity applications. According to technology research company Gartner, more than 50 percent of Global 1000 companies are predicted to store confidential data in the public cloud by the end of 2016. The cloud is proving itself as being a techtrend that’s here to stay.

5. Implication for Education

―Education is not the filling a bucket but the lighting of a fire.‖ - William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) Irish poet, dramatist. Higher education is one of the pillars of society development. Through the partnerships between universities, government and industry, researchers and students have proven their contribution to the transformation of society and the entire world economy (Lazowska et al., 2008). In the field of education, cloud computing is very practical for a variety of reasons. Indeed, cloud computing will enable a certain educational institution to actually make use of the global internet resources for data analysis and data storage. Walter Bailey writes on CloudTweaks.com - the entire educational system is suffering from a lack of resources: small classrooms, staffing cuts, shortage of qualified teachers and constantly changing standards. But, as Bailey points out, the cloud is a valuable tool that can be used to improve accessibility to quality education and to boost achievement. These challenges can be handled by number of ways with the help of cloud by including

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capitalizing on economies of scale. He proposed that the problem of outdated, too-small, overcrowded classrooms can be addressed by virtualizing the classroom environment. Students can actually log onto a space online and attend classes outside of the classroom environment. As such, the lecturers do not have to deal with overflowing classes and students packed like sardines; instead, they can focus their attention on creating content students will understand, developing their students’ skills and helping students pass their exams. Cloud allows students to share their ideas, education infrastructure and tools which results drastic reduction in educational institution’s overhead expenditures on quality learning materials like books and software and equal access to these scarce resources which helps the students’ academic performance should increase along with the quality of education. Cloud Computing models specifically SaaS have been popular across industries including in higher education since the mid-1990s. For example, Windows Hotmail was the first Microsoft’s popular email and messaging service. It now has more than 400 million users worldwide. In the past few years, Google’s Gmail, Yahoo’s Zimbra email and Microsoft’s Windows Live Hotmail have played significant roles in higher education at universities and colleges in the U.S. The Campus Computing Survey 2010 reported that over 80 percent of U.S. colleges and universities use hosted email solutions; out of these institutions, 60 percent use Gmail, and the remaining 40 % use Zimbra and Hotmail. In 2010, the University of Texas at Austin migrated to a brand-new $32 million data center. Roughly twice the size of the university’s previous data center — and the result of two years of intensive planning and design — the new facility features a consolidated network architecture and eco-friendly power and cooling systems. It is expected to reach full capacity in just three to five years. 2010 also marked the first year in which more data travelled across the Internet than during all the previous years combined. According to John Omwamba- the cloud allows for ―information durability,which means information can be placed in cloud storage for as long as needed. He adds that the advent of online video has made the idea of cloud in education even more exciting, providing universal access to teaching videos and demonstrations on almost any topic. According to a survey colleges had been moving in order to use cloud as a storage space, it increases the efficiency and mobility. Cloud allows taking initiative and to show creative ability,

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reduce operating costs and also allow working on other projects to IT staff. Increased efficiency (55%) Improved employee mobility (49%) Increased ability to innovate (32%) Freed current IT staff for other projects (31%) Reduced IT operating costs (25%) Enabled us to offer new products/services (24%)

(Source:-http://www.edtechmagazine.com/higher/article-/2013/02/state-cloud-computing-higher-education ) To Meet the Competing Demands in An Increasingly Complex Environment College and university IT organizations are expected to keep up with a long list of competing demands, such as. i. Deploying applications and delivering web-based student services at a rapidly accelerating rate, often without a proportionate increase in budget for hardware, software, and personnel. ii. Drastically reducing CapEx and OpEx costs while maintaining the highest levels of security and privacy iii. Maintaining a traditional IT infrastructure increasingly unable to accommodate the growing number of personal devices -including tablets, smartphones, and laptops- that students bring into the campus environment. iv. Offering sufficient bandwidth to accommodate huge swings in network usage. v. Competing against other universities, many of which attempt to differentiate them in the market based on the services they offer to students. Apart from the above said advantages Cloud computing, it can help universities, institutions by:- i. Accommodating the rapid increase in mobile device dependency. ii. Storing expansive amounts of sensitive data and information that’s easily accessible iii. Staying current (e.g. provides students with digital campus storage for class notes, papers and projects) iv. Acquiring and implementing the latest software and application updates. v. Streamlining enrollment and admissions processes that are costly and time-consuming.

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vi. Turning subscriptions that are scalable and provide options. vii. Offering schools, colleges, universities and others a low cost option for using high concept computing systems. All that's needed is an internet connection which is low cost. viii. Sharing work without having to use paper. Using paper is costly both to the environment and in monetary terms and is therefore no longer a viable way to educate. ix. Removing the admin burden allows educational facilities to concentrate on their core business and be more productive .IT admin including licensing issues, software updates and IT security management will all be taken care of by Cloud provider. x. Storing confidential and critical data centrally in the cloud, which is less prone to exposure threats such as the loss or theft of laptops or USB flash drives. xi. Using cloud in underdeveloped or emerging countries creating a way of being able to teach children who would not ordinarily have access to education. xii. Updating stock of information. xiii. Allowing free access applications and other useful tools. xiv. Providing efficient and friendly environment. xv. Providing experience and feel of real world Katz et al. identify 10 important features of cloud computing in higher education with respect to on-demand SaaS,PaaS, and IaaS: i. Increasing access to scarce IT expertise and talent. ii. Scaling IT services and resources. iii. Promoting further IT standardization. iv. Accelerating time to market through IT supply bottleneck reductions. v. Channelling or countering the ad hoc consumerization of enterprise IT services. vi. Facilitating the transparent matching of IT costs, demand and funding. vii. Increasing interoperability between disjoint technologies within and between institutions. viii. Supporting a model of a 24 x 7 x 365 environment. ix. Enabling the sourcing of cycles and storage powered by renewable energy. x. Driving down capital and total costs of IT in higher education.

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Cloud solutions can be used to support cooperative learning and socially oriented theories of learning, using computer technologies to support collaborative methods of instruction (Thorsteinsson et al., 2010). Ed Tech Magazine and Cult of Mac surveyed colleges and found: i. 6 percent maintain cloud-based technologies ii. 28 percent are implementing cloud computing iii. 29 percent are planning to adopt the cloud iv. 32 percent are discovering cloud computing A Pew Internet/Elon University survey reports that of 1,021 participants, including Internet research experts and users, by 2020 higher education will strongly focus on tech-centric solutions and methodologies such as: i. Teleconferencing ii. Distance learning iii. Hybrid classes (i.e. online and off-campus learning) According to TechJournal’s info graphic on schools and the cloud, cloud computing spending is expected to increase by more than 30 percent as of May 2011. Boston College, New York University and Maryland Institute College of Art are higher educational institutions leading the industry into cloud-based applications. The institutions rely on FolderWave, Google Apps and Fischer International Identity for admissions, financial aid, collaboration tools and system management. While using internet first word comes in mind is security. There should be reliable and secure network infrastructure. These requirements are also desirable to users related to educational institutions as many faculty members pursuing research, and with student privacy safeguarded by strict regulations, colleges and universities must be careful to minimize exposure to legal risk and compliance risk. And cloud computing is able to meet all these competing demands — it provides greater agility, less risk, and lower. Cloud computing is also helpful in distance learning. Distance education sector is growing rapidly. Universities are offering more and more courses and degrees through distance-education programs. According to a recent SLOAN-C Annual Report (Allen & Seaman, 2010), in 2009, over 5.6 million students were taking at least one online course. This is an increase of nearly one million students over the number reported the previous year. In addition, blended instructional formats that include a significant portion of online activities got a boost after a recent review of online learning studies found that blended learning students

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outperformed both fully face-to-face and fully online learning students (U.S. Department of Education, 2009). Due the growth in distance learning sector, more students and faculties are attracted towards it. To meet the growing demands of instructors and students for personalized learning, flexibility, and on-demand services, and to be able to address the IT challenges, distance learning administrators and practitioners need to explore the new IT infrastructure. The current IT infrastructure offered by most distance learning programs is not likely to be able to sufficiently meet the increasing demands and needs of instructors and students in an efficient and effective manner. Benefits Of Cloud Computing For Distance Learning :- I. Cost Saving: Perhaps the most important incentive associated with cloud computing is the cost reduction. Westmont College reports that after deploying six cloud-centric service platforms, it has achieved numerous benefits, including a 65 percent cost reduction up front (over more traditional deployments), and a 55 percent cost saving over the useful lifetime of the solutions. Beyond the cost savings, though, the college reports a significant increase in user satisfaction, as well as a significant decrease in the amount of IT management time required (Sheard, 2010). II. Rapid elasticity and scalability: Many distance-learning programs offer live video streaming (LVS) courses to online students (Abdous& He, 2009). However, the LVS courses are only offered to a limited number of students (e.g., 1000 concurrent LVS students) due to hardware constraints. The existing hardware (e.g., web servers) will not be able to maintain its performance if concurrent LVS student numbers suddenly double or triple (e.g., to 2000 or 3000 concurrent LVS students). In addition, if a faculty member develops an innovative idea and requests a computing-intensive application that needs multiple servers to support it for a temporary period, in many cases the DL IT staff will have to turn down the request because the limited budget does not allow DL units to spend a lot of money purchasing hardware for a temporary project. With cloud computing in place, DL administrators need not be concerned about over provisioning for a service whose popularity does not meet their predicted needs (and thus wasting costly resources), or under-provisioning for one that becomes wildly popular (and thus missing potential customers and revenue) (Armbrust et al., 2010).

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III. Cost of setup and maintenance: Complex new technologies and applications are continually being invented and they make it harder for distance learning IT staffs to install, configure, secure, and upgrade to the latest technologies. The technology setup and the maintenance workload make up a large chunk of the time spent by the Distance Learning IT staff during their workday. The adoption of cloud computing will move the burden of technology setup and maintenance to the cloud service providers. IV. Reallocation of resources: As cloud computing moves the technology setup and maintenance burden to cloud service providers, campus DL IT staffs can focus on developing innovative instructional solutions/resources and on providing more support to faculty and students. There are several areas in which more intensive help from the DL IT staff can be beneficial to the faculty. First, as instructors move toward more online and mobile instruction in their courses, IT staffs can help them to optimize the use of the available LMS systems to increase both the effectiveness and the efficiency of the instructional process. Second, as online instruction strives to become more personal through the extensive use of online conferencing tools (e.g. Blackboard Collaborate, Webex), instructors can benefit from more intensive initial support with the technical aspects of integrating these tools into their teaching activities. Third, IT staffs can help faculty to improve their technical skills in using various Web 2.0 tools (such as blogs or wikis) and can therefore help them to effectively integrate these collaborative tools in their courses in order to improve their students’ learning experiences and performance (e.g. Cole, 2009; Trentin, 2009). Cloud computing reduces operating and capital expenses while increasing IT efficiency through server consolidation, improves service delivery, and offer online access to systems and applications over a variety of devices. Several educational institutions recognize that adopting the latest technologies and solutions has become essential to stay competitive and retaining students. Institutions can take the advantage of cloud computing in reducing high expenditures on hardware, software and IT maintenance as it provides a centralized and virtual data center that is accessible to faculty and admissions personnel irrespective of time and location. According to a 2011 study by CDW, only 5 percent of U.S. college and university respondents were not considering a cloud migration. 29 percent had developed a written strategic plan for the

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adoption of cloud computing, with 28 percent in the midst of implementation. [8] Todd mentioned that Lakehead University in Canada, one of the first major Canadian university to outsource their email services to Google, saved $250,000 a year and students were given storage space in the cloud equivalent to 250 fold what they were getting at the university.According to Weintraub-by using Gmail for its student email needs, Arizona State University saves $500,000 per year and Vanderbilt University saves $750,000 annually. Challenges of Cloud Computing In Higher Education Many challenges of cloud computing for academic institutions relate to its relative newness and the underdevelopment of the marketplace for cloud services. For higher education, decisions to adopt cloud computing will be influenced by more than technical and cost considerations. Information flow is like a lifeline in the academic system and decisions, on how to manage that information, can have far reaching political, social and economic effects on the students, faculty and the society. Adoption of cloud computing presents many risks and other challenges like security, interoperability, control, performance, integrity and reliability instead of using a traditional outsourcing arrangement. The academic institutions need to weigh the costs and benefits but a major factor of these decisions will be their level of trust in both the cloud deployment model under consideration and the entity providing it [9]. Metz (2010) offers the example below to explain why the traditional IT infrastructure is sometimes not good enough: When an institution develops or deploys a new application, they first must jump through a number of hoops. For example, if an institution decides they would like to install the learning management system Moodle, they might have to order a server, wait for the vendor to ship it, install the server in the data center, provision an IP address for the server, set up the DNS for the new IP address, install the operating system, etc. Dan Morrill Mentioned A Number Of Challenges In Cloud Computing:- I. Cloud computing did not originate in the college environment, there are few colleges that are taking cloud computing seriously enough to be developing or teaching courses in this subject like MIT. II. Cloud computing is truly multi-disciplined, in that the average system admin needs to understand a bit about networking, virtualization, routing, data movement, data use, process management, and security to be helpful to an organization using cloud computing.

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III. Educators are not prepared to teach cloud computing – in general with a broad paint bush, many computer science educators at all but the most prestigious colleges are simply not able to teach this not so new but still cutting edge technology. IV. Cuts in funding – everyone everywhere has had their budgets slashed while we wait for consumers to come back and start spending again. This includes colleges because many colleges’ budgets are tied to the states budgets that are tied directly or indirectly to sales tax, use tax, B&O tax, or the many other ways that government taxes both businesses and consumers to accomplish tasks. V. Cloud Computing is generally ill understood by the general public, including governments, workers, and corporations. It is not enough to teach virtualization, you have to teach automation, design, architecture, monitoring, and with a dearth of tools out there, in many cases, you have to teach enough scripting or programming to get the tasks accomplished. In cloud computing data centers exist in multiple nations, this may trigger cross border issues or outright barriers for the education institutions. Institutions having the sensitive information for instance government contracts, in such cases government doesn’t allow to reveal or access such information by foreign countries. Universities, of course, are typically subject to numerous state and federal law covering data on academic grades, health records and financial aid, among other things. Certain countries have very strict rules about cross-border transfers of personal information, and complying with those rules can be challenging in the virtual world of the cloud. Vulnerability to security breaches are the biggest obstacles to cloud computing adoption in higher education, according to recent surveys of IT leaders in higher education (Jitterbit, 2010; Schaffhauser, 2011b). The most important of these security risks includes the loss of governance, lock-in issues, isolation failure, compliance risks, management interface compromise, data protection, incomplete or insecure data deletion and malicious insiders (Catteddu&Massonet, 2010). In addition, concerns regarding privacy, data integrity, intellectual property management, regulation issues and audit trails are significant barriers to adoption of cloud-based solutions (EDUCAUSE, 2009a). However to help mitigate these risks for higher education institutions, several organizations have emerged in the last few years. The Cloud Security Alliance was launched in 2009 as a non-

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profit organization tasked with conducting research in cloud security and offering information and resources about best practices in security protection in cloud computing (EDUCAUSE, 2010a). Apart from the security concerns, there are certain other issues like maintaining the integrity of data, ensuring access is limited to authorized users and maintaining the availability of data and services. Controlling and protecting these assets becomes a much more complex and challenging proposition as the data and services are external to the campus with the cloud. Cloud vendors provide service level agreement is not specific and detailed enough to meet college and university requirements. Fortunately, through the Higher Education Information Security Council, a toolkit called the Data Protection Contractual Language is available to provide guidance and languages to assist institutions in crafting appropriate SLAs and contracts to meet their specific needs. This is an evolving area, and although muchprogress has been made, much more is needed before colleges and universities can place their complete trust in these third party cloud vendors. Conclusion Cloud computing has been growing rapidly; it evolves models offering significant advantages, yet potential fallacies as well. Cloud computing seems to be worth exploring from small businesses and major enterprises to elite universities and online colleges. The cloud is poised to revolutionize the educational sector, and schools and learning institutions. Basically, cloud computing will enable learners to formally undergo education even without going to the four-walled classrooms. In fact cloud can also help those families who travel a lot, cloud computing will allow their children to travel while continually learning lessons, submitting assignment, and getting grades. As a coin has two facets so as cloud computing therefore the decision taking of using Cloud Computing must also take into account the risks associated with it. But by using cloud the gain that exceeds the capital costs may compensates the associated risks. Some of the risks specific to cloud environment may be transferred to cloud providers. Cloud Computing having both strong and weak aspects , we may say that the scalable, portable, payment per use model and the management policies of risks and security , efficiency ,anytime accessibility and several other aspects represent positive factors in taking the decision of using Cloud Computing. In the end,universities may and should value the opportunities offered by Cloud Computing lead to innovation.

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References 1. Morgan Stanley, ―Measuring Cloud Impacts: Stronger than

Investors Anticipate, Cloud Computing Takes Off”, [Online]. Available: http://www.morganstanley.com/ views/perspect ives/c loud_computing.pdf

2. “Cloud Computing: Top 5 Cloud Applications for 2010”, [Online]. Available:http://www.channelinsider.com/c/a/Cloud-Computing/Top-5-Cloud-Applications-for-2010319995/? kc=EWWHNEMNL02262010STR2

3. Lohr S.,“Google,“I.B.M. Join in Cloud Computing’ Research”, New York Times, 10th August,2007.[Online] .Available:htt p://www.microsoft.com/education/en-us/solutions/Pages/cloud_co mp uting.aspx).

4. [Online].Available:http://www.cisco.com/en/US/services/collateral/-ps10658/ps11785/cloud_101_higher_education_wp.pdf

5. James Temple,“Web 2.0 Summit: Data Explosion Creates Revolution” SFGate.com, October19,2011,[Online].Av ailable:ht tp://www.cisco.com/en/US/services/collateral/ps10658/ps11785/cloud_101_higher_education_wp.pdf

6. “Tactic to Strategy: The CDW 2011 Cloud Computing Tracking Poll,” July 2011

7. Carnegie Mellon ,” System of Systems, Barriers to Adoption”, [Online]. Available: http://www.sei.cmu.edu/sos/research-/cloud c omp uting/cloudbarriers.cfm

8. Dan Morrill ,“Cloud Computing in Education”, September 12, 2011, [Online]. Available: http://www.cloudave.com/14857/cloud-compu ting-in-education/

9. Wu He , ―Exploring Cloud Computing for Distance Learning”, [Online]. Available: http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla-/fall1 4 3/he_ cernusca_abdous143.html.

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DOMESTIC INDIRECT TAXES AND ECONOMIC GROWTH: A

MULTIVARIATE VECTOR AUTOREGRESSIVE MODEL ANALYSIS OF ETHIOPIAN ECONOMY

Delessa Bulcha Neger

Research Scholar Department of Economics

Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Prof.R. Sudarsana Rao Department of Economics

Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Prof. T.Koteswara Rao Professor & Chairman, BOS Department of Economics

Andhra University Visakhapatnam

1. INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia has scored strong results in economic growth over the past two Gadas1, though it has been facing significant challenges having their origin within the country or abroad. Most model based studies have shown that, despite strong longrun impact of the existing economic policy, the economy of the country is in transition and most challenges, and macroeconomic trade-offs are associated with different financing strategies. Heavy reliance on domestic loan may require substantial fiscal and macroeconomic adjustments as well as entail a sharp increase in inflation. As a result even if the country opt more and more for external borrowing ,on the other hand, may ease these adjustments but at the cost of significant increase in debt to GDP ratios (IMF Report,2014). With possible adjustments in specific economic development administration issues, the country has planned to be one of the middle income earning countries in near future. But to accomplish this, one of the economic development administration raised as a key factor is fiscal tools issues like taxation, budget and government expenditure.

1 In the traditional calendar of the Oromo People, one Gada represents a period of eight years (A.Legese,1973)

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Against the backdrop of the need to bring development and growth in the economy of Ethiopia, taxation has come extremely handy. Even nowadays one of the most commonly discussed economic issues is how taxes are related to economic growth. Numerous researchers have presented findings of their study in different ways, as there is no universal consensus on the impact each tax type has on economic growth. The impact of one tax type on one country’s economic growth may be different from the same type of tax impact on another country’s economic growth, which may be due to different political, social and economic situations that exist in those countries. Actually, like many economic questions, it is important to look at the historical record to examine the relationship between indirect tax and economic growth of one country. For instance findings of the researchers like Herberger (1964), Poterba et al (1996), Madsen and Damania (1996) Emran and Stiglitz (2005), Greenidge and Drakes (2009) have found significant and negative relationship between the indirect tax and economic growth while others such as Kneller et al (1999); Bird (2003); Arisoy and Unlukaplan (2010), and Scarlet (2011) found a positive relationship between indirect tax and economic growth. Moreover, in the United States, there were two significant post-world War II periods of tax reduction: the Kennedy tax cut of the 1960s and the Reagan tax cuts of the 1980s. A look at these episodes demonstrates that cutting taxes unleashes the creative forces of the American economy and provides incentives to work, save and invest.

In Ethiopia’s economic growth study insignificant attention was given yet to the impact each components of tax revenue imposes on the country’s economic growth. Especially studies on the economic growth of the country using recent econometric models and software packages are rare. But when the country’s current economic position is observed, one can judge serious importance of such study. Given the aforementioned concept, this study is one of the endeavors to identify if the domestic indirect tax is in position to affect the Ethiopian economic growth. Looking at the importance of the domestic indirect tax in the Ethiopian economy, the main objective of this study was to investigate the longrun relationship between domestic indirect tax and economic growth in Ethiopia using the multivariate VAR model.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Indirect taxes are those taxes imposed by a government on goods and services, in contrast to direct taxes, such as income and corporation tax, which are levied on incomes of households and firms. Indirect taxes are also called expenditure taxes. Indirect taxes are those types of taxes whose burden can be passed on to another person including export duties, import duties, excise duties, sales tax, service tax and others (Bhatia, 2008). As it’s common to all types of taxes one of the purposes of indirect tax is to generate revenue for a government. In addition to this since indirect tax is a tax that is levied on goods or services rather than on individuals or companies and is ultimately paid by consumers in the form of higher prices, it is also used by governments to discourage consumption of harmful products and encourage consumption of good products. Therefore it is obvious for such type of tax to pose impact on the country’s economic growth. In this part, before going to Ethiopian case it is important to first review the past literatures related to the relationship between indirect tax and economic growth.

The debate between direct and indirect tax in designing an optimal tax system had not only been protracted but also polarized. At one extreme are proponents of indirect tax as growth drivers while at the other extreme are those who observed negative or non-significant relationship between indirect tax and economic growth. Opponents of indirect tax believe that it increases income inequality since both the rich and the poor pay same amount of taxes on the same commodity i.e. repressiveness problem. This will further widen the income gap in the society. In addition, indirect taxes are considered to be inflationary in nature since the tax charged on goods and services consumed increases the unit price of the product. Against the above background, some researchers are of the view that indirect tax has negative effect on economic growth.

Musanga (2007) investigated the relationship between indirect taxes and economic growth in Uganda using data from 1987 to 2005 using the cointegration regression technique. The author suggested a 1% change in indirect tax would decrease economic growth by 0.53%. Greenidge and Drakes (2009), focusing on the economy of Barbados and using an unrestricted error correction model examined the relationship between tax policy and macroeconomic activities. They found that total

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tax and indirect taxes have a contractionary effect on the economy in both the short run and long run period. Koch, Schoeman and Van –Tonder (2005), observed that an increase in indirect tax compared to direct tax reduces economic growth using time series data from South Africa for the period 1960-2002. They analyzed the relationship between taxes and economic growth and also, the effect of ratio of indirect taxes to total tax revenue on economic growth.

Some of the studies found the the impact of indirect tax on economic growth to be insignificant. Herberger (1964) is one of the early studies made to find out the effect of tax and on economic growth. As per his findings the degree of effect of indirect tax on investment is insufficient to stimulate economic growth. In the model tested, the changes in the taxation components do not impact on the labor supply and investment and this resulted in insignificant changes in economic growth. The main emphasis of the Herberger study was on the effect of indirect tax on labor supply growth. Poterba, Rotemberg and Summers (1986) focused on the economy of United Kingdom and the United States and investigated the economic consequences of the shift from direct to indirect taxes for the periods(1964:3 to 1983:4 for United Kingdom) and (1948:3 to 1984:4 for United States). The research revealed for both countries, the shift to indirect taxes reduces real output, increase prices and after-tax wages in the short run, but they did not found a significant long run effect. Madsen and Damania (1986) observed that a revenue-neutral shift from direct to indirect taxes has no impact on economic activities in the longrun (used a sample of 22 OECD countries data from 1960-1990).

There were many studies where positive results revealed on the relationship. According to Scarlet, (2011) who investigated the relationship between taxation and economic growth in Jamaica using the standard growth functions within the autoregressive distributed lag based on quarterly time series data from 1990 to 2010, Scarlet found a significant and positive relationship between indirect tax and economic growth in the longrun. Still on the indirect tax – economic growth nexus, Aamir, Qayyuum, Nasir, Hussain, Khan and Butt (2011) using panel data of direct and indirect taxes in Pakistan and India from 2000 to 2009 discovered that in Pakistan, indirect taxes have statistically significant positive impact on total revenue and by extension economic growth. They found that if total indirect taxes increases by Rs.1, the

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increase in total tax revenue would amount to Rs 1.495. Using the endogenous growth framework, Atkinson and Stiglitz (1976) developed a theorem that states, in an economy where the differentials between people is based solely on their wage earning ability, the utility function is dissociable between labor and all commodities, the choice of the optimal tax mix should tend towards direct tax. The assumption in this theorem is that some level of homogeneity in individual qualitative characteristics but in real life situation, productivity and endowment of individuals differ greatly. Therefore, it means where there is heterogeneity in individual endowment, indirect tax becomes more appropriate. According to Cremer et al (2001), since individuals differ in their qualitative characteristics, a general income tax will not suffice. Instead, differential commodity (indirect) taxes should form the basis of optimal tax policy. And in a federating entity where each unit is vested with autonomous taxing power (as prescribed in the celebrated case of McCulloch .v. Maryland and reiterated in Roxa .v. CTA 28SCRA 276) direct and indirect consumption taxes according Dahlby (2003) could enhance the transparency of tax administration. The proponents of indirect tax as a growth driver advanced the buoyancy and flexibility argument. That is indirect tax has the ability to generate higher tax revenue with changes in the rate and base of the tax (buoyancy). While flexibility connotes the ability of the tax system to generate higher tax revenue with changes in tax base. Kneller et al (1999) focused on 22 OECD countries for the period 1970 to 1995. They used five years average of the annual data to circumvent the business cycle effect. They employed static panel econometric technique to investigate the relationship between fiscal policy and growth. The result of the study found a significant and positive relationship between non-distortionary taxation (indirect tax) and economic growth. They concluded that indirect tax is less harmful to the economy as it does not cut down on return on investment compared to direct tax. Arisoy and Unlukaplan(2010), focusing on the Turkish economy, investigated the relationship between direct and indirect tax and economic growth, using data from 1968-2006. The study adopted the ordinary least square econometric technique and it was found that real output is positively related to indirect tax revenue. They concluded that indirect taxes are significantly and positively correlated with economic growth in Turkey. Most findings of the relationship between tax and economic growth found to be negative. The investigation of the relationship

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between indirect tax and economic growth in Ethiopia is anchored on the endogenous framework which advanced a dynamic steady growth state. Popularized by King and Robelo (1990), the endogenous growth model believed that government policy, including taxation, can permanently increase per capital output with a high level of innovation. The economic implication of this model is that taxes and government spending can have consistent effect on output at both the short run and the long run.

The literature reviewed shows inconsistent result on the relationship between indirect tax and economic growth. Some researchers found negative relationship and other researchers found positive relationship as presented above. The inconsistent result obtained in the review previous studies motivates the researcher to examine the impact of domestic indirect tax on economic growth in the context of Ethiopia using multivariate VAR model.

3. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

Data for this research comprises of annual time series data from 1971-2013. The study mainly used secondary data. Data for domestic indirect tax and that of control variables were collected from National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE), Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED), Ethiopian Economic Association (EEA), Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), Ethiopian Customs Authority and The World Bank (WB). But data for real GDP per capita was computed based on the above sources.

In this study vector autoregressive (VAR) model was employed. The main advantages of VAR model over the single equation model is its ability to deal with several endogenous variables and cointegrating vectors, the ability to test for weak exogeneity and parameter restrictions. The VAR approach is data based and little economic theory is imposed directly (M’Amanja, Lloyd and Morrissey, 2005). VAR assumes that all the variables are endogenous. Hence, in this study a VAR model was built to analyze the relationship between domestic indirect tax and economic growth using the conditioning variables: Direct Taxes, Foreign Trade Taxes, Employed Labor and Private Investment. But Real GDP per capita was used as a proxy for economic growth. In the model all the variables were assumed to be endogenous and they depend on lags of all the variables. Considering that each of

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VAR’s equation contains k lag values, for the t period, the relationship between domestic indirect tax and economic growth is captured using the model equation 1 and 2.

퐿푅푌푃퐶 = 훼 + 훽 퐿푙푎푏 + ∅ 퐿푖푛푣푌 + 휑 퐿푑푡푌

+ 휒 퐿푑푖푡푌 + 휃 퐿푓푡푡푌 + 휔 퐿푅푃퐶

+ 푢 … … … … … … (1)

퐿푑푖푡푌 = 훼 + 훽 퐿푙푎푏 + ∅ 퐿푖푛푣푌 + 휑 퐿푑푡푌

+ 휒 퐿푑푖푡푌 + 휃 퐿푓푡푡푌 + 휔 퐿푅푃퐶

+ 푢 … … … … (2) Where: LRYPCt = Logarithm of Real GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita at time t, Llabt = Logarithm of employed labor at time t, LinvYt = Logarithm of private investment to nominal GDP ratio at time t, LdtYt = Logarithm of the ratio of direct tax to nominal GDP for period t, LditYt = Logarithm of domestic indirect taxes to nominal GDP ratio at time t LfttYt = Logarithm of the ratio of foreign trade taxes to nominal GDP at time t Besides, 1 and 2 are the intercept terms, s, s, s ,s, θs and ωs are coefficients of endogenous variables (lagged values) to be estimated and uits (i=1 and 2) are the stochastic error terms. Actually Real GDP per capita was computed using Nominal GDP, Population and GDP deflator as collected from different sources but mainly from MoFED. The above equations actually do not include the equations for conditioning variables, which if included, would have made the model clearer but to show their impact on each variable of interest we included the conditioning parameters in the above equations (1 and 2). In addition to this, it is well known that many variables impose impact

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on economic growth and in this study the main focus was to consider only a subset of the variables. Consequently, although the tax revenue component is complete (the tax variables are all included, especially as per Ethiopian tax system), the growth equation is incomplete (in the sense that the model does not capture all the relevant determinants of growth). As described by M.Amanja et al (2005) this is an inevitable limitation of single country time series analysis of growth. However, our concern is not with identifying the determinants of growth, rather it is with identifying the impact of tax revenue components and how this relates to growth. The next step is to estimate the VAR model by testing the existence of unit root for each variable; joint lag length selection; stability test, and cointegration tests and so on. In this study variables were converted to logarithmic form to comply with the statistical reasons.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 STATIONARITY TEST

The unit-root test helps to detect whether a variable is stationary or not. The test also helps to detect the order of integration at which the variables can be stationary. Therefore, tests for the unit roots are the primary task before conducting cointegration analysis. Therefore, before applying the Johansen‘s multivariate approach to co-integration test, unit root test was conducted in order to investigate the stationarity properties of the variables. Furthermore, the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Phillips-Perron (PP) tests were applied to all variables in levels and in first difference in order to formally establish their order of integration. The Schwartz Information Criterion (SIC) and Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) were used to determine the optimal number of lags included in the test. The results of unit root test for all the variables in their first difference with intercept and trend are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Unit root test for order of integration (ADF and Philips-Perron) at first difference with intercept and trend

Variable ADF Static

P-Value

OI[LAG] Philips-perron static

P-Value

OI[BW] Inference

DLRYPC -4.568530 0.0038** I(1)[0] -4.428508 0.0055** I(1)[2] Stationary DLlabY -8.111217 0.0000** I(1)[0] -8.886274 0.0000** I(1)[5] Stationary DLinvY -7.862830 0.0000** I(1)[0] -7.868316 0.0000** I(1)[3] Stationary

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DLdtY -6.350808 0.0000** I(1)[0] -6.380986 0.0000** I(1)[5] Stationary DLditY -8.427035 0.0000** I(1)[0] -8.427035 0.0000** I(1)[0] Stationary DLfttY -6.873641 0.0000** I(1)[0] -7.286799 0.0000** I(1)[12] Stationary ** Represents significance at the 1% and BW represents bandwidth for Philip-perron unit root test.

Note: OI represents order of integration and D denotes first difference. Source: Computed by the author using Eviews package based on MoFED data

Table 1 shows that the first differences of the all variables are stationary and the null hypothesis of existence of unit root at 1% level of significance in both Augmented Dickey-Fuller and Philip-Peron tests were rejected. From the above analysis result, one can conclude that all variables are integrated of order one or I (1) .Therefore, the next step is to test for the existence of cointegration.

4.2 COINTEGRATION ANALYSIS

If any of the series is found to be integrated, then a cointegration test will be conducted using Johansen Cointegration Test. Johanson Cointegration test is one of the mandatory tests to circumvent spurious regression. Therefore, for a regression not to be spurious there should be at least one cointegration vector. In this study VAR based cointegration tests using the methodology developed by Johanson is adopted. To determine the number of cointegrating vectors (rank of a matrix), the null hypothesis of no cointegration between variables is tested against the alternative hypothesis that there is at least one cointegration vector between variables. But, before that Johansen longrun parameters estimate starts from testing the appropriate lag length of the vector autoregressive (VAR). Thus, the first period lag was selected to be the most appropriate lag for cointgration test. As it has been commonly done in other related studies, in this study Johanson test for cointegration procedure in which λtrace and λmax statistics are used to test the number of characteristic roots that are insignificantly different from unity. The trace statistics tests whether there is at most one cointegrating relationship while the maximal statistics was used to test the null hypothesis that there are r- cointegrating vectors as against the alternative hypothesis of r<1. The process starts at r = 0 up to r = n-1 until we fail to reject the hypothesis to determine the number of cointegrating relations r.

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The results of the diagnostic tests show that the model has passed all the tests. Both Johansen cointegration tests i.e Trace and maximum Eigenvalue tests, yield the same results as it can be seen from table 2. First the null hypothesis of zero cointegration relationships against the alternative hypothesis of 1 or more cointegration relationships was tested and the null hypothesis of no cointegration relationsship was rejected. Next, the hypothesis of at most 1 cointegration relationship against at most 2 and so on cointegration relationships was tested and it couldn’t be reject anymore. In other words, the result presented in Table 2 implies the alternative hypothesis of at least one cointegrating vector was not rejected by both λmax and λtrace statistics at 1% level of significance. This suggests that there exists precisely one cointegrating vector in the estimated model. Hence, it is concluded that there is longrun relationship between the variables which are explained by a linear combination of I (1) variables.

Once the existence of only a unique cointegrating vector is statistically supported, what is relevant for our analysis is the first column of the α matrix (the matrix of speed of adjustment coefficients) and the first row of the β matrix (long-run coefficients of the variables).There is a need to impose zero-restriction on α coefficient to test which entries of α in the relevant vector are statistically zero. This is essentially a test for weak exogeniety which helps to identify endogenous and exogenous variables in the model. Rejection of weak exogeneity implies that the variables under investigation are endogenous. Thus, the longrun equation model can be constructed as follows.

LRYPC= -27.06190+1.573298Llab+0.354270 LinvY+1.718764 LdtY- 3.043165 LditY-1.190588 LfttY

WALD test result also approved the rejection of the hypothesis that says the collective contribution of the variables included in the model is zero. Again as it can be seen from appendix 3 CUSUMSQ and normal CUSUM test of stability the blue lines lying between the two red lines are the desirable result that shows our model is stable and adequate. As a result of all these test results we accept the hypothesis of overall parameter consistency.

As per the above longrun equation, the parameters of active labor force engaged in job and private investment to Nominal GDP ratio having positive sign assures the existing economic theory. But the signs for the

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other variables used in the study like domestic indirect tax, direct tax and foreign trade tax were not predetermined by economic theory, but differs from country to country depending on the political, economic and social situations that exist in the country. In this study, domestic direct tax to NGDP ratio has got positive sign while the ratios of Domestic indirect tax and foreign trade tax to NGDP have negative signs. All variables used in this model except employed labor were presented as the ratio to Nominal GDP (NGDP) and in their logarithmic form. All variables of the model are significant with exception of the private investment and Direct tax in the longrun. And even as it can be seen from different tests made that the variables used in this model are important but there is no explicit argument on the significance of each variable. Though economic theory gives assurance to dropping of variables whose effect on the target variables is zero, since variables are exhaustively selected specially as per the convenience for different tests and VAR model selected analysis, the equality between longrun variables coefficients (β) are tested and rejected. The other issue that has to be given serious emphasis in building econometric model or equation is the errors from omitting insignificant variables which theory does not suggest.

4.3 VECTOR ERROR CORRECTION MODEL (VECM)

According to the representation theorem, if series are cointegrated, Granger causality will further require the inclusion of error correction terms (ECT) in the stationary model in order to capture the shortterm deviation of series from their longterm equilibrium path. In fact, the evidence of cointegration between variables rules out the possibility of Granger non causality, although it does not say anything about the direction of the causality. In this study, the application of a vector error correction model (VECM) enables both the direction of the causality to be revealed, and to distinguish between shortrun and longrun Granger causality. As stated in the previous section we formulated the VECM in order to examine both the shortrun and longrun dynamics of causality. In this case we note that short term dynamics are influenced by temporary deviations from the long-run relationship. Thus, to integrate the shortrun dynamics with longrun model, the first difference of the variables to allow for delayed response is estimated using OLS. Since all the variables in the model are now I(1), statistical inference using standard t and F tests are valid.

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As per the VECM result, the speed adjustment or error correction term was found to be -0.078898 with p-value of 0.000 which is a very clear result that shows existence of the longrun relationship between the variables used in the model.

Econometric analysis is based on different rules which guides different applications and study results. Therefore, there are many core tests to undertake while applying econometric analysis in different economics research which is common to this paper. The vector error correction estimates having the coefficient of determination (R2) of 63% was found i.e. of the variation in the dependent variable (real GDP per capita) 63% is as a result of change in the variables included in this model which is desirable and a sufficient result for our model equation to say it fit. The F-statistics and the probability of F-static were found to be 8.100055(0.000010), which confirms the significance of the overall regression equation. The Breusch-Godfrey serial correlation LM test for the presence of autocorrelation has revealed that there is no autocorrelation in the model used for this study because prob(F-static)= 0.8766 ,which is greater than 0.05 critical value. The Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test of heteroscesdasticity reveals that the p-value of about 0.9512% is greater than the critical value of 5%. This shows that there is no evidence for the presence of heteroscedasticity since the p-values are considerably in excess of 0.05.This actually is not surprise result, since heteroscesdasticity is not issue that needs serious emphasis in time series analysis (Green, 1997). In appendix 3 the Jarque Bera tests of skewness and kurtosis of the residuals revealed normality implying the absence of outliers in the data. The Ramsey RESET test shows that p-value is greater than the critical value at 5%. To confirm parameter stability strongly the cumulative sum of the standardized recursive residuals (CUSUMQ) test was made and as it is shown in Appendix 3 the plots of CUSUMSQ statistics are confined within the critical bounds, implying that the model is stable. This shows that there is no apparent nonlinearity in the regression equation and it would be concluded that the linear model is appropriate.

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The main objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between domestic indirect tax and economic growth in Ethiopia using VAR model analysis. The data used in the study was a time series data covering the years from 1971-2013. All variables were tested for the

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existence of unit root and were found to be non stationary at level but became stationary after first differencing. Before testing the dynamic relationship between the variable of interest and other variables using VECM cointegration test, using Johansen test was undertaken and gave assurance for the existence of longrun relationship. And this result helped to proceed to VECM which is the basis for the following conclusions.

The empirical result shows the impact of labor on the economic growth in the longrun to be positive and the impact of private investment on economic growth was found to be positive but insignificant. This may be due to the underdeveloped and low contribution of private investments to the general economy of Ethiopia. The impact of direct tax on economic growth was also found to be positive but insignificant. Foreign trade tax impact affects economic growth of Ethiopia negatively. But the impact of the study’s variable of interest, domestic indirect tax, imposes negative and significant effect on economic growth of Ethiopia. As it can be seen from the estimated equation a 1% increase in domestic indirect leads to 3.041% decreases in economic growth of Ethiopia specifically on the real GDP per capita. This result differs from the findings of Kneller et al (1999); Arisoy and Unlukapalan (2010); Scarlet (2011) and Bird (2003) which found a positive relationship between indirect tax and economic growth. It is however consistent with the findings of Ilaboya and Mgbame (2012); Herberger(1964);Emran and Stiglitz,(2005); Poterba et al ,(1986); Greenidge and Drakes (2009);Musanga,(2007),Madsen and Damania,(1986) which found no significant or negative and significant relationship between indirect tax and economic growth.

Moreover, it is worth mentioning that the result obtained in this research concerning the relationship between economic growth and domestic indirect tax in Ethiopia is not based only on the existing government period, the previous regime and the last few years of the Imperial regime (1971-2013). Therefore, a researcher who may be interested to find out the specific regime’s (either EPRDF or Derg) domestic indirect tax effect on economic growth may come up with same or different finding, but the finding of this research recommends the existing idea on the new tax move which emphasizes on indirect taxation.

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The global drift from direct to indirect taxation seems to suffer empirical justification in Ethiopia. This study is advocating that Ethiopia should give serious attention to reduce regressivity of domestic indirect tax, and the move towards indirect tax should be given due care. Burden of Indirect tax in Ethiopia, especially nowadays seem to be transferred to consumers fully. This may discourage the general economy and benefit narrow sectors. Therefore, to benefit from the growing indirect tax revenue, the Ethiopia has to circumvent the above mentioned and other related problems. .

References

1. Aamir, M., Qayyum, A., Nasir, A., Hussain, S., Khan, K. I., & Butt, S. (2011). Determinants of tax revenue: Comparative study of direct taxes and indirect taxes of Pakistan and India. International Journal of business and social sciences, 2 (18), 171-178.

2. A.P. Thirlwall(2003), Growth and Development:with special reference Developing Countries, 7th Edition, Palgrave Macmillan,in Inida by Peplica press Pvt.Ltd.Kundli 131028

3. Arisoy, I., & Unlukaplan, I. (2010). Tax composition and growth in Turkey: An empirical analysis. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, 59, 51 – 61.

4. Asmerom Legesse,(1973). Gada Three Approaches to the study of African society Atkinson, et al (1976). The Design of tax structure: Direct versus indirect taxation. Journal of Public Economics, 6, 55-75.

5. Bhartia, H.L., ( 2008). Public Finance. 14th Edn., Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd, New Delhi.

6. Barro, R. J. and Sala-I-Martin, X. (1992). Public Finance in Model of Economic Growth: The Review of Economic Studies, 59(4): 645-661

7. Cremer, H., Pestieau, P., & Rochet, J. C. (2001). Direct versus indirect tax: The design of the tax structure revisited.International Economic Review, 42 (3), 781-799.

8. Dahlby, B. (2003). Restructuring the Canadian tax system by changing the mix of direct and indirect taxes. In H. G.Grubel, Tax Reform in Canada: Our Path to Greater Prosperity. Vancouver British Columbia Canada: The Fraser Institute, 77-108.

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9. Dickey, D. A., and Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the

Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series With a Unit Root,” Journal of American Statistical Association, Vol. 74, pp. 427-431.

10. Engle, R., & Granger, C. (1987). Cointegration and error correction: Representation, estimation and testing. Econometrica (Vol. 55).

11. Emran S., & Stiglitz, J.(2005). On selective indirect tax reform in developing countries. Journal of Public Economics, 18, 599 –620.

12. Greenidge, K., & Drakes, L. (2009). Tax policy and macroeconomic activity in Barbados. http://www.central bank.org.bb.

13. Green, William H. (1997), Econometric Analysis, Prentice-Hall Inc 14. Harberger, A. C. (1964). Taxation, resource allocation and welfare,

in NBER’ and the Brookings Institution, The Role of Direct and Indirect Taxes in the Federal Reserved System. Princeton: International Monetary Fund Report(2014). Princeton University Press 25 – 75.

15. Jarque, C.M., & Bera, A.K. (1987). A test for normality of observations and regression residuals. International Statistical Review, 55 (2), 16-172.

16. King, R.G., & Sergio, R. (1990). Public policy and economic growth: Developing neo-classical implications. Journal of Political Economy, 98 (5),126-150.

17. Kneller, R, Bleaney, M.F., & Gemmell, N. (1999). Fiscal policy and growth: Evidence from OECD countries. Journal of Public Economics, 74, 171-190.

18. Koch, S.F, Schoeman, N.J., & Van -Tonder, J, J. (2005). Economic growth and the structure of taxes in South Africa: 1960-2002. South African Journal of Economics, 73 (2), 190-210.

19. Madsen, J., & Damania, D. (1996). The macroeconomic effects of switch from direct to indirect taxes: An Empirical Assessment. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 43 (5), 566-578.

20. Martinez-Vazquez, J., Vulovic, V., & Lui, Y. (2009). Direct versus indirect taxation: Trends, theory and economic significance. International Studies Program Working Paper, 09 – 11, Georgia State University.

21. M’Amanja, D., Lloyd, T. and Morrissey, O. (2005), ‘Fiscal Aggregates, Aid and Growth in Kenya: A Vector Autoregressive (VAR) Analysis’, School of Economics, and University of Nottingham: CREDIT Research Paper 05/07.

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22. Mesfin Midekssa (1994), The Budgetary Impact of Import Tax Reform in

Ethiopia, Unpublished Msc Thesis, Addis Ababa University Michael P. Todaro (2001), Economic Development, 7th Edition, Addison Wisely Longman, New Delhi.

23. Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (2010/11), Macroeconomic Developments in Ethiopia Annual Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

24. Musanga, B. (2007). Effects of taxation on economic growth (Uganda’s experience: 1987-2005) Unpublished misc qualitative economics. University of Makerere.

25. Nelson, C.R. and C.I. Plosser, (1982), Trend and random walks in macroeconomic time series, Journal of Monetary Economics, 10, 139-162

26. Poterba, J. M., Rotemberg, J. J., & Summers, L. H. (1986). A tax-based test for nominal rigidities. The American Economic Review 76 (4), 659-675 and time series data. American Economic Review, 76, 191-203.

27. Scarlett, H.G. (2011). Tax policy and economic growth in Jamaica. 28. Phillips P. C.B and Perron, P.(1988). Testing for a unit root in time

series regression: Biometrica, 75(2): 335-346 29. Russell, D. (1993). Estimation and inference in econometrics. New

York: Oxford University Press. 30. Sims, C.A. (1980). Macroeconomics and reality. Econometrica,48

(1):1-48 31. Tanzi V., and Howell H.Zee, (2000), “Tax Policy for Emergency Markets:

Developing Countries,” IMF Working Paper, WP/00/35, (Washington: International Monetary Fund)

32. Yoseph Zelalem (1998), Revenue Productivity of the Tax System in Ethiopia, Unpublished Msc Thesis, Addis Ababa

33. Stock, J. H. (1994). “Units Roots, Structural Breaks and Trends,” in R.F. Engle and D.L. McFadden (eds.), Handbook of Econometrics, Volume IV. North Holland, New York.

34. World Bank. (2010). World Development Indicators. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

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Appendix 1. Stationary Test graph for variables at level

Appendix:2. Plots of the variables (series) at first difference

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

LRYPC

14.5

15.0

15.5

16.0

16.5

17.0

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

LLAB

-4.8

-4.6

-4.4

-4.2

-4.0

-3.8

-3.6

-3.4

-3.2

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

LDITY

-2.4

-2.0

-1.6

-1.2

-0.8

-0.4

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

LINVY

-4.8

-4.4

-4.0

-3.6

-3.2

-2.8

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

LDTY

-4.8

-4.4

-4.0

-3.6

-3.2

-2.8

-2.4

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

LFTTY

-150

-100

-50

0

50

100

150

200

250

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

DLRYPC

-1.2

-0.8

-0.4

0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

DLLAB

-.6

-.4

-.2

.0

.2

.4

.6

.8

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

DLDTY

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

DLINVY

-.8

-.6

-.4

-.2

.0

.2

.4

.6

.8

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

DLDITY

-.8

-.6

-.4

-.2

.0

.2

.4

.6

.8

75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10

DLFTTY

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Appendix 3. Jarque Bera Test, Parameter Stability Test: Diagnostic 1-step residuals +/- 2nd SE and (CUSUM SQ) and Normal Cumulative sum square (CUSUM) plots

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

-0.10 -0.05 -0.00 0.05

Series: ResidualsSample 1973 2013Observations 41

Mean 3.34e-17Median 0.003867Maximum 0.064556Minimum -0.114749Std. Dev. 0.039882Skewness -0.643455Kurtosis 3.131832

Jarque-Bera 2.858923Probability 0.239438

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

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1.0

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1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance

-20

-15

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-5

0

5

10

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1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

CUSUM 5% Significance

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PERCEPTION OF SCHOOL STUDENTS ABOUT

GEOGRAPHY THROUGH GEOGRAPHICAL MODELS OF REGIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY,

BHUBANESWAR: A FIELD STUDY

Dipak Bhattacharya M.Ed Scholar

Department of Education RIE, Bhubaneswar

Introduction:

“History is not everything, but it is starting point.

History is a clock that people use to tell their political and cultural time of day. It is a compass they use to find themselves on the map of human geography. It tells them where they are but, more importantly, what they must be.” ------John Henrik Clarke.

Natural History is the research and study of the organisms including plants or animals in their environment, learning more towards observational than experimental methods of the study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it. Natural History is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a very broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. So while natural history dates historically from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and mediaeval Arabic world, through to European, Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation, today’s field is more of across discipline umbrella of many

specialty sciences. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists and scientific knowledge of many specialty sciences. A person who studies natural history is known as a naturalists or ‘Natural Historian’.

A ‘Natural History Museum’ is a museum with exhibits about natural history including such topics as animals, plants, ecosystems, geology, paleontology and climatology. Geomodelling is the applied science of

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creating computerized representation of portions of the earth’s crust based on geophysical and geological observations made on and below earth surface. Geographical model is related to the concept of shared earth model; which is multi-disciplinary, interoperable and updatable knowledge base about the subsurface. With the help of geographical model children can learn in variety ways through experiences, making and doing things, experimentation reading, discussion, asking,

listening, thinking, and reflecting and expressing oneself in a speech. To serve this noble purpose Regional Museum of Natural History is established. Since, it is the gateways for the students to improve and also to polish the theoretical Knowledge with practical activities.

Background of the Study: The first ‘Natural History Museum’ was

that of Swiss scholar Conrad Gessher established in Zurich in the mid 16th century. The Museum National d’ Histoire Naturelle, established in Paris in 1635, was the first natural history museum to take the form that would be recognized as a natural history museum today. Early natural history museums offered limited accessibility, as they were generally private collections or holdings of scientific societies. The Ashmolean museum, opened in 1983, was the first natural history museum to grant admission to the general public.

The ‘National Museum of Natural History’ has an obligation to the entire country in respect of creating environment awareness and promoting conservation education. It was decided during the 7th plan to

have regional offices in the form of ‘Regional Museum of Natural History’ in different parts of the country in a phased manner, so as the activities of the ‘National Museum of Natural History’ at regional and state levels. The first regional office was initiated in southern region in 1995 at Mysore. The third regional museum in the eastern region of the country was established in Bhubaneswar (Odisha) and operationalised in 2004. It exhibits on plants, animals and geology of the eastern, north eastern region and Andaman & Nicobar island of India. This museum

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was undertaken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

Pic-1:- Regional Museum of Natural History Building

Rationale of the study: A model is a representation of a real

thing; like a globe which is a model of the earth .Geographers construct models to analyze geographic process because the real object of the study may be too large to examine. This study is deals with how children are beneficiated by geographical models of Regional Museum of Natural History. The Rationale of the geographical models in Regional Museum of Natural History are –

It helps students to connect with real life situation. It provides practical knowledge along with the theoretical

information. It correlates student’s imagination power with truth. It gives scientific ideas to the students which may be beyond the

textbook. It helps in cognitive development of the students. It simplifies the complex relationships of the phenomena in the real

world to the student. So, geographical models are act like a bridge between observational and theoretical levels. These models help students to enhance their curiosity in geography. There are some research studies in this. Like, Krepel and Durral (1981) found that field trips in museums or other

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informal educational areas encourages students to examine their connection to the local and national communities, as well as their connection to the local and global ecosystems. Kisiel, J. (2003) found

that different models of museum help teachers and students to create an appropriate learning environment to learn. Dogan, Y. (2010) found that Museums provide a favorable environment in which children can do and experience things to improve themselves cognitively, physically, affectively and socially.

To find the real truth, the researcher had taken “Perception of School Students about Geography through Geographical Models of Regional

Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar: A Field Study.” as an area of field experience.

Objectives:

1. To study the perception of school children regarding Regional Museum of Natural History’s geographical models, programmes, activities. 2. To study the programme and activities organized by Regional Museum in creating awareness of geography among the school children. 3. To study the exhibits of different Galleries and its implementation in teaching geography. Procedure and Tools used: This was a survey type of field study. For collecting the information, the researcher had used tools:-

i. Observation schedule. ii. Unstructured Interview with students.

iii. Unstructured interview with Director and employees of Regional Museum of Natural History.

With these tools the researcher had taken help of observation method.

After consulting with the guide, the researcher had finalized the area for field experience and gets the permission from the Institution. The investigator first visited ‘Regional Museum of Natural History (RMNH), Bhubaneswar, and met the director of the RMNH and took the permission to collect information about the importance of geographical models of RMNH in school children.

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Field Visit Schedule: The researcher had paid a visit for 5 times. The schedule of field experience is given below:

Sl. no. Date Timings Visited whom Activities observation

1. 17.9.2014 3:oo pm Director Explained the matter of field experience and talked to director to

conduct observation of students. 2. 21.9.2014 3:oo pm Employees of

RMNH. Discuss about different programme and activities and observed video

programme. 3. 26.09.2014 3:oo pm Tribal School

students Students were looking various

geographical models and discussed with their peers about the models.

4. 11.10.2014 3:oo pm Teachers Teacher helped students to solve their query.

5. 9.11.2014 3:oo pm Visitors Parents, College students were discussing about different models and their importance among each

other. Table no. 1: Field visit schedule

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Different Exhibits of the Study Area:

Mission of the Regional Museum of Natural History (RMNH) is to promote and support non formal environment education with the help of exhibition, in house and outreach programmes. The spectacular sprawling campus with magnificent building houses the following exhibit areas.

1. Galleries: Bio –diversity Gallery, North-East Bio-diversity Gallery,

some interesting marine creatures, Baleen Whale Skeleton and African Gallery.

2. Temporary Exhibitions: Unique creations of nature, Herpeto

fauna, Body’s hardware and Insect Corner.

3. Unique Exhibits: The Elephant and Rhino skeleton.

4. Creative area for children: Discovery centre

1. Galleries:

Bio-diversity Gallery: Here beauty of Shimilipal, beauty of Chilka

and glory of Bhitarkanika, beauty of Andaman Nicobar, track course of river Mahanadi are shown with unique models.

Pic-2PPic-2: Bio-diversity Gallery

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North-East Bio-diversity Gallery: North-East India, a land

synonymous with beauty and diversity is a part of Himalayan and Indo-Burma bio-diversity hotspot. It is a reservoir of many endemic and rare plants and animals. Bio-diversity of Kaziranga, Loktak Lake, Namdapha, dzukou valley is beautifully presented in a dioramic form. Besides bio-diversity of birds primates’ orchids, rhododendrons, bamboos and Herpeto fauna of north-east is presented in a lucid and easily understandable way.

Pic-3: North-East Bio-diversity Gallery

Some Interesting marine creatures: Here some common

marine creatures exhibited to know more about the ecological role played in marine environment.

Baleen Whale skeleton: A 47.3’ long baleen whale skeleton has

been showcased for the visitors to know about marine mammal.

African Gallery: World largest egg of extinct Elephant, birds, fossils, ammonites, African savannah painting, skeleton of African

Black Rhinoceros and Butterflies of Madagascar etc have been displayed in this gallery.

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2. Temporary Exhibitions:

Unique Creations of Nature: By this gallery people can know

about extinct and endangered animals of India and also look at the striking difference between cheetah and leopard, deer and black buck. Visitors can know about largest and smallest terrestrial mammal, herbivore, carnivore, bone crusher and much more interesting facts

Herpetofauna: Here actual specimens of different species of frogs,

snakes, lizards and turtles found in Odisha well preserved information.

Pic-4: Species of Snakes

Insect corner: Some common insects and their life cycle is

depicted to know more about ecological role played in environment. Participatory exhibit on interesting facts about hornets and other wasps through LCD monitor displayed along with hornet nest.

3. Unique exhibits:

Elephant and Rhino skeleton: A rare and interesting skeletal

exhibit of bullet ridden wild tucker displayed under suspended

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condition in central dome and complete skeleton of African Black Rhino are in added attraction.

4. Creative area for children

Discovery centre: Here visitors can look at the faster and

longest of all animals, measure their height against a giraffe and know about unfold treasure of life in sea.

Mobile Exhibition: Exhibition on wheels a mobile museum for

people who have a rare opportunity to visit museum has been decorated in this museum.

Different Activities: Apart from the exhibitions Regional Museum

of Natural History –

Organize workshops for teachers and students.

Arrange outdoor nature study activities.

Conduct programme for teachers and students, NGOs etc.

Summer nature study programme.

Organize appropriate programmes to mark importance days and

events like world environment day, wild life week, ozone day etc.

Pic-5: Video Programme on Tiger conservation

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Different Models of Geography in Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar:

1. Rocks and Minerals: These are some important geographical

models in this museum which helps students to know about different structure and composition of rocks and minerals through real life observation.

Pic-5: Rocks

Pic-6: Minerals

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2. Globe: This is another important geographical model in the

Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar. It is three-dimensional scale model of earth. By this model, students can learn about shapes and sizes about continents, oceans, distances, directions, and various earth features through direct observation.

Pic-7: Globe

3. Interior of the Earth: This is also an important geographical

model of this museum. It gives information about internal structure and different composition of the earth.

Pic-8: Interior of the earth

Major Result of the Experience:

By visiting Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar the researcher had observed following things:

i. Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar was helping

visitors to aware in environment and gave suggestion to conserve our environment through different activities, programme and models.

ii. When students were seeing models of Rocks and minerals, they learned actual archaeological structure of earth and they were correlating their theoretical knowledge to practical knowledge.

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iii. After observed, models of interior of the earth students were

comparing models with their book’s picture and they were learning collaborate.

iv. When the students were looking models of bio-diversity, they were discussing and asking with their teacher about the importance and different function of bio-diversity,

v. After seeing the globe, students were playing with this. One student

asked another student about the location of different country and also asked about the proper location of that country in a globe. By this they were enhancing their knowledge in space and area.

vi. After seeing the model on flood, drought and river students were discussing about impact and reason flood and drought and for enhancing their knowledge they were taking suggestion from their teachers.

vii. When the students were seeing forest and wetland models they were sharing their knowledge about a forestation and deforestation and they were visualizing the actual reason for natural disturbances.

viii. Students were learning very joyfully after seeing Chilka Lake, Loktak the floating lake, dzukou valley.

ix. When he students were observed video programme on wildlife

conservation they were enjoying the programme.

Reflection: By visiting Regional Museum of Natural History,

Bhubaneswar the researcher observed that it really works hard to promote information about different subjects like geography, geology, zoology, Botany and other disciplines and it conscious people on environmental conservation and its importance. With the help of different programmes and activities RMNH, Bhubaneswar try to

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promote awareness among students, teachers, and all visitors in nature, wildlife conservation.

Best part observed by researcher are given below-

1. Students were learning collaborately and co-operatively and special children were also engaging to learn about different models of geography.

2. Teachers were helping their students to clear their doubts in

different subjects.

3. Students were learning very joyfully.

4. After seeing video programme on tiger conservation, students were discussing about Tiger and its importance to biodiversity.

5. National Curriculum Framework -2005 suggested that there must have to a field trip in every year in school curriculum to enhance students practical knowledge. Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar trying their best to implement this suggestion and that’s why they organise different programmes, activities to motivate the school students.

Suggestions:

1. An expert/guide must be require to provide clear concept of different subjects to the students. Sometimes teacher could not give correct explanation of particular concept to the children.

2. The infrastructure of RMNH, Bhubaneswar must have to develop more by collecting different plants and animals and other species

for our new generation.

Conclusion:

There is a no doubt that Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar is a famous museum in Odisha. It is always motivate students to increase their curiosity of knowledge to give correct

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answers of their abstract questions. It is largely effect on students behaviours, attitude, Beliefs and Virtue. Different geographical models in Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar facilitates learning about the subject through “Knowing by playing and learning by doing.” It gives immense joy and happiness to visitors of different ages.

References:

1. Dogan, Y. (2010). Primary School Students’ Benefiting from Museums with Educational Purposes. International Journal of

Social Inquiry. Vol-3(2). pp. 137-164.

2. Kisiel, J. (2003). Teachers, museums, and worksheets: A closer look at learning experience. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 14, 3–21.

3. Krepel, W. J., & Durral, C. R. (1981). Field trips: A guideline for planning and conducting educational experiences. Washington, DC: National Science Teachers Association.

4. NCF. (2005). National Curriculum Framework, 2005. National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.

5. Rana, L. “Models, Theories, and Systems Analysis in Geography.” The Association of Geographical Studies. pp. 2-12.

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EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUBSTANCE

ABUSE AND ANXIETY AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN KOLKATA

Dr. Bipasha Sinha Head, Dept. of Education

Seth Soorajmull Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta Kolkata, West Bengal

Sunita Kejriwal Research Scholar

Department of Education University of Calcutta Kolkata, West Bengal

Anupriya Basu Research Scholar

Department of Education University of Calcutta Kolkata, West Bengal

Substance abuse suggests the use of damaging or dangerous psychoactive substances like nicotine, alcohol and illicit drugs. Adolescence is a developmental stage which is crucial in life as it is the time when the child acquires scholastic, societal and life skills. Any substance abuse at this age is likely to hinder the child’s development and have grievous consequences on the child and the society in future. Previous studies and statistics show that globally more and more

adolescents are using drugs and alcohol (World Drug Report, 1997).

Over the recent years there has been a steady increase in substance use among the youth with the age of initiation gradually diminishing. A study by Ramachandran (1991) indicated that in India, by the time most boys reach the ninth grade, about 50 percent of them have tried at least one substance of abuse. As per the National Survey on Extent, Pattern and Trends of Drug abuse in India conducted by the Centre in collaboration with United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2004), the current prevalence rates of drug abuse within the age group of 12-18 years was Alcohol (21.4 per cent), Cannabis (0.3), Opiates (0.7) and any illicit drug (3.6 per cent).

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Triparthi and Lal (2007) found that in India currently the use of

alcohol and locally manufactured tobacco products like Biri (coarse tobacco rolled in tobacco leaves), smokeless tobacco like Kemam (flavoured tobacco paste), Gutkha (mixture of tobacco and betel nut), Gul (tobacco tooth powder), Pan Zarda (mixture of betel nut, tobacco leaves and lime) and Khaini (mixture of tobacco leaves and lime) are common forms of substance abuse among the adolescent population. This indicates that high school students are the most vulnerable group who involve in drug abuse practices and this problem needs to be an important area for study.

Anxiety indicates a state of worry, uneasiness, apprehension or fear about future uncertainties. Anxiety is one of the most common problems facing teenagers in schools today. Most teenagers worry at times about school performance, classmates and friends, family,

appearance, health etc. Several studies have indicated that although common anxiety symptoms can affect people at any age, yet it generally tends to increase during the adolescent years (Van Oort, 2010). Anxiety disorders have frequently been found to be associated with alcohol misuse and substance use disorders. Longitudinal studies suggest that anxiety disorders usually precede substance use problems (Buckner et al., 2008; Costello et al., 2003; Deas, 2006; Zimmermann, 2003). The self-medication theory suggests that alcohol and other substances may be used to alleviate symptoms of anxiety (Gilman, 2008; Sher, 2005). Alternately studies have also found that substance use leads to altering brain functions making the user more vulnerable to stress, thereby creating a state of anxiety (Wand, 2008).

Keeping in view the above observations, the present study was conducted with the idea to understand the current magnitude of

substance abuse among adolescent students in Kolkata and explore whether associations between anxiety and substance use are evident in the adolescents under study.

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Objectives of the study:

To find out the extent of substance abuse problem among the adolescents under study.

To find out the gender wise differences in substance abuse among

the adolescents.

To find out the relationship between substance abuse and anxiety

of those who have substance abuse problems.

To find out the gender wise differences in overall level of anxiety of

the adolescents.

Sample:

Data was collected from 60 adolescents (30 boys and 30 girls) who were 15 to 18 years of age and were studying plus two in elite co-educational English medium schools of Kolkata.

Purposive sampling technique was used to select the students for the study.

Tools:

The CRAFFT Screening Test (2009) developed by The Center for Adolescent Substance Abuse Research (CeASAR), Boston was used to screen adolescents for high risk alcohol and other drug use. It consists of six questions which can be directly scored. A score of two or more than two suggests a significant problem and need for intervention. Alpha co-efficient computed by Levy et.al. (2004) for screening adolescents for substance abuse was found to be .68.

The State-Trait Anxiety Expression Inventory (STAI) by Speilberger et.al. (1983) was used to measure the anxiety proneness or trait anxiety among the adolescents. It consisted of 20 statements and

students had to rate themselves on a 4 point scale. The STAI A-Trait items have seven reversal items and thirteen that can be scored

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directly. Alpha co-efficient computed by Cronbach (1951) for the normative samples ranged from .83 to .92.

Statistical Procedure:

Chi-square test, t-test and correlation was used to find out gender wise differences in substance abuse, to find out the relationship between substance abuse and anxiety among the adolescent and to see whether there were any gender-wise differences in the extent of anxiety among the boys and girls.

Results:

Table-1

Percentage, Mean and S.D. of adolescents who have a substance abuse problem.

Total No. of students

(N=60)

Boys

(N=30)

Girls

(N=30)

N=29 Mean S.D N=20 Mean S.D N=9 Mean S.D

48.4 % 3.03 1.017 67.0% 2.7 0.97 30.0% 3.78 0.67

Table-1 indicates that out of the 60 adolescents under study, 48.4 % of the adolescents have indulged in substance abuse, out of which 67 % of them were boys and 30% were girl students respectively.

Table-2

Chi-square test showing significant differences between genders on the problem of substance abuse.

Variable→1 Gender (Boys vs Girls)

Variable →2 *Substance abuse

problem

푥 Value=8.09 df=1

P < 0.01

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Table-2 shows that there is significant difference between boys

and girls regarding the problem of substance abuse. This indicates that the habit of abusing substances is different among boys and girls.

*Those students who responded positively to two or more of the

CRAFFT Questions.

Table-3

Correlation between substance abuse and anxiety among adolescents

Variables Correlation Value Probability

Substance Abuse

Anxiety N=29 r =0.484 P < 0.01

Table-3 shows that the correlation between substance abuse and anxiety is significant at 0.01 levels. It indicates that those students who have substance abuse problem also suffer from high level of anxiety.

Table-4

t-value showing the significant differences between the mean score of anxiety level of boys and girls (N=60).

Gender Mean S.D. t-value Significance

Boys (N=30)

43.03 4.29

2.62

df=58

P< 0.05

(One tailed

test)

Girls (N=30)

46.27 5.25

Table 4 shows the significant differences between anxiety level of boys and girls. It is seen that the anxiety level of girls is greater than that of boys at a level of significance of 0.05 levels.

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DISCUSSION

Findings shown in Table-1 reveal that 48.4 % of the adolescents under this study have indulged in some kind of substance abuse which is quite alarming in a metropolitan city like Kolkata. This finding is comparable with a study by Ahmad et al. (2007) who found that most of the adolescent substance abusers were within the age range of 16-19 years. A study by Gopiram and Kishore (2014) shows that the majority of the adolescent’s substance abusers was males (75%) and had initiated substance between the age ranges from 15 to 18 years. A study by Tsering et. al., (2010) found that 15.1 percent urban high school students indulged in substance abuse in Kolkata. Easy availability of money among adolescents from high income group families and the easy access to substances like tobacco products, alcohol, opioids, heroin, over the counter medications etc. in India may be the primary reasons for

such high incidents of substance abuse among adolescents. Further several psychosocial factors have been associated with substance abuse like the tendency to experiment and have novel experiences among adolescents, peer pressure and need for peer approval, academic stress, family problems, failed love relationships, media portrayal of substance-use by celebrities etc. India has also now become a hub of drugs (cigarettes, alcohol, certain medicines) sold through illegal internet websites.

Table-2 reveals that there is significant difference between boys and girls regarding the problem of substance abuse. It is seen that of the total number of adolescents who had substance abuse problems, 67% were boys and only 30 % were girls. This has been witnessed in several other earlier studies. Studies by Vaidya et.al., (1989) and Kushwaha et. al., (1992) reveal that substance use was found to be

significantly more among male school students as compared to female school students. Ranjan et. al., (2010) in their research had found that in India only 28.5% adolescent females had a substance abuse problem

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compared to 66.7% of adolescent males. The probable reason could be that in a patriarchal country like India, substance abuse in female attracts greater social stigma than in men. Hasin et. al., (2007) felt that may be as tighter cultural constraints are placed on females; they indulge in substance abuse less. Moreover boys have easy access to substance abuse shops, dens and drug traffickers in the neighborhood. Generally it is still rare and looked down upon when women go and buy cigarettes or alcohol from shops. As per traditional Indian feminine roles, females are expected to conform to social norms and are not expected to violate it by indulging in any sort of substance abuse or anti-social behavior. It is a taboo for women to indulge in substance abuse and those who do so are labeled as ‘loose’, ‘fallen’ or ‘easy’ women.

Table-3 shows that those students who have a substance abuse

problem also suffer from high levels of anxiety. Similar observations were reported in other research which reinstates that the adolescents, who report consuming alcohol, using drugs, and smoking cigarettes on a weekly or daily basis, also experience high levels of state and trait anxiety (Kushner et al., 1990; Regier et al., 1998). Anxiety has been found to play a substantive role in addictive behaviors in several other researches. One of the most widely held theories accounting for the relationship between anxiety and addiction is the “tension-reduction” hypothesis (Brady and Lydiard, 1993; DuPont, 1995). It appears that certain individuals who experience high-anxiety levels may develop an addiction in order to escape from the negative physiological effects resulting from their anxiety. Studies have revealed that when individuals engage in a particular addiction, they experience a reduction in negative anxiolytic effects. As such, individuals are

thought to engage in addictive behaviors as a means of coping with their heightened levels of anxiety (Brady et al., 1993; Kushner et al., 1990; Ste-Marie et al., 2006; Wesner, 1990).

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Table-4 shows that the anxiety level of girls is significantly more

than that of boys. Several other studies have documented that in general girls suffer from more anxiety than boys (Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000; Silverstein, 2002). Lopez (2005) found that girls reported more social anxiety than boys, and social anxiety was more strongly linked to girls' social functioning than that of boys. Bahrami and Yousefi (2011) found that anxiety thoughts (health anxiety, social anxiety, and meta-worry) affect girls more than boys. There could be several explanations for more anxiety among girls than boys. From a biological perspective, females are more vulnerable to depression and anxiety disorders, and that seems to be highly related to hormone levels (Kendler, Thornton, & Prescott, 2001; Lynch, Roth, & Carroll, 2002). From the social perspective, gender stereotypes and socialization practices contribute to more anxiety among girls than boys as girls are

indoctrinated to be more emotional and are socialized to express their fear and sadness whereas boys are not (Brody and Hall, 1993). Therefore although adolescent girls indulge in substance abuse much less than boys, yet their overall anxiety level is considerably greater than that of the adolescent boys.

APPLICATION OF THE STUDY

Early exposure to drug use is generally related with a poor prognosis and a long-term pattern of deceit and reckless behaviour (Triparthi and Lal, 1999). Many adults suffering from substance addiction had initiated the habit as adolescents. Substance use may lead to behavioral problems, relationship difficulties and may cause disruption in studies and even dropping out of school. At times, anti-social behaviors e.g. lying, stealing, truancy etc may occur in association with early-onset substance use. Further, adolescents using substances may tend to engage in several sexual (e.g. unprotected sex) and other high risk behaviors (e.g. driving under influence, violence), prompting

them further to the harmful consequences of substance use.

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Our youth are the future of our country. Drug addiction among

the youth population has become not only a national problem but also a grave international problem. Illegal substance business is a multi-million dollar global racket. In India, rampant drug abuse among the youth especially among adolescents are increasing day by day. The future generation is falling prey to and is getting crippled by illicit drugs and their future is doomed. The addicts become immoral and commit crimes in order to get drugs and become an out-caste by the society. They lose their conscience, self-control, will power and memory. Eventually, the abuse of drugs hastens their untimely death if not checked in time.

There are several ways by which substance abuse among adolescents can be contained through sensitization programs in schools. Some suggestions are as follows:-

• Schools need to be persuaded to offer students knowledge of the ill effects of substance abuse and counsel those who are involved in any kind of substance abuse.

• Treatment centers and community-based youth organizations need to be motivated to carry out support groups for children of parents who are addicted to alcohol and drugs.

• Those adolescents who have recovered successfully from addictions should be inspired to participate in community events to spread awareness on the evils of drug abuse.

• Schools need to encourage the participation of family members in all aspects of the treatment and recovery process for adolescents, and foster the availability of family-centered support groups and other services that address the needs of the entire family.

• Teachers should encourage positive use of leisure and school should

arrange for ample co-curricular activities so that the youth are

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involved in productive activity and do not have the time to indulge in bad habits.

• Teachers need to be a positive role model for young people and should abstain from any sort of drug misuse in or outside the school.

Apart from that support from family members is very important. Parents need to monitor and spent considerable time with their adolescent children so that there is no communication gap between the two and children can approach parents during any crisis. At the national level, repeated periodic national surveys need to be conducted to determine the changing prevalence and incidence of substance use among the youth in India. Several anti-drug measures, such as education and prohibition of production of drugs, sale of drugs to under age school children and restrictions on underage drinking at public places (e.g. restaurants and pubs) can considerably diminish the misuse of drugs among adolescents.

CONCLUSION

Awareness of the harmful effects of substance use is high among the adolescents. A disturbing aspect that has been noticed is that

despite having knowledge of substance use, adolescents initiate and continue its use. Life style education in the school should be a mandatory part of the school curriculum and should promote an effective and healthy life-style among the students. Mass awareness and anti-drug mobilization campaigns can save the country from such a growing menace.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:

Magnitude of substance abuse in a specified geographic area was not attempted.

The findings of the present study cannot be generalized to the entire population; it is specific to school children.

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In order to keep the anonymity, the reasons for incompleteness of

responses could not be sorted out.

Follow up of the users could not be done.

References:

1. Ahmad, A.; Khalique. N.; Khan, Z. and Amir, A.(2007). Prevalence of psychosocial problems among school going male adolescents. Indian Journal Community Medicine, 32,219–21.

2. Bahrami, F., & Yousefi, N. (2011). Females are more anxious than males: a meta-cognitive perspective. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 5(2), 83.

3. Brady, K. T. and Lydiard, R. B. (1993). The association of alcoholism and anxiety. Psychiatric Quarterly, 64, 135-149.

4. Brody, L. R. and Hall, J. A. (1993). Gender and emotion. In M. Lewis & J. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 447–461). New York, NY: Guilford.

5. Buckner, J.D.; Eggleston, A.M. and Schmidt, N.B. (2006). Social anxiety and problematic alcohol consumption: the mediating role of drinking motives and situations. Behaviour Therapy, 37,381-91.

6. Costello, E.J.; Mustillo.; S. Erkanli. A.; et al. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60,837-44.

7. Deas, D. (2006). Adolescent substance abuse and psychiatric comorbidities. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(Suppl. 7), 18-23.

8. DuPont, R. L. (1995). Anxiety and addiction: A clinical perspective on comorbidity. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 59, A53-A72.

9. Gilman, J.M. (2008). Why we like to drink: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study of the rewarding and anxiolytic effects of alcohol. Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 4583-91.

10. Gopiram, P. and Kishore, M. T. (2014). Psychosocial attributes of substance abuse among adolescents and young adults: A comparative study of users and non-users. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 36, 58-61.

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11. Hasin, D.S.; Stinson, F.S.; Ogburn, E.; and Grant, B.F. (2007).

Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence in the United States. Archives of Genetic Psychiatry, 64(7), 830–842.

12. Kendler, K. S.; Thornton, L. M. and Prescott, C. A. (2001). Gender differences in the rates of exposure to stressful life events and sensitivity to their depressogenic effects. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158 (4), 587–593.

13. Kushner, M. G., Sher, K. J., & Beitman, B. D. (1990). The relation between alcohol problems and the anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 685-695.

14. Kushwaha, K.P.; Singh, Y.D.; Rathi, A.K.; Singh, K.P. and Rastogi, C.K. (1992). Prevalence and Abuse of Psychoactive Substances in Children and Adolescents. Indian Journal Paediatrics, 59, 261-68.

15. Lopez, B. (2005). Anxiety and risk for substance dependence among late adolescents/young adults. Journal of Anxiety Disorder; 19, 275-94.

16. Lynch, W. J.; Roth, M. E. and Carroll, M. E. (2002). Biological basis of sex differences in drug abuse: Preclinical and clinical studies. Psychopharmacology, 164 (121), 121–137.

17. Piccinelli, M. and Wilkinson, G. (2000). Gender differences in depression. Critical review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 486–492.

18. Ramachandran, V. (1991). The prevention of alcohol related problems. Indian Journal of Psychiatry; 33, 3-10.

19. Ranjan, D.P.; Namita and Chaturvedi, R.M.(2010). A study of prevalence of drug abuse in aged 15 years and above in the urban slum community of Mumbai. Indian Journal of Preventive Social Medicine, 41(1&2), 117-126.

20. Ray, R. (2004). National Survey on extent, Pattern and Trends of Drug Abuse in India. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment and United Nations Office on Drug and Crime Regional Office for South Asia.

21. Regier, D. A., Rae, D. S., Narrow, W. E., Kaelber, C. T., and Schatzberg, A. F. (1998). Prevalence of anxiety disorders and their

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comorbidity with mood and addictive disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 24-28.

22. Sher, K.J. (2005).The development of alcohol use disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1,493-523.

23. Silverstein, B. (2002). Gender differences in the prevalence of somatic versus pure depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150 (6), 1051–1052.

24. Ste-Marie, C.; Gupta, R. and Derevensky, J.L. (2006). Anxiety and social stress related to adolescent gambling behavior and substance use. Journal of Child Adolescent Substance Abuse; 15, 55–74.

25. Tripathi, B.M.; Lal, R.and Kumar, N. (2001).Substance abuse in children and adolescents: An overview. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 17(2), 67‐74.

26. Tsering, D.; Pal, R. and Dasgupta, A. (2010). Substance use among adolescent high school students, India: A survey of knowledge, attitude and opinion. Journal of Pharmacy and Bio-allied Sciences, 2(2), 137–40.

27. UNDCP. (2007). World Drug Report. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.

28. Vaidya, S.G. and Naik, U.D. (1989). Study of Tobacco Habits in School children in Goa. In: Tobacco and Health: The Indian Scene. Proceedings of the UICC Workshop: “Tobacco or Health” 1987. Tata Memorial Centre, Bombay, pp 169-7.

29. Van Oort, F.V. (2010).The developmental course of anxiety symptoms during adolescence: the TRAILS study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1209-17.

30. Wand, G. (2008). The influence of stress on the transition from drug use to addiction. Alcohol Research and Health, 31, 119-36.

31. Wesner, R. B. (1990). Alcohol use and abuse secondary to anxiety. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 13, 699-713.

32. Zimmermann, P.(2003). Primary anxiety disorders and the development of subsequent alcohol use disorders: a 4-year community study of adolescents and young adults. Psychological Medicine, 33, 1211-22.

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POLYPHONY IN JOSEPH HELLER’S FICTION

B. Narasinga Rao Doctoral Scholar in English

Dept. of Humanities & Social Sciences College of Engineering (A)

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.

The term polyphony comes into Bakhtin’s writings only with his

first book on Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, published in 1929. Bakhtin states, “The essence of polyphony lies precisely in the fact that the voices remain independent and, as such, are combined in a unity of a higher order than in homophony” (Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, p.21). Therefore, one key to polyphony is dialogism, the interaction and conflict of multiple, independent consciousness’s; it is in this way that the author expresses truth. The second significant aspect of polyphony is the position of the author. In a truly polyphonic novel, the author‘s standpoint is not allowed to dominate; rather, it is

simply one of the multiple, independent consciousnesses within the novel. As Bakhtin himself emphasizes, it is important to note that in a polyphonic novel the author‘s position is not absent. Instead, it must not be allowed to squelch or modify the other consciousnesses represented in the novel.

Catch-22 (1961) concerns a World War II bombardier named Yossarian who believes his foolish, ambitious, mean-spirited commanding officers are more dangerous than the enemy. In order to avoid flying more missions, Yossarian retreats to a hospital with a mysterious liver complaint, sabotages his plane, and tries to get himself declared insane. Variously defined throughout the novel, the term ‘Catch-22’refers to the ways in which bureaucracies control the people

who work for them. Many critics contend that while Catch-22 is ostensibly a war novel, World War II and the Air Force base where most of the novel's action takes place function primarily as a microcosm

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that demonstrates the disintegration of language and human value in a bureaucratic state. Catch-22 enjoyed enormous success during the Vietnam War, when many soldiers strongly identified with Yossarian's plight.

Something Happened (1974), centers on Bob Slocum, a middle-aged businessman who has a large, successful company but who feels emotionally empty. Slocum attempts to find the source of his malaise and his belief that modern American bourgeois life has lost meaning, by probing into his past and exploring his relationships with his wife,

children, and coworkers. Although critics consider Slocum a generally unlikable character, he ultimately achieves sympathy because he has so thoroughly assimilated the values of his business that he has lost his own identity.

Good as Gold (1979) marks Heller's first fictional use of his Jewish heritage and childhood experiences in Coney Island. The protagonist of this novel, Bruce Gold, is an unfulfilled college professor who is writing a book about ‘the Jewish experience’, but he also harbors political ambitions. Offered a high government position after giving a positive review of a book written by the president, Gold accepts, leaves his wife and children, and finds himself immersed in a farcical bureaucracy in which officials speak in a confusing,

contradictory language. In this novel Heller harshly satirized former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger as a Jew who has essentially forsaken his Jewishness? In so doing, the author draws an analogy between the themes of political lust for power and Jewish identity. Similarly, Gold's motives for entering politics are strictly self-aggrandizing, as he seeks financial, sexual, and social rewards. Throughout the novel, Heller alternates the narrative between scenes of Gold's large, garrulous Jewish family and the mostly gentile milieu of Washington, employing realism to depict the former and parody to portray the latter.

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Despite the critical attention paid to the fiction of Joseph Heller

labeling it as fantasy, black humor, grotesque, absurd and so on, it can be found that no detailed examination of Heller’s fiction can be found from the perspective of polyphony. An analysis of his fiction in the light of Mikhail Bakhtin’s theory of polyphony is sure to yield rewarding results. Bakhtin’s idea on the novel promises to be a rich exploration and mapping of Heller’s fictional output.

Joseph Heller’s conception about the position of the author in his novels is quite similar to Bakhtin's conception about the non-interfering position of the author in polyphonic novels. Both these writers see the author as remaining more or less passive and hidden in comparison to their fully independent and self-conscious heroes.

This paper re-asserts the position of the selected novels in their

polyphonic aura and emphasizes the polyphonic nature of fiction in general, the degree of which varies from writer to writer depending upon the use of double-voiced discourse. The primary trait of a polyphonic novel is the presence of highly independent characters and special non-interfering position of the author.

To sum up on the achievement of Joseph Heller would be contrary to the spirit of this novelist whose oeuvre is marked by openness, innovation, surprise and creativity. The difficulty of such a task is compounded when the study is made through the perspectives of Mikhail Bakhtin who saw everything in the world as ‘unfinalizable’, who celebrated dialogue characterized by its open-endedness and who despaired over ‘the ultimate word’ on anything.

In Catch-22 Heller dealt with the basic values of the profit

system and presented the war as the inevitable product of an insane culture that valued material gain more than human life and whose morality was based on the impact of power and the operation of the free market, a combination that defines human beings as commodities

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among other commodities. In Something Happened he portrayed the moral and psychological dilemmas of a protagonist living within that culture at the pinnacle of its power-within a cocoon that both protects and deadens, permitting the protagonists many possessions and pleasures but denying him any sense of vital human connection, even within the family. The family in Good as Gold seems to be the only remaining source of stability and human values in a society whose larger political and social institutions are fast decaying. Gold eventually learns that, however unglamorous, tedious, and troublesome the

individual personalities, his family is the only real community he knows that supports human individuality.

Heller’s novels renders to a Bakhtinian analysis through the concept of polyphony. The selected novels present a number of chaotic events happening to real as well as to fictional personages. Rambling and episodic, they are a curious hybrid of fact and fantasy, reality and imagination. It defies laws of causality and eschews a linear plot and thwarts all attempts at comprehending it.

It is in his study of Dostoevsky that Bakhtin defines and elaborates the idea of polyphony. Primarily, the term denotes a special position of the author in the text created by him. The author of polyphonic fiction allows extraordinary independence to his characters. They are capable of standing beside the author on the same level as the author, in these texts. By renouncing all ‘essential authorial surplus’ on

them, the polyphonic author refuses to ‘finalize’ his characters. Such characters in polyphonic fiction are not mere objects (‘it’) but become full-fledged subjects (individuals). All this results in a relativizing of the author's position, authority and voice in the text. His becomes one more voice in the polyphony (of his characters' voice).

By allowing an extraordinary independence to his characters, Heller reduces his own voice to just one more voice in the text. As a consequence, characters in Catch-22, Something Happened and Good as

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Gold become full-fledged subjects capable of standing alongside the author, arguing with him and entering into a dialogue with him. Further, Heller has combined polyphonic design with a plot-structure of the adventure novel for the purpose of posing philosophical questions and raising important issues. In this process of polyphony and adventure-plot, Heller is able to attack established notions of military and economic order, corporate milieu and political establishments through polyphony, Heller points out the narrow, one-sided nature of all official discourse and authoritarian ideas. In all these respects, the selected novels prove to be polyphonic novels par excellence on the lines of Dostoevsky’s fiction. A polyphonic study of these novels reveals

Heller’s design and skill underneath a seeming dark humour.

When the analysis of his individual novels are placed in a wider perspective we see that this polyphonic approach reveals aspects of Heller’s fiction which do not yield themselves to other approaches. A polyphonic study attests to the remarkable range of his techniques in presenting his artistic vision. Such a study reveals the indomitable comic/anarchic spirit in Heller that is ever at war with serious/authoritarian tendencies in the society at large as well as within him. The present study also emphasizes the need to desist from imposing a uniform monologic pattern on his fiction. All these aspects of Heller’s fiction are brought to sharp relief by a polyphonic approach.

Joseph Heller has explored the moral landscape of American culture during that period in which the United States emerged as the dominant nation in the Western world and fully adopted the principles

and activities of power politics on a global scale. His protagonists Yossarian, Slocum, and Gold all deal with the tangle of temptations that America, at the time of its ascendance, presents. All try to come to terms with themselves in a system where power, morality of the nation-state and the web of shifting alliances based on self-interest, has

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filtered down through the corporate order to family and individual relationships.

In Catch-22 Yossarian struggle for survival evokes great deal of laughter in the novel at the same time it focuses on the grim reality of the omnipresence of death. His aim is to fight and defeat not the Germans but Catch-22 since it is this obnoxious law which comes in the

way of keeping himself alive. Something Happened develops the theme

of the corporate bureaucracy as a destructive order through the lens of its protagonist Bob Slocum. To expose the corporate structure, Heller shows Slocum using linguistic patterns that typify the bureaucracy's attributes. Everything that happens in the narrative occurs within Slocum's inner monologue as he replays past, recent, and imagined experiences to determine what has ‘happened’ to make himself and his family so unhappy. Whereas the dangers of Yossarian's world were obvious external threats to his physical and moral well-being, the forces threatening Slocum's identity and sanity come from within and from without, being so subtly entangled that they are as difficult for Slocum to define as they are to combat.

In Catch-22 and Something Happened, Heller reveals how both

the military and corporate bureaucracies have created a disastrous kind of order. Good as Gold, suggests this thematic and structural duality with its play on the word ‘gold,’ which names both the hero and the symbol of his quest. By balancing Gold and gold, man and matter, against the word ‘good,’ the title also poses questions about human values and priorities in Gold's materialistic surroundings. Thus while Yossarian struggled to save his life and Slocum his sanity, Gold must fight to hang onto his humanity (his identity and human values) against a formidable array of external and internal forces.

Thus we understand that in Catch-22, Heller satirizes the

military and economic orders; in Something Happened, he scrutinizes

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the corporate milieu; and in Good as Gold, he satirically attacks the political establishment of the nation's capital. Heller was a witness and a victim of socio-political-economic-psychological circumstances in which he found artistic capital that he exploited to his fictional advantage. As a result, his works have become profound transcripts of a life and a vision that had lost its ideals. As has already been analysed in the previous chapters, Heller while reflecting a crisis-hidden society employed the polyphonic device that set him and his works apart in the true spirit of Bakhtin theory.

Heller dramatizes the crippling effects of modern society on the sensitive individual as in his portraits of Yossarian, Dunbar, the

chaplain, Major Major, Clevinger, Nately, and Snowden. Yet he goes beyond his liberal predecessors to show that the enemy is not just the corporations and their authorities (in this case the military and its commanding officers). They are indeed amoral if not immoral; they are Korn, Black, Cathcart, Scheisskopf, Dreedle, Peckem, Aarfy, Wintergreen, and Milo. Heller locates the root of this elite's, destructiveness in its subversion of values -the substitution of the private values, interests, and idiosyncrasies’ of the powerful for shared human values such as life, liberty, and justice. In Heller's fictional world the empowered few no longer represent the interests of the many but instead exploit them.

In Catch-22, Colonel Cathcart's reduction of everything will

improve or impede his chances for promotion exemplifies this subversion of values because it symbolizes his pursuit of self-interest at any human cost, his bid for preferment being the reason he keeps raising the number of missions which in turn sends men to their deaths. Another result of the power elite's control and subversion of values that Heller examines is the moral emptiness and mindlessness that reign. Catch-22 satirizes such moral and mental idiocy through characters like Schiesskopf, who would impose his ‘crackpot definition’

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of reality as a parade upon the troops by ‘wiring them together in a perfect marching formation’.

In dramatizing the authorial process, Heller wants his authorial audience attend to the way that he constructs the novel, although in a way it is different from the attention he required in Something Happened. Slocum tries, for a time, to salvage his identity and sanity

from the corporate conformity that fragments them. In Something Happened money is less obtrusive and it is the value underlying Slocum's inability to give up his pursuit of corporate success and a materialistic mode of living. Heller sets out to destroy the American mythology that equates wealth and happiness.

Good as Gold portrays a void within the political sphere by making the President and his associates into mental midgets who devote their zeal to self-promotion rather than the public weal. He wants his audience to see the tools of his satire, rather than simply to

focus on its targets-the self-deceptions and moral corruptions of Washington politics. The presidential commission scene provides a typical example of the self-reflexive impulses in Heller’s narrative. When the governor lectures Gold on the way that the commission works, he simultaneously supplies a description of the way that Heller has designed the scene.

Heller's novels may strike one as so different from each other that they hardly seem to be written by the same pen. The protagonists - a rebellious soldier, a depressed corporate executive, a cynical college professor - could hardly be less alike in personality, role, or milieu. Yet a closer examination of Heller's novels reveals that all spring from a unified world view, that is one that looks critically at American institutions and values and satirizes what it sees: a society, in which the institutional forces of order create chaos, destroying human lives,

liberty, identity, and values. In each work his satirical thrust is not

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merely the exposure of the power elite but of its effects as well on individual, community, and the shared values that support human life. Heller's deepest concern is the preserving of human values in a society where the powerful few seem bent on destroying them by substituting their own private interests for those of the general welfare. In short, Heller examines this dehumanization caused, ironically, by the organizations founded presumably for the betterment of individual and society.

In not giving a fixed identity, status, job, residence or religion to his hero and deviating from all the conventional literary norms in his portrayal, Heller leaves open a polyphony prospect for his hero. The author does not give any finalizing verdict about the characters or about the storyline at the end. Taking into consideration all the above

characteristics one should suppose that Heller held a different view about novels and their characters which had all the ingredients of a polyphonic novel that Bakhtin talks about. Heller was perhaps envisioning an idea reader for his polyphonic novel. While Good as Gold and Something Happened succeed as satirical novels, Catch-22 still remains Heller's greatest achievement, as well as an American masterpiece, in its combination of brilliant, biting humour with an innovative narrative style designed to simulate the ‘chaos’ that he exposes. In this dissertation we have examined the various types of voices’ in Catch-22, Something Happened and Good as Gold.

On examining the applicability of the concept ‘polyphony’ to Catch-22, Something Happened and Good as Gold, it can be understood that these three novels are polyphonic in nature. By establishing the traits in these three novels as representative novels of the Post World War II American fiction, it can be concluded that the novelistic genre is characterized by polyphony. Accordingly, the selected novels abound in double-voiced discourse and are highly polyphonic in nature.

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References:

1. Heller, Joseph. Catch-22.New York: Penguin Books, 1962.

2. -------. Something Happened. New York: Ballantine Books, 1975.

3. -------. Good as Gold. New York: Simon and Schuster Books, 1979.

4. Bakhtin, Mikhail. Toward a Philosophy of the Act, (Trans.) by Vadim Liapunov & Michael Holquist, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.

5. ----------The Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics. (Trans). Caryl Emerson. University of Minnesota Press, 1984

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OUTREACH SERVICES AND SUSTAINABILITY: THE CASE OF AMHARA CREDIT AND SAVING INSTITUTION, ETHIOPIA

Fekadu Yehuwalashet Maru Ph.D Research Scholar , Andhra University, India

MBA from Addis Ababa University & Lecturer , Jigjiga University, Ethiopia

1.1. Introduction/Background Microfinance programs and institutions are a recent growing development phenomenon in developing countries. It plays an important role in providing access to financial services to rural farmers and people engaged in other similar activities as well as micro and small-scale rural and urban entrepreneurs (Micro Financing Business Proclamation no 62, 2009). Now a day’s microfinance is a useful means of intervention for development strategy for Ethiopia, to reduce poverty by providing a credit access to those people who are unable to offer collateral for formal banking loans. Microfinance institutions are one way to shift from aid dependency to self-reliance. Making financial service available to poor people as a loan is recognized as an important part of poverty reduction strategies. Outreaching poor client requires innovative operating methods to manage risk and reduce transaction costs because poor people have no physical assets to offer as collateral for loans. These two imperative issues (outreach and sustainability) create a debate in the microfinance sector. It is obvious that reaching the poor is so costly and risky; this makes the institutions to focus on the non-poor societies to reduce their costs and risks (Lafourcade et al, 2005). On the other hand, the limited supply of service by microfinance institutions because of little supply of fund from donors’ (donors’ demand on MFIs to have good repayment rate to offer further funding support) and the methodologies of some MFIs do not fit with the interest of the very poor (they lack best way of selection of customers) makes the MFIs to focus on mobilizing saving as a major source of loan fund that highly needs to ensure sustainability to win the trust of depositors. Therefore, the issues of reaching the poorest of the poor and ensuring sustainability are among areas of ongoing debate in the microfinance sector. Still it is a great challenge to build MFIs that reach the poor and simultaneously achieve sustainability, but both are the twin targets of microfinance to reduce poverty for the poor people (Letenah Ejigu, 2009). This study mainly focused on the above issues. The study assessed the two most important empirical issues of MFIs, outreach and sustainability, by taking the experience of the Amhara Credit and Savings Institution (ACSI) as evidence. In addition, it assessed the client attitude towards the services of the institution, and observed their socio-economic conditions of the clients. This study will contribute its part to fill the gap between the theory and actual practice in microfinance sector, and also the study will be essential for further researchers as a base ground. ACSI is the largest microfinance institution in Ethiopia. Its primary mission is to improve the economic situation of low-income, productive poor people in the Amhara region through increased access to lending and saving services. ACSI was initiated in 1995 by the Organization for the Rehabilitation and Development in Amhara (ORDA), an indigenous Non Governmental Organization (NGO) engaged in development

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activities in the Amhara region. ACSI undertook its pilot activities in 1996, and was licensed as a microfinance company in April 1997. The institution has 10 main branches, 198 sub-branches and over 2,700 employees. It focuses on financial services support for small farmers and makes predominantly agricultural loans using the group lending methodology. It fully considers rural values, economic and social settings, and settlement and gender issues. ACSI currently delivers micro-finance activities including credits (group loans, micro-bank, individual loans, and asset loans), savings (compulsory and voluntary savings), micro insurance (Life insurance services delivered to group loan clients), money transfer (local), and fund management, like pension fund (ACSI, 2009).

1.2. Statement of the Problem Several microfinance institutions were established and have been operating towards resolving the credit access problem of the poor people who are not included in the formal banking sectors because of collateral requirements. There are studies that show that microfinance does not reach the poorest of the poor, rather they are reaching the non-poor group of people. Besides most MFIs have no clear rules and criterion to target the poorest of the poor. This indicates that the MFIs are drifting away from their original mission of reaching and serving the poor (Letenah Ejigu, 2009) In Ethiopia, MFIs are considered to be useful development strategies to reduce poverty having the objective to provide finance to the ‘poorest of the poor’ people in the rural as well as urban areas of the country. It is obvious that providing microfinance to the poor clients is costly and risky. It requires innovative operating methods to manage risk and reduce transaction costs (Mathison, 2001). These problems make the MFIs not to reach the poorest of the poor society especially living in more remote areas. Institutional sustainability is becoming the leading principle for microfinance service providers. Even if it is a core for the going concern or survival of the industry, in many developing countries especially in Africa most of the MFIs are subsidy dependents. Historically microfinance has started operation with donor funds. There is an intense debate on whether MFIs should continue to be donor supported or get relived from donation and stand on their own leg (Letenah Ejigu, 2009). In addition, the limited supply of donor funds make MFIs to focus on mobilizing saving as a best source of loan fund that leads highly need to make guarantee the sustainability to win trust of the depositors. The main idea that motivated the researcher to pursue this study is the issue of both reaching the poor and ensuring sustainability are unanswered debate in microfinance areas. So, the competition is looking over the two schemes and a matter of trade-offs between the two. Currently, both outreach and sustainability are the mirror image targets of microfinance for poverty alleviation (Lafourcade et al, 2005). It is a great challenge to build MFIs that reach the poorest of the poor and at the same time achieve institutional sustainability with operational and/or financial self-sufficiency. In addition, the researcher couldn’t find detailed and recent research studies in Ethiopia regarding both outreach and sustainability of MFIs. These gaps initiate the researcher to involve in this problem area for study. In relation with the two schemes, the researcher intends to look the performance of ACSI in terms of credit and saving delivery, productivity and efficiency, profitability, portfolio quality, socio-economic conditions of the clients and their feedback on the services provision which are indictors of outreach and sustainability.

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Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study would be to evaluate the overall outreach and sustainability performance of ACSI using Debre Berhan Main Branch as a study area. In relation with the above general purpose of the study, the researcher identified the following specific objectives: To evaluate the outreach performance of ACSI. To determine the financial sustainability of the institution. To figure out the operational sustainability of the institution. To assess the clients attitude on the services of ACSI. To assess the socio-economic conditions of the customers of the institution. To assess whether outreach and sustainability achieved together. To indicate some important recommendations for ACSI. In order to realize the above objectives and evaluate whether ACSI is able to achieve both outreach and ensuring sustainability as the best interest of the customers, the following research hypothesis’s were employed.

1.3. Hypothesis H1: Operational and financial self-sufficiency are positively related with sustainability. H2: Customer selection methods have direct relationship with outreach of the institution. H3: Profitability and securing sustainability can be related positively. H4: Outreach and sustainability can be achieved simultaneously. 1.4. Significance of the study The study initially will help to fill the gap between the theory and the ongoing practice in the microfinance area regarding outreach and sustainability. In addition the study will provide essential information for the institution such as financial and operational self-sufficiency, outreach depth and breadth, profitability, portfolio quality, and customers’ feedback about the service. This will help the institution to evaluate itself and take adjustments for future improvement. And also, this study will give some important information for customers about the institution which helps them to know where the position of the institution is, that will create psychological confidence about the institution. On the other hand, the study will be useful for collecting and documenting valuable data for further researchers who will have an interest on this study area.

1.5. Scope and Limitations of the study This study emphasized on the assessment of outreach and sustainability of the Amhara Credit and Saving Institution. Thus, the other issues like impact assessments would not be covered in this study. It binds all relevant data within the institution which have influence on the outreach and sustainability of the institution. Due to physical and capacity constraints the study concentrated on Debre Berhan Main Branch taking samples of sub branches and included both rural and urban residents for the data collection. In addition, non-customers and drop-out customers of the institution were not included as a respondent for this study. For this study the researcher encountered the following limitations:

Shortage of time and finance to finish the study. Some respondents were not willing to provide the necessary information as the

time of responding to interviews and questionnaires. Lack of literature review regarding the topic in Ethiopian context. Inability to get updated data.

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1.6. Methodology 1.6.1. Types of Research Design

The study is case study in the form of cross sectional design in which data were collected using questionnaires and interview. The methodology used by the researcher was descriptive approach for both qualitative and quantitative data. The researcher used samples of the Amhara Credit and Saving Institution sub-branches operating under Debre Berhan Main Branch.

1.6.2. Methods of Data Collection The study was conducted in Debre Brehan Main Branch of ACSI located 130 km away from Addis Ababa to the northern part of Ethiopia. This study has employed both primary and secondary data collection methods. In order to collect the primary data the researcher used questionnaires and interview. Questionnaires were designed to collect information from the customers of the institution by taking sample customers of the sub-branches offices. The main aim of the questionnaire is to obtain feedback from customers regarding their wealth condition, the institutions service delivery and credit outreach performance. It contained both close-ended and open-ended questions that indicate outreach and sustainability performance of microfinance institutions. In order to make the questionnaires more convenient to respondents it was translated in to Amharic language. Interview questions were designed to ascertain the management view on the outreach and sustainability of the institution. It was designed for general managers, credit officers and field workers of the institution at the main branch and sub-branch level. The interview helped the researcher to obtain information on the financial and operational sustainability, service outreach and customers assessment methods of the institution. 5 years (2005-2009) audited annual financial reports, independent auditors' report and financial statements of the institution were used for this study as core secondary data sources. In addition, other reports of the branch or/and sub-branch offices, manuals, pamphlets (flayers), information from the National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE), Federal “Negarit Gazeta” (proclamation), magazines prepared by the institution, newspapers, journals, books and websites were used as per the requirement of the study.

1.6.3. Method of Sampling and Sample Size Determination For this study the researcher used simple random sampling and convenient sampling techniques to collect the required data from different sources. Currently, ACSI has 10 main branches distributed over the whole Amhara Region. These are Awi Main Branch, Debre Brehan Main Branch, East Gojjam Main Branch, West Gojjam Main Branch, North Gondar Main Branch, South Gondar Main Branch, North Wello Main Branch, South Wello Main Branch, Wagemera Main Branch, and Kamissa Main Branch (ACSI, 2009). A total of 198 sub-branches are operating under those main branch offices. From 10 main branch offices the researcher has chosen Debre Berhan Main Branch for the study in convenient sampling technique. Currently, there are 27 sub-branches operating under Debre Brehan Main Branch, out of these sub-branches the researcher selected “DENEBA SUB-BRANCH” (42 km far from Debre Brehan city) and “DEBRE BREHAN CITY SUB-BRANCH” as a sample. The selection considers the access to transportation to the area, cost and time constraints. “In designing a sample for a study, the researcher will chooses the size of effect that he/she consider important and representative” (Abiy, Alemayehu, Daniel, Melese and

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Yilma, 2009). So, the researcher believed that these samples are representative for this study. Under Debre Brehan Main Branch of Amhara Credit and Saving Institution there are more than 65,000 active customers using the services provided; in all 27 sub-branches. From the total customers available 3405 customers were both in DENEBA and DEBRE BREHAN CITY sub-branches. For the determination of sample size, there is no defined rule that can be followed (Kothari, 2004). Out of the total population 5% was taken as a sample in which is believed that it representative and reliable for this study. Therefore, the sample size is 3405×5% = 180 customers (i.e. 90 customers from each sub-branch) which were selected in simple random sampling method. The main reason for the researcher to decide on this sample size are; there is a greater homogeneity in the clients of the institution, time and financial constraints, and the researcher believed that having more sample than this would not have much importance for the finding of the study. Accordingly, a total number of 7 general managers, credit officers and field workers were selected as a respondent for the study. 1.6.4. Data Analysis and Presentation The researcher used both quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods. For the non-numerical data the researcher used descriptive method of data analysis. For the numerical data mean, mode and median were used. That means ratio analysis, trend analysis and descriptive presentations on responses of clients and officers are included. In addition, different analytical formulas and measuring variables which help the researcher to evaluate the outreach and sustainability of the institution were employed. These include credit and saving outreach variables, operational and financial self-sufficiency, productivity and efficiency measures, profitability measures (such as: return on assets, return on equity, operating expanse to total expense ratio), capital structure indicators (like: debt to equity ratio, equity to asset ratio), portfolio quality indicators (such as: repayment rate, loan loss ratio) calculations. After these the researcher used SPSS computer program and MS-EXCEL office application to organize, summarize and analyze the data. These would reduce the possibility of creating errors and increase the validity of the information. In addition, charts, diagrams and tables in relation to percentage analysis were used as a supportive for the analysis. Data analysis and Presentation

4.1. Socio-economic conditions of the clients of the institution Under this sub-section the socio-demographic characteristics of the clients including their age, sex, marital status, family size, educational level and occupation are presented. In addition the clients’ wealth condition in terms of housing and utilities conditions, asset ownership, and income and expenditures are discussed.

4.1.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Clients 1. Age

Chart 2: Age of respondents

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Age is one of the requirements for eligibility to borrowing money from the institution. The institution has the rule that says “Potential clients need to be between 18 to 65 years of age and economically active” (ACSI, 2009). As we can observe from the above chart that, 37.5% of the customers age ranges from 18-35 years and 62.5% were from 36-65 years. This indicates that all clients of the institution were in the productive age group and economically active.

2. Sex

Chart 3: Sex composition of respondents As we can see from the chart above, most of the customers of the institution are female, i.e. 58.3% are female clients and 41.7% are male clients. This shows that the institution gives priority to woman for credit to make them free from long history of economic dependency within home and in the society as a whole. ACSI believed that lending money for women is better than male because women are less extravagant and more responsible for saving and efficient use of money in the home than male. Therefore, the institution is in a better position to make women economically independent.

3. Marital Status and family size

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Single 60 33.3 33.3 33.3 Married 82 45.8 45.8 79.1 Widowed 24 13.3 13.3 92.4 Divorced 14 7.6 7.6 100.0 Total 180 100.0 100.0

Table 1: Marital status of respondents From the total respondents 45.8% were married. 33.3%, 13.3% and 7.6% were single, widowed and divorced clients’ respectively. From this we can say that most of the clients of ACSI are married households. Some single clients (borrowers) are assumed to be less loyal to the institution in the eyes of the selection committee because it is suggested that these single borrowers are not voluntary to repay the money they borrowed as they live dependent upon their family. In relation with this the average family size of the client was 5.23 where the majority of the sample respondents have the family size ranges from 3 to 7 members. The average household size as to the survey conducted in 1999/00 was 4.6 and 4.9 for the Amhara region and at country level in rural households (BoFED, 2008). However, the clients of ACSI have larger family size compared to the two averages both at regional

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and national level. This implies that ACSI clients have large family members, which may demand policy revision of incorporating family size when selecting clients for credit provision.

4. Educational Level

Chart 4: Educational level of respondents It is known that education is the best instrument for the development of a country. The best way to solve various problems is educating the productive age group by using not only the formal education but also by non-formal educations. Regarding the literacy level of the clients of ACSI, as the bar chart above indicated, 22.5% of them are illiterate who were not able to read and write a single statement. In addition clients with basic education, 1-4 grade, 5-8 grade, 9-12 grade, and college and above level accounts 20.8%, 23.3%, 15.3%, 8.1% and 10% respectively. From this we can conclude that majority of the clients of ACSI are less literate. The main reason for this is most of the clients of the institution are rural residents and poor in their economic condition.

5. Occupation

Chart 5: occupation or respondents

It is obvious that microfinance institutions are established to provide service to the rural poor who are unable to get ordinary banking activity because of the access of banks in their nearby areas and the requirement of collateral to borrow money. The above chart analysis shows that farming is the dominant occupation (55%) of the clients of the institution. But farmers are less aware and less experienced in conducting business and capital (monetary) utilization than the rest customers engaged in other occupations. Next to farming both daily laborers and service providers who are using the service of ACSI accounts 10.8% and 10% respectively. The service providers are those individuals who are owners of small sized cafeteria and individuals who are

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selling local drinks both in urban and rural areas of the region. In addition, handicraft, petty trade, civil servant and tailors clients of the institution accounts 8.3%, 8.3%, 5.1% and 2.5% respectively. From this we can say that ACSI is reaching the rural and urban poor people of the region who are productive but has less access to money.

4.1.2. Wealth Condition of clients To measure the wealth condition of the clients of ACSI the researcher considered the income and expenditure, asset ownership and the housing and utilities conditions of the clients.

4.1.2.1. Income and Expenditure of the clients For the majority of the clients of ACSI the major source of income was agriculture that the annual income comes from farming and related activities (67%). 8.8% and 24.2% of the respondents’ identified that their source of income was from governmental as well as NGO offices and other sources. The other sources of income of the clients of ACSI are from their own shop (small in size), support from children, and income from service provision as well as profit from their own activities. This indicates that majority of the clients of ACSI are engaged in farming activity and take loan to increase their farming productivity level. As the data obtained from the questionnaires the majority of respondents’ yearly income ranges from birr 1,500 to 6,500. The mean income was birr 4,517.34 per year for one household. However, the mean annual income per household member (per capita income) was birr 863.74 (i.e. 4,517.34/5.23). This implies that the daily per capita income of the clients of ACSI is birr 2.42. More than 60% of the clients are those whose per capita income was below 3 birr per day which is below USD $1 per day (which is equivalent to 17.41birr at the exchange rate during the survey). This tells us that how much ACSI reached the poorest of poor people both in rural and urban areas. In relation with the expenditure of the clients food was the major expenditure item of the total budget (54.7%). Non-food expenditures like expenses for cloths, health care (situational), purchase of fixed assets, school fee and other expenses account for 45.3% of the mean expenditure. The mean yearly expenditure for the sample respondents was Birr 4,286.57 per household. However, the mean annual expenditure per household member was birr 819.61. The average food expenditure was lower for ACSI clients compared to the Regional and National level. “With no price adjustment, the level of expenditure used as absolute poverty indexes set at national level by the BoFED was Birr 1,075 for 1999/2000” (BoFED, 2008). This is higher than the average found for ACSI clients in the survey. Majority of the clients’ per capita expenditure was below the absolute poverty indexes. This shows that the clients of ACSI are poor.

4.1.2.2. Asset Ownership The ownership of assets especially rural clients, mainly livestock, before and after joining ACSI has been assessed. As per the data obtained from the sample responses, the average cattle ownership was lower for ACSI clients but the ownership increased after joining the institution. The average ownership of cattle before and after joining ACSI is seen in the following table:

Types of cattle Before Member of ACSI After Member of ACSI Ox 0.91 1.78 Cow 1.57 1.69 Sheep/goat 7.60 7.68 Donkey 0.27 0.49 Mule/horse 0.12 0.37

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NB. All the values on the table are on average. Table 2: cattle ownership of clients From the sample respondents 49.7% had none or one ox; 34.2% and 16.1% owned two oxen and above two oxen respectively. As it was seen in the above table that, the average cattle ownership was increased after the clients is using the services of ACSI. This indicates that ACSI is helping the rural poor to have their own cattle for farming activity. When we see the ownership of land, 98.4% of rural clients of ACSI own land. It was only 1.6% of clients who did not have land. The average land holding which is their own land was 2.45 hectare per household. But there are some households who farm lands by lease/rent from other individuals. Those who practiced farming on rented or leased farmland were only 16.3% with 0.43 hectare on average. In addition, 54.2% of the respondents of ACSI has radio/tape recorder while the remaining 45.8% did not have. In general, as the information obtained from the interview with the officers and the survey of clients, asset ownership by the clients of the institution is lower but showing as increasing trend from year to year.

4.1.2.3. Housing and Utilities Conditions of clients From the total sample 51.3% of clients live in a single house, 33.4% has more than on house and the remaining 15.3% has no house (living in a rent houses). The quality of the houses is poor because almost all houses are constructed from mad, wood and grass roofs. 72.5% of the clients of ACSI have no access to electric supply. As a substitute people mostly used kerosene lamps as a lighting source in rural areas. Firewood, Dung and Charcoal were the primary source of cooking fuel for ACSI clients. For more than 70 % of ACSI clients the major sources of drinking water were streams, rivers, ponds and open access common wells. From this we can conclude that the majority of the clients of the institution have less access of facilities. In addition the clients have limited infrastructure facilities like road, school nearby to send their children and access to market their products.

4.2. Customers’ feedback on service delivery of the institution In this sub-section the customers’ feedback on loan delivery and utilization, employees’ service delivery and customer handling (treatment) and customer rating on interest rates has been assessed and presented.

4.2.1. Loan Delivery and Utilization No Sources In No In %age 1 Friends and relatives 82 45.49% 2 Local money lenders (usury) 55 31.11% 3 Cooperatives 6 3.33% 4 Credit and saving schemes 5 2.77% 5 Banks 2 1.11% 6 NGOs 3 1.43% 7 Churches/Mosques 3 1.43% 8 No Credit Before 24 13.33% Total 180 100% Table 3: Sources of credit before member of ACSI As shown on table 3 above, the main sources of credit before the establishment of ACSI were credit from friends and relatives (45.49%), followed by local money lenders (usuries) (31.11%). The other sources of credit accounts limited percentage. That is cooperatives, credit and saving schemes, NGOs, Churches/Mosques and Banks cover

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3.33%, 2.77%, 1.43%, 1.43% and 1.11% respectively. In addition, the clients with no credit experience before ACSI account 13.33%.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Less than 1 year 6 3.3 3.3 3.3 1-2 years 44 24.2 24.2 27.5 3-4 years 57 31.7 31.7 59.2 5-7 years 36 20.0 20.0 79.2 Above 7 Years 37 20.8 20.8 100.0 Total 180 100.0 100.0

Table 4: period clients stayed as a member of ACSI As it is clearly shown in the above table 3.3% clients stayed as a member of ACSI for less than 1 year, 24.2% stayed 1-2 years, 31.7% stayed from 3 to 4 years, 20% stayed for 5 to 7 years and 20.8% stayed above 7 years as members of ACSI. As we can see the percentage the majority of the clients are using the services of institution for a long period of time after its establishment. This indicates that the institution is their first preference for credit as well as saving facilities. 57.5% of the respondents prefer group collateral lending system and the remaining 42.5% prefers individual lending by holding their land as collateral. As per the rule of the institution the loan size through group collateral lending system ranges from 300 to 5000 birr and through asset collateral i.e. individual loan the loan size ranges from 5001 to 3,000,000 birr (NBE, directive No. MFI/5, 1996). As the data obtained from the survey the majority (93.56%) of the clients take loan which ranges from 750 to 5,000, 6.44% are those borrowers who borrow up to 200,000 birr from the institution by giving their car and house as a collateral. This indicates that the institution provides a loan amount as per the need of the clients. The minimum amount to borrow money from the institution is 300 birr which anyone can borrow easily. As source indicated as the loan size is becoming lower and lower the institution outreach performance is increasing (Ledgerwood, 1999). The loan advances were both on term and installment basis. 50% of the clients prefer installment loan and the remaining half of the clients prefer to take loan in term basis.

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Chart 6: Credit period As the chart indicated 54.1% of respondents took a loan which have a credit period of 1-2 years. Credit period less than one year, 3-5 years and above five years cover 25%, 14.2% and 6.7% of the respondents respectively. This indicates that most of the clients of the institution prefers loan which is repayable within one to two year periods. More than half (55%) of the clients took loan for farming and related activities, the remaining 45% clients took loan for activities other than agriculture such as handicraft, service and purchase of fixed assets/equipments. As per the rule of the institution no loan is granted for consumption purpose (ACSI, 2009). It was only 10.8% of respondents who did not utilize the loan amount for the intended purpose. The main reason that the respondents gave is that the loan size was small to utilize in time as intended. In relation with this 62.5% the respondents indicated that they took a loan amount which is less than they requested. Therefore, the loan size was not sufficient for the intended purpose. Because of this sometimes clients may shift to another purpose when the loan approved is below the requested amount. It is obvious that, some clients request larger loan amounts beyond their capacity at their first request. Information from the group members input and the institution’s credit and saving committee is important in this situation to test the capability, debt paying ability and discipline of the client before approval of the loan. As it was indicated by the officers and approved by the clients it took 3-5 days to get credit. But borrowers are expected to repay the amount they took before the next loan is given (ACSI, 2004). This shows that how the institution is fast in its client selection and credit approval system. And also 80.8% of the respondents responded that delivery of credit was timely, but it is late for the remaining 19.2% of the respondents.

4.2.2. Service delivery and Customers Handling (Treatment) of Employees

Majority (62.9%) of clients learnt about the institution from their friends’ and relatives for the first time. The remaining 31.6% got the information from clarification given by the employees of ACSI and 5.5% of the clients are members of the institution as a result

Above 5 years 3-5 years1-2 yearsLess than 1 year

Credit Period

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percent

25%

54.2%

14.2% 6.7%

How long is the credit period?

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of information obtained from advertisements on public media like radio advertisings. As the above percentage indicated that, the promotion was limited to the staff and the community networks. This way of promotion is acceptable as there is high demand for the services and poor communication media in the rural Amhara Region at the moment. In addition to the credit and saving service 7.1% of the clients got pension payment services, 5.4% used local money transfer facility of the institution and 2.6% of the respondents indicated that they are using micro insurance services provided in addition to the credit and saving services.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid Below 5 km 48 26.7 26.7 26.7 5-10 km 72 40.0 17.5 44.2 11-15 km 32 17.5 40.0 84.2 16-20 km 16 9.1 9.2 93.3 Above 20 km 12 6.7 6.7 100.0 Total 180 100.0 100.0 Table 5: distance of the sub-branches from the client’s resident From the above table analysis we can see that 40% of the clients are expected to travel 5 to 10 km from their home to the sub-branch offices. Additionally, 26.7%, 17.5%, 9.1% and 6.7% of the clients are expected to travel below 5 km, 11-15 km, 16-20 km and above 20 km respectively. This implies that the institution is better in reaching the rural poor by opening sub-branch offices, which is fair compared to accessibility of other public services and economic infrastructure in the rural Amhara Region. There are field workers who travel to the home of the poor people for assessment and follow up. This ease of access to the sub branches reduces transaction costs to the poor. Employees’ customer handling and treatment

Chart 7: Rate of employees’ customer handling and treatment by clients As it is clearly seen from the above chart that 45.8% of the respondents rated employees customer handling and treatment as very good. The remaining 25%, 23.4%, 2.5% and 3.3% of the respondent indicated that employees are good, excellent, satisfactory and poor in threatening the clients respectively. This shows that the employees are committed to their work and have better customer handling method both in selection of clients as well as provision of services. In relation with this 20.8%, 41.7%, 30%, 4.2% and 3.3% of the respondents rated that the field workers proper and timely follow-up of credit given is excellent, very good, good, satisfactory and poor.

Percent

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This implies that the institution gave due consideration to follow the clients to check whether the loan given was used for the intended purpose or not.

4.2.3. Customers rating on interest rates The interest rate charged by ACSI on loan is 18% for both installment and term loans which is somewhat higher than the interest rate of banks (11.5%, CBE). This interest rate percentage is set by the Board of Directors of the institution as per the rule of the National Bank of Ethiopia. “The interest rate to be charged on loans and advances extended by a micro-financing institution shall be determined by the Board of Directors of each micro-financing institution” (NBE Directive No.MFI/13, 2002). In addition, the institution opened microbank to provide small banking activities for the poor. The microbank charges 10-14% rate of interest for its loans (ACSI, 2009). Most of the clients’ compare the interest rate charged by ACSI with informal lenders especially with local money lenders (usuries). As per the information obtained from the respondents, usuries lend money with 20% rate of interest per month. Having these points in mind, the rate of interest on loan seems fair for the majority (40%), low for 23.3%, high for 22.5%, very high for 10%, and very low for 4.2% of the respondents. From this we can say that the institution charged fair interest rate on loans. A penalty of 2% is charged on past due balances. The penalty is calculated on the principal amount past due. If there is no hope of securing a repayment of a loan after all efforts has been made, the group members of the individual are responsible and the credit will be written-off once, the case is taken to court and the client’s inability is decided by jurisdiction (ACSI, 2009). When we see the interest rate paid for saving, it is 5% for compulsory saving and 5-6.25% for voluntary savings which are compounded monthly (ACSI, 2009). Out of the total 180 sample respondents for 27.5%, 25.8%, 22.5% 12.5% and 11.7% of the respondents the rate of interest paid for both compulsory as well as voluntary saving is high, fair, low, very low and very high respectively. The institution pays better interest for compulsory saving as compared with banks (i.e. 5% per annum). This indicates that it gives more emphasis for voluntary saving than compulsory saving. It initiates voluntary savers by paying more interest for them. As per the majority of the respondents indicated (i.e. 75.8%) the institution pays better interest for the amount of money saved. But there is withdrawal limitation imposed on compulsory saving. the rule of the institution says “Compulsory saving account holders have no right to withdraw the amount on their saving account until the moment they has repaid all of debts they taken. Because compulsory saving account serves as a guarantee for the institution in addition to group collateral.” (ACSI, 2004) In general, the clients rated the overall service delivery of the institution as shown in the chart below.

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Chart 8: Rate of overall service delivery of the institution by clients As we can easily observe from the above chart more than half of the respondents (50.8%) rated the institution overall service delivery as excellent and the remaining 30%, 12.5%, 5.8% and 0.9% rated it as very good, good, satisfactory and poor in its service delivery. From the analysis we can say that, even if there are some areas that need improvement, the institution got acceptance from the public in its efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery and customer handling.

4.3. Training and development in the institution The institution have formal training program for both employees and customers in different time. If the employee is a newly hired employee in the office he/she must take the training like how to perform the activities he/she is assigned for, credit and saving related issues, psychological training how to handle customers, and the rule and regulations of the institution. In addition to this if the new employee is hired as a field worker he/she must take additional training such as how to form groups and assessment of client’s socio-economic conditions. For the remaining employees the institution provides continuous training as per the requirement to improve employees’ productivity level more and more. In addition, the institution pays half of college payment for its employees for further education and development. But the courses that the employee learns should be directly related with the job he/she assigned for and its importance must be approved by the manager of the sub-branch office. The institution also gives training for its customers in the area of credit and saving. In addition, the training was on introducing the institution, its services and products, group and centre formation, duties and responsibilities as a group member, importance of savings, and others. The training smoothes the information gap between clients and the institution. These training also give the clients to be active in the service provision activity of the institution.

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As of the end of 2009, shown on Table 7, ACSI has given an employment opportunity for more than 2,700 staffs in 198 offices. It has been able to cover 2953 kebeles of the region, which is 88.7% of the whole region. The number of active borrowers and depositors of ACSI increased from 434,814 to 679,518 and 496,535 to 1,432,623 respectively and organized in 123,767 groups and 6,547 centers. The number of savers increased more than twice. In addition percentage of women borrowers has shown an increase from 38.58% (2005) to 63.52% (2009). This indicates that poor female group of people are the major target of the institution. Since its establishment, there is an increase both in terms of loan portfolio and average loan balance from year to year. Loan portfolio has increased from Birr 446,970,605 in 2005 to 1,656,863,562 in 2009 (270.69% increase). In addition, the average loan balance per borrowers also increased from birr 1,027.96 in 2005 to birr 2,438.29 in 2009 (137.2% increase). This indicates that the depth and breadth of outreach of the institution is good. ACSI has mobilized net savings of birr 988,108,227 in 2009 compared to 239,410,575 in 2005 (312.73% growth) both in voluntary and compulsory savings. This increase in saving mobilization helps the institution to finance its loan portfolio from saving and being sustainable enough. In fact, this shows an encouraging achievement on savings mobilization as well as a need to do more so as to cover all loan funds from savings. The deposit to loan ratio also increased from 53.56% in 2005 to 59.64% in 2009. This indicates that more than half of the institution’s loan portfolio comes from deposited money. Hence, the growth of loan portfolio was higher than the increase in savings which needs more effort to increase saving from public to support the loan portfolio. The average loan and savings balances were birr 2,702 and 1,206 for Africa and birr 1,540 and 1,082 for East African firms respectively (Lafourcade et al., 2005). ACSI had the average loan and deposit balances of birr 2,438.29 and birr 690 respectively in 2009. From this we can say that when compared with other African MFIs, the Average loan balance per borrower and average deposit balance per depositor of ACSI was the lower in amounts.

4.5. Sustainability performance of the Institution Now a days, ensuring sustainability to continue as a going concern in the financial market is a hard obstacle to the microfinance industry. In this sub-section the researcher examined the institution’s sustainability position by giving a great emphasis on its operational and financial self-sufficiency ratios. In addition, productivity, efficiency, profitability, financing and portfolio quality performance of the institution are covered in this sub section. Operational and Financial self-sufficiency of ACSI Operational self-sufficiency refers to the firm’s ability to generate sufficient revenue from operations to cover all direct costs (i.e., operating expenses, financing costs, and loan losses). Being unable to reach operational self-sufficiency results in erosion of the net worth of a company over time and waiting for donor funds to keep on operating. Financial self- sufficiency measures the firm’s ability to generate revenue sufficient to cover both direct (operating, financing, and loan losses) and indirect (cost of capital) expenses of doing business. Measure of financial self- sufficiency below 100% indicates dependency on donor funds or subsidies (Ledgerwood, 1999). Both the operational and financial self-sufficiency ratio of ACSI is shown in the chart below.

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Source: Financial and Performance Data for ACSI (2005-2009)

Chart 9: operational and financial self-sufficiency of ACSI As shown on chart, ACSI is going up both in operational and financial sustainability since 2005. So we can say that since 2005, ACSI has started obtaining operational income adequate to cover its operating costs. The financial self-sufficiency ratio shows an increasing trend from 115.35% to 164.39%. In all the five operating years, ACSI’s financial self-sufficiency is above 100%, this demonstrated that ACSI was financially self-sufficient. From the above analysis we can say that the institution covered not only direct costs (operating costs, loan losses, and interest on savings and bank loans) but also indirect cost like cost of capital on loans and on allowance and absorbed inflation impacts on its financial assets. To sum up, on average ACSI is operationally and financially self-sufficient at around 211.16% and 144.58% respectively over the five year period. This indicates that the institution has the ability to stand in its leg without donors fund or the institution’s subsidy dependent is lower. Even the general manager of the branch office said that “if we get donation from abroad it helps us, but if not we will cover our costs from our own operational income sources like saving and profit.” 4.5.1. Productivity and Efficiency Measuring the productivity and efficiency is helpful to assess the capability of MFIs to generate revenue and resource use ability to wealth maximization. ‘Provision of financial services and products at the minimum cost possible’ is the proverb of efficient service delivery (Befekadu, 2007). The productivity ratio in the case of MFIs focuses on the capacity of staffs and loan officers to serve as many clients as possible. The efficiency ratios measure the operational costs of service delivery. Operating efficiency ratio measures the ratio or percentage of operating and personnel expenses relative to loan portfolio (Bamlaku, 2006). The lower operating expense ratio indicates the lower expense relative to portfolio outstanding. Usually costs of credit disbursement are higher than costs of accepting saving deposits. The efficiency ratios include operating costs ratio, cost per unit of currency lent, and cost per borrowers. As a base, operating cost ratios of 13% to 21% is a good indicator for successful MFIs (Ledgerwood, 1999). Indicators 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Borrowers per Staff 227 260 253 274 249 Borrowers per loan officers 360 370 386 412 385 Depositors per staff member 259 301 300 419 524 Operating expense/ loan portfolio 6.15% 4.94% 4.58% 5.55% 3.92%

Personnel expense/ loan 4.40% 3.39% 3.10% 2.75% 2.70%

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portfolio Cost per borrower Br. 59 Br. 58 Br. 69 Br. 109 Br. 91 Personnel allocation ratio 63.08% 70.22% 65.59% 66.64% 64.53% Operating Cost Ratio 6% 7.1% 6.01% 4.2% 4% Cost per Unit of Currency Lent 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.04 Source: Financial and Performance Data for ACSI (2005-2009) Table 7: Productivity and efficiency of ACSI From the above table we can identify that number of active borrowers per staff shows an increasing trend from 227 in 2005 to 249 in 2009. In addition the number of depositors per staff members increased from 259 to 524 from the year 2005 to 2009 (i.e. 102.3% increase). This indicates that the people habit towards saving is increasing and the institution ability in saving also increasing from year to year. Based on best practice for MFIs worldwide, average number of clients per loan officer ranges from 300 to 500 whatever the type of lending methodology employed. African and East African firms have been able to serve only 143 per staff and 132 borrowers per credit officer (Lafourcade et al., 2005). But ACSI has been able to serve 249 per staff and 385 per loan officers. The personnel allocation ratio of ACSI was 64.53% in 2009 which means the institution human resource allocation is good. This indicates that the instruction is, by far, the most productive in terms of its human resources compared to African and East African firms. Hence, it is possible to say that ACSI is more efficient than other African MFIs in the industry. The cost per birr lent was five cents in 2005 coming down to four cents in 2009. The average cost per borrower for African and East African MFIs is Birr 634 and Birr 510 respectively (Lafourcade et al., 2005). For ACSI the cost per borrower is below Birr 100 except 2008 (109), this indicate that the institution is effective in management of operating costs. But the cost per borrower increased because of huge increase in the number of borrower is shown from year to year. The operating cost ratio has reduced from 6% in 2005 to 4% in 2009. The decrease in both operation expense per loan portfolio (6.15% to 3.92%) and personnel expense per loan portfolio (4.40% to 2.70%) from the year 2005 to 2009 indicates that the institution is in a good position to control its operating as well as personnel expenses in comparison with the amount of loan portfolio changes. To sum up, there is an increase in productivity and efficiency of employees accompanied by reduction in costs of disbursing loans which is favorable to institutional sustainability. ACSI is much-admired for its reliance on internally mobilized savings to finance its portfolio and efficient service delivery at the lowest cost possible compared to others in the industry. It achieved good efficiency and effectiveness with low risk having better future prospects (MicroRate, 2005).

4.5.2. Profitability Profitability indicators measure financial performance of a firm over a period of time. It is useful for both internal management and external stakeholders to assess profitability of the business. To show the profitability of the institution ROA, ROE, yield on portfolio, and profit margin ratios are used. Return on assets (ROA) measures the average net income earned on a single currency owned and indicates the kind of return the assets are generating. High return implies good utilization of assets. Return of Equity (ROE) refers to the maximum return available to shareholders. The ROE gives the rate of return earned on net worth or equity invested. Higher return implies happy shareholders or owners. Yield on Portfolio

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measures the percentage of net income earned for every birr in portfolio. Yield measures ultimate profitability. The higher the ratio, the more profitable each currency lent (Ledgerwood, 1999). Most of the time the highest income source for MFIs is their portfolio where as the major source of expenses are operating expenses. ACSI earns financial revenues from loans and other financial services in the form of interest income, penalties, payments from local money transfer service, commissions, and other sources like investment income. In addition the institution’s financial activities also incur costs of doing business such as operating expenses, financing charges, and loan losses due to default etc. Profitable institutions generate greater revenue that exceeds total expenses. The profitability measures of ACSI are shown in the following table:

Indicators 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Mean ROA 6.49% 7.94% 8.09% 9.06% 9.61% 7.7% ROE 19.75% 25.63% 28.78% 36.45% 27.64% 27.65% Yield on gross portfolio (nominal)

17.81% 17.94% 17.91% 18.95% 17.94% 18.11%

Net Profit in million 40 61.7 89.4 140.7 152 Profit margin 49.99% 55.34% 55.83% 57.98% 59.02% 54.03% Interest Income/Total Income

87.7% 91.66% 94.7% 93.23% 91.83% 91.82%

Donation/Total Income 8.06% 4.44% 2.34% 8.45% 0

Operating Expense to Total Expense

68.52% 61.04% 57.18% 48.54% 43.54% 55.76%

Sources: Financial and Performance Data for ACSI (2005-2009) and ACSI (2005-2009) Table 8: Profitability measures of ACSI As it was presented on table 9, on average more than 90% of the total income of ACSI was derived from interest earned on loan portfolio. From 2005 to 2009, ACSI has been earning increasing net profits from birr 40,041,184(2005) to birr 152,019,746 in 2009 (279.66% increase within five years). In addition, the profit margin of the institution shows an increasing trend from 2005(49.99%) to 2009(59.02%). Out of the total expenses of the institution operating expenses cover 68.52% in 2005 but shows a decreasing trend in the remaining years to 61.04%, 57.18%, 48.54% and 43.54% from 2006 to 2009 respectively. From this we can say that the institution cost control method shows improvement from year to year, and this helps the institution to secure its sustainability without donors support by increasing its profitability. In addition, we can see that the contribution of donations to the total income of ACSI showed a decreasing trend i.e. 8.06% in 2005 to 0% in 2009. In the same table above, ACSI experienced a higher percentage of ROA. A birr in assets earned 6.49 cents in 2005 and increased to 9.61 cents in 2009. In addition, a birr invested in equity has generated 19.75 cents in 2005. From 2006 to 2008 the institution ability to earn by investing was around 26cents, 29cents and 36cents respectively. But in 2009 it was declined to 28cents. When we see the yield on portfolio, it shows an increasing trend from 2005(17.81%) to 2009(17.94%). But there are ups and downs in the mid years. This indicates that a birr lent earned an interest income of around 17.81 to 17.94.

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In general, the average ROA, ROE and yield on portfolio over the five year were 7.70%, 27.65% and 18.11% respectively. Therefore, ACSI is more profitable institution. These results are attributed to higher efficiency and best portfolio quality. 4.5.3. Financing or Capital Structure The sources of funding for ACSI are shareholders equity, retained earnings, donated equity, commercial borrowings, subsidized liabilities, and savings. As indicated on Table 11, ACSI funds 26.26 % of its assets with equity in 2009. Savings are the main source of liabilities. Deposits account for 59.64% of total liabilities. Indicators 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Equity/asset ratio 32.36% 29.98% 26.90% 23.53% 26.26% Debt to equity ratio 2.09 2.34 2.72 3.25 2.81 Deposits to loans 53.56% 53.21% 55.64% 53.56% 59.64% Deposits to total assets 40.42% 43.42% 44.33% 42.14% 42.26% Gross loan portfolio to total assets 75.46% 81.60% 79.68% 78.68% 79.87%

Source: Financial and Performance Data for ACSI (2005-2009) Table 9: financing/capital structure indicators of ACSI There was a decrease in the share of equity from total assets in 2009 compared to 2005. The highest equity-to-asset ratio was 32.36% in 2005 due to higher donated equity. Having higher equity to asset ratio shows increase in stability of the institution (Ledgerwood, 1999). The debt-to-equity or leverage ratio of the institution is 2.09 and 2.81 in 2005 and 2009 respectively. This means the total debt of the company is two times of its equity. There is an increase in gross loan portfolio to total assets ratio from year to year. It was 75.46% (2005) of total assets in loan portfolio that increased to 79.87% in 2009. This shows there is effective utilization of assets in the institution to generate interest income. On the other hand deposits finance more than 40% total assets for the five years. The share of deposits in financing the loan was increasing from 53.56% (2005) to 59.64% (2009). This indicates that more than 50% of the portfolio is financed through deposits mobilized. African MFIs fund only 25% of assets with equity which implies that they are highly leveraged compared to ACSI (26.26%) in 2009. deposits account for 72% of loans for African firms but only 59.64% in the case of ACSI (Lafourcade et al., 2005).

4.5.4. Portfolio Quality The major productive asset of ACSI is its loan portfolio. Thus, portfolio quality refers to the health of this productive asset and the risks attached to it. The portfolio quality is detrimental to the institutions current performance as well as future prospect in generating higher revenue and better outreach to the poor. Repayment rates, arrears rate, loan loss, and portfolio at risk ratios are indicators used to assess the portfolio quality (Ledgerwood, 1999). Portfolio at risk (PAR) is a better indicator or measure of risk associated with the portfolio and it includes any remaining balance of loans infected with arrears including the arrears balance itself. In other terms, the calculation takes into account outstanding balance of loan amounts that have past due amounts. The PAR helps to see the real picture of the risk of delinquency particularly in credit terms with small loan payments over a long credit period. Loan losses are part of the costs of doing business. It measures the amount of loans written-off or cancelled from accounting records as uncollectible during a given accounting period when the loans do have little hope of collection in the future.

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Portfolio quality of ACSI was, in the words of MicroRate, “Excellent” and “one of the best MicroRate has seen in Africa” (Microrate, 2007). However, the credit terms that were mostly term loans have contributed to such outstanding performance when repayments were to be made once.

Indicators 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Mean Repayment Rates 99.19% 99.26% 99.35% 99.2% 99.6% 99.12% Arrears Rate 0.81 0.74 0.65 0.80 0.4 0.77 Portfolio at Risk > 30 Days Ratio* 1.90% 1.55% 1.27% 1.35% 3.80%

1.97%

Loan Loss Ratio 0.35 1.3 0.65 0.51 0.32

0.63

Sources: *PAR ratios are taken from MicroRate (2007), Financial and Performance Data for ACSI (2005-2009) Table 10: portfolio indicators of ACSI Portfolio quality of ACSI based on its PAR ratio was 1.97% on average. It is the best as compared to the global average, African and East African PAR values of 5.2%, 4%, and 4.8% respectively as of 2005 (Lafourcade et al., 2005). As a general indicator, loan losses of above 2% annually show a negligence problem (Ledgerwood, 1999). The loan loss of ACSI have become reduced which shows the reduction in non-performing loans. i.e. from 0.35 (2005) to 0.32(2009). From 2005 to 2009 ACSI has been able to maintain an excellent repayment rate at an average of 99.12%. The arrears rate was below 1% of its loan portfolio. This indicates that the institution has a smaller risk of loan not to be collected in the future. Such outstanding performance is hard to achieve even in conventional banks backed by huge collaterals having a few credit clients but a bulk of credit balances. This effective performance of ACSI might be attached by proper client selection, follow-up and monitoring both by the staff and credit and saving committee, credit discipline and profitability of clients.

4.6. Trade-off between outreach and sustainability After investigating outreach and sustainability of ACSI let’s see how these two schemes extract each other. As different scholars identified, Sustainability and outreach are two long term goals that microfinance institutions eventually strive to achieve (Ledgerwood, 1999). There are arguments that there is a trade-off between reaching the poor and becoming profitable rationalizing that high number of clients (breadth of outreach) with small loans will lead to high cost of lending, thereby, lead to reduction in profit. There is, however, a creative tension between these two imperatives. On the one hand, if “increasing outreach” is taken to mean “more clients from a similar demographic”, then “outreach” and “sustainability” are effectively identical terms. On the other hand, if “increasing outreach” is taken to mean “targeting hard-to-reach clients” such as people living in remote areas, then “outreach” and “sustainability” are effectively competing terms. Reaching clients in remote areas is relatively expensive, which makes the microfinance program less efficient and therefore less sustainable. Regarding this issues, ACSI have been achieved both outreach and sustainability simultaneously. The institution reaches/and reaching the poorest of poor people and as the same times its financial as well as operational self-sufficiency increases from year to year. The following table explains the correlation between outreach and sustainability of ACSI.

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To show these achievements of ACSI, let’s see the following relationship between number of active clients (breadth of outreach) and net profit (indicator of sustainability) as follows:

Correlations Number of active clients Net profit

Number of active clients

Pearson Correlation (r) 1 .926 Sig. (2-tailed) .085 N** 5 5

Net profit Pearson Correlation(r) .926 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .085 N** 5 5

**Number of years (2005-2009) Table 11: Correlation analysis of number of active clients and net profit of ACSI (2005-2009) Correlation measures the degree to which two sets of data are related. Higher correlation value indicates stronger relationship between both sets of data. When the correlation is 1 or -1, a perfectly linear positive or negative relationship exists; when the correlation is 0, there is no relationship between the two sets of data (Bowen & Starr, 1982). As can be observed from the above table, it is noted that number of active client (i.e outreach indicator) is positively and strongly correlated (r = 0. 926) with net profit (i.e. sustainability indicator). Therefore, it is possible to be profitable while serving/reaching large number of clients. Even if it is a great challenge to build MFIs that reach the poorest of the poor and at the same time achieve institutional sustainability with operational and/or financial self-sufficiency, ACSI achieved it well. The main reason for its achievement both in outreach and sustainability are proper management, good client selection and follow-up, better strategies of reaching the poor while keeping the profitability of the institution, high but accepted interest rate charged on loans etc.

4.7. Performance rate of ACSI by MicroRate International Rating Agency ACSI has been rated two times by MicroRate in 2005 and 2007 and ranked as “α−”by MicroRate standards. This gave ACSI a label stated as a microfinance institution “striving to balance a clear and rational relationship among the social, financial, and operational considerations of sound microfinance practice as compared to an international set of similar companies and emerging standards of the microfinance industry”. As per the rating agency α− stands for institutions with good efficiency and effectiveness, low risk and good future prospects (Microrate 2005 & 2007). Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1. Conclusions Based on the objectives and hypothesis of the study the researcher concluded the study as follows: The institution gives priority to woman for credit to make them free from long

history of economic dependency with in home and in the society as a whole. ACSI believed that lending money for women is better than male because women are less extravagant and more responsible for saving and efficient use of money in the home than male. Therefore, the institution is in a better position to make women

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economically independent. These issues have a direct impact on the outreach performance of the institution.

The institution has its own loan eligibility criteria to select among client for loan. As per hypothesis two, those customer selection methods influence outreach directly in determining the loan size, and approach of the poor.

The institution is in a better position of depth and breadth of outreach to the poorest of poor rural and urban people in providing financial support and increase productivity level in the region and it is the first preference for credit as well as saving services for clients. Because the products of the institution are not much expensive to the customers.

As a result of smaller amount of loan given for the borrowers, there is a shift in the purpose of loan by clients in the middle and decrease the effectiveness of the loan takers.

There is higher portfolio concentration on a single sector, which is vulnerable to natural disasters and calamities.

From the outreach aspect, the institution outreach has shown increment over the five years of the study with different rates of growth. It is also identified that ACSI reach the very poor, disadvantaged groups and woman clients in rural as well as urban areas.

The institution has the ability to stand on its own leg without donors fund or the institution’s subsidy dependent is lower. Therefore, as a supportive of hypothesis one, operational and financial self-sufficiency are positively related with sustainability of financial institutions in the long-run. It achieved good efficiency and effectiveness with low risk having better future prospects that indicates better length of outreach.

The institution cost control method shows improvement from year to year, and this helps it to be sustainability without donors support by increasing its profitability. In addition, Cost of outreach is low for the institution.

As per hypothesis three, the institution has a better efficiency and profitability level that helps it to secure its going concern. Therefore, profitability is helpful to secure sustainability in MFI.

From sustainability angle, it is founded that ACSI is financially self-sufficient enough and its dependency on donors support was decreased from year to year. In addition, there is low risk of loan not to be collected in the future.

Lastly, based on the experience of ACSI, institutional sustainability could be achieved while reaching the poorest sections of the society, that means both outreach and sustainability can be achieved simultaneously that supports hypothesis four of this study. 5.2. Recommendations:

In accordance with the result of the study the following recommendations are forwarded: The loan size needs to be revised taking into consideration the purchasing power of birr at the current market prices of inputs to clients’ businesses. In addition, family size and clients needs with the purpose of the loan should be considered to increase the outreach level. The researcher recommend the institution to develop new loan products like educational loan (for those who send their children to school), housing improvement and expansion (in group collateral lending form) and emergency loans to fit the interest

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of the clients. In addition, the institution should also give especial attention to increase provision of other services like local money transfer, fund administration and micro insurance services. Group based lending helps MFIs serve those who are so poor that they could not provide sufficient collateral for the loan they took. Therefore, improving group lending mechanism benefits both the institution as well as the clients. Improve voluntary saving from the general public targeting people in urban areas with regular income and social institutions like “Idir” and “Equb” to make their deposits with ACSI. Saving is a suitable source of funds for loans and helps to be sustainable in the future. The institution should make every effort at its level to cover much of the loan fund from saving collected. ACSI should invest in other income generating areas to cover its expenses other than subsidy dependents. This helps the institution to strength its financial position and being sustainable in the future. Lastly, to increase the achievement level both sustainability and outreach the institution should increase its revenue from operations and reduce its operating, financing and loan loss expenses. References 1. Abiy Zegeye, Alemayehu Worku, Daniel Tefera, Melese Getu and Yilma Sileshi,

(2009). Introduction to Research Methods: Preparatory module for Addis Ababa University graduate program, Addis Ababa University.

2. Amhara Credit and Saving Institution (ACSI), (2009). Institutional Profile, Current Status and Future Strategy, Bahir Dar.

3. AMHARA CREDIT AND SAVINGS INSTITUTION S.C (ACSI) (2005-2009). Independent Auditors' Report and Financial Statements.

4. Amhara Credit and Saving Institution (ACSI) (May 2004). Institutional Profile, Current Status and Future Strategy, Bahir Dar.

5. Anne-Lucie Lafourcade, Jennifer Isern, Patricia Mwangi, and Matthew Brown, (2005).Overview of the Outreach and Financial Performance of Microfinance Institutions in Africa, www.MIXAfrica_Data_Study.pdf

6. Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2000). Finance for the Poor: Microfinance Development Strategy.

7. Bamlaku Alamirew Alemu (2006). Microfinancing and Poverty Reduction in Ethiopia, A Paper prepared under the Internship Program of IDRC, ESARO, Nairobi..

8. Befekadu Kereta, (November 2007). Outreach and Financial Performance Analysis of Microfinance Institutions in Ethiopia, National Bank of Ethiopia and African Economic .

9. Mark Schreiner (June 2002). Aspects of Outreach: A Framework for the Discussion of the Social Benefits of Microfinance, Washington University.

10. Mekonnen Yelewem wessen (July 2008). Amhara Credit and Saving Institution (ACSI) MFI-Bank Financial Linkage: ACSI’s Experience and Future Trends, Bahir Dar.

11. Micro-financing business proclamation no. 626/2009. Federal Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 15th year no.33, 12th May, 2009, Addis Ababa.

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12. MicroRating International (2005). ACSI’s Performance Rating. MicroRate: the rating agency for microfinance. VA, USA. [email protected].

13. MicroRatting International (2007). ACSI’s Performance Rating 2nd update. MicroRate: the rating agency for microfinance. VA, USA.

14. National Bank of Ethiopia, Directive No.MFI/5/1996. LOAN POLICY, LIMIT, PERIOD AND PROVISIONS.

15. National Bank of Ethiopia, Directive No.MFI/13/2002. Amendment of INTEREST RATES.

16. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/605206. 17. www.interscience.wiley.com. 18. http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file.php/2700/!via/oucontent/course/530/institutionalist

s.pdf.

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EVALUATING THE PROTECTION OF SHAREHOLDERS

RIGHTS UNDER THE ETHIOPIAN SHARE COMPANY LAW IN LIGHTS OF INTERNATIONAL BENCHMARKS

Lemessa Berber Wogena PhD Research Scholar

Dr.B.R.Ambedkar College of Law Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

Introduction

In the current modern business time, the U.K and Organization for Economic Cooperation of Development (here after OECD) practices of protection of shareholders rights are currently accepted as international benchmarks in different parts of the world. In the U.K. corporate governance is concerned with the narrow goal of ensuring that firms maximize the wealth of shareholders. In OECD, firms are concerned with a broader group of stakeholders, including employees, suppliers, customers and others as well as shareholders. In both practices the rights of shareholders are duly considered. Shareholders rights are broadly guaranteed and clearly addressed. Nevertheless, the Ethiopian practice has not indicated the existence of detail and clear

scheme of shareholders rights in firms business like the U.K and OECD models. To this end, this article evaluates the protection of shareholders right in Ethiopian share company laws in lights of these internationally accepted benchmarks. Moreover, it tries to show the best practice from these benchmarks.

Shareholders Protection under Corporate Governance of U.K

In cotemporary time in most countries of the modern world we find concentrated ownership systems of corporate governance. This in turn opens chance for which block holders (shareholders) typically dominate large companies through control over substantial blocks of voting stock. Then, corporate governance aims to constrain the block holders‘influential power by strongly emphasizing the interests of other

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stakeholders such as employees and creditors.1 In the United Kingdom, by contrast, we find dispersed ownership systems. In this country stock ownership tends to be considerably more fragmented. In this setting, the principal aim of corporate governance extends to protecting shareholders rights including minority rights. This is because they lack substantial voting power. To this effect, it is an approach to corporate governance often described as uniquely Anglo-American system.2 This core Anglo-American system defines corporate governance in consideration of shareholder-centric terms. It is simply the set of mechanisms through which corporations are directed toward the pursuit of shareholders‘interests.3

For instance, in the United Kingdom, shareholders representing just 5% voting power can always demand a meeting, at which any director

may be removed by a simple majority vote.4 This strong removal power has long permitted U.K. shareholders to impose their will on corporate boards.5 Besides this, the City Code on Takeovers and Mergers (the City Code) enforced by a self-regulatory body of market actors called the Panel on Takeovers and Mergers (the City Panel) provides that when a target board has reason to believe that a bona fide offer might be imminent, the board cannot without shareholder approval take any action which may result in any offer or bona fide possible offer being

1 See, Christopher M. Bruner, Power and Purpose in the ―Anglo-American Corporation, 50 VA. J. INT‘L L. 579, 580–81, 643–46 (2010). 2See, John Armour & David A. Skeel, Jr., Who Writes the Rules for Hostile Takeovers, and Why?The Peculiar Divergence of U.S. and U.K. Takeover Regulation, 95 GEO. L.J. 1727, 1751 (2007) 3See, Jean Tirole, Corporate Governance, 69 ECONOMETRICA 1, 1 (2001) (The standard definition of corporate governance among economists and legal scholars refers to the defense of shareholders‘interests.). 4See Companies Act (2006), c. 46, 168, 282, 303–04 (U.K.); Companies (Shareholders‘Rights) Regulations 2009, S.I. 2009/1632, 4 (U.K.) (amending Companies Act Section 303 to reduce the threshold to 5%). 5See, Paul L. Davies, Gower and Davies, Principles of Modern Company Law 371, 425 (8th ed. 2008).

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frustrated or in shareholders being denied the opportunity to decide on its merits.6

Furthermore, consistent with their substantial capacity to discipline management through removal or by accepting a hostile bid, U.K. company law expressly requires that the shareholders‘interests be paramount in board decision-making. Section 172 of the Companies Act 2006 states that a director must act in the way he considers, in good faith, would be most likely to promote the success of the company for the benefit of its members (i.e., the shareholders) as a whole.7This shows us the U.K. company law clearly addresses the interests of shareholders and area of protection of their interests. On the other hand it puts duty or obligation against directors to do for the interest of the shareholders. Generally the core reality of U.K. corporate

governance is that shareholders hold the upper hand; the board‘s power is, simply and purely, delegated power. In the U.K. corporate governance is concerned with ensuring the firm is run in the interests of shareholders and its objective is to create wealth for them. Hence, in this country managers have a fiduciary (i.e. very strong) duty to act in the interests of shareholders.

Protection of Shareholders Right under OECD Principles

According to OECD principles, shareholders of company are equity investors. Equity investors have certain property rights. For example, an equity share in a publicly traded company can be bought, sold, or transferred.8 Similarly an equity share also entitles the investor to participate in the profits of the corporation, with liability limited to the amount of the investment. In addition, ownership of an equity share

6 See, Panel on Ttakeovers and Mergers, the Takeover Code BL, I18 Section 21.1 (2009). 7 See, Companies Act (2006), c.46, Section 172 (U.K.). 8See, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) Principles of Corporate Governance(2004), OECD Publication Service,p.32

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provides a right to information about the corporation and a right to influence the corporation, primarily by participation in general shareholder meetings and by voting.9 Thus, shareholders inherent rights include secured ownership registration, free transfer of shares, obtain all material and reliable information timely and regularly, participate and vote at shareholders meetings and partake in dividends.

Though shareholders of company are equity investors, as a matter of convenience, the corporation cannot be managed by shareholder referendum. Moreover, the corporation’s management must be able to take business decisions rapidly. In light of these realities and the complexity of managing the corporation’s affairs in fast moving and ever changing markets, shareholders are not expected to assume responsibility for managing corporate activities.10 This responsibility is

typically placed in the hands of the board and a management team delegated by the shareholders.

Pursuant to OECD the basic rights of shareholders recognized includes rights to influence the election of board members, or other means of influencing the composition of the board, amendments to the company's organic documents, approval of extraordinary transactions, and other basic issues as specified in company law and internal company statutes. Besides it provides additional rights such as the approval or election of auditors, direct nomination of board members, the ability to pledge shares, the approval of distributions of profits, etc., can be found in various jurisdictions.11

Furthermore, OECD gives great emphasis for investors’ confidence that the capital they provide will be protected from misuse or misappropriation by corporate managers, board members or controlling

9 Ibid 10 Ibid 11Ibid

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shareholders is an important factor in the capital markets.12 Corporate boards, managers and controlling shareholders may have the opportunity to engage in activities that may advance their own interests at the expense of non-controlling shareholders. In providing protection to shareholders, a distinction can usefully be made between ex-ante and ex-post shareholder rights.13 Ex-ante rights are, for example, pre-emptive rights and qualified majorities for certain decisions. Ex-post rights allow the seeking of redress once rights have been violated.14

The aforementioned discussion implies that OECD provides detail clear and obligatory protection for shareholders rights in order to enhance capital markets. Hence, treating shareholders equitably builds investors confidence because they understand that their investments within the companies are protected from misuse by corporate insiders.

Protection of Shareholders Right under Ethiopian Share Company Laws

Like the above international benchmark, the Ethiopian share company law provisions try to show the basic rights of shareholders. These includes right to ownership registrations, right to information, right to pare take and vote in the meetings of shareholders, right to transfer or sale shares and participate in the profits or proceeds of the company. However, the rights of shareholders are not properly and exhaustively articulated the Ethiopian share company law. Thus, this part of the article analyzes each of the basic shareholders rights in light of the above international benchmark.

Primarily for good reason shareholders are owners of the company and separated from direct controls of the company. To this end

shareholders have rights to exercise all inherent ownership rights

12 Ibid,p.40 13 Ibid 14Ibid

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provided by laws and companies statutes.15One of these rights is issuance of bearer shares. This may contribute to the creation of anonymous ownership. To this end, article 325 of commercial code of Ethiopia allows companies to use this right. Unlike the above international benchmarks, the permission of this right in turn affects company’s transparency since it is not well substantiated in detail. Further this may lead to tax evasion and misappropriation of company assets by other corporate insiders. So the inherent ownership right of shareholders is at risk because the law fails to address detail matters of issuance of bearer shares. In addition to this, the Ethiopian commercial code under article 333 restricts shareholders right to transfer of their shares. It also limits shareholders to exercise their ownership rights.

In principle, share companies are required to publish the name, nature,

capitals and head office of the company, the place, date and time of the meetings in the Official Commercial Newspaper and in the legal newspaper.16 Any registered shareholder has also the right to require the company to inform him of the meetings by registered letter at his own expense.17 However, the modes, materiality and accuracy of information disclosed to shareholders meeting in Ethiopian share company law are inadequate and not clearly provided. Besides, the methods of disclosure prescribed in article 392 are inadequate and in terms of cost effectiveness they are burdensome for the company. Similarly, the means of an accessing company’s information provided under articles 392(3), 406, 417, 422 and 427 of the commercial code are expensive for shareholders; rather it should be supplemented by requiring companies to publish full and material information in their company’s website, public media and send to each shareholder via e-mails and personal address including postal service. Unless

15 See, Commercial Code art 389(2). 16 See, Commercial Code arts392 (1) and 396. 17 See, Commercial Code art 392(3).

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shareholders are fully informed the voting procedures, the agenda of the meeting and the issues to be decided at the meeting, they shall not easily exercise their rights. So that it is hardly possible for them to make informed decisions at meetings of shareholders.

The Ethiopian share company law provides shareholders rights to participate and vote in shareholders meetings. To this effect, shareholders have the following voting rights in the shareholders meetings. At the ordinary general meetings they have the right to participate and approve or reject directors and auditors’ report on the balance sheet, the profit and loss accounts, and decided the allocation of dividends.18 Furthermore, they appoint or remove directors and auditors, determine the amount of their remunerations, approve the issuance of debt securities along with guaranties attached thereto, and

after discussion they may amend the accounts of the company.19 Additionally, they vote and take the necessary action on director’s direct or indirect business transactions with the company approved by boards.20 Moreover, they pass a resolution to institute proceedings against directors whether such issue was on the agenda or not.21 Shareholders have also the right to participate in extraordinary meetings to amend the companies’ statutes.22 However, here two disadvantages are identified in the aforementioned provisions that restrict the number of voting rights in shareholders’ meetings. First, they limit and redistribute shareholders control ownership over the company in proportion to their investments. Second, they hamper or reduce their incentives to pare take in the meetings of shareholders.23

18See Commercial Code arts 419(1), 347(1), 350(2), 351(1), 354, 368(1), 369(1&2) and 371. 19 See Commercial Code arts 419(2), 353(1) and 372. 20 See Commercial Code art 356. 21 See Commercial Code art 365(1). 22 See Commercial Code art (423-425). 23See OECD Principles D 36.

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Unlike to OECD, under the Ethiopian share company law institutional investors may not vote in fiduciary capacity where their interests are in conflict with the company as per article 409(1) of the commercial code. This in its part creates problem with the management of conflict of interests in the company.

Conclusion

To conclude, the ownership right of shareholders is the basic issue of company legislations. To this effect, the Ethiopian company law practice has some inadequacy relating to the protection of shareholders right. It has deficiencies in the area of shareholders inherent ownership, information, voting, and transfer of share etc rights. It is far from the practices of U.K and OECD, since these are highly recognized and acceptable practices throughout the world. Hence, countries like Ethiopia should adopt the good practice of this international benchmark and conduct reform on their company

legislations. The U.K. model provides one possible direction to go in the protection of shareholders rights since it is shareholder center from the beginning. This is that firms’ focus should be on creating wealth for shareholders. This system can lead to an efficient allocation of resources provided, among other things, that market and institutions are well developed and competitive. Similarly, the OECD principle provides a broader view and detail matters of the rights of shareholders. This requires that companies use resources efficiently by taking the interests of a range of both stakeholders and shareholders, into account. So Ethiopia shall adopt and benefit from one of these international practices.

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References

1. Armour John & A,David Skeel, Jr., Who Writes the Rules for Hostile Takeovers, and Why? The Peculiar Divergence of U.S. and U.K. Takeover Regulation, 95 GEO. L.J. 1727, 1751 (2007).

2. L. Paul Davies, Gower and Davies, Principles of Modern Company Law 371, 425 (8th ed. 2008).

3. M. Christopher Bruner, Power and Purpose in the Anglo-American

Corporation, 50 VA. J. INT‘L L. 579, 580–81, 643–46 (2010).

4. -Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Principles of Corporate Governance (2004), OECD Publication Service.

5. Tirol Jean, Corporate Governance, 69 ECONOMETRICA 1, 1 (2001).

Laws

1. Commercial Code (1960) Ethiopia.

2. Companies Act (2006), c.46, Section 172 (U.K.).

3. Companies Act (2006), c. 46, 168, 282, 303–04 (U.K).

4. Panel on Takeovers and Mergers, the Takeover Code BL, I18 Section 21.1 (2009).

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INFLUENCE OF CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT IN

JEWELLERY ADVERTISING ON CONSUMER BUYING

Dr. Neeru Jain Assistant Professor & Head

Department of Jewellery Designing The IIS University, Jaipur

The objective of this paper is to review the influence of celebrity endorsements to Create a purchase intention and Create Brand Awareness. It also emphasis on the needs of

establishment the new product in market by celebrating endorsement.

It also enables us to understand the celebrity endorsement process from an Indian consumers point of view. Not much work

has been seen in the Indian light despite the fact of it being perceived as a potential market for celebrity endorsed jewellery products.

Indian consumer attitudes are changing at a rapid pace and they are becoming more aware of the products that they use to define their ‘self’.The research is carried out to obtain a view amongst Indian Consumers about celebrity endorsement. Is it as positive as it is assumed to be?

Advertising is a form of marketing communication used to encourage, persuade, or manipulate an audience (viewers, readers or listeners; sometimes a specific group) to take or continue to take some action. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common.

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"Any brand can get a celebrity. That is easy. but getting a celebrity consistent with the right brand, to the right degree, at the right time, for

the right purpose and in the right way... that is not easy! "

-Aristotle

Jewellery

Jewellery has been long perceived as a traditional investment product. Changing demographics now cause jewellery to be regarded as being a marker of upward mobility in the society and a lifestyle consumption trend, So What Matters now in society is from where you buy it and which brand it is as that was creates a differentiator between one and others. As Household Income has increased so people are preferring brands over traditional practices. There are many brands to be selected from. So the question stays which brand to be preferred? What makes them exclusive? As the jeweler has unique designs which can be copied and consumers would have more choices ! Why Would Customer would trust them? What Would make them buy from original brand and not the copied designs .

So the answers stays in : FINDING SOMEONE WHO THE USERS TRUST, GET INSPIRED BY & WHO CAN BE THE DRIVING FORCE : BRANDED JEWELLERY and branded jewellery can gain higher popularity of through celebrity endorsement.

Celebrity

Celebrity is an Omnipresent Personality.

Future & The Face of society or a section of it.

Blazing lasting impressions in the memories of People.

Their personality is what makes them become a ambassador.

People Dream to be like them and live a life like them

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Their Nature and Personality becomes the mirror for the brand

they endorse

Product endorsements

Product endorsements are solicited from people who are socially prominent, allowing companies to advertise their products with statements like “as used by such-and-such an actress,” or “the official product of company. So many jewellery firms are focused on celebrity that why they are always in the public eye.

Celebrity Endorsement Effectiveness :

The prevalent utilization of celebrity endorsement in marketing program is not an accident.

Research has found that as compared to the other genre of endorsers such as the company manager, typical consumer and the professional expert, by far the celebrities are the most effective.

According to Tom et al (1992) results endorsers were more effective in creating a link to the product than celebrity endorsers based on the classical conditioning paradigm

The celebrity endorsers on the other hand had created a persona of their own over time and the company lacked control over them.

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Differences were found in the cognitive responses, but there was no

statistically significant difference in attitudes towards advertising and the intention to purchase the endorsed brand in the celebrity and non-celebrity endorsed situations.

In the light of company reports and academic writing it is safe to

argue that celebrity endorsers are more effective than non celebrity endorsers in generating desirable income.

For example if a brand like Surana Jewels which is like 100 yrs old has a newly become actress would be in motion to get the youngsters towards the brand while if they select relished and great known actresses they still can carry the brand that as jewellery is about tradition so any old great known actress would add on to that and the customers who love those kinds of jewellery and who love her would become the customers of Surana Jewels instantly.

Advantages to a celebrity because of endorsement he/she makes.

establishment of credibility

ensured attention

PR coverage

higher degree of recall

associative benefit

mass appeal

mitigating a tarnished image

psycho graphical connectivity

comeback option

Positive impacts of celebrity endorsement

As advertisements and other forces of marketing are impacting the

society having an endorsement gives a better standing in the market and better competitive edge over other jewellery brands.

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Today celebrity endorsement is being seen more and more as an integral part in an integrated marketing as it connects to the consumers directly.

It creates Jewelers to create belief in the customers to see the inspiration converting them into brands and then to self so they create

loyal customers

it is seen that celebrity endorsement specially encourages the young to embrace their individuality by celebrating their contemporary icons and heroes so jewellery in fashion or out is still accepted by the market/consumers as celebrity endorsement makes them in trend.

Negative impacts of celebrity endorsement :

Negative information and publicity regarding the celebrity is one risk associated with the use of celebrity endorsers so it’s a huge risks for jewellery businesses as creditors, customers and long established name might just vanish.

The celebrity might endorse different brands in the jewellery market and which can create a cold war between the same and the customers might be taken for a toss.

How Endorsements Made By Celebrity Helps The Brand :

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(Derogation)D’ dmas suffered with three tarnished celebrities – Katrina Kaif, Deepika Padukone, and Priyanka Chopra. Since the behavior of the celebrities reflects on the brand, celebrity endorsers may at times become liabilities to the brands they endorse.

(Overshadowing) Consumers may focus on the celebrity, not the

product. This is a particular danger when celebrities endorse multiple products at a time. Aishwarya Rai endorses a number of companies, which feature him prominently in Jewellery advertising. However, her image as the focal point of advertising devalues many products

Compatibility of celebrity persona with the brand

Celebrity is used to impart credibility and desirable values to a brand, but the celebrity needs to match the product. A good brand campaign idea and an intrinsic link between the celebrity and the message are musts for a successful campaign. An appropriately used celebrity can prove to be a powerful tool that magnifies the effects of a campaign.

Some examples of celebrity's endorsed in jewellery brands.

Kareena Kapoor Khan- Malabar Gold Gitanjili- Priyanka Chopra Nakshatra- Katrina kaif Chopard- Preity Zinta Kalyan jewellers- Shivaraikumar & Amitab Bachhan Tanishq- Sridevi Tiffany & co.- Anne Hathway Swarovski- Miranda Kerr Gemfeilds- Mila Kunis

PN Gadgil-Madhuri Dixit

Nakshatra- Katrina kaif

D'damas- Sonakshi Sinha

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Research Methodology:

Primary data are those collected specifically by Observation Method, Jewellers Interviews, Questionnaires to understand the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement. This analysis is done through the data collected during survey which included getting 200 questionnaire filled by the jewelers on the topic of inelegance of celebrity endorsement to on jewellery brand and what are

there views on the same.

HYPOTHESIS

Ho: Celebrity endorsements in Jewellery advertising influence Consumer Jewellery Buying decisions

Ha: Celebrity endorsements in Jewellery advertising do not influence Consumer Jewellery Buying decisions

The following slides shows the results in the form of bar graphs and pie charts.

Secondary data are those that have been collected by other organizations, such as government agencies, newspapers and magazines, etc.

Jewellers advertising about there brand/jewellery

Popular mediums used to advertise

Choice of celebrity association with their brand

Impact on sales by Celebrity endorsement

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Results showed Majority of jewelers also kept branded jewellery in there stores and 75% (majority) uses advertisement as there promotional tool and the most popular tool used for advertisement commonly is television

72% of the brands has celebrity association with there firms. Majority of people 80% agreed that celebrity can help in increasing the sales of a brand. Some of them (20%) agreed that celebrity endorsement is a waste of money. 80% jewellers accepted that jewellery sales increases by celebrity endorsement in advisement thus it proves that Celebrity endorsements in Jewellery advertising influence Consumer Jewellery Buying decisions.

It is also observed that female celebrity endorsement is more effective than male celebrity endorsement. The maximum ticks came for bollywood celebrities followed by TV stars. And it proves that Celebrity endorsements in Jewellery advertising influence Consumer Jewellery Buying decisions.

Research proves that a Jewellery especially for a luxury product

(Kalyan jewellers Amitabh Bachchan & Shivaraikumar) interacts with the type of brand being advertised. These stars communicate the value of the product and transform an ordinary service/product into a miracle solution for all problems of an ordinary customer.

The literature review has discussed concepts and theories regarding the basics of celebrity endorsement, the pros and cons of it and its

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effectiveness as a inspirational reference group. Celebrity endorsement effectiveness has been reviewed in order to examine the difference of their influences on consumer perception of endorsed products. It was noteworthy to highlight the studies on celebrity endorsement (Such as McCraken,1979) as it serves as a symbolic communicative of social

distinction in negotiating prestige and status specially in a country like India where high income disparities and social mobility magnifies the tendency to claim differential status through the brand one consumes.

Conclusion:

Celebrity endorsements are a powerful and useful tool The use of celebrity for endorsements create a very favorable impact on the consumer and it creates a connect which forces a consumer to purchase a product. However, as several failures show, it is essential for advertisers to be aware of the complex processes underlying celebrity endorsement.

Celebrities are good at facilitating the advertising techniques that businesses desire to implement. They are efficient at connecting to the consumers. Experts call this a power to connect with the consuming public. When it comes to highlighting features of a product, there is no better promoter than a superstar. This is regardless of the reputation of the brand. If the brand is already reputable, then its reputation is further enhanced. On the other hand, if the brand is new, it is given

help in establishing its reputation by the famous endorser.

Celebrity endorsement cannot guarantee fool-proof success. The celebrity endorsement strategy must be integrated with target market characteristics, and the other elements of the marketing mix such as product design, branding, packaging, and pricing. The message execution that will be mouthed by the celebrity must likewise be made clear and single-minded. This can be done by aligning the spirit of the brand to the product, or by using a celebrity because it ensures that

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people will notice you, and hopefully remember what the brand is saying.

Modern day consumers are well educated and smart, they know celebrities are being paid for these endorsements. They also know what is advertising and how it actually works and this knowledge of

consumer makes the task of celebrity endorsement all the more difficult and challenging for the advertising companies and the sponsors. Indian Jewelelry companies have to make an effort to overcome this ever-mounting challenge.

References:

1. http://www.statista.com/stats/147013/jewellery 2. http://www.tata-bss.com/pdf/whitepapers/india-retail-trends-

2014.pdf 3. http://www.gold.org/jewellery/india-market 4. http://under30ceo.com/get-celebrities-show-your-brand/ 5. Http___www.emeraldinsight.com_Insight_ViewContentServlet_File

name=_published_emeraldfulltextarticle_pdf_0770150604.pdf 6. http://www. bandg\Emerald FullText Article Factors predicting the

effectiveness of celebrity endorsement advertisements 7. Aaker, David A. (1996), Building Strong Brands. New York, NY:

The Free Press. 8. Daneshvary, Rennae and R. Keith Schwer (2000), "The Association

Endorsement and Consumers' Intention to Purchase," Journal of Consumer Marketing, 17 (3), 203-213.

9. Friedman, Hershey H. and Linda Friedman (1979), "Endorser Effectiveness by Product Type," Journal of Advertising Research, 19 (5), 63-71.

10. http://www.indianmba.com/Faculty_Column/FC706/fc706.html 11. McCracken, Grant (1989), "Who Is the Celebrity Endorser? Cultural

Foundations of the Endorsement Process," Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (3), 310-321.

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ERGONOMICS: A SOLUTION FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT OF APPAREL MANUFACTURING WORKERS

Ms. Neha Lodha Assistant Professor

Department of Fashion and Textile Technology

The IIS University, Jaipur

Prof. Radha Kashyap Head

Department of Fashion and Textile Technology

The IIS University, Jaipur

Introduction

India has made a name for itself as an apparel manufacturing centre of global renown. The textile and apparel industry accounts for 26% of all Indian exports around 45% of this comes from garment exports alone. The Textile and Apparel industry is India’s second largest industry after IT Industry. At present, it is amongst the fastest growing industry segment and is also the second largest foreign exchange earner for the country. The apparel industry provides employment to 3.5 million people across the country. The work in the apparel units are highly repetitive in nature, require prolonged hours of standing or sitting in forward bending posture, requiring a combination of both static and

rhythmic muscular activity. When such tasks are repeated several times in a day, leads to disorders. Moreover the work postures and environment in the apparel manufacturing units is unhealthy and unsafe for the workers, resulting in several health problems. Parimalam et al. (2006) revealed that the congested work area, improper ventilation, dust, unergonomically designed workstation, excessive noise were the main constraints faced by the workers in garment manufacturing units. The workers face a variety of ergonomic and work environment problems on a daily basis which are common throughout the apparel units such as lower back pain, neck pain, shoulder pain, improper tools and machinery, fixed or awkward postures, forceful hand exertions, vibration from hand tools inadequate seating and standing arrangements for workers, and the improper

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lifting/ movement of heavy loads. All this lead to strains on the body with the result the workers are often sick or their productivity is drastically reduced.

Ergonomic interventions focus on ergonomically-designed seating, appropriate posture and effective training to workers in low-risk

methods. Ergonomics solutions helps in improving efficiency by reducing unnecessary or awkward postures and almost cut unnecessary time and effort it takes to complete a task. Body motions, visibility, workload, and other important ergonomic parameters also affect the quality of work and the quality of work product. When a work is in balance with the ability of the worker, they make fewer errors and produce less waste.

After identifying and analyzing the health discomfort of apparel manufacturing workers in different units it was cleared that the unorganized and mismanaged workplace area, inadequate and improper workstations and absence of personal protective tool and equipments were the major obstacles faced by the workers in the apparel manufacturing unit of Jaipur. Based on the study, ergonomic interventions and some safety aspects have been suggested for workers to overcome ergonomic related problems which could be utilized on a

larger scale. The interventions will be beneficial as it will be helpful in improving the conditions, comfort and efficiency of workers.

Objectives of the study are as follows:

To study the ergonomic related problems of workers in apparel manufacturing units.

To suggest minor/major tools to increase the comfort and efficiency

of the workers in workplace.

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Materials and Methods:

The study was conducted in 10 apparel manufacturing units located in Jaipur city. A total of 200 workers from these apparel manufacturing units formed the study sample. The workers were employed in four different sections namely cutting; stitching, finishing and packaging were interviewed. The workers age ranged between 22 and 60 years and the length of the job was from 2 to 18 years. Various methods like

interview with the workers; video recording, analysis of work environment; hazard identification and risk assessment were used to collect information about the work, work environment and workers' health problems. By the combination of these techniques, several gaps were identified in the work environment and facilities provided to the workers. Task analysis, NIOSH manual material handling checklist and ergonomic checklist was used for data analysis. Based on the study, ergonomic interventions have been suggested which will help to improve the work environment and also to overcome the health problems of apparel workers, thus improving comfort, efficiency, quality and productivity of apparel industry.

Results and Discussion:

The results of the study revealed that there had been several gaps in work environment, tools and equipment that affect the health and safety of workers at the work site.

Some of the observations made are as follows:

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The furniture used in the apparel manufacturing units was either above or below the

recommended levels and the strained posture had to be

maintained throughout the work

day, which could have been responsible for the development of pain in the shoulders, upper arm and the forearm. The high stool forced the workers to bend their trunk and head toward the table to have a clear view of the work they are doing. As a result of excessive bending, majority of workers complained of pain in the lower back, mid back, shoulders and neck. The stools used by the workers were not padded for their comfort. None of the work stools had a backrest to provide support to the back. The workers working in finishing department work on a table of similar heights irrespective of their own heights and without any backrest support.

Sewing machine workers have limited legroom because of drawers and/or trash chutes attached to the underside of the table.

There was lack of safety devices in the workplace. None of the workers operating cutting machine use any personal protective equipment like metallic gloves for safeguarding the hands from possible mechanical injuries. The risk of cuts in fingers can be easily avoided with the

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simple device.

Health Problems of Garment Workers:

Cutting Department: 10 Apparel Manufacturing Units, n = 50 male workers

Discomfort/ Strain Areas

Graph:1.1 showing the discomfort/strain areas of body among cutting

workers in apparel manufacturing units of Jaipur

The result reveals that in the cutting section majority of the workers

i.e; 42% expressed shoulder strain followed by back (26%), neck (22%), legs and hands (16%) discomfort and few responded stress in wrist (4%) and elbow (2%) Stitching Department: 10 Apparel Manufacturing Units, n = 50 male workers

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Discomfort/ Strain Areas

Graph:1.2 showing the discomfort/strain areas of body among sewing

workers in apparel manufacturing units of Jaipur Majority of the workers i.e; 50% expressed neck strain followed by shoulder (40%), back (26%) and hands (22%) discomfort, few of the workers responded for stress in eyes (6%) legs and wrist (4%) Finishing Department: 10 Apparel Export Units, n = 50 female workers

Discomfort/ Strain Areas

Graph:1.3 showing the discomfort/strain areas of body among finishing workers in apparel manufacturing units of Jaipur

Maximum number of workers i.e; 46% expressed neck strain followed by back (32%), shoulders (28%) and legs (16%) discomfort, few of the workers responded for stress in eyes (10%) hands and wrist (4%)

4. Packaging Department:

(10 Apparel Export Units, n = 50 male workers

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Majority of the workers i.e; 44% expressed back strain followed by shoulder (34%), neck (26%) and legs (24%) discomfort, few of the workers responded for stress in hands (10%) wrist (6%) and elbow (4%)

Suggestions to improve work environment:

To prevent ergonomic injuries workers should be encouraged to rotate tasks or take frequent, short breaks to stretch and relax muscles. Work stations should allow enough space for the task, have appropriate working height, and provide proper seating. Manufacturing tools and machinery should incorporate ergonomic design and should not require an excessive amount of force to operate. With proper training and instruction, machine guarding, personal protective equipment, and ergonomically designed work systems, garment workers can manufacture products in safe and healthy workplaces.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends

using the following

guidelines in manual handling:

•Minimize the distance between the load and the body.

•Lift loads from knuckle height.

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•Keep the travel distance for the lift to less than 10 feet.

•Minimize twisting.

•Provide good handles for grasping loads.

It is also important that work tools and equipment be ergonomically designed. Most hand tools are designed for only occasional use, not for

repetitive use over prolonged periods.

If the work surface is not adjustable, provide a platform for shorter workers or pedestals on the work surface to raise the work up for taller workers.

Reaching:

Using the graph below, keep frequently used tools or items close to and in front of the body (up to the shaded area) and use the secondary area (lighter boxes) for less frequently used items

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.

Tools or parts which are to be frequently used above shoulder

height, below knee height, or behind the worker.

Items to be lifted should be kept between mid-thigh and chest

height.

Sloping work table should be used to tilt the work up reducing neck and trunk forward flexion.

Footrests:

At standing workstations, provide employees with either a sand-alone footrest or rail at least 4 to 6 inches high. Elevating a foot puts the arch (called "lordosis") back in the low back, combats fatigue, and helps in recovery.

The Webble Active Footrest

The Webble is a new kind of footrest that is about

resting. It's about motion and activity while we work. Four casters, spring suspension, and a patented mesh membrane offer the ultimate

comfort and flexibility.

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Tilting Foot Rest

The tilting foot rest gives a stable yet dynamically adjustable foot support. In addition, the non-skid surface ensures that feet will stay right where we want them - on the foot rest - to relieve pressure on the lower back.

Foot Machine The foot machine provides perfect support for the feet

and legs to ease pressures on the lower back and improve circulation when sitting with curved supports to encourage health.

For too long, the ergonomic seating needs

for individuals working at elevated surfaces have taken a back seat to those at standard work stations. Modern ergonomic design and comfort is taken into consideration for standard task chairs while designing specialized drafting-height chairs. These chairs feature the same great ergonomic

benefits coupled with extended lift heights and footrings making them ideal for use at elevated work stations.

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Use a step stool Use angled shelving to improve access to containers

Conclusion:

Workers in apparel manufacturing units perform repetitive action along with unnatural body position and improper working environment due to which strains and discomfort in various parts of body were prominent. Majority of workers complained of pain in the back, shoulders and neck. These occupational stresses can be decreased by using more suitable types of work organization, working tools and techniques, ergonomically designed workplaces, working postures and movements. Ergonomics interventions enhance worker’s performance which leads to better quality, higher efficiency and sustainable growth of apparel industry.

References:

1. Bheda, R., (2004) Productivity in apparel manufacturing- Back to basics, Stitch World, April 2004, Vol II, Issue 2, pp-9-15.

2. Bheda, R., (2004) Towards higher productivity- Phase one, Stitch World, July 2004, Vol II, Issue 5, pp-10-16.

3. Bowes, P.F., (2010) How to improve employee productivity? Stitch World, August 2010, pp-22-25.

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4. Bowes, P.F., (2010) Small interventions lead to big quality improvement,

Stitch World, December 2010, pp-40-43. 5. Browne, P.P., and Henning, H., (2008) Potential rationalization through

workplace engineering, Stitch World, October 2008, Vol VI, Issue 8, pp-36-40.

6. Browne, P.P., Optimising results using efficient systems, workstation design- A case study of classic pants factory in Germany, Stitch World, November 2009, pp32-33.

7. Calvin, S and Joseph, B., Occupational related accidents in selected garment industries in Bangalore city, Indian Journal of Community medicine, July-September 2006, Vol-3, pp-150-152.

8. Collyer, P., Factory and workplace layout getting the best out of it, Stitch World, December 2007, Vol V, Issue 10, pp-15-19.

9. Freivalds, A and Yun, M.H., Productivity and health issues in the automation of T-shirt turning, International Journal of Industrial Engineering 1994, Vol I, pp-103-108.

10. Jana, P., Ergonomics in apparel manufacturing I- Importance and impact of ergonomics, Vol VI, Issue 8, pp-42-47.

11. Jana, P., Ergonomics in apparel manufacturing III- Repetitive strain injury, Stitch World, December 2008, Vol VI, Issue 10, pp-20-24.

12. Jana, P., Ergonomics in apparel manufacturing IV- Occupational health and safety policy assessment manual, Stitch World, August 2009, pp-26-29.

13. Karthikeyan, N., and Kumar K.M., (2008) Workplace ergonomics in apparel industry, Stitch World, November 2008, Vol VI, Issue 9, pp-42-49.

14. Karowski, W., and Marras, W.S., Occupational Ergonomics, Design and Management of Work System, CRC Press, London, New York, 1999.

15. Kroemer, K.H.E., and Grandjean, E., Fitting to the task to the human (Vth Edition) A textbook of occupational ergonomics, CRC Press, London, New York, 1997.

16. Reinhold, K., Tint, P., Tuulik, V and Saarik, S., (2008) Innovations at workplace: Improvement of ergonomics, Engineering ergonomics 2008, No.5 (60), pp-85-93.

17. Sarder, B., Sheik, N and Mandahawi, N., (2006) Ergonomics workplace evaluation of an Asian garment factory, Journal of Human Ergonomics September 2006, pp-45-51.

18. Ellegast, R.P., Lesser, W., Herda, C.A., Hoehne U.M., Schwan, W and Kraus, G., Physical workload at sewing workplaces- an ergonomic intervention study, www. Google.com

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AN ETHNOHISTORICAL REVIEW OF NANDA CULT IN

UTTARAKHAND, INDIA

Dr. Praveen Joshi Assistant Professor History

Govt. Degree College Chandrabadni, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand

Nanda is one of a very popular goddess among the Central

Himalayan (Uttarakhand) community. The word Nanda means “Giver of Joy” and Devi means “gracious or merciful one”. The people of this area worship the goddess Nanda in various forms, i.e. Nandadevi, Parvati, Nanda-Bhagwati, Mahishasurmardani, Koti-Ki-Mai, Chamunda, Gaura, Durga, Nanda and Maya. The Jagar (oral epic) sung by the local bards narrate that the ‘Adisakti’, which is considered an original form of Nanda, created this material world. In folk-tales, Nanda is said to be the daughter of the Himalayas and is one of the several names of the consort of the Siva, who is supposed to reside at Kailash in the Himalayas. This paper would attempt to correlate the historical, oral and ethnographic evidences for reconstructing the cultural history of this region related with Goddess Nanda. Nanda in historical records : Nanda the daughter of the king of mountains (Himalaya) is also known as Nana, Mahakali and Arpana and documented as ‘Nana’ in the most ancient literature ‘Rigveda’ (about 1000 B.C.). “Karu raham tato bhisgupal praxini nana” (9-112-3) i.e. “I am a singer of riches, my father works as a doctor and my mother ‘nana’ work of knitting and weaving” In the ‘Kainopanishad’ of ‘Samveda’, it is found in the name of ‘Uma-Hemvati’

“Satasmitrewakashe sfritvamajagay bahusobhmanabhauva Hemwati ta howach Kimewada yaganmit” (Ken 3:12)

According to ‘Barahpuran’, the gods worshipped her calling as Sihanstha, Astabhuga, Trishuldharini, Trinetra, Bheem-wakta,

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Mahamaya and having established her in the Himalayas, she was named as Nanda Devi (Ch. :28, 29). In the ‘Brihabdaaranyaka Upanishads’ of the ‘Yajurveda’ (6:1: 3), we find a trace of Nanda. But the first literary reference from the name of Nanda to Nanda bhagwati can be seen in the Durga strut of ‘Bhismparva’ in the ‘Mahabharata’. “Ahambrahmswarupini, Mata Prakritipurushatakam Jagat Ahamrudrubhirav Subhischarami Ahamadityeruta Vishwedevai Ahamsomam Twatshar Eushanam Bhamgam Dadhami”.

That Brahmswarupini Uaishanavi Skandmata Sarshwati is complimented, that Sarvamangala Devi has in innumerable names. She has innumerable powers. The great power of Hemwanta is his proctoress devi ‘Nanda Bhagwati’. Before the battle of Mahabharata Arjuna remembered the Goddes for the quiet of his victory by her different names in her admiration : Bhadrakali, Katyayani, Uma and Nandgopkulodbha.

In the Kushana-Saka era (1st Century A.D.) Nanda was address as Eknansha or Nana whose double-armed statue is obtained at Mathura. In literature’s after Gupta periods in ‘Markandeypurana’ (6th

Century A.D.) Nanda is named as Nanda gopkulodbhava and in Murti Rahashya Nand Bhagwati as -

‘Om Nanda Bhagwati Namha or Bhavishyati Nandja’ In the ‘Devi Bhagwat’ (7th to 10th Century A.D.), she is sung as ‘Nanda Nandpriya Nindrapranuta Nandnayika’ and ‘Brihatsanhita’ (6th Century A.D.), she is named as ‘Eknansa’. In addition, this conception of Saktipeethas, first of all occurred in post periodic ‘Devibhagwat’ (7:30), in ‘Skandapurana’ (Rewakhand) and ‘Kalikapura’. It is obvious from the epigraphic records of Katyuri and Jageshawar dynasty, that Nanda Bhagwati was in existence before 7th Century B.C. although she was addressed by other names. The king of Katyuri dynasty (650 to 1200 A.D.), Lalitshurdeva (853 A.D.), feels

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pride to call himself as Shri Nandabhagwati Charankamala Santh Murti. In the tamrapatra (Padabbhatdeva) of 10th Century A.D. of the founder of another branch of Katyuri, Salonaditya is also said to be a ‘Nandadevi Charankamalaxmita. According to the records of Jageshwar temple many pilgrims used to lay sacrifice their lives in quest of immortality after having a holy vision of the pilgrimage, towards the Nanda Sikhar. Hence it is obvious that from the Katyuri administrators to the kings of Chand dynasty of Kumaun and Panwar dynasty of Garhwal, Nanda has been the only worshipping Goddess. The Kushana coins depict a male and female figure, which have been identified as Shiva and Uma or Naina or Nana or Babylonian Inan show Nanda's identity in the Archaeological remains. Nanda in Folk Songs : In the form of Jagars (folk song) sung are the folk tales, Goddess Nanda is considered as ‘Dhiyana’ (Married daughter). In the Jagars, Nanda is said to be the daughter of Hemant Rishi and Maiawati. Nanda was married to Trishuli Kailash. Where Latu, her brother goes to see her off.

“Bhali kini jai tu swami ka Kailashu, tai khedwalue holu teru bhula Latu”

On reaching in-law’s house, Nanda’s pangs of separation are described in this way -

“Kwi bain dine bangarh sain Sirinagar, Kwi bain dine baban bawangarh,

Kwi bain dine baban naukhala salan, Kwi bain kathi Kumaun,

Sabu se ladli bhi dinue, ei trishuli, Twain bab par mero sarap padiyan”.

The father married a daughter at Churash in Srinagar, the

other got married to Bawangarh, next to Naulakha plain, another to Kali Kumaun, I who was the dearest, married at Trishuli, may you father be cursed. (Nautiyal,1981).

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Expression of anger and the system of her worship are very old in Uttarakhand Nanda’s wrath fall on her father Hemant Rishi. In the kingdom, there falls a drought and other natural calamity. In this relation, on asking the sage Narada, he replies that it is the anger of Nanda. Hence king Himwant arrange a great ‘Yagya’, but he does not invite Shiva and Nanda, Then Nanda insists to go her father’s house.

“Mera babu ko sunen gayan judaun bhari, sabhi didi bhuli meri mait paiti gain, char din swami mee mait jain-dau”

My father arrange a Yagya, my all sisters and relatives reached

in father’s house, thus I also want go there for four days. “Raat din Gaura teru kanu mait hoye, tu kan kaik bina bulayan mait

jaali? Janao jaili tu devi keko khajo khali, kaiko daijo lali taun ni karan tero

man samman”. Oh Gaura! for you, your relative has become strange place, How

will you go without being invited?. If you go, what will they give you to eat?. Will they give dowry, they will humiliate you (Chatak,2000). But Nanda become ready to her native house

“Tab paitigi Nanda ki doli nanja nishan Nanda ka neja nishan dekhan aye gain devta

au khunto ki renu maya naunda” Nanda palanquin is prepared; Gods have come to see Nissans of

Panda. Having honored her they touch the duet of her feel. Then Nanda reaches her native abode, she salutes every one and bow her head. But at her native place none respects her, nobody talks her and nor ask her well being.

“Tab kain bhi wa mait ma mukh ni lagai, kain ni elaye win ko bolun, kain kushal bat ni puchhi

Gayran sochi chhau dudh bhat khaulo, kandali kaphalo khana dini taun”

Gaura had though that she would eat milk and rice, but gave her a dish of a wild plant. Then Nanda thought what would she do by

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staying among those stone hearted. Let me go back to my husband at Kailash. While going she took back the curse given to those native men and blessed them.

“Meen yakh raik kya karan ab nirmohiyon ka beech, jaand chaun swami ka pass apana Kailash,

lendu chaun wapas apano phatkar, khub falyan phulyan tomaro nati nantan put santan”

Seeing the fale face of Nanda, Lord Shankar understood that

she has been humiliated at her native land. Then he asked Nanda if she had eaten there wild plants vegetable, then exhale it out before me. Then Nanda pervaded the place with milk and rice proving that she ate milk and rice (Chatak, 2000). Legend Associated with Nanda : Many legends are associated with this divine daughter Nanda. These legends testify even the present lay. According to a legend, after the marriage of Shiva once Nanda asked the name of peaks of Himalayas. On Shiva’s response, Nanda was not satisfied so she named each peak of Himalaya. She named the highest peak as the ‘Nanda Devi Parwat’, another peak was named as ‘Nandakoti’, the Nanda’s orchard as ‘Nandanvan’, Nanda cot as ‘Nandakhat’, Trishuli as ‘Nanda Trishuli’ an another was named as ‘Nandakot’ and where they lived was named as ‘Nanda Ghunti’, and river emerging from this peak was named as ‘Nandakini’ and the fields were named as ‘Nandakhet’ (Chatak,1958). It is said that earlier a sacrifice of the eldest son was prevalent in Nauti village to please the Goddess. Once a family prepared their younger son in place of the eldest then a preparation was made for the sacrifice has been stopped.ing towards Faldiyagaon from Nandakeshri it is believed regarding the Purnagaon, when Mahishasur Devil ran after the Goddess to kill her, then she felt down some grains of wheat came into her hands, then she cursed scattering them in the field of Purna, that these field will never yield wheat. Since then the wheat does not grow in these fields, while a bush of Kunj

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(wild plant) is still green as the Goddess lid herself behind (Devshali,2000). It is believed when the Kot group of villages saw her as Goddess of Dasholigad’s king, the village also began worshipping the Goddess they founded the statue at Deole. Then the Goddess reached here wailing and weeping then the rock whom the Goddess caught these are the finger prints on the rock. Weeping tears are also shown, become the prints of hair were formed. This place was known as ‘Nandaansu’. A saga is popular of Latu’s being dumb, it is said when the Goddess reached Vana village killing devils, she halted in disguise of an old woman and her chief protector and brother Latu. In the night Latu felt thirty, they begged water from the old woman. But the old woman, showing her inability told that the two pots were placed in another room and in one of them there is water, while another contained wine. You can drink water out of them, but as Latu mistakable took up the wine, he cut his tongue. When Nanda knew about the events, she told Latu that only his symbol would only wait for my arrival, while your symbol (Nishan) would follow me. Since then Latu’s symbol goes on in this village now a days after Vana village (Chatak,1958). According to famous historian Shiv Prasad Dabral, an old man was selected after every twelfth year from Dudhatoli region for the service of Nanda Devi and his relatives would make all necessary rites before his death. The man selected for Nanda Devi’s worshipped was given a separate house. After cutting his hair and nails, some rituals were performed and he was provided separate food. After performing religious rites, this man had to die within the year. The inhabitants of Uttarakhand repose much faith in Nanda. The legends which are full of mystery, happiness, sorrow depict her as a village daughter of a royal family, a royal deity and the wife of lord Siva. According to the myth of Nanda, after the creation of earth, the mother Sakti died in order to take birth as Gaura (Lali) a poor Village girl, who gets married with lord Siva.

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According to folk tradition, every twelfth year when the curse of the goddess Nanda takes effect, the royal pilgrimage should be undertaken from Nauti village (District Chamoli) to Kailash. Nanda is given ceremonial sent off to Kailash accompanied by her brother Latu and other worshippers upto Homekund (a place in high Himalayas Height 14,500 ft.) This pilgrimage to high Himalayas is known as “Raj jat” (Royal pilgrimage). Nanda Devi Raj Jaat is a reminiscent of pre-post marital journeys of the Goddess Nanda from her parental home Rishashau to Kailash. The Jaat is a processional pilgrimage and an as a part of cultural expression of entire Uttarakhand where is every valley the hundreds of such procession itinerate from one village to another. Nanda Raj Jaat is a royal pilgrimage because it was begun by royalty some where in the 9th century and is still maintained and directed by royal descendant and their priest. In short this pilgrimage originating from Nauti - Kansuwa and terminating at Homkund or (Chhaya Chaurdi). This main stream procession is joined by two major tributaries of procession coming from Kurur and Almora and by about 250 other small tributaries terminating into the main stream at different places on the way. This journey takes about 22 days to complete it tracks over a distance of about 280Km long route at an elevation from 1000m to 5300m above main sea level having 21 stations of halts on the way. Rising from the villages and habitation in the lower valleys of Garhwal and Kumaon the procession climbs up to the higher region of Himalaya and continues moving for five days in an alpine area where there are neither habitation not forest. As per the tradition the Kunwar of Kansuwa the royal descendant procures a bamboo parasol and a four horn ram has a scepter and as freight carrier respectively. After certain rituals done at the temple of Bharari devi in Kansuwa village start journey to Nauti which is the permanent seat of Nanda devi considerate by the Pal dynasty it self, before they sifted from Chandpur Garhi to Deval Garh.

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At Nauti Pran Pratishta (Enlivening ritual) is performed on the parasol and the ram. Only after this the formal start of the procession is beloved to take place. The Jaat than moves to Idda Badhani village, the seat of an Erstwhile, chieftain Jaman singh Jadona, who had given shelter and affection to Nanda when she was on her way to Kailash. It comes back to Nauti the next day but stayed out side it alter as sojourner. It than stay in Kansuwa , Sem, Koti,Bhagoti, Kulsari, Chepron, and Nand Keshri. On the way it is joined by the icons of different Goddess (Nanda manifestations) brought inside the chantolies belonging to the Barahthoki Brahmins and also by the ensigns of different god and goddess like Latu, Thwena, Kedaru etc. At Nand Keshri meets the triveni of (three streams) the devout coming from Kururs and Almora. While the goddess of Kurur also known as Badhan ki Nanda travels on a palanquin, the goddess from Almora is carried inside the royal parasol of the Chand descendent of Kumaon. Here after the Jaat halt at Faldiya, Mandoli and Vana villages.It is a attended by about 250 deities and thousands of their devotees. It than tracks up through Gairolipatal, Bednibugyal, Bhagua Vashwa, Patal Nachainu, Kailwa Vinayak, Roop Kund, Junra Gali, Shila Samudra, Ghe Chopdeyn and terminates at Homkund (16500 feet).The goddess is given a grand farewell at Homkund and the offerings gifts for her loaded on the back of four horned ram, who disappears into the Himalayas. Historicity of the Nanda Raj-Jaat : The ceremony of tearful farewell of the Gods Nanda from her native place to the In-law’s abode is said to be the royal pilgrimage i.e. Nanda Raj-Jaat amidst the habitants of Himalayas. Although it was named “Raj- Jaat” after being accomplished by the dynasty of Chandpur Gari. Scholars regarding the Raj-Jaat, have different opinions about its antiquity. According to a few the beginning of this pilgrimage relates to the period of Jagatguru Shankarachrya it is said on the basis of verbal tradition, folk-lore’s and Jagars that in 8th Century A.D., the

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king of Dha-Malwa, Kankpal was encouraged for this pilgrimage by the same clamed Gor Brahmin. The king was welcomed by the king of Chandpurgari, Bhanu Pratap, who was a devote of lord Badrinath. According to God’s order the king married his daughter to Kanakpal along with his kingdom (Naithani,2000). While Patiram believes Bhanupratap as the king of Bhilang (Pati Ram,1916). Atkinson also support this view (Atkinson,1882). King Kanakpal sat on the throne on Vikrmi Samvat 745. The king’s younger brother habitude the place was came to know as ‘Kansuwa’. Sri Nanda Devi came to Chandpurgari with a Rishikesh based Adhya Gor Bhramin of Bharadwaj Clan. The native and the in-law’s was related here. The place where God Brahmin habituated was called Gori, i.e. Nauti. Raturi also identify them as Bhanupratap and his son-in-law Kanakpal (Raturi, 1982). Having received the ‘Shreeyantra’ from king Bhanupratap, Kanakpal begin the tradition of performing worship at the pavement having placed it underground and this came to know as ‘Nandadevi-Sriyantra’ on the order of king the areas of villages of Nautiyal Brahmins begin to call Nanda’s native place. Nanda desired that her native-men should see her off going to her in-law’s house. So the king of Chandpur Gari, after 9th Century onwards commenced the greater tradition of Nanda Raj-Jaat (Nautiyal,2000). Vana in ‘Harshcharit’ also has inscribed of going towards the Himalayas to participate in the noble Raj-Jaat, in 9th Century. Historians like, Shoorbeer Singh Panwar and others believe this tradition of thirteen hundred years old while Nanda Raj-Jaat committee believed that the contemporary Garhpati of Chanpur Gari become the victim of Nanda’s wroth, then the king for the well-being of his state began the tradition of performing pooja at her in-law’s house ‘Trishuli’. Some sorrowful steps are also attached with the king of Kannauj, Yasodhaval and the queen Ballabha. On the historical factors of this pilgrimage, it is known that Nanda once reached at Kannauj court through the sky-way and demanded the kingdom from queen Ballabha, but the queen refused to give the kingdom. Being angry, Nanda cursed the queen and as a result a drought occurred. On

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knowing the reason of this calamity by the king the Kulguru indicated it as Nanda’s wrath and told the solution as the commendation of Raj-Jaat for its abolishment. Ethnography of Raj-Jaat : Many of the tales are inter-woven regarding twenty one camps held and a two hundred sixty-nine kilometer pilgrimage of ‘Raj-Jaat’. In which there are witness of some of the camps and places regarding ‘Raj-Jaat’ even today. This pilgrimage begins from Nauti to Edabadhani and Nauti again then to Kansuwa Sem, Koti, Bhagoti, Kulsari, Cheriun, Nandkhesheri, Faldiyagaon, Mundoli, Vana, Garolipatal, Paternachuniyan, Sheelasamudra, Chandaniyaghat, Sutol, Ghat (all places of champ) and through these place to Nauti again. Under the royal pilgrimage to be held on the eve of ‘Basant Panchami’, the Raj Kunwar from Kansuwa come to village of Nanda’s brothers to insist her to come her father’s abode after worshipping the ‘Nanda Sriyantra’ and promise them to sponsor the Raj-Jaat pilgrimage during the time of her farewell from her native abode. Then in the aristocratic family of Raj Kunwars a four-horned ram takes birth with particular features. The birth of this ram is indication that Nanda has come to her native place. The ram is used as a stead of Goddess on the eve of her farewell. On becoming adult of the ram, Raj Kunwars, come back to Nauti before seventeen day of Nandastapmi with that ram and the umbrella (Chhantoli) made of cane. After worshipping the underground ‘Sriyantra’ with methodical procedure, the Raj-Jaat commences placing the golden statue of the Goddess in the cane umbrella. The palanquin and ram are decorated with other necessary having. According to myths, ones Lord Shanker with Goddess Nanda was going to the in-law’s house through the sky-route. Be witnessed by the beauty of the earth, the Goddess Bhagwati requested lord Shiva to let down the earth for further journey to Kailash. Then they began their journey in disguise to hermits. By taking heavenly delight of the earth, they reached Idabadhani in the evening a village of Gusainees and requests the people for their night stay. But being terrorized by

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these strange hermits, the people refused to give them any place. Having been disappointed by their refusal, they decided to stay in a fold of sheep made just near the village. On reaching the fold Lord Shankar sat in his meditation, while the Goddess began to play with the lambs. During play a lamb happened to come at her lap and in eyes twinkling it was turned into a four horned ram. Serving the Goddess Nanda from the rain drops Lord Shankar gave her a umbrella made of cane and Bhojpatra. When they began to move, that ram came as her stead. Riding on that ram, the Goddess Nanda went to Kailash. Since then the four-horned ram and Chhantoli are considered as significant and this tradition is still going on even today (Nautiyal, 1981). Conclusion : The ethnographic and historical records show that Nanda devi, the wife of lord Shiva is main goddess of Uttarakhand since ancient time and her worship widely organized once in every12 years. Historical records show about this pilgrimage in year 1820 and thereafter, successively in 1843, 1863, 1886, and in 1905 during British Empire persist. After independence in year 1951, 1968, 1987 and 2000, it was scheduled to be organized in 2012, but due to some natural cause it could not be held in 2012 and postponed to the year 2014, and successfully organized from 18 August to 6 September 2014. References

1. Atkinson, E.T. (1882). Himalayan districts: Religion in the Himalayas.

2. Chatak, Govind (1958). Garhwali Lok Gathayein, Delhi. 3. Chatak, Govind (2000). “Jagaron Mein Nanda”,In Nanda Devi

royal pilgrimage -2000,(ed.) by Rama Kant Benjwal and Nandkeshor Hatwal, Prayas, Gopeshwar,pp.34-36.

4. Devshali, Manohar (2000). “Nanda Twam Dhrita Loka”, In Nanda Devi royal pilgrimage-2000,(ed.) by Rama Kant Benjwal and Nandkeshor Hatwal, Prayas, Gopeshwar,pp.68-69.

5. Naithani, Shiv Prasad (2000). Nanda Devi aur uske pramukh teert sthal,In Rama Kant Benjwal and Nandkeshor Hatwal (Ed.) Nanda Devi royal pilgrimage - 2000, Gopeshwar:Prayas.

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6. Nautiyal, Deva Ram (2000). “Astha aur Vishwas Ki Jaatra:

Nanda Raj-Jaat-2000”, In Nanda Devi royal pilgrimage-2000,(ed.) by Rama Kant Benjwal and Nandkeshor Hatwal, Prayas, Gopeshwar,pp.

7. Nautiyal, Shivanand (1981). “Garhwal Ke Lok Geet Evam Nirtya”, Prayag, pp.109-110.

8. Naithani, Shiv Prasad (2000). “Nanda Devi aur Uske Pramukh Teert Sthal”, In Nanda Devi royal pilgrimage-2000,(ed.) by Rama Kant Benjwal and Nandkeshor Hatwal, Prayas, Gopeshwar,p.18.

9. Pati Ram (1916). Garhwal Ancient and Morden, p.184. 10. Raturi, Harikrishan (1982). Garhwal Ka Itihas,Tehri,pp. 161-

62.

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INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MICRO, SMALL AND

MEDIUM ENTERPRISES IN INDIA

Dr.R.Babu Post -Doctoral Fellow (UGC)

Department of Commerce S.V University Tirupati

Mr. Muni Narendra Research Scholar

Department of Commerce S.V University Tirupati

Prof, M.Venkateswarlu Professor

Department of Commerce S.V University Tirupati

Introduction

In the post-reform era, starting from 1991, the situation for the

Manufacturing Sector as a whole as well as for the Small Industries has undergone a dramatic change. The tariffs on imports have been reduced very substantially. India is gradually integrating with the world economy; new trade blocs are forming and many countries, including India, are entering into Preferential Trade Agreements, Free Trade Agreements or Comprehensive Economic Agreements to improve trade in areas of their comparative advantage. In this process the Indian economy is becoming more open and there is an urgent need for the Industry to adjust to the new situation. The Indian Industry will have to become competitive by cutting down overall costs to that extent to survive and grow. The situation confronting the Small Industries in particular provides both opportunities as well as challenges. An opportunity to grow in a global market place is available to access entry into the global value chain by virtue of their being internationally competitive. The others would need to reposition themselves and

become competitive to meet the challenges if they have to survive.

The Government of India has enacted the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006 in terms of

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which the definition of micro, small and medium enterprises is as under:

(a) Enterprises engaged in the manufacturing: (i) A micro enterprise is an enterprise where investment in plant and

machinery does not exceed Rs. 25 lakh; (ii) A small enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in plant

and machinery is more than Rs. 25 lakhs but does not exceed Rs. 5 crore; and

(iii) A medium enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in

plant and machinery is more than Rs.5 crore but does not exceed Rs.10 crore. (b) Enterprises engaged in providing services : (i) A micro enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in

equipment does not exceed Rs. 10 lakh; (ii) A small enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in

equipment is more than Rs.10 lakh but does not exceed Rs. 2 crore; and

(iii) A medium enterprise is an enterprise where the investment in

equipment is more than Rs. 2 crore but does not exceed Rs. 5 crore.

Although, the primary responsibility for promotion and development of MSMEs lies with the concerned State/ Union Territory (UT) Governments. But, the Central Government has always taken active interest in supplementing the efforts of State/UT Governments through its various regulations, as MSMEs have huge potential both in terms of creation of wealth and employment as well as for the proper growth of related sectors of the economy. In India, the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises is the main central

authority which assist the States/UTs in their efforts to promote growth and development of MSMEs. It has been implementing several schemes/programmes and policies so as to enhance the global

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competitiveness of the MSMEs. These relate mainly to simplified systems and procedures, easy access to capital, positioning the MSMEs in the global value chain by enhancing their productivity, technology upgradation, quality improvement, skill development, access to both domestic and international markets, etc.

The role of MSMEs in developing and emerging economies is undisputed and well recognized. Contributing significantly to the employment generation, poverty alleviation and rural development, MSMEs are considered to be the engine of growth. MSMEs stimulate innovative ideas, business methods and entrepreneurial skills. MSMEs are flexible and can adapt quickly to changing market demand and supply situations, play a vital role in diversifying economic activity and make a significant contribution to industrial development and exports.

MSME sector contributes around 9% of national GDP, 45% of manufacturing output and nearly 40% of national exports. There are over 6,000 products ranging from traditional to high-tech items, which are being manufactured by MSMEs in India. This sector is estimated to employ about 70 million persons in over 30 million units throughout the country. The overview of MSMEs is shown in the table 1 given below.

Table-1 MSME SECTOR – AN OVERVIEW

No. of MSMEs 29.8 Million

Employment 69.5 Million Share in GDP 8-9% Share in manufacturing output 45% Share in Exports 40% Growth Rate

(Industry Average 6,5 to 7) 13%

Source: website of MSME Development Institute, Hyderabad.

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INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES:

In order to facilitate the growth of small scale sector, the central and

state governments have created an elaborate institutional framework in the country. The institutions providing assistance to small scale industries are broadly classified as “ All India Institutions “, “ State Level Institutions” and “Fund-Based Institutions”. The important institutions assisting small scale industries are shown in the table 2 given below.

Table-2

INSTITUTIONAL ASSISTANCE TO SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES

All India Institutions

Small Scale Industries Board Ministry of Small Scale Industry Small Industries Development

Organisation (SIDO) National Small Industries Corporation

(NSIC) Limited The Khadi and Village Industries

Commission (KVIC) Coir Board Training Institutions

State Level Institutions

State Industrial Development Corporations (SIDCs)

State Directorate of Industries District Industries Centre (DICs)

Fund-Based Institutions

Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)

Commercial Banks State Financial Corporations (SFCs)

Source: Ministry of micro, small and medium enterprises Hyderabad.

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ALL INDIA INSTITUTIONS: The following are some of the institutions assisting MSMEs at national level.

Small Scale Industries Board

SSI Board is the apex non-statutory advisory body constituted by the Government of India to render advice on all issues pertaining to the SSI sector. The Board was first constituted in 1954. It provides a forum to its members for interaction to facilitate co-operation and inter-institutional linkages and to render advice to the Government on various policy matters, for the development of the sector. The Board was first constituted in 1954.

Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises

The process of liberalization and market reforms has created wide-ranging opportunities of the development of small scale industries. At the same time, changing world scenario has thrown up new challenges to the very existence of this sector. The need of the hour is to suitably strengthen the sector so that it could adapt itself to the changed environment and face the challenges boldly and effectively. The implementation of policies and various programmes/schemes for

providing infrastructure and support services to small enterprises is undertaken through its attached office, namely the Small Industries Development Organization (SIDO), statutory bodies/other organizations like Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) & Coir Board, National Small Industries Corporation (NSIC) and three training institutes- National Institute of Small Industry Extension Training (NISIET), Hyderabad, Indian Institute for Entrepreneurship (IIE), National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD).

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Small Industry Development Organisation

The office of the development commissioner (Small Scale Industries) is also known as Small Industry Development Organization. It is an apex body, established in 1954, for assisting the Ministry in formulating, coordinating, implementing and monitoring policies and programs for the promotion and development of small scale industries. It has over 60 offices and 21 autonomous bodies under its management, including Tool Rooms, Training Institutions and Project-cum-Process Development Centers etc.

National Small Industries Corporation (NSIC)

The National Small Industries Development Corporation Ltd. Was set up in 1955 with a view to promoting and aiding and fostering the growth of small scale industries in India with focus on commercial aspects of these functions. NSIC continues to implement its various programs and projects throughout the country to assist the SSI units. The Corporation has been assisting the sector through the schemes

and activities such as Composite Term Loan Scheme, Hire Purchase Scheme, Equipment Leasing, working capital finance, Raw material assistance, Marketing support program, Technology up gradation, export assistance, setting up software technology parks etc.

The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)

The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) is a statutory body created by an Act of Parliament in April 1957. The KVIC is supposed to do planning, promotion, organization and implementation of programs for the Khadi and other village industries in the rural areas in coordination with other agencies engaged in rural development.

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COIR BOARD

Coir Board is a statutory body established by the Government of India under a legislation enacted by the parliament namely Coir Industry Act 1953 for the promotion of Coir Industry in India as a whole.

TRAINING INSTITUTIONS

There are three National Level Training Institutions. They are:

National Institution of Small Industry Extension Training (NISIET), Hyderabad, which undertakes operations ranging from

training, consultancy, research and education, to extension and information services.

National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD), New Delhi, which conducts national and

international level training programs in different fields and disciplines.

Indian Institute of Entrepreneurship (IIE), Guwahati was

established to act as a channel for entrepreneurship development with focus on the North East.

STATE LEVEL INSTITUTIONS

State Level Institutions execute different promotional and development projects/schemes and provide a number of supporting incentives for the development and promotion of small scale sector in their respective states. These are executed through State Directorate of Industries, who has District Industries Centers (DICs) under them to Implement Central/State Level schemes. The major institutions are explained below.

State Industrial Development Corporations (SIDCs):

Incorporated under the companies Act 1956 SIDC’s were set up in different states as wholly owned companies for promoting industrial

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development in their respective states. The main functions of SIDCs are as follows.

1. Providing term finance to all small, medium and large enterprises set up in the state.

2. Underwriting and directly subscribing to shares and debentures of industrial ventures set up in the state.

3. Preparing feasibility studies, conducting market surveys and motivating private entrepreneurs to set up their industrial ventures in the state.

4. Collaborating with private entrepreneurs to set up industrial ventures in the state.

5. Implementing scheme of “Industrial Development Bank of India” of seed capital in the state.

State Directorate of Industries (SIDS)

Under the constitution of India promotion and development of small

scale industries is a State subject. The primary responsibility for implementation of policies and programs assistance rests with Directorate of Industries in each state. It acts under the overall guidance of SIDO and concerned Central institutions. It performs both regulatory and developmental functions. It functions through a network of District Industries offices, industries offices and extension offices at district sub-division and block level respectively.

District Industries Centers (DICs)

The District Industries Centers programme was launched in 1978 for effective promotion of cottage and small scale industries in rural areas and small towns. These centers are the focal points providing all the services and support required by small scale and village entrepreneurs

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under one roof. DICs serve as an integrated administrative frame work at the district level for industrial development.

Fund Based Institutions

SSIs need credit support not only for running the enterprise and operational requirements but also for diversification, modernization, capacity expansion etc. Government of India recognized the need for focused credit policy for SSIs in the early days of promotion of SSIs and RBI has been instrumental in devising a multi-stage approach/ financial system for credit dispensation to different sectors of the economy. SIDBI, SFC and Commercial Banks play a major role in granting credit to small scale and tiny sector.

Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)

The SIDBI was established in 1990 as the apex refinance bank. The SIDBI is operating different programs and schemes through 5 Regional Offices and 33 Branch Offices. The financial assistance of SIDBI to the small scale sector is channelized through the two routes- direct and

indirect.

Commercial Banks

Credit requirement of SSIs is basically of two types – long term loans and working capital. Commercial banks with their extensive network of branches operating nationwide are primary channel for working capital requirement. Since banks has to lend 40 percent of their overall lending to priority sector ensures the desired procurement of funds to SSIs.

State Financial Corporations (SFCs)

State Financial Corporation Act 1951 was brought into force to enable all the state governments (except Jammu and Kashmir) to set up State Financial Corporations as regional development banks. State Financial Corporations provide long term finance to industrial entrepreneurs, subscribing equity and debentures of industrial entrepreneurs,

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providing financial assistance to small and medium enterprises engaged in service sector and provide working capital loans and meeting various short term needs of their clients.

Conclusion:

The various central government agencies and the state government agencies like provides information services, fulfills raw material requirements of MSMEs, meets credit needs and marketing assistance. All these institutions are the vital source of monitoring and implementing policies and programs of central and state governments for promotion of micro, small and medium enterprises. These institutions render technical support services, conduct entrepreneurship development programmes, and initiate promotional programmes. The central and state government institutions which motivates entrepreneurs to set up their ventures and assists with various kinds of support to cater the needs of micro, small and medium

scale industries enabling the growth of micro, small and medium scale sector and economic growth of the nation.

References:

1. Satish C. Sharma (2012), “Institutional Support to Small Entrepreneurs in India”, International Journal of Research in IT and Management, Volume 2, issue 2, pp.1007-1017.

2. Dr.D.Srinivasa Kumar, Dr.K.V.S.Prasad, Prasada Rao, s,.(2013), “Sustainable Trends and Policies of MSMEs in Economic Development in India: An Empirical Study”, IJMBS, Vol.3, Issue 2, pp.106-111.

3. Nall Bala Kalyan Kumar, Dr. Sradar Gugloth(2012), ZENITH International Journal of Business Economics and Management Research, Vol.2, Issue 5, pp.23-38.

4. www.smallindustries.com.

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5. Vasant Desai, “Small Scale Industries and Entrepreneurship”,

Himalaya Publishers, Mumbai, 2008, pp.342.

6. Khanaa, S.S; Entrepreneurial Development, S.Chand & Company Ltd, New Delhi 2009, p.331.

7. WWW.indiastat.com

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SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS

ICT TEACHING PROCESS

Senthamarai Kannan B Research Scholar

Gandhigram, Dindigul District Chinnalapatti, Tamil Nadu

Dr .Sivapragasam C Professor

Gandhigram, Dindigul District Chinnalapatti, Tamil Nadu

Senthilkumar R

Research Scholar Gandhigram Rural Institute

Deemed University Gandhigram, Dindigul District

Chinnalapatti, Tamil Nadu Introduction

“The role of the teacher is like the proverbial ‘ladder’, it is used by everyone to climb up in life, but the ladder itself stays in its place”

- Dr.A P J Abdul Kalam (Former President of India)

Recent developments in technology have changed the world outside as well as inside the classroom, making it quit eye-catching and

interesting for the students to know and to learn. Integration of this ICT in classroom helps to create an environment for students' activities that lead to meaningful and sustainable learning experiences. It supports students in their own constructive thinking, allows them to transcend their cognitive limitations. It is possible to bring the process of learning beyond the boundaries of classroom by exploring new possibilities of ICT. One of the basic requirements for education in this era of information explosion is to prepare learners for participation in a networked information society. The secondary school teachers must be to know about the how do apply ICT in teaching learning process for their own purpose and help to students, which use of them. The secondary school teachers are an effective and dominating factor among the ones contributing to educational improvements. The secondary school teachers effectiveness depends mainly on the teachers' attitude,

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characteristics and the classroom phenomena such as environment and climate, organization and management. Various commissions and committees have recommended methods of bringing about qualitative improvements in education. But, all the efforts are meaningless unless teachers are not having the positive attitude towards educational technology.

Need for the study

In the present scientific and technological age, the traditional teaching method may not be sufficient to arouse the interest among students nor meet their intellectual, psychological and emotional needs in the new millennium, the methods of ICT teaching need to be modified, enriched and changed to meet the aspirations of the new generation learners. It is now established that ICTs can have a positive effect on student's motivation on their attitude toward technology, instruction and the subject matter they expected to learn with effective.

Achieving a meaningful use of computer technology in the field

of education can be influenced by many factors. One of these factors is teachers’ attitudes towards the use of technology in teaching and learning process. Research shows that the success of technology use in the educational settings largely depends on teachers attitudes toward technology use. The secondary teachers attitudes are considered as a major predictor of the use of new technologies in the educational settings. Thus, their attitudes toward computer can play an important role in the acceptance and actual use of computers. Thus, it can be concluded that the attitude further related to the usage frequency of technology and usage amount of the technology. As a teacher plays very prominent role in moulding up tomorrow’s citizen, the teachers should possess training in using the most modern technologies in the field of education.

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Statement of the problem

The attitude of secondary school teachers is very important as it is a tendency which helps them to be favourable or unfavourable towards the usage of most modern technology in the field of education in future when they go for teaching. Therefore, the investigator had planned the statement of the problem "Secondary School Teacher’s Attitude towards ICT teaching process in Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu”

Definitions of the terms used Information and Communication

Technology (ICT): Information and communication technologies (ICTs)

which include radio and television, and the Internet - have been touted as potentially and powerful enabling tools for educational change and reform. When used appropriately, different ICTs are said to help expand access to education, strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital workplace, and raise educational quality, can make teaching - learning into an engaging, active process connected to real life.

Attitude

It is referred as the tendency to react favorable/positive or unfavorable/negative towards ICT.

Teaching:

Profession of those who give instruction, especially in an elementary or secondary school or a university.

Secondary School

The secondary school consists of IX and X standard students in Tamil Nadu Educational system.

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Objectives

To develop the attitude towards ICT scale for secondary school teachers.

To find out the difference between male and female secondary

school teachers attitude towards ICT.

To find out the difference between senior (more than 10 years experience) and junior (less than 10 years experience) secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

To find out the difference between science and arts secondary

school teachers attitude towards ICT.

To find out the difference between the secondary school

teachers working in the schools located in the urban areas and in the rural areas in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

To find out the difference between the secondary school teachers having the age limit upto 35 years and above 35 years in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

Hypotheses

The following were the hypothesis formulated by the above

objectives.

There is no significant difference between male and female secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

There is no significant difference between senior (more than 10

years experience) and junior (less than 10 years experience) secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

There is no significant difference between science and arts

secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

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There is no significant difference between the secondary school

teachers working in the schools located in the urban areas and in the rural areas in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

There is no significant difference between the secondary school

teachers having the age limit upto 35 years and above 35 years in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

Variables of the study

Dependent variable

-Attitude towards ICT usage

Independent Variables

-Gender

-Age

-Experience

-Locality of school

-Subject

Method of the study

Considering the objectives and hypotheses of the study, the investigators have adopted normative survey method for the present study.

Sample

Random sampling technique has been used in the selection of the sample of as many as 166 secondary school teachers teaching in secondary schools situated in Dindigul district of Tamilnadu, India.

Tool used

The investigators have developed an attitude scale on ICT usage for data collection

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Statistical used

The mean, standard deviations and t-test were used for analyzing the data.

Testing of hypotheses

Hypothesis: 1

There is no significant difference between male and female secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

Table: 1

Variables N

Mean

S.D

t - value Gender

Male 30 89.67 13.45 4.40# Female 136 101.76 14.41

(Note: # significant at 0.05 level)

It is inferred from the above table: 1 that the calculated t- value (4.40) is greater than the table value (1.96). Hence the hypothesis is rejected. Thus there is significant difference between male and female secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

Hypothesis: 2

There is no significant difference between senior (more than 10 years experience) and junior (less than 10 years experience) secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

Table: 2

Variables N Mean S.D t - value Experience

Junior teachers 126 101.47 14.97 3.14 Senior teachers 40 93.63 13.38

(Note: significant at 0.05 level )

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It is inferred from the above table: 2 that the calculated t- value

(3.14) is greater than the table value (1.96). Hence the hypothesis is rejected. Thus there is significant difference between senior (more than 10 years experience) and junior (less than 10 years experience) secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

Hypothesis: 3

There is no significant difference between science and arts secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

Table: 3

Variables N

Mean

S.D

t - value Subject

Science teachers

111 99.56 14.69 0.02©

Arts teachers 55 99.62 15.59 (Note: ©Not significant at 0.05 level)

It is inferred from the above table: 3 that the calculated t- value (0.02) is less than the table value (1.96). Hence the hypothesis is accepted. Thus there is no significant difference between science and arts secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT

Hypothesis: 4

There is no significant difference between the secondary school

teachers working in the schools located in the urban areas and in the rural areas in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

Table: 4

Variables N

Mean

S.D

t - value School locality

Urban areas 62 101.08 15.86 0.98 Rural areas 104 98.68 14.39

(Note: Not significant at 0.05 level)

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It is inferred from the above table: 4 that the calculated t- value

(0.98) is less than the table value (1.96). Hence the hypothesis is accepted. Thus there is no significant difference between the secondary school teachers working in the schools located in the urban areas and in the rural areas in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

Hypothesis: 5

There is no significant difference between the secondary school teachers having the age limit upto35years and above 35years in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

Table: 5

Variables N Mean S.D t - value

Age

Up to 35 years 115 102.16 15.06

3.64® Above 35 years 51 93.76 13.07

(Note: ®significant at 0.05 level)

It is inferred from the above table: 5 that the calculated t- value (3.64) is greater than the table value (1.96). Hence the hypothesis is rejected. Thus there is significant difference between the secondary school teachers having the age limit upto35years and above 35years in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

Findings

The following are the important findings of the study.

There is significant difference between male and female secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

There is significant difference between senior (more than 10 years experience) and junior (less than 10 years experience) secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

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There is no significant difference between science and arts

secondary school teachers attitude towards ICT.

There is no significant difference between the secondary school teachers working in the schools located in the urban areas and in the rural areas in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

There is significant difference between the secondary school teachers having the age limit upto35years and above 35years in respect of their attitude towards ICT.

Recommendations

The government should be allotted the funds for ICT usage in the class room and conduct the ICT training program for teachers.

The government should be creating the web-page for each school and provide the wi-fi facilities for all educational institutes.

Conducting programme on ICT usage for developing confidence in using ICT as a teaching tool.

Teachers should be given assignment, project work and conduct the test to students through internet.

The teachers need to be fully aware of the technology that engages students on a daily basis and use that technology as a stepping stone to academic achievement.

It is important for the teachers to possess positive computer attitude since attitudes has been found to be linked to usage and intention to use, variables that determine successful technology integration in education.

References

1) Reddi, u. v., &Sinha, v. (2003). India ICT use in education: National policies, strategies and programmes. In G. Farrell, & C.

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Wachholz, Meta-survey on the use of technologies in education in Asia and the Pacific (245-252). Bangkok: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education.

2) Edwards, Allen. L. (1957). Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction. New York: Appleton Century Crofts, INC.

3) Gaible, E. (2009). Survey of ICT and Education in the Carribbean Volume1: Regional Trends and Analysis. Washington D. C: The World Bank.

4) Allen, L .Edward.,(1957). “Techniques of attitude scale construction”, Appleton-century Crafts, Inc., New york.

5) Garrett, H.E., (1973). “Statistics in psychology and education”, Vakils, Feffer and Simons Ltd., Bombay.

6) Best, John W (1963)., “Research in Education”, Prentice hall of India (p.t) Ltd, New Delhi.

7) Amutha and Karpagakumaravel (2008) An investigation in to the ICT knowledge among the prospective teacher educators. Journal of Research and Reflections on education, Vol. No 6.

8) Balasubramanian (2002) Need for Computer Education in Teacher Training Curriculum. Edu tracks, Vol. 1, No-7.

9) Fisher, M. (2000) Computer Skills of Initial Teachers Education Students. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, Vol. 9(1), 109-123.

10) Manoj Kumar Dash, (2007) Integration of ICT in teaching and learning: A challenge. Edu tracks, Vol. 6, No-12.

11) Vinay Jagga, (2008) A study of internet usage behaviour of students in relation to gender, grade and sites. Journal of Educational Research and Extension, Vol. 45 (2).

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12) Deborah, L. Lowther., Tempa, Bassoppo-moyo., & Gary, R.

Morrison. (1998), “Moving from Computer Literate to Technology Competent: The next educational reform”, Computers in Human Behaviour, 14(1), 93-109.

13) Murahari B., Kumar V.V. (2008), “New Technologies for Teaching and Learning in the Information Age”, University News, 46(40), 1-8.

14) Taylor, S., & Todd, P. A. (1995), “Understanding information technology usage: A test of competing models”, Information Systems Research, 6(2), 144–176.

15) Naseem, C. (2007): From Blackboard to the Web: Integrating Technology and Education. Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COMPLEX TO PROVIDE

QUALITY EDUCATION

Dr.M.Esther Suneela A.L. College of Education

Guntur Andhra Pradesh

Murali Pappala Lecturer in Education College of Education

D N.R College Association Bhimavaram, West Godavari

Andhra Pradesh

Introduction:

Education contributes to social, economic and cultural development of a country. Education makes people to acquire knowledge, skills, values and attitudes, which are necessary for the

development of the society. Maintenance of higher living standards, better health, nutrition, increased productivity, sustained economic growth and reduction of poverty. Social and economic inequality and good governance all depend on widespread education. Therefore, these roles make education a key area of public policy in the developing countries. Education is a basic need. Article 45 of the Constitution of India provides compulsory free education to all the children between the ages of 6 to 11. But the NDA government has inserted new change to article 21 through 86th amendment of 2002 with a view to make compulsory education as fundamental right. School education lays foundation among the children to lead their future life. The school education must be sound to fulfill the basic needs of the students. Right from the inception of the constitution the Union Government has made some efforts to recognize the education. Ananda Modilior commission

was set up to suggest reform to modernizing the secondary education in 1952. The commission has submitted its reports with some recommendations to recognize the primary and secondary education. Secondary education would be completed with SSLC (Secondary School Living Certificate). The primary education would end at 7th standard.

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Importance of Education:

Education is important from various points of view. Its field of activity is so wide that all activities and experiences are embraced in its activities and experiences embraced in its sphere of work. Essentially it is a process of development, a development of the latent inherent capacities of a child to the fullest extent. It sublimates the animal basic instincts in a child to socially useful activities, habits of thinking and behaving. It inculcates in a child higher moral and social ideas together with spiritual values, so that he is able to form a strong character useful to his own self and the society of which he is an integral part. It culturizes, the child promoting social and refined patterns of behavior, Education develops all his intellectual and emotional powers, so that he is able to meet the problems of life squarely and solve them successfully. It also develops the social qualities of service, tolerance, co-operation, fellow feeling inspiring the child to lay down all, even his

life for the glory and prosperity of his country.

Import of the School Complex:

Education is a co-operative process. No stage whether primary or secondary or university is Omni-important and can be improved upon keeping itself aloof from others. Isolation is harmful to education as a whole and is great bar to any kind of educational improvement. This is said to be one of the reasons for deterioration of standards of education at all levels. Persons concerned with university education criticize those at the secondary stage and those in charge of secondary education put the blame on primary stage. Thus, the practice of recrimination prevail the entire educational system and at no stage persons concerned take upon themselves the task of improving the stage, co-operatively doing anything in the matter. Hence, many educationists including the Kothari Commission have suggested that in the interest of better education, the spirit of isolation should

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immediately be replaced by that of co-operation. They have felt that formation of school complex will help in changing this attitude. School Complex is an organized unit in which institutions at the higher stage take upon themselves the responsibility for improving the standard at the lower stage through mutual and voluntary help. The institutions in a school complex, while maintaining their own independence have to realize how their interests are interlinked and how the development of one leads to the development of the other.

The primary school is the foundation stone of the superstructure of entire educational setup. It should be well- developed and well founded with a view to ensuring strength and stability of the whole system of education. Gradually, this foundation is becoming broad based by increased enrolment of children of the age group 6 to

11. These complexes are aimed to act as. Resource centers in providing internet facility; library books, TLM, AV equipment etc., and monitor the schools to improve transition rates and quality of education.

Concept of School Complex:

The concept of school complexes was developed in Kothari Commission Report (1964-66). It is based on the assumption that High and Higher Secondary schools have better laboratory and library facilities, which can be utilized by the primary and middle schools. These schools have also better qualified and trained teachers; they have larger and well-developed playgrounds and games materials. Five or six primary and upper primary schools, as per convenience, may form a complex and get their academic and administrative support from the nodal secondary/senior secondary school.

School complex in the form of such groups of educational institutions will be so organized as to be convenient and viable units for making co-operative efforts with a view to promoting standards and securing better coordination between the different stages of education.

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Instead of isolation, proper articulation can be feasible in these small groups of educational institutions and the situation of mutual recrimination will give place to one of mutual help and fellow feeling.

After ten years the Union Government has set up another commission called Indian Education Commission in 1964 Kothari is Chairman Kothari has recommended some Uniform measures to be adopted by the Government of India. On e of the recommendations of Kothari is the 10+2+3 that means 10 years school education, two years Intermediate education, and three years Graduation Course. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction up to the degree courses. English must be the medium of instructions at PG level (Post Graduate). According to Kothari school education should be divided in to three grades. Four years primary education, three years upper

primary education, three years, higher secondary education, the primary education would be completed with the 4h standard. The upper primary education ends with 7th standards. The common examination should be conducted to evaluate the performance of the children for last 7 years. The higher secondary education would be completed with SSC (10th class).

Kothari Commission Report (1964-66) insisted that the concept of school complexes was developed in Kothari Commission Report (1964-66). It is based on the assumption that High and Higher Secondary schools have better laboratory and library facilities, which can be utilized by the primary and middle schools. These schools have also better qualified and trained teachers; they have larger and well-developed playgrounds and games materials. Five or six primary and upper primary schools, as per convenience, may form a complex and get their academic and administrative support from the nodal

secondary/senior secondary school. The attached schools in the complex, may arrange co-curricular activities, give better exposure to their students at the thus formed school complex rather than taking up

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the matter at block or district level. In case of temporary absence of the teacher due to illness, the school complex head can provide a substitute from a neighboring school. A large number of academic issues and problems can be discussed at the school complex level by arranging a meeting of all the teachers or otherwise. Thus many states have evolved their own guidelines and formed school complexes.

For the quality education Kothari has suggested the formation of school complex. What is the school complex? What is its role to provide quality education what are the functions of the school complex? How the West Godavari District is benefited? How the teachers and students are responding to the school complex? All these questions would be answered in this study with an authentic manner.

Functions of the School Complex:

Education contributes to social, economic and cultural development of a country. Education makes people to acquire

knowledge, skills, values and attitudes, which are necessary for the development of the society. Maintenance of higher living standards, better health, nutrition, increased productivity, sustained economic growth and reduction of poverty. Social and economic inequality and good governance all depend on widespread education. Therefore, these roles make education a key area of public policy in the developing countries.

The successful functioning of such organization largely depends on the interest evinced by the supervisors of the concerned locality as well as by the District/ Circle inspector of schools. As visualized by the Kothari Commission they should deal the school complexes as units of small, face to face and cooperative groups. They can safely delegate some of their powers that can efficiently be excised at local or functional levels. They will frequently be in touch with each school complex and try to make the system more elastic and dynamic. They

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will provide timely academic leadership and be responsible for effective functioning of school complexes.

Advantages of the School Complex:

The advantage that would accrue from such an organization are very obvious. The ultimate objective of school complex is to promote educational advance mainly qualitatively. The important advantages are as follows (I) School complex will offer better human resources for improving the content knowledge and skills in methodology. As most of the primary school teachers is ill- equipped and under-qualified to do justice to the enriched and improved syllabus and text- books, the experience and higher qualified teacher’s deficiencies. The climate of mutual give and take will promote the cross fertilization of ideas and experiences, which is a pre- requisite for any cooperative attempts for improving education. (II) Due to the limitation of financial or physical resources it is not possible to provide each school with adequate

facilities and equipments. (III) The school complex being a viable unit will enable the participants to try out and introduce better methods of teaching and evaluation. Desirable practices can be disseminated and popularized easily through the educational institutions of a complex. (IV) School complex will enable the education department to decentralize authority and responsibility with comparatively less fear of being misused and provide the necessary stock of talent and resources at the functional level to make use of this freedom and cooperation etc.

Suggestions for improve the quality Education in School Complex:

The school complex is one of the better system suggested by the Kothari Commission to provide quality education. The school going children should be provided better way to go through to earn their livelihood. The school complex is nothing but a group of schools lead by one school of that area. The leading school should be at the grade of

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high school. The leading school should be disseminating information and supply men and material to the school subordinate to it. Conducting of the meetings of school clubs and discusses the update developments in the education. The district/ Circle inspector of schools have to take the following steps with a vision to motivating school complexes:

They should organize an orientation course for head-teachers of all schools in the school complexes to explain them the objectives and functions of a school complex.

Subsequently they will provide guidance through on –the –spot visits and correspondence.

They should try to involve the subordinate inspecting officers, Block Development Officers and other local officers in school

complex programme in their respective jurisdictions.

They should receive the plans of activities of different school complexes within their jurisdictions and also periodical reports of their working. These will help them to know the kinds of improvement programmes and development projects being implemented through school complexes. Wherever required, they will extend help and encouragement.

They will have to bring about co-ordination between similar projects going on in different schools, so that there will not be any wastage of resource or necessary duplication of work.

They will hold or associate themselves periodical evaluation of various programmes and projects in order to appraise the achievements and shortcomings. Thus the success of the school complex starting from planning to evaluation largely depends on the dynamic leadership, resourcefulness, initiative and

personality of the District/Circle Inspector of Schools.

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Conclusion:

The school complex is one of the instrumental Mechanisms suggested by Kothari Commission for the smooth functioning of the schools under a leading school. This system is needed to provide qualitative education. The need of the schools of a unit would be fulfilled by the leading school of that unit. The school complex is one of the chief instruments to provide training facilities of teaches of that area. The Science and Mathematics equipment would be supplied to the component of school complex unit. So the school complex is needful for the both teachers and students to improve their professional skills.

The complex of the school complex is vague. On the basis of the report of the Indian Education commission the term school complex can be understood that the group of schools lead by a high school is called school complex. The schools shall be guided by the leading school to provide quality education. Dissemination of new developments in

education shall be made by the leading school to the subordinate schools. Supply of the material deputing teachers, holding of teacher’s club meetings etc., shall be done by the leading school. The Indian education commission headed by Kothari commission has recommended for the setting up of school complex. The purpose of the school complex is to develop the elementary and upper primary schools of a particular area of the high school is located. The school complex would function as a unit under the guidance of the leading school. Review meetings shall be conducted. Short term training programmes for the teachers in the curriculum would be conducted. Gust lectures shall be arranged to make the teachers to refresh their knowledge from time to time. The school complex can help the school to become the ideal school. The leading school must help the subordinate school to conduct examinations. The leading school may conduct science fairs and computations in mathematics and language games. The teachers

must given information about the importance of local histories. The

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leading school should help the subordinate schools to conduct mock parliaments, the kind of experiments which would provide quality education to the students on the expected lines. The functioning of the school complexes depends upon the electricity which is a major concern to the Government. The District Education Officer is having some difficulties to arrange meetings with the school complexes. The leading school is facing the problem of getting experts who can provide training facilities within the school complex.

References:

1. Kothari Commission Report (1964-66)

http://prayatna.typepad.com/education/2003/12/school_complexe.html#tpe-action-resize-408

2. Surendar Reddy. M (2007) departments with large public interface education department, administrative staff college of India, Bella - vista: Hyderabad.

3. http://prayatna.typepad.com/education/2003/12/school_complexe.html#tpe-action-resize-408

4. World Bank (1995), Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank View , Washington, D.C: World Bank

5. Jagannath Mohanthy (1990) Educational Administration, Supervision and School Management , Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, p. 138-141

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WOMAN IN INDIAN SOCIETY:A STUDY OF ANITA DESAI’S

FASTING, FEASTING B. Sandhya Rani

Research Scholar in English Department of HSS

AU College of Engineering, Andhra University Visakhapatnam

Indian culture and mythology treated woman as goddess. A symbol of strength and knowledge and glorified her virtues of divinity and purity. The worth of Indian civilization can be judged from the position that it gives to woman. According to Rig Veda women in ancient India enjoyed equal status with men in all aspects of life. Patriarchy never denied women their rights and privileges. They

participate in all Vedic sacrifices individually. Works by grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period. There existed Upanayana for both boys and girls. Rig-Veda suggests that women married at a mature age and they were probably free to select their own husbands and education is regarded as very essential to secure a suitable marriage. Upanishads mention several women sages and seers like Gargi and Maitreyi. “Manu” the great Indian law giver said long ago that “where women are honored there reside gods”. According to ancient Hindu scriptures no religious rite can be performed by a man without the participation of his wife. So wives are befittingly called ardhangani (better half).they are given not only importance but equal position with men. They enjoyed economic independence too. They are allowed to attend fairs and sabhas of learned ones and were free to move in the society with their husbands and loved ones.

But in today’s practical life woman is considered inferior to man a second- class citizen, a liability, an embodiment of sacrifice and humility. She is forced to live a life of suffocation, suppression and

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dependency. In this male dominated society she is never allowed to live “her” life. In childhood she is under the control of her father, in youth under her husband’s and at old age under her son’s. Hence the physical and psychological identity of woman is defined through the role and control of man. At every stage she has to sacrifice her happiness and desires for the sake of her responsibilities. She is never looked upon as an individual. She is always merged in other relations and lost her identity. She is treated as an instrument to produce children.

We profess morality; we preach values and write scriptures in the honor of women. We praise Sita, Savitri and Damayanti but we are hollow within. We have given equal rights to women in our constitution. We talk of women liberation movement but no one gives them real freedom. It is a sad reality that our women are still considered slaves as they were ages ago. In our society we give more

preference to sons than daughters because we think that they will shelter the aged parents and carry the family generations. But we forget that basically woman, who is endowed with genuine qualities like acceptance, association and affection in her domestic sphere and helps to create conducive atmosphere in her home. She plays many roles as an obedient daughter, a dutiful wife and a lovable mother. Still she has to strive to attain recognition. But now she sought to change within her home and society. She is coming out of her cocoon and joining her hands with men to work to attain self respect. Today we have women in leading position in all respectable fields and they are not inferior to men. We have many women engineers, doctors, scientists, politicians. Today the world belongs to woman but it is sad to say that their homes do not belong to them.

The most striking feature of the contemporary Indian English

fiction has been the emergence of feminist literature; feminist in the sense of being written by women novelists as well as of giving voice to the sufferings, aspirations of women in the male dominated world. In

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the early phase of Indian English novel woman is presented as an embodiment of endurance understanding and sacrifice, as a custodian of Indian culture. But for the last four decades the image of woman has changed. She is being depicted as a victim of barbarous cruelty of men that they made her rise against the male domination and portrayed her as a free thinking and self reliant individual who is in search of identity defying marriage and mother hood. Since literature is a mirror to reflect all the aspects of society, once we need to check the status of woman in our society through literature.

Anita Desai is an eminent writer in the realm of Indian English fiction. She is a great analyst of psychological insights and inner concerns. She has added new and significant dimensions to the fiction with her portrayal of the sufferings of woman. Her novels depict the kaleidoscopic image of the minds of her characters with a mesmerizing

art. Her novels are reflective of social realities which she depicts through a psychological perspective, but does not look at them as a social reformer. Her earlier novels revolve around woman’s quest for identity, the repression she faces within the family and society, marital disharmony and generation conflicts. Her later novels focus on the spirit of nationality, social problems existing in the contemporary society and East-West cultural collision, Vedanta and philosophy though her central theme is existential predicament of individuals. She prefers inner reality to outer. Her search for truth is related to the search for soul.

Gender discrimination is one of the prominent themes of Anita Desai’s novels. She portrays it through characters who suffer from the existential problems and passions. The present novel taken for study, Fasting Feasting shows how woman has to lead a life of suffocation and

undeserved suffering in a male dominated society. How a girl child craves for parental affection but at the end gets nothing but frustration and isolation. The novel portrays a typical Indian conservative family

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consisting of three children Uma, Aruna and Arun and their parents. Children call their parents collectively ‘Mamapapa’ as they never find their existence separately. They discuss, plan control and govern the activities of their children be it marriage or academic pursuits. In that process they forget the fact that their children also have a life of their own.

The story moves around an unattractive, not so intelligent elder daughter Uma. Trapped at home, she lives under the demanding rule of her parents who are highly insensible to her dreams and aspirations. Her education and independence are all dampened by the dictatorial attitude of her parents. She is an ordinary girl who is not so fortunate to be endowed with beauty and intelligence. Her life is not like her ambitious sister Aruna who brings of a good marriage and their younger brother Arun the disappointing son and heir, who goes to

America for studies. Uma being the eldest and spinster has to share the family responsibilities. She is expected to be an obedient daughter to her parents, an affectionate and motherly sister to her siblings but never recognized as an individual. Through this character, Anita Desai exposes how a woman in modern society falls, victim to hypocrisy and male eccentricity.

The novel opens with a scene where parents sitting in a creaking sofa-swing dangling their legs and give orders to their daughter to do many works at a time. (Pg.1) In the due course of the novel it is revealed that Uma who, returned home as a divorcee has to accept the duty of serving the whole family. Uma suppressed and imprisoned accepts everyone’s orders. The family in which Uma brought up is highly conservative where girl children are neglected and felt like burden by their own parents.

If Uma hung over her shoulders to look or Aruna edged to closer to see, she(mama) swatted at her daughters as if they are pair of troublesome flies. (Pg.7)

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Parents are more interested in son than daughters. Son is pampered and held in more esteem than daughters. They feel boy as an asset and girl, a liability. Once, mother recalls her past days when she was a child. She remembers,

In my days girls in the family were not given sweets or nuts or any good things to eat. It was given only to the boys in the family. (Pg 6)

Here what the author observes through the point of view of mother is not uncommon or surprising in Indian society. In our society men are treated more respectively and carefully in all matters like food, education or having any other facilities. For the family they are the future bread earners.

After having two grown daughters, parents at their middle age plan to give birth to a third child expecting that should be a boy. Parents feel it an achievement to give birth to a boy. A man’s self

esteem rises when he fathers a son. The birth of a son against two daughters in a conservative Indian family is a matter of great enthusiasm and enjoyment. More than the boy himself, it was the idea of having a son that is important to him. Father celebrates the birth of the boy as he had never done at the birth of his two daughters.

Arriving at home he sprang out of the car and raced into the house and shouted the news to whoever was there to hear. A boy he screamed a boy at last (Pg.17).

Not only father but mother also feels proud and happy as the status of women also rises when she bears a son. Now she is more equal to father as she is the mother of a son who will take care of family responsibilities in future. So mother feels proud on that occasion and celebrates it.

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Mama’s chin lifted a little into the air. She looked around her to make sure that everyone saw and noticed she might have been wearing a medal. Now she is more equal to papa. (Pg.31)

With these examples the author brings into focus parental apathy which scars the daughters permanently. First it is parents craving for a boy that hurts the daughters because it brings out the truth of their accidental birth. If the parents were given a choice they would never have wished to give birth to a female child. Even educated parents show their rustic and primitive face when it comes to choosing between daughter and son. After the birth of her younger brother Arun, Uma is forced to stop going to school. She is asked to take care of her baby brother.

Girls are not only less preferred but also they are more burdened with responsibilities. Women are expected to take care of

their siblings. A woman is never allowed to be a child right from her childhood. She is supposed to act as a mother to her younger brothers and sisters. Since the birth of her younger brother Arun, Uma has been trained to sacrifice her private pleasures and her education. Uma is forced to nurse her baby brother even when she is herself a child.

When mama came home from hospital, she tried to teach Uma the correct way of folding nappies, of preparing watered milk or the screaming infant to sleep when he was covered with prickly heat as with a burn. Uma, unfortunately was her clumsy and undependable self, dropping and breaking things, frightenedly pulling away from her much too small, too precious and too fragile brother. (Pg.18).

With this example Anita Desai as a true humanist puts the blame not only on men who are suffering with the complex of male superiority but also on women who too oppress their own kind. Uma as

a young girl has her dreams and desires, but when her dreams come in conflict with the comforts of the parents, it is she who has to sacrifice.

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Thus Uma’s life gets reduced to a baby sitter since mother has to fulfill the role of papa’s help mate. When Uma insists that ayah can do all this, and points out that ayah looked after her and Aruna as babies, mama’s expression was clear that it is quite a different matter now and she repeats threateningly “proper attention. You know we can’t leave the boy to the servant; he needs proper attention” (Pg.30)

Arun, the only son and heir of the family is brought up with much more care and attention than the two girls in all matters whether it is food or education. “A fixed quantity of milk is poured down his gullet whether he wanted it or not.”(pg.30) Tutors are engaged for him as papa is determined that he get a foreign degree. Why this difference in treatment is because boys bring in dowry when they marry, whereas girls are given away with a dowry that is being expenditure for their natal families. Again once they are married, girls are seen to belong to

another family. So the money spent on girl does not bear any fruit in future.

To get relief from this environment when Uma looks forward for her marriage, she under goes two traumatic experiences, related to matrimony. In the first proposal she gets engaged and the negotiated amount of dowry is given but later they reject the proposal showing the reason that groom wants to pursue higher education. The groom’s party not even returns the dowry. At last she had to marry a man of her father’s age who never behaves like a husband. Later it is revealed that he is already married and has a wife and four children and runs a pharmaceutical factory. To save that factory he needs another dowry. For that he marries Uma. Her marriage gets cancelled and she comes back home and stays with her parents. Now she is considered ill-fated and no more attempts are made to get her married. She remains virgin

all through her life. But the parents are much concerned about their loss of two dowries than her loss. Father always blames her and shows

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his resentment, saying, Never earned anything in her life made me spend and spend till I am ruined. (Pg 146)

The primary concern of middle class parents is to get the daughter married off. Parents seem to be in hot haste to dispose their liability as soon as possible. In that process they even ignore to check the whereabouts of groom. In this regard Ms. Joshi, Uma’s neighbor’s words to mama are true.

Yes, that’s why the Goyels are able to do such things. Because, parents being in too much of a hurry that they will not take time for proper enquiries. (Pg.83)

Now, Uma under the strict control of her parents is not allowed to meet any one outside or allowed to do any job. She is not even allowed to have her own aspirations or opinions. When she is invited by her school teacher Mrs. O. Henry to her home on a coffee party, she is

restricted to go there as parents feel that her teacher might convert her as nun. In other situation, when her cousin Ramu takes her out to dinner and makes her so happy that tears drop out from her eyes(Pg.51). On her return, mama calls it a disgrace to the family reputation to go out with a man alone.

Quiet, you hussy! Not another word from you, you idiot child! You, you disgrace to the family – nothing but disgrace, ever! (Pg-53)

Now, she is all alone and desperate. Once she thinks of writing a letter to a friend to share her grief, but it only ends with a realization that she has no friend.

She could write a letter to a friend a private message of despair dissatisfaction. But, who is the friend? Mrs. Joshi? Since she lives next door, she would be surprised. Aruna? She would pay no attention. Cousin Ramu? Where is he? (Pg.134).

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Even a single phone call is not allowed for her as Papa feels it as

waste of money. (Pg.146). Parents who are ready to send their son to America for higher studies deny daughter for the small pleasures. Every moment of Uma is controlled and all her decisions are taken for her by her parents. They regard with great disapproval if anyone attempts to open the outside world a little for her.

A rare job opportunity comes for Uma from their family doctor at her hospital but Papa refuses to send her reminding her of their family reputation. Papa responds piously that as long as they are there to provide for her she would not ever need to work. Like a typical middle class Indian Uma’s father believes that it is below dignity for a daughter to work how so ever decent the work may be. He believes that it is an undesirable intrusion in the male world. He frowns; the frown is filled with everything. He has a thought of working women who dared

to step into the world, he occupied. (Pg.145)

Furthermore, women in the family are not allowed for outing usually but only when Papa feels for that. On one such an occasion when they go to a park, Uma feels to buy some eatables but she donot dare to ask her father.

Uma finds saliva gathering at the corners of her mouth at the smell of the spiced roasted gram but decided to say nothing. (Pg.13)

MamaPapa are deaf and blind towards the needs of her daughter. Her existence gets reduced an unpaid servant who has so many duties but, no rights. Uma’s parents, who failed to get her married, now see her as a possession and use her to make their life more comfortable.

All morning MamaPapa find things for Uma to do. It is as if Papa’s retirement is to be spent in this manner. Sitting on the swing in

the Varanda, finding ways to keep Uma occupied. (Pg. 133) They feel if she kept occupied with one or the other work, she shall not get time to

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think about her personal life. With this example the novel hints the fate of women who remain single in this society.

In Uma’s life hope comes when Meera Masi, a distant widowed relative of her mother visits their home. She religious type, filled with joy and enthusiasm. Brief moments of respite come into Uma’s life through Meera masi. Going to the river side or to the temple, in her company, makes Uma joyful despite the objections of her parents.

Here, Anita Desai not only portrays child’s simple joys and sorrows but also expects her readers to share her world. She wants to escape in to her own spiritual or mental world.

Once, when Meera Masi takes her to the river and during the religious ritual, Uma nearly gets drowned in the river but gets saved in time. Then Meera Masi says that she is blessed by the Lord. The Lord

has rejected the men, we selected for her because God has chosen her for Himself. (Pg. 96). Uma, thereafter, succumbs into a state of trance and at a heightened state she falls on the floor, rolling and tossing her head and drumming her heels. Meera Masi recognizes and says she is possessed and that the Lord has taken possession of her. At last her spiritual experience transmits her into a new personality leading to the realization that her domestic, familial and social obligation will continue. There is no escape from sufferings. So she should be stronger in spirit and ready herself for a meaningful life.

On the other hand the life of Anamika in the novel discloses harsh realities of our conservative society. That does not in any way support women. Anamika a cousin of Uma is simply lovely “as a flower. Soft petal skinned, bumblebee- eyed, pink- lipped, always on the verge of bubbling dove like laughter and with a radiance of good nature.

Where ever she was there were peace, contentment and wellbeing. (pg.67) She was not only pretty and good natured but an outstanding

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student as well. She did so brilliantly in her final exams that she won a scholarship to Oxford. But the parents did not allow the girl to go to oxford. They use the letter of acceptance from oxford to get her a groom. They use it as trump cards to get her married.

Anamika marries a person who is totally mismatched to her beauty, grace and distinction. Not only her husband but her in- laws too treat her worse than animal. After many abortions as a result of physical violence meted on her, Anamika fails to bear a child. Her own parents do not interfere as they do not want her back in their home because they feel it a great shame for woman once given in marriage to return to her parent’s home. At last Anamika is burnt to ashes and killed by her in-laws who show it as suicide.

Anamika’s sad saga is a strong statement against the cruel apathetic society which does not care for lives instead gives more

importance to its customs.

The novel presents a fine contrast of title Fasting Feasting which reveals that there are some characters who are feasting with joy and some characters that are fasting physically and spiritually. The daughters Uma and Aruna long for parental affection but they are seldom given. On the other hand, Mama and Papa are feasting and enjoy the zenith of peace and happiness for themselves. Again, we can see contrasts in the lives of two sisters Uma and Aruna. Uma faced both Physical and spiritual fasting in her life due to marital discord while Aruna enjoyed a happy and blissful marital life. Even when Uma’s life is compared to that of her younger brother Arun, Uma is forced to discontinue her studies at school and her brother gets sent to

America for higher studies. So, in all ways, we see Uma’s life of fasting and her family on feasting by using her.

In this novel, Anita Desai has tried to picture the stifling social system with its conservative customs like dowry, arranged marriage,

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gender bias and dominating role of parents. It also speaks the impact of these social systems on the psyche of woman right from their young age and recognizes the urgency to question this kind of domineering attitude in order to attain the independent full-fledged personality. This novel exposes the religious sanction of the system which emphasizes the hierarchy of men and servility of women, which only succeeds in suffocating the life of women even in the contemporary society. Especially the novel exposes the degrading and explosive nature of the dowry system. In India, dowry has become a means of procuring money for various purposes and much deception is practiced to obtain it.

Anita Desai a great analyst of men and manners aptly shows the constant urge in women’s freedom. Her treatment of feminism is different in the sense that her protagonists are generally not rebellious

in nature rather they suffer and suffer only to learn how to encounter with the harsh realities of life. In this complex book, without no simple answer, Desai writes about the emotional and moral isolation of an individual and explores the nature of aspiration to reach self definition.

Reference:

1. Desai,Anita, Fasting, Feasting. (London: Vintage, 1999)

2. Bande,Usha, The Novels of Anita Desai, (New Delhi: Prestige books, 1988.)

3. Iyengar,K.R.S, Indian Writing in English,(Sterling Publishers, Delhi:1994)

4. Altekar, A.S, Position of women in Hindu civilization.(Motilal Banarasidas, NewDelhi:1938)

5. Joshi,P.S, Cultural History of Ancient India.(S.Chand Publishers, NewDelhi: 1978)

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FUTURE AND PROSPECTS OF LAC INDUSTRY IN THE

DRISTRICT OF PURULIA

Shakuntala Mahato Teacher of Geography

Adabana N.N. High School Purulia (W.B)

Introduction: -

Purulia, the erstwhile Manbhum district was carved out of Bihar and merged with Bengal on November 1, 1956. Since then fifty eight years have passed down the line but not a single significant industry has flourished in the district. But Purulia is a mineral rich district. Only some Cottage industry under private or joint ownership have been in existence since or from before British period. Significant among them is lac industry. This plays an important role in the economy of the district.

Introduction of lac Industry in Purulia:-

Lac industry was introduced in the district by some Armenian Sahibs. A.M.Arathon a moderately educated youth, hailing from a simple family of a village in Armenia First set up lac processing unit in Jhalda way back in 1897. The Cottage, built by him, was named A.M. Arathon Private Limited. At that time Jhalda was not a town in the proper sense of the term. Only some mud houses were there. So he started processing lac in mud houses, Later on this industry began to grow and

its business spread far and wide.

It is said that initially lac was not cultivated. The Brood lac used to be spread by birds, air or any natural means from trees to trees. Later on the inhabitants of the district came to realise the importance of lac and then they bagan to cultivate it properly. The aborigines of the dristrict such as Santhal, Bhumij, Munda, Kurmis used to cultivate it on the trees like ber, Palas, Kusum, etc.These trees are natural

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vegetation of this region and are grown sparsely and sporadically on the border of agriculture plot and follow land. They would tie the sticks, containing lacworm and larvae to the branches of these trees. From the stick the lac insects used to spread to every branch of the tree and the tree used to be covered with lac. Initially lac was not produced in a big way. Gradually its production increased. Many people became dependent on it for their livelihood. Lac used to be sold in local market then the industry had not yet came into existence. Later on lac processing units came to be setup and its huge demand as raw material at home and aboard led to its large scale production.

What is Lac:-

Lac is a resin, exuded from the body of a female insect called Keria Lac or Laccifer Lacca. It is an eco-friendly, non-toxic resin, having no side-effects . It is grown on tender twigs of some specific host plants namely, Ber(Zizphusmauritiana), Kusum(Schleichera oleosa), Palas(Buteu monosperma)etc. Recently it is being grown on a new

plant Semialata on experimental basis under the active supervision of Lac Research Institute, Ranchi. The ideal natural condition for the growing of such trees prevails in Purulia. Based on host plants lac insects are of two kinds , Rangigni and Kasumi. Rangini is grown on Palas and Ber trees. Kasumi is grown only on Kusum tree. In terms of the mouth of reaping Ranginis are of two kinds, Baisakhi is superior to kartiki and among the Kusumis Aghani is superior to Jethui. Of all these varieties Aghani is the best.

Lac Cultivation in India :-

Lac is cultivated in various states of India. Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujrat, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Meghalaya are the major producers. According to data as of 2009-10 furnished by I.I N.R.G Ranchi approximately 16,495 tons of stick lac are produced annually in

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India. Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh account for 95% of this total production. The Share of these five states in lac production are as follows (I) Jharkhand 41.98% (II) Chhattisgarh 30.28% (III) Madhya Pradesh 14.49% (IV) West Bengal 5.18% (V) Maharashtra 3.15%. In West Bengal almost whole production comes from Purulia. Sticklac is produced in almost all twenty blocks of the district but on a large scale in Baghmundi, Arsha, Balarampur, Jhalda, Raghunathpur, Kashipur and Santuri blocks. In respect of volume of processing West Bengal comes first in India. It processes almost 39.35% of the total lac processed in India. According to data furnished by IINRG, Ranchi for the year 2008 - 2009 Balarampur, Jhalda and Tulin prosess 7500 tons, 150 tons and 200 tons of lac respectively annually.

Importance of Lac for the district of Purulia :-

Lac cultivation is an important source of income to the tribal people of central and eastern India. As per data for the year 2009-10 published by

M & S S Enterprises West Bengal Government. West Bengal comes forth in lac cultivision in India. About 99,000 cultivators are engaged in lac production in the states. Lac offers opportunity of income at three stages (I) at the level of cultivation (II) at the level of processing(III) at the level of export.

At the first stage only cultivators are benefited. According to West Bengal Government data about 70,000 people belonging to 20,000 below poverty line families are involved in lac cultivation in the district. Generally a family harvests 400 kg of sticklac a year. But to reap this harvest he has to bear some cost. He has to buy nearly 50 kg of broodlac at the rate of Rs 300/- per kg of broodlac. So the cost of buying 50 kg of broodlac is about Rs 15000. Again the cultivators have to spray pesticides on sticklac from time to time which incurs an expenditure of Rs 5000. So the total cost of producing 400 kg of sticklac is about Rs

20000. A cultivator generally sells his produce to the hoarder or

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brokers or sometimes directly to the processing unit. They get Rs 150 - 170 for one kilogram of sticklac. So buy selling 400 kg of sticklac they get Rs 60000 - 68000 a year. Hence they a make a profit of Rs 40000 - 48000 in a year. As Purulia is a drought prone and industry starved district, the fact that only lac provides a substantial amount of income to a whopping 70,000 people is a big thing.

In the second stage the lac processing unit and small entrepreneurs come into the picture. Lac is processed and converted into seed lac, shelllac and buttonlac here in these units. As the whole process needs manual help at every stage, So it generates employment opportunities for the local people. On an average a medium scale processing unit requires 12 - 15 people depending on the number of big oven, used for melting the lac. Of them 3 to 4 are female workers. At present there are 181 processing unit in Purulia. By working in these

processing units almost 2500 - 3000 people earn their livelihood. The owner of a processing unit is a local entrepreneur. By investing 4 -5 lakh rupees he earns nearly similar amount a year.

In the third stage the focus gets shifted on to the exporters. They are businessmen based mainly in Kolkata. They export lac almost all over the world and earn huge foreign money. As per data published by the Shellac and Forest Products Export Promotion Council, Kolkata, India earned Rs 124.14 erore by exporting 6968.42 tons of lac during the year 2008-2009.

Besides being economically significant, lac Cultivation is also important from the ecological point of view. It helps preserve vast areas of forest which otherwise would dwindle out in near future. It also helps fight soil erosion and environmental degradation and by preserving the flora and fauna of an area maintains the ecosystem of

the area.

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Problems facing the Indutry :-

Despite all these benefits derived from lac, the industry is facing problems from several quarters. The main threat comes from the use of Polymers in various fields in place of lac. It has snatched away a large chunk of the growing global market of lac. As a result the export of lac to international market has stabilised in the region of 7000 tons per year. It becomes clear from the analysis of data for the year 2004- 2005 to 2008 - 2009, furnished by the Lac Export Promotion Council. The problem has another aspect, As the demand from international market is not steady the price of lac does not remain stable over the years. Some year it is high another it is very low. The basic economic theory of demand and supply comes into play here. Even two years ago, the owners of processing unit would get Rs 1500 - 1700 for 1 K.G. of processed Lac. But now the price has slumped to a meagre Rs 400. The incident has a cascading effect. The profit of the processing units which are the fulcrum of the industry is badly impacted. As a result their very

existence becomes threatened. It creates two-fold problems for them. If their lean period continues for some years it becomes difficult for the owner of processing unit to run the business with meagre or no profit. Again as the profit becomes almost nil they cannot pay their labourers handsomely which forces them to find job somewhere else. So many owners of processing unit are losing interest in this business. Many processing units have closed down permanently, dealing a severe blow to local employment opportunity. The low price regime also affects the cultivators adversely. As they do not get enough price for their produce. They also lose interest in lac cultivation resulting in low output.

Sometimes nature also plays havoc with lac cultivation. Extreme weather condition, specially extreme heat causes sharp fall in lac output. Environment pollution also creates problem for lac cultivation. If the pollutant gases viz CO2, CO, NO2, SO2, etc increase in the

atmosphere, then it becomes harmful for the lac. Some manufacturing

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industries have grown up in and around Balarampur and Jhalda. This may affect lac cultivation to some extent.

The farmers still cultivates lac with their traditional knowledge. They are not trained in the latest technology of lac cultivation. Again in Purulia the host trees occurs sporadically here and there. Unlike the mango groves in Malda and Murshibad. This would have helped the farmers to cultivate it more scientifically and cost effectively. It would result in higher output.

The last but not the least is the government apathy. The government has not yet come up with the packages, the industry needs from it. If the government extends the helping hand to this industry, it would chart a higher path, benefiting more people.

Prospects of Lac Industry in Purulia :-

Lac is some kind of a boon for a drought prone district like Purulia. It has an enormous potential. But it stills remains untapped. Despite the use of polymers it has an international market in over 170 countries

and the market is increasing rapidly. India should take full advantage of it. For Purulia the hope springs from the fact that it is one of the few district of our country where lac cultivation in bulk quantity is possible. So there is nothing to be worried about the future of this industry in Purulia. On an average 55 - 56 quintal of sticklac are processed daily in Purulia. But 90% of these raw materials comes from neighboring Jharkhand state so if the farming community of Purulia are made aware of this huge opportunity many people will be involved in lac cultivation and a new vista of eking out livelihood will be opened up. Many people specially young boys go to Southern and Western states of India in search of jobs. But if they are made aware of this opportunity at home they will not go there. In this context the role of government needs to be discussed. The government should provide broodlac to the farmers at subsidised rate. For this purpose self-help

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group of farmers may be formed. Again it has been found that the cultivators are exploited by the hoarders because they do not give fair price to the cultivators. So the government should see to it that the cultivators get fair price of their produce. The government should announce every year Minimum Support Price for lac like Paddy and Wheat. The cultivators should be made aware of the latest technology of lac cultivation that means Lab to Land programme needs to be undertaken. To overcome the vagaries of nature a adverse weather management system needs to be devised by the research institutes. The owners of processing units should be offered subsidised loan at cheaper rate. They want longer period of tax- holiday. There is silver lining also. The demand in the international market is on the rise. The new government in West Bengal is aware of the potentiality of this industry. They are adopting various measures to revive this industry. In 2011

alone 3500 families spreading over 11 blocks and 33 maujas have been involved in this industry through self-help group. The farmers are being provided with technical help, broodlac and pesticides. They are being imparted necessary training. By 2015 another 15,000 families are to be roped in. States Forest Department with the financial assistance of Paschimanchal Unnayan Prashad is executing the programme. The ministry has set a target of involving 50,000 famalies in Jungle Mahal area in near future. By a rough estimate there are 10 lakh Palash, 25 thousand Kusum and 8 thousand ber trees in the district, having a sticklac holding capacity of 12000 quintals per year. The application of new scientific method can take it to a new higher level. With such huge potentialities of production, increasing international market and government help it is hoped that the lac industry in Purulia is pregnant with immense possibilities and is set to bring about a sea change in

the socio-economic condition of the district.

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References

1. Jana, Debaprasad(Ed) Ahalyabhumi Purulia; VOL – II Kolkata:Deep Prakashan, 2004.

2. Pal,Govind;Jaiswal,A.K. & Bhattacharya,A; Lac Statistics at a Glance 2010,Ranchi:IINRG.

3. Prathihar,J.T.,- “Lac based products making valuable contribution to India’s exports despite struggling against polymer” www.dgciskol.nic.in/.

4. Cultivating lac resin: Documentary Film by CEC Member Samik Gupta, /www.iucn.org/news December 2011.

5. Ganguly,Ratna,“ Shellac Project to push modernisation”.The Economic Times,22 August 2005.

6. Middya,R.K “ West Bengal: Current Status of Lac Production, Issues, Remedial Measures & Support System for Development”, ilri.ernet.in/~IINRG, India

7. Handbook of Paschimanchal Unnayan Parshad, Government of

West Bengal 2014.

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MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF A DEEP GROOVE BALL

BEARING

M. Chinnam Naidu Assistant Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Raghu Engineering College Visakhapatnam

N.Sowjanya M.Tech (Cad/Cam)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Raghu Engineering College Visakhapatnam

INTRODUCTION

Rolling element bearings consist of two circular steel rings and a set ofrolling elements. One of the rings is much larger than the other in fact, itis large enough for the other to fit well within its perimeter. This larger ringis referred to as the outer ring. The smaller of the two is the inner ring. Predetermined number of solid balls or rollers are formed into geometricshapes and placed at equal intervals in the open space

between the two rings. These components are usually made of steel and are referred to as rolling elements. A cage, or retainer, is then used to maintain the intervalsbetween the elements. This basic terminology will be used and expandedupon in the pages to come to describe the simple design and construction of a bearing.

Rolling Element Bearing Classifications

The rolling elements are formed as standard geometric shapes which include:

• Balls

• Cylindrical Rollers

• Needle Rollers

• Tapered Rollers

• Spherical Rollers

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The geometric shapes of these rolling elements are used to define the classification, or name, of each rolling element bearing type. Ball bearings use perfectly round balls as their rolling elements, cylindrical roller bearings use cylindrical rollers, etc.

Half section view of ball bearing and parts shown below.

1. Inner ring

2. Outer ring

3. Rolling element

4. Cage

Bearing Loads

The rolling element bearing is subject to forces from gears, pulleys, or

other components. These forces simultaneously act on the bearing from many different directions. The direction in which force is exerted on the bearing helps identify the type of load on the bearing:

Radial loads are exerted on the bearing on a plane perpendicular (90°) to the shaft.

Axial loads, or thrust loads, are exerted on the bearing on a plane parallel to the center of the shaft.

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Combination loads exert both a radial and axial load on the

bearing.

DESIGN PROCEDURE

In present work design of bearing life has done with considering standard dimension of bearing 6200. In that rib diameter of outer ring, inner ring is 23.8 mm and 17.4 mm. whereas the outer ring groove curvature radius is 2.49 mm, the inner ring groove curvature radius is 2.44 mm. And the raceway outer ring diameter is 25.27 mm and raceway inner ring diameter is 15.738mm. At last the diameter of the ball is 4.766 mm and pitch of the ball is 20.55 mm. Let us take the radial load as 5000N. We have the velocity of 209.44 rad/ s. So to find out the value of N

ω = = 209.44 rad/ s

N= 2000 rpm

CONTACT ANGLE

α = cos-1[1-{Gr/2(ri +rc - Dw)}]

Where Gr is Radial clearance and the value for the Gr is 0.1mm,ri is inner groove radius and the value is 2.44 mm, rc is outer groove and

the value is 2.49 mm and Dw is the diameter of the ball and the value is 4.766 mm. In order to find out the angle value α

α = Cos-1[ 1-{ 0.1/2(2.44+2.49-4.766)}]

α = 45.963 [i:1 for number of rows]

DYNAMIC LOAD RATING

The equivalent radial load Lr is defined as

Lr = Fc( i×cos α)0.7 × (Z)2/3 × (Dw)1.8

The value for Fc is 58.15 from interpolation

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(The value for Z is 8 from the Number of balls).

To find out the Dynamic load rating Lr

Lr = 58.15 (1 × cos 45.963)0.7 × (8)2/3 × (4.766)1.8

Lr = 2.997 KN

DYNAMIC EQUIVALENT RADIAL LOAD

To find out the Dynamic equivalent radial load Pr, the radial load factor X of 1, Thrust load factor Y of 0, Radial load Fr of 5000N and Axial load Fa is 0.

Pr = 1 × 5000 + 0

Pr = 5000N

STATIC EQUIVALENT RADIAL LOAD

The static equivalent radial load

P1 = X Fr + Y Fa

Where the X and Y values are taken from the ISO

standards X= 0.5 & Y= 0.29

P1 = 0.5 ×5000 + 0.29×0

P1 = 2500N

BASIC LIFE RATING

The basic life rating Lo is defined as

Lo = (Cr/Pr)k

Where the value for K is 3 which is the value for the ball bearing

Lo = (2.997 × 103/5000)3

Lo = 0.21535

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LIFE OF REVOLUTION

The value of the life of revolution L is defined as Multiple of basic life rotation with 106

L= Lo × 106

L = 0.21535 × 106 rev

LIFE OF WORKING HOURS

Life of the working hours Lh is defined as L = 60 × N × Lh

Lh = L/60 ×N

=0.21535×106

Lh= 1.794 Hours.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

BEARING PART NAME MATERIAL

modulus of elasticity

MPa

density

kg/m3

Poisson’s ratio

INNER RING GCr15SiMn 2.16E+11 7820 0.29

OUTER RING GCr15SiMn 2.16E+11 7820 0.29

ROLLING ELEMENT GCr15SiMn 2.16E+11 7820 0.29

CAGE yellow brass 1.00E+11 8500 0.324

Bearing parameters for 6200 model Bearing having rib diameter is 23.8 mm, rib diameter of inner ring is 1.4 mm, race way diameter of outer and inner rings are 25.27, 20.5 mm, raceway groove curvature radius of outer ring and inner ring are 2.9 mm and 20.5 mm. total dimensions are taken to create geometric model in CATIA V5R20. And remaining nine model are created with changing different parameters like ball diameter, race way groove diameter (with -2,-1,1,2 percentages).

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3D model created in CATIA Dimensions taken into CATIA software

Now a day’s finite element analysis software like ANSYS are widely using to find out deformation, stresses for all mechanical components. here for analysis ANSYS 15.0 WORKBENCH is used in that friction less boundary condition are used at rib support and 5000

N load is applied radially at the center and 209.3 rad/sec angular velocity is considered to run the analysis and same loading and boundary condition are used for remaining for all model. And results shown as below

Deformation of ball bearing at 5000 N loading Stresses of ball bearing at 5000 N loading

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Strain of ball bearing at 5000 N loading Deformation of ball bearing at 5000 N + 2000RPM loading

Stresses of ball bearing at 5000 N + 2000 RPM Strains of ball bearing at 5000 N + 2000 RPM Loading loading

RESULTS FOR 5000 N RADIAL LOAD+ 209.3 rad/sec % BALL DIA

DEFORMATION (mm)

STRESS (MPa)

STRAIN LIFE

-2 0.05403 11235 0.059 1.41E+06 -1 0.05479 10649 0.0611 1.47E+06 0 0.053476 12510 0.0613 1.0E+06 1 0.05095 12113 0.06018 1.11E+06 2 0.05271 9856 0.053 1.44E+06

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RESULTS FOR 5000 N RADIAL LOAD

% BALL DIA

DEFORMATION (mm)

STRESS (MPa)

STRAIN

LIFE

-2 0.0508 11244 0.05966 1.47E+06 -1 0.0509 10671 0.06123 1.4E+06 0 0.0501 12539 0.06145 1.0E+06 1 0.04867 12128 0.06023 1.2E+06 2 0.04966 9880 0.05383 1.3E+06

Deformation graph at different % of ball stresses graph at different % of ball diameters diameters (without RPM) (without RPM)

Deformation graph at different % of ball Deformation graph at different % of race way groove diameters (with RPM) diameters (without RPM)

0.0480.049

0.050.0510.052

-5 0 5

DEFORMATION

DEFORMATION

0

5000

10000

15000

-5 0 5

STRESSES

STRESSES

0.05

0.052

0.054

0.056

-5 0 5

DEFORMATION

DEFORMATION

0.0460.048

0.050.0520.0540.056

-5 0 5

DEFORMATION

DEFORMATION

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Stresses graph at different % of race way groove Deformation graph at different % of race way diameters (with RPM) groove diameters (without RPM)

Stresses graph at different % of race way groove diameters (with RPM)

Conclude:

1. Dynamic load rating, life of revolutions and life of working hours are calculated for bearing 6200 bearing model.

2. CATIA V5 R20 software is used for created model for changing with percentage of ball diameter and race way groove diameter.

3. Analysis is performed for ten types of model for changing

geometrical parameters.

0

5000

10000

15000

-5 0 5

STRESSES

STRESSES

0.0480.05

0.0520.0540.0560.058

-5 0 5

DEFORMATION

DEFORMATION

0

5000

10000

15000

-4 -2 0 2 4

STRESSES

STRESS…

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4. Two types of loading condition are considered to run the

analysis.

5. Here if one percentage of ball diameter increases to normal diameter, we can reduce the deformation and stresses in without rotating and with rotating condition.

6. If we reduce the race way groove diameter we can increase the contact angle of ball diameter and deformation, stresses are decreases.

7. In all results from analysis, Deformation is in allowable limit.

8. One percentage increases in ball diameter and one percentage reduces of race way groove diameter ball bearing has chosen as optimum model.

References

1. The Contact Analysis for Deep Groove Ball Bearing Based on ANSYS TANG Zhaopinga, SUN Jianpingb.

2. Xiao Sa Studio. The latest classical courses of ANSYS and ANSYS Workbench. Beijing: Prentice Hall International, Inc.;2004.,6, p. 328.

3. Pavlov V G. Wear calculations for radial ball bearings. Russian Engineering Research,2008,28(7) , p. 643-650.

4. MA Shi-yao,ZHANG Jin-guo.Contact analysis on rolling bearing by finite element method. Machinery Design&Manufacture,2010,9, p. 8-10.

5. Gangbencunsan, HUANG. Zhiqiang. Design and Calculation of Ball bearing [M] .Beijing: Prentice Hall International, Inc.,

6. design , modeling and analysis of a single raw four point angular contact split ball bearing to increase its life .pranavB.Bhatt, prof NL.Mehta

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WAR HYSTERIA AND DISILLUSIONMENT IN THE POETRY

OF FIRST WORLD WAR

P.V.Siva Giri Research Scholar

Dravidian University Kuppam, ,A.P

“This was the period of euphoria when it was still possible that was tolerably chivalrous affair offering welcome opportunities for heroism and self sacrifice and to hope that war would be over in six months” I.M. Parsons.

In fact, the First World War witnessed the death of twenty one million people; while eight and a half million people fell in action and twelve and a half million civilians were killed as a consequence of military action, genocide, massacre starvation and disease; The catastrophic victory however, started with a bang in 1914. In the early stages, it was rather more in the spirit of a Jehad or Crusade. As stated

earlier, the enthusiasm of Britain could be a yearning for a sense of relief from the tedium and monotony of the highly commercialized civilization. She found herself in an inveterate desire to break down the barrier of insularity and claim her empathy with the rest of the changing world. Eminent critics like Pinto have stated that “part of it was the outcome of the moral sense derived from the English puritan tradition which had been starved, corrupted but not killed, in a world of competitive commerce and which now seemed to have found an outlet in heroic action, (Pinto 122). C.M. Bowra was of the opinion that the mood of England grew out of a belief that only through great sacrifice and redemption could society be purged of its complacency and grossness.

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Thomas Hardy whose poems breathed fatalism and exhaled

pessimism gives expression to the enthusiastic spirit of the young Englishmen of 1914 in his poem ‘Men who March away‘. In fact, this poem may be regarded as the precursor of war poetry, infused with a sense of deep patriotism, bordering almost with religious fervour.

‘In our heart of hearts believing Victory crowns the Just

And that braggarts must Surely bite the dust. (Parsons 18)

The poem reaches its climax in the line

‘England’s need are we. (Parsons 18)

Sir William Watson goes beyond the shibboleths of nationalistic frenzy in his perceptions of Germany:

Out of the gutters and slums of Hell Disgorged form the vast infernal sewer

Vomited forth from a world where dwell Childhood, maidenhood , wifehood pure- She arose and towered on earth and sea,

Clothed in her green putridity. (Press John 132)

A critic like John Press, however has brushed aside his war

exhortations as “mere chauvinistic rubbish at the outbreak of the war”. Rupert Brooke who has stamped himself on the national consciousness as a war poet, echoes the mood of the young men of England who offered themselves for defence of the glory and honour of England. His sonnets, like ‘Peace’ , ‘ Safety’ , ‘The Dead’ and ‘ The soldier’, show an yearning for peace and an urge to fight, as well as zest for life ahead of an impending fate. ‘The solider’ amply testifies to this:

If I should die, think only this of me That there is some corner of a foreign field

There shall be In that rich earth a richer dust concealed. (Wiley, 491)

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His poem embodies a stoical attitude to war and calls upon the youth for restoration of noble heritage:

Honour has come back, as a king to earth And paid his subjects with a royal wage And nobleness walks in our ways again

And we have come into our heritage. (Wiley, 491) Here is not only his refusal to surrender to enveloping gloom,

despair and frustration but also a pure and total identification with his country. He, in fact, advances forwards the brink with absolute cause and a heart laden with true nationalistic fervour. Another poem of Robert Brooke is ‘Safety’ which brings out his full faith in the

‘righteous’ war. In one of his letters, he has even exclaimed that “death might be an admirable solution.”(Young 268) The poem pays a pure tribute to the indefatigable strength of the British soldiers:

We have built a house that is not for time’s throwing We have gained peace unshaken by pain for every

War knows no power. Safe shall be my going, Secretly armed against all death’s Endeavour

Safe through all safety’s lost, safe where men of all; And if these poor limbs die, safest of all (Young 188)

‘Peace’ is another poem of Rupert Brooke which overcomes all the enveloping uncertainties and lurking doubts in regard to the continuance of war and sounds the bugles for concerted action:

Now God he thanked who has match’d us with his hour And caught our youth and wakened us from sleeping,

(Young 187) Brooke’s poem ‘1914’ is known not only for its castigation of industrialized world but also the emotional character of patriotism of English men in 1914 which felt that in defense of an idyllic England , death was a wonderful opportunity and a reward. Mr. Bernard

Bergonzi, was, indeed, right in saying that Brooke seemed to be speaking for his generation, “Innumerable young men responded to the war with feelings that were a compound of traditional patriotism and

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boredom with the world they had grown up. In his poetry he offers us an impression of a brilliant attractive personality absorbed in the contemplation of itself…tender with a sense of suffering of others and the comradeship of endurance and pain.” (Rupert 149-153)

John press’s comments that “most of them regarded conflict if not as a crusade, at least as a high adventure under taken for noble ends are indeed pertinent” (Press, 133). Herbert Asquith who apart from serving the British Army on the Western Front, even authored ‘The volunteer’ and other poems. Referring to a clerk who ‘goes to join the men of Agincourt’, he says:

His lance is broken: But he lies content With that High hour in which he lived and died. (Larkin 157)

Mention must also be made of the Jingoistic poetry of Greenfell who won honours for his gallant services in France but died from the wounds during the course of the war. He calls the war ‘a big picnic’ without the objectlessness of a picnic” (Press, 133). His poem ‘Into Battle’ celebrates the flattering ideals of heroism:

And when the burning moment breaks And all things else are out of mind

And only joy of battle takes Him by the throat and makes him blind. (Larkin 144)

Robert Nichols is another poet of Georgian descent. He fought in France with the Royal Artillery and was declared invalid. He returned home after the battle of Somme and wrote poignant poems like ‘Ardour and Endurance (1917) and ‘The Day’s March’.

And now tears are not mine I have release From the Former and the latter pain

Like the mid sea, I rock in boundless peace Calm rain! Calm sea! Calm found Long sought in vain (Parsons 49)

Gates, the subaltern in the poem thinks of the men ‘to whose whole safety he is accountable and does not even for a moment think of

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the enveloping gloom a head and around’. In response to his poem, an anonymous remark surfaced in the Times Literary Supplement. It eulogised his commitment to patriotic duties in defence of his mother land. Nothing can prevent poetry like this from taking its place among those permanent possessions of the race which remain to tell the great grand children of our soldiers to what pure heights the spirit of English men rose out of the great war’s horror of waste and ugliness, noise and pain and death.’(Nichols 330) Robert Nichols’ ‘Thanks giving’ poem celebrates the stoical endurance and tenacity of war heroes:

My ship-though blindly blown Long lost to sun or stars Still stands up alone

I need no trust in borrowed spars My strength is yet my own (Parsons 46)

Edmund Thomas is another poet who was killed at Arras in 1917. In his poem’ ‘The Trumpet’, he appealed to the soldiers to cry a halt to the day –dreaming of the romanticists and has shown a deep empathy with the nation in the hour of her crisis.

Up with the light To the old wars

Arise, Arise (Parsons 31)

Walter de La Mare’s poem ‘Virtue’ brims over with optimism despite the sight of ‘struggling soldiers’ who are ‘spent, baffled, hated and despised. He even calls upon God to grant ‘My son’s ashes lie’ ‘where these men are.’ W.B.Yeat’s poem ‘An Irish Airman foresees his Death.’ refers to the great excitement which gripped the youth in

Britain, irrespective of feelings like love and hatred which a war inspires in the people of a country:

The years to come seemed a waste of breath A waste of breath the years behind

In balance with this life, this death (Parsons 147)

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‘Antwerp’ of Ford Madox Ford is a remarkable poem praised by eminent poet and critic T.S. Eliot, as the only great poem he has met with on the subject of war. Charles Sorley, one of the most prominent war poets, discovers that “in that man’s, no man’s land and long graveyard, there is a freedom and spur.” (Press, 134) and never abandons the ideals of self-sacrifice, courage and devotion to duty that he has learnt at Marlborough

Earth that blossomed and was glad Neath the cross that Christ had Shall rejoice and blossom too

When the bullet reaches you. (Dickinson 20) Sassoon, another war poet of eminence is haunted by the vision

of triumphant England. He is inclined to comment that:

The anguish of the earth absolves our eyes Till beauty drives in all that we can see

War is our scourge. Yet war has made us wise And fighting for our freedom we are pure…

We are the happy legion, for we know Time’s but a golden wind that shakes the grass (Parsons 44)

To him, the anti-dote to the horrors of war is high companionship in a great cause,

From life we longed to share no less than others Now, having claimed this heritage of heart

What need we more, my comrades and my brothers? (Parsons 44)

Rosenberg is another poet of singular radiance in the galaxy of war poets. Though the ‘wreckage and waste’ and the murder and mayhem during the war troubled his conscience, he jumped at the out break of the war in the initial days:

Some spirit old Hath turned with malign kiss

Our lives to mould. (Parsons 93)

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To him, though the war – kiss transforms the lives of the

soldiers into ‘temporary evils’, it has the power to purge them of their sickness and restore them to man’s first innocence:

O ! Ancient crimson curse! Corrode consume

Give back this universe Its pristine bloom. (Parsons 93)

The First World War had a profound impact on English Poetry. Many promising young writers and poets have gone into the war and with their experiences in war, have come out of the war as deeply different kind of writers and poets. Poets and thinkers have used the

horrors of World War I for bringing out a sense of doubt and lack of totality to human existence and consciousness. The faith in nationalism, nation building, imperialism, military strength and patriotic identity have been brought into serious doubt and severe questioning mainly due to death and destruction at various levels. The First World War has stimulated great works of art and the western world has embraced war poetry more than any other art form.

It was in English poetry, such as that of Wilfred Owen, that the war poem has become an established genre and attained popularity. At that point of time, the term ‘Soldier Poet’ was used which slowly dropped out of favour. The evolution of the concept was linked to a distinction drawn between poets who were anti – war in attitude and those who wrote traditional war poetry. Several poets writing in English were soldiers and they had written about their experiences of War. A number of them died while in active service like the famous

Rupert Chawmer Brooke, Isaac Rosenberg, Wilfred Edward Salter Owen and Charles Hamilton Sorely. Other like Ivon Gurney and Siegfried Lorraine Sassoon had survived while many others were scarred by their experiences that were reflected in their poetry.

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Poets such as Siegfried Sassoon, Rupert Brooke and Wilfred Owen had the tradition of the Old British Romantic Poets as models and examples. Some of the poets, who had led a blissful life of privilege, have written about the delights of such beautiful pastoral experience and thanked God and the Country for giving them such experience. They were prepared to fight and die for preserving the nation. But they soon found out the nature of grisly and obscene horror of trench fighting and began to write more protest poetry. Wilfred Owen’s DULCE ET DECRUM EST , is a good example of this protest . W.B.

Yeats’s THE SECOND COMING is probably the best example of the

anguish and ceaseless pain that was the legacy of World War I on European Poets and English thought.

In fact, the great increase in awareness of British exploits was largely due to the increase in elementary education: A popular press soon sprouted up and fanned the nation into an enthusiasm for the colonial conquests. No wonder, the English viewed wars not as events

of total destruction and demolition of all civilizational values but as Jihad ‘bringing civilization to the uncivilized countries’, They believed in a sort of self confidence and a sense of righteousness about military operations. Military aggression was equated with the religious fervour of Christian self sacrifice and the heroism of ancient warriors. In the public schools, lectures were delivered with emphasis on national glory and traditional militaristic heroism. As Vera Brittain said, “Tradition stood for militaristic heroism unimpaired by the damping exercise of reason”

So infatuated were the people with the heroic visions of war that New Bolt in “Clifton Chapel” associated the ideas of heroic death with God, school, brother hood and loving the game( of war) beyond the prize. Rudyard Kipling, a most popular poet of those days did not hesitate to link ‘the Whiteman with war, conquest and purification in

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his poem ‘A song of the Whiteman’. Sorley‘s poem ‘A call to Action’ is reflective of the seepage of militarist ideas in the tender minds of school boys. Fiction and the Press in particular further fanned the flames of war hysteria even before the out - break of the war. The German press unleashed an anti –British campaign, through the articles scripted by such historians as Heinrich Von Treitschke.

In Britain, fiction with anti- German campaign having started as early as 1871, The theme of his stories was repeatedly about imminent German invasion of Britain In 1903. Erskinechild brought out ‘Riddle of the sands’ which celebrated, the strength and wisdom of Britain’s rulers and her dream of a colonial empire. At the same, A popular best seller entitled ‘Der Weltkrieg’ which painted a German conquest of Britain, inspired the Germans to readiness to war and intrepid commitment to defeat and beat the enemy back to her native

shore. Further, from 1893, Alfred Harmsworth commissioned writers like William Le Qneux and Earl Roberts to contribute a serial to the Daily Mail: The serial went on projecting the lurking fears and uncertainties a war might envelope Britain. Adding to the confusion worse confounded, Le Queux made the inadvertent comment that purpose of the book was to illustrate Britain’s utter unpreparedness for war from a military stand point. Besides, Robert Blatchford, in his articles to the Daily Mail deliberately roused a passive nation into shocking alertness by making the comment that ‘Germany was deliberately destroying the British Empire. The sales of the news papers, thus, soared to the sky and so were the fears and doubts of the English in the context of a massive scale of war with Germany. The relentless campaign of anti-German ideas over the years left a deep rooted impression of the British public that they were prepared to face

the worst they simply had imagined.

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The pacifists in both Britain and Germany were all eager to avert a catastrophic war between the two nations. But they found themselves in a minority and were handicapped by non ownership of the press. Their wise counsels’ fell flat on the Jingoistic nations engaged in internecine warfare.

The news papers of London carried out the art of suggesting the false and suppressing the truth to its highest degree of perfection. Cartoon after cartoon in the news papers encapsulated the British perception of Germany as the big bully and Belgium as the brave little victim.

In the mean time, Herbert Asquith, Prime Minister of England (1908-1916), declared in the parliament that the nation was fighting not for aggression but in defence of principles, the maintenance of which was vital to the civilization of the world. His

statement was received with loud cheers and a wave of enthusiasm and patriotism swept the nation.

In an article contributed to the The Times Robert Bridges

Commented that ‘those who fight against them (Germans) would be fighting in the holy cause of humanity and the law of love.’

The government of the day even enlisted in The Secret War Propaganda Bureau; Well- known writers like Thomas Hardy, H.G.Wells, Arnold Bennett, John Galsworthy, John Mase field, Robert Bridges ( the poet Laureate) Conan Doyle , G.K. Chesterton etal lent their pens in support of the war to spread the ‘British view point ‘ across the globe. Wirters like John Masefield, Newbolt, Conan Doyle, Robert Nichols and Rudyard Kipling were on the Government’s pay roll. A group of fifty two writers even signed a declaration entitled ‘Britain’s Destiny and duty and strongly denounced Germany saying that it had no right to impose its culture by brute force

upon other nations. They asked the citizens of Britain to pay heed to

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the call of adventure and patriotism and lofty idealism and make any sacrifice for their country. Rupert Brooke who envisioned a series of heroic feats, vast enterprise and the applause of crowds, in the early days of the war, even put his name down to join the Artist’s Rifles but on 24th August, he dropped out. For a time he even tried to secure a job as a war correspondent; Despite his offer to the army, he got himself put on waiting list. However, at the instance of Winston Churchill who was then First Lord of the Admiralty as its in charge, he visited Belgium where he witnessed the entire city being destroyed and the civilian population was in dire plight. However, unshaken by the tragic loss of lives on the Western Front and with an all consuming admiration for military heroism, he wrote a series of five sonnets entitled 1914. Writing about the impending war, in ‘The war that will end war’, H.G. Wells remarked that they assisted at the end of

a vast oppression of civilization by the Prussian militarism.

References

1. Dickinson, Patric. Soldiers ‘Verse. London: Frederick Muller Ltd., 1945.

2. Larkin, Philip. Ed. “The Oxford Book of Twentieth century English verse.” London: Oxford University press, 1973.

3. Nichols, Robert. Rev. “Poetry, war and a Young poet”. Times Literary supplement, 12th July, 1917. P 330.

4. Parsons, I.M. Men who March Away- Poems of the First World War. London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1965.

5. Pinto ,Vivian de Sola. Crisis in English poetry 1880-1940. London: Hutchison & Co., 1951.

6. Press, John. A Map who Modern English verse. Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1969.

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7. Rylands , John. The National and International Ideals.

Manchester: Manchester Publications, 1916. P 4.

8. Thorndike, Sybil. The Complete works of William Shakespeare. London: Abby Library, 1964.

9. T, Williams. The Poems of Wordsworth. London: Frederick Warne and Co. Ltd., 1925. P 113.

10. Waugh, Arthur. “Rupert Brooke and influence of War on poetry”, Book Monthly (Autumn, 1918). Reprinted in Tradition and change. London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1919. PP 149-53.

11. Wiley, Paul.L. And Harold Orel. Ed. British poetry 1880-1920. Edwardian Voices. New York: Appleton Century Crafts Educational Division.

12. Young, C.B. and K.R. Srinivasa Iyengar. Ed. “Standard

English poems.” London: Oxford University Press, 1955.

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FDI IN RETAIL- BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE OF CONSUMER

Dr Mukku Syam Babu Lecturer in Commerce & JKC Coordinator

Govt. Degree College, Razole

Introduction: The liberalization sculptures Indian economy as an attractive

destination for world capital. One of the ways to flow world capital into Indian economy is FDI. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is inflow of foreign capital into domestic assets. It is a measure of foreign ownership of domestic productive assets such as factories, land and organizations. Foreign direct investments have become the major economic driver of globalization, accounting for over half of all cross-border investments. It is cross border investment, where foreign assets are invested into the organizations of the domestic market excluding the investment in stock. It brings private funds from overseas into

products or services. The total cumulative amount of FDI inflows from April, 2000 to September, 2012 is US$ 271,915 million. In 2012, the government of India took a big reform to allow FDI in retail business. The timeline of FDI policy in retail in India is as follows:

Timeline of FDI Policy in Retail in India

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India Retail Sector:

In the year 2012, the Indian retail sector is estimated to be Rs. 18,673 billion and it accounts for around 15 percent of GDP and 8 percent of total employment. The sector is highly fragmented with about 96 percent of the stores in the unorganized sector. The Kirana stores (Mom and Pop stores) number around 12 million spread across 5,000 towns and 600,000 villages throughout India. These are mostly family owned with family labor. At the bottom of the pyramid is millions of pavement stalls in India. The structure of Indian Retail sector during 2011-12 is as follows:

The structure of Indian Retail sector

Total Retail (2011-12) Organized Retail (2011 -12)

Verticals Market

Size (INR Billion)

Percentage Share

Market Size (INR

Billion)

Percentage Share ORP

Food and Grocery 16,342 70% 390 24% 2.40% Apparel 2,727 12% 563 35% 20.60% Consumer Durables, Mobile and IT

1,358 6% 320 20% 23.60%

Home D écor and Furnishing 1,014 4% 60 4% 5.90%

Beauty, Persona and Healthcare

1.238 5% 160 10% 12.90%

Pharmacy 298 1% 30 2% 10.10% Jewellery, Watches and Eye Care

940 4% 130 8% 13.80%

Footwear 605 3% 98 6% 16.20% Books and Music 149 1% 16 1% 10.70% TOTAL 23,433 100% 1,607 100% 7.00% Source: Central Statistical of Bce (CSO), National Sample Survey of Bce (NSSO), YES BANK Analysis

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Foreign Direct Investment will help to strengthen the

infrastructure of retail segment which includes back-end storage capacity, better store ambience and in-store merchandising systems and supply chain practices. Modern retail practices will come forward to gear up the economy. Another benefit will be offering better range of products with value, using their global reach and economies of scale. Through FDI in retail, major foreign players are now expected to change the game and create a win-win situation for the farmers, suppliers, consumers, the country's economy as well as the enterprise itself. FDI in retail is expected to bring in adequate infrastructure creation, efficient management of the supply chain, controlled food inflation, better quality product offerings to the consumers and simultaneously create numerous job opportunities directly as well as indirectly.

Consumer Behaviour: Consumer behaviour involves the psychological processes that

consumers go through in recognizing needs, finding ways to solve these needs, making purchase decisions (e.g., whether or not to purchase a

product and, if so, which brand and where), interpret information, make plans, and implement these plans (e.g., by engaging in comparison shopping or actually purchasing a product). The FDI in retail will also influence the behaviour of Indian consumer.

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More Value-Consciousness:

The first wave of FDI in multi-brand retail is likely to be in hypermarkets and discount stores. This includes brands such as Walmart, Tesco, Best Buy and Carrefour. These retailers focus on offering the consumer excellent value, through everyday low pricing. For instance, Walmart, the world’s largest retailer, proudly announces its credo as “Save Money, Live Better.” Tesco, UK’s largest retailer, advertises with an even sharper slogan – “Every little helps.” India’s own Big Bazaar has already set this trend in motion, but these retailers will be much larger names which bring even higher pricing power, and far deeper pockets that will help communicate their value offerings far and wide. These messages will, in turn, make Indian consumers even more value-conscious, particularly as Indians, whether affluent or middle-class, have always believed in bargaining for best value. Consequently, consumers will hunt more aggressively for the best prices, rather than accept what their nearestkirana store offers them.

Bulk Shopping Will Increase:

Today, Indian consumers walk across to the neighbourhood store whenever they feel like, every single day, for items they want to buy. When large global retailers offer extraordinarily low prices and range, they are more likely to save their money and buy only from them. However, since the huge Walmarts and Sainsburys are likely to be located at some distance from homes, particularly given the high rental costs of high streets in Indian cities, they may not be convenient to visit every day.

Indian households drive to the mega-stores at less frequent intervals, and buy in bulk on each such visit. This will mark a fundamental change from how Indians shop today. There will also be interesting indirect effects of this change in behaviour. Homes will need larger refrigerators to store the fresh merchandise which has been

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bought in bulk. People will gradually shift to cars which offer larger storage space in their boots. Housewives will have more evenings free for non-shopping activity, and soaps on television may therefore have new time slot opportunities.

Choice and Confusion Galore:

Multi storage malls having space of over 100,000 sq. ft., will come. These supermarket will display millions of brands and products on sale, across foods and beverages, other FMCG products and durables. Then there will be a lot of choices are available. In the face of such choice, consumers will in fact be confused about which product to buy, even as they grapple with hundreds of brands in each product category. Marketers will, therefore, have to differentiate their brands even more powerfully, even as they attempt to compete for consumers’ attention in the midst of such fragmentation.

Buying Much More Than Necessary:

Global retailers have the financial muscle to make frequent offers to consumers – such as lower seasonal prices, attractive combo deals, buy one and get one free, and so on. These tempting offers are

likely to have a magnetic effect on many consumers who are unable to walk away from great deals, even if they do not need the product being pushed. Therefore, people will end up buying products and brands which are not essential to their lives, hence consuming items they had never even considered earlier. Such shopping behaviour may have much undesirable social and personal effect though, including wasteful consumption, obesity and household clutter.

Conclusion:

Therefore, even while consumers are attracted by the excellent value and range offered by global retailers such as Walmart, they will continue to seek these value-added services which add overall value to

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their lives. Sterile shopping visits may leave them dissatisfied. Hence, it is quite likely that consumers will not cut their umbilical cord with the local kirana store. They will instead find their balance between shopping at these neighbourhood stores and the large global chains, with some products being bought at the former and other categories at the latter type of stores. Once again, marketers can discover valuable opportunities by understanding these new shopping choices.

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