Volume 7, Issue 7(2), July 2018 International Journal of ...

Volume 7, Issue 7(2), July 2018 International Journal of Multidisciplinary

Educational Research

Published by Sucharitha Publications 48-12-3/7, Flat No: 302, Alekya Residency Srinagar, Visakhapatnam – 530 016 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in

Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr. K. Victor Babu Associate Professor, Institute of Education Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia.

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Vice Chancellor Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Former Director Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Assistant Professor Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Department of Anthropology Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Department of Political Economy University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Austria Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Moscow, Russia Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru

Prof. Igor Kondrashin The Member of The Russian Philosophical Society The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Rector St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi I Ketut Donder Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Indonesia Prof. Roger Wiemers Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Dr. N.S. Dhanam Department of Philosophy Andhra University Visakhapatnam Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University Visakhapatnam

Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Coordinator A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Dr.S.Kannan Department of History Annamalai University Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram

Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Department of Education North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong

Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Technology People’s Republic of China

Dr.Sandeep Narula Dept. of Management Sciences IIHMR University, Jaipur Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College University of Calcutta, Calcutta Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Dravidian University, Kuppam Andhra Pradesh Dr. K. John Babu Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada

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C O N T E N T S Volume 7 Issue 7(2) July 2018 S. No

Pg. No

1. The Management of Village Tourism (A Comparative Study on Village Tourism in Bali Indonesia and Andhra Pradesh India)

Ni Luh Putu Agustini Karta, Ida Ketut Kusumawijaya, Victor Babu Koppula

1

2. Participation of Scheduled Caste Households in theMgnregs

Chandra Sekhar Kuraganti

16

3. Sexual Violence Among Married Women: A Study ofGreater Hyderabad Muncipal Corporation Area

Subbalakshmi.N.V.S

26

4. Library Resources and Services in the SelectedEngineering College Libraries of Karnataka, India-ASurvey

Satheesha.H and Mallikarjun Vaddankere

39

5. Development and Standardization of Awareness Test onVisual Disability

T.N.Rama and P. Renuka

49

6. The Global Era on the new Women: ShashiDeshpande’s that Long Silence

Suribabu Ambati

56

7. 65

8. Indian Nationalist Movement and its Impact on VietnamK.P.Thirupal Naik

75

9. Ukkxiqjh xhrksa ds izeq[k jkxJket; ukbzd

80

10. Applications of Internet of Things for Smart Libraries: AnOverview

P.J. Rosario Vasantha Kumar

97

11. International Peace and Girl Child Labour:A Conflicting Reality

Chandrakala Diyali

105

12. Performance of Mgnregs in Andhra Pradesh – A Special Reference to Chittoor District

G. Siva Sankar

123

13. C.H.M.S.Kumari

140

14. का यष न पणत ा ण

शवरामःभ वत

144

15. A Study of Achievement Motivation Assertiveness and Anxiety Level of Professional and Nonprofessional College Students

Puppala Malathi

150

16.

P.Subash Chandrabose

162

17. The Religion as the Source of Happiness in the World Aaliya

168

18. Buddhist Site ‘Salihundam’ : A Cultural Study T.Surendra Reddy

176

19. Indian Diaspora Fiction of Indian Women Writers in America

N.Nagabhushanam

183

20. Temples and Basadis Mentioned in the Inscriptions of Chalukyajayasimha II

Shivaraju

191

21. Role of Women in the History of Indian Society Y.Ranganatha

203

22. Socio-Economic Status of Tribal Women in India Manjunatha.K.N

208

Dr. K. VICTOR BABU M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit)

Associate Professor, Institute of Education & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia.

ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Impact Factor :5.818 (2018)

Index Copernicus Value: 5.16

Editorial……

It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect.

The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action.

The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute

Dr.K.Victor Babu

Editor-in-Chief

SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 5.818; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 7, ISSUE 7(2), JULY 2018

THE MANAGEMENT OF VILLAGE TOURISM

(A Comparative Study on Village Tourism in Bali, Indonesia and Andhra Pradesh, India)

Ni Luh Putu Agustini Karta*, Ida Ketut Kusumawijaya* and

Victor Babu Koppula** Triatma Mulya Institute of Economy Indonesia*,

Andhra University, India**

Abstract : The purpose of this research was to compare the implementation of village tourism in Bali, Indonesia and Andhra Pradesh, India. This research project was conducted with a qualitative approach. Observation, in depth interviewed and comparative study conducted to the key informant from each research object. The finding of this research that both of village tourism in these two countries has similarity in aspect of improving economy, culture protection and environment conservation. The fundamental difference is that the concept of village tourism in Indonesia is integration between attractions, accommodation and supporting facilities presented in a community life structure that integrates with the prevailing rules and traditions of local people. Local people in Indonesia full involved in managing village tourism, so they got a lot of benefits. It was fully difference to India; the tourist villages are managed by private party and government. The local communities only act as employee, so they have never gotten maximum benefits. In order the village tourism is the mainstay way to develop local economy, culture preservation and conservation of environment, both of the countries should committed to improve the quality of village tourism.

Key words: Management, Village Tourism, Comparative, Impact on Econamy.

INTRODUCTION

Bali as a potential tourist destination in Indonesia is very focused in developing tourism. Besides of beach tourism, shopping tourism, rafting, and snorkeling, the local government of Bali is also focusing on developing alternative tourism in the form of community based tourism (CBT). One of CBT activity is the tourist village. The

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concept of the tourist village is developed in the framework of equitable development, preservation of traditional culture and the improvement of the local economy. Bali Provincial Government allocates a budget of up to 7.5 billion annually for the management of twenty-five tourist villages on the island of Bali beginning in 2015 (Subhiksu, 2014). The target of Bali tourism village in 2015-2018 is 100 tourist villages, according to Bali Mandara Volume II Program by the governor of Bali (Kadisparda, 2014). In 2014 Bali Tourism Office has received submission of 180 proposals of tourist villages. This requires a rigorous selection to eliminate 80 tourist villages that have not fulfilled the requirements as a tourist village. To each selected tourist village, the government allocates Rp 300 million (Subhiksu, 2014).

The government’s efforts to equitable distribution of tourism impact, poverty alleviation achieve through tourist village program. The public response is also very positive. The people are racing to propose the proposed tourist village by highlighting the culture, the characteristics of each region that was very unique and diverse. The mindset and the paradigm of society towards the role of the tourist village in improving their life expectancy already imprinted in their minds. Unconsciously this diverse society unearthed the uniqueness of its area to be preserved, packaged so that it becomes a potential product to be sold to tourists. The government has succeeded in stimulating the community to be more concerned about the environment, culture, customs and uniqueness of their respective regions.

Along with the rapid public interest doing local community-based activities, then the government must formulate a strategic strategy in managing tourist village in Bali. The number of tourist villages proposed in Bali reaches 180 villages, while on the other hand the readiness of human resources in the field is still limited. English competence, the skills of serving tourists, international standard cooking skills are still very minimal. In other words the ability of the community to manage the tourist village is not optimal. Program to develop 100 tourist villages in the province of Bali has been pioneered since 2013. Until the end of 2017, total amount of 67 tourist villages were developed and empowered by the Bali Tourism Office (Kompas, 2017).

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On the management aspect; tourists village in Bali Indonesia and India have similarities. In order to avoid the monotonous, tourist village implementation model, a specific management pattern is required. Each region should feature different characteristics so that tourists got variety tourist activities. This research analyzed the management aspect of village tourism in descriptive qualitative approach. The findings of this study are expected to illustrate the applied management concept in developing village tourism. The analysis of the impact of tourist villages on the economy in local communities is needed as a tool to decide which aspects should be emphasized.

This research collaboration is conducted by considering each country has the same focus on developing the economy of local people through tourist village. In Indonesia; the selected research object is Penglipuran Tourism Village, Bedulu, and Pentingsari. In India; the research object are Aruku Valey, Drawaka Tirumala, Amarawati Temple, and Simhachalam. Management and the impact of implementation of village tourism in all of this object will be analyze in qualitative approach.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Some research conducted on community-based tourism aspect in India, have some similarity to community based tourism in Indonesia. Nageshwar Rao (2002), observed of bad management aspect happen in village tourism due to limited skilled of human resources. Khaushik et al. (2009) analyzed that another aspect which is impact to village tourism management are psychology factors, limited of basic facilities owned by villages, lack in communications, and no standard of services, greatly affect the interest of tourists visiting the tourist village. This means that management aspects; include human elements, tools, methods, machines and money are the top priority in developing tourist villages.

Various studies have been conducted by researchers on local people's perceptions of tourism. Nicholas (2007), William and Lowson (2001), Hermandez et al. (1996) states that the local community is very concerned about something that is commercial and social value is done to the village and cultural heritage for the benefit of tourism and the preservation of resources and environment. Shkira et al. (2011) found

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that community-based tourism is capable of enhancing the conservation of natural resources. The local people earn income from leasing their land, entrepreneur, providing homestay become workers so they got better value for their life.

Mensah and Ernest's research (2013) states that community involvement in community-based tourism activities is elusive and inductive, according to Tosun's (1999) typology. This study shows that the local Bobori Forest community in Ashanti Region, Ghana, has only benefited less from eco-tourism activities. Research Widiyanto et al. (2008) in Ketingan tourist village, found that the development of tourist villages still rely on natural resources. The quality of human resources, marketing, service and quality improvement has not been optimized, thus negatively impacting the sustainability of tourist villages. This is inversely related to the results of the study of Samah and Aref (2009) research’s in Malaysia's tourist village. Samah and Aref (2009) found that community participation in local community-based tourism development requires community involvement in initiation, planning, implementation, decision making and management.

Communities take collective action, mutualism, sharing interests by doing activities together. Involvement of the community as stakeholders indirectly carry out management functions. Karta, et al. (2015) research on community-based tourism activities at Kintamani Bangli, shows that stakeholders have different roles and paradigms in the management of tourist attractions. This difference has a negative impact on the feedback given by local people in serving tourists.

Community Based Tourism in Village Tourism

Some tourism concepts, state that people have an important position and role for the sustainability of the destination. According to Islam and Carlsen (2010); Putra and Pitana (2010), community-based tourism (CBT) and Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT) are the right programs to alleviate poverty and create employment opportunities for the community.

This program further more empowered the local communities, giving priority to the rural poor communities, while maintaining the culture and the environment. Hunter and Howards (1995) research concludes that Community-based tourism (CBT), protection and environmental conservation are prioritized for the purpose of

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empowering the community (Community Empowerment). Hunter and Howards (1995) outlines the CBT concept in Figure 1 below:

Gambar 2.2

Community Based Tourism Concept Source: Hunter and Howards (1995).

Community-based tourism activities, protection, and nature conservation can mobilize communities to contribute to become more empowered on the economic and social aspect. Community-based tourism activities consist of individual contribution in built tourism facilities, tourism organizations, marketing tourism, and developing small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Institutionally, community-based tourism can be implemented by relevant local agencies that are able to assist in marketing, branding, quality control, regional planning, and public relations, Hunter and Howards (1995).

Another paradigm of community-based tourism is linked to local communities in rural life and marginalized economies. Tourist can be involved in rural life, spending money and learn the traditional culture and ritual. Tourists are invited to come to the village, or tourist destination, thus benefiting the community. Community-based tourism also involved people in rural wild life, traditional cultural and ritual recognition as well as other local wisdom (Responsible travel.com, 2013). Community-based tourism contributes a sustainable impact to the environment and the conservation of natural resources.

In CBT Principles and Meaning (2013), explained that local communities play a full role in CBT. There are three aspects as references in the implementation of CBT, namely: socio-economic, cultural, and environment. Furthermore, Selvam's (1998) study in Kathiresan (2010); research Samah and Aref (2010), found that the participation of local communities is crucial to the success of CBT.

Community-based tourism (CBT) Perlindungan Pelestarian

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Based on the above study, the elements as indicators in CBT are classified as follows. 1. Community participation focused on participation and community

involvement in all community-based tourism activities. 2. Improvement of socio-economic of local communities, with

indicators of improving living standards, prosperity, and minimizing unemployment.

3. Preservation of tradition, culture and environmental preservation. Community Empowerment According to McGettigan and Burns (2004), in the community empowerment cycle that community empowerment through volunteer input is a key criterion at all levels of the community empowerment cycle. The utility value, the position in the social community, the sense of loss of the community, the neglect of the city, the immigration, and the anger of the community encourages a sense of volunteer participation of the community to participate in society. These create a society to proud of its socio-cultural, economic, and empowerment. They also have a high social sense, economic power, and high commitment towards the better young generation. In more detail it is illustrated in Figure 2 below.

Utility of the Community Values, place on social activities

Loss of the Community, Dereliction of town, immigration and anger.

Pride of Place of the Community; Economic,

social prosperity, pride of place, quality of life

Sense of Place in the Community, Creating Enterprise, reducing Emigration, and commitment to future generation.

Figure 2 Community Empowerment Cycles Source: McGettigan dan Burns (2004)

Voluntary Input

Empowerment

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Previous research, Agustini and Suarthana, (2013) concluded

that government authority is very limited in the implementation of Destination Management Operation (DMO) in managing Kintamani, Bali. The helplessness limits the Economic of the volunteer spirit in local community. It has not occurred to them to participate further when their clothing and food needs have not been met.

Destination Management in Village Tourism

Destination management approaches was implemented to ensure economic progress and benefits for local communities. In addition, destination management is useful in preventing degradation of all aspects of Local Tourism Destination (LTD) management (Manentte and Meneghello, 2006).

Rural tourism development tends to be complex because it involves many parties including private agents, governments, and local communities themselves. As a consequence and evolution in facing the challenge of managing the destinations, it could not be sold as a unique destination, but must be packaged as products based on market needs (Manente and Mighetti, 2006). Manente (2008) research found that it requires diversification and differentiation to generate positive and beneficial perceptions of value for all aspects of destination management as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The Destination Management Approach Model Source: Manentte (20

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Involving local communities is to improve the welfare of the people, the conservation of resources inherent in the social life of the community. Pomeroy and Katon (2000) research states that joint management or co-management or partnership is needed in order to share authority and responsibility with government, local communities, stakeholders, private and academia. Collaboration of all elements in a destination management accelerates the achievement of the destination's development goals.

Kathiresan (2003) describes the types of stakeholders involved in destination management, consist of local user communities, local communities and government agencies. Agencies and associations involved in destination management in Indonesia include PHRI (Association of Indonesian Hotels and Restaurants), ASITA (Association of Indonesian Tour and Travel Agencies), BHA (Bali Hotel Association), BVA (Bali Villa Association), HPI (Guides Association Indonesia), and GIPI (Association of Indonesian Businessman in Tourism Industry). This association has an interest in promoting tourism destinations, planning, developing destinations, and contributing to the increasing number of tourist visits. The challenge faced in the implementation of destination management is the understanding of the destination as a system, then it is understood who the perpetrators are, how they relate, and their interactions within competitive tourism environments.

Methodology

Some of the above research shows that good management in the management of tourist village is absolutely necessary. The research study which was conducted in two countries, Indonesia and India was done with a qualitative approach. All of the tourist villages have different characteristics. Observation and in depth interviewed conducted to the key informant of each research object. FGDs with stakeholders in tourist villages were conducted in five tourism villages in Andhra Pradesh, India and five tourist villages in Indonesia. The tourism village in India consist of Araku Valley and Borra Caves, Dwaraka Tirumala, Vijayawada, Amaravathi, Simhachalam, Annavaram. Village tourism in Indonesia, consist of: Village Tourism Bedulu, Pengelipuran, Blimbingsari, and Pentingsari. Data also collected from the representative of tourism government, the foundation, NGO, and the local community. A comparative study was

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done to summarize the similarities and the differences between them, particularly in the management of tourism villages’ implementation. The differences, uniqueness, advantages and disadvantages on different aspects of each tourist village in both countries able to create a specific model of village tourism management.

DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

Village Tourism in Indonesia

Government of Bali declared a special policy on the development of culture-based tourism villages on Perda No. 16 of 2009. In this regulation is regulated on efforts to increase tourism destinations in Bali, regional development and encourage the village level economy in Bali. Tourism village is one of the development of community-based tourism sector (CBT) based on Balinese culture. Communities provide facilities and infrastructure while maintaining environmental sustainability, emphasizing the economic development goals of the community.

Village tourism concept in Bali, Indonesia is referring to the concept and definition of village tourism by Wiendu (1993). Village tourism concept is a form of integration between attractions, accommodation and supporting facilities presented in a community life structure that integrates with the prevailing rules and traditions. Tourist village usually has a tendency of rural areas that have uniqueness and attractiveness as a tourist destination.

The guest stay in local house, involved with local people, they learn painting, cooking traditional food, cock fighting, visit temple and local genius tourist object. They pay special price for each package. Local people are friendly serving them in traditional touch. These activities manage by local foundation, local group of communities.

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Figure 1: Activities in Village Tourism Indonesia

Source: private document (2015)

Village tourism activities are packaged as the tourist requirement. It was quite different for local tourist and foreign tourist. This package also sold in group or individual. Local people directly got the benefit of their contribution in tourism village activities. That’s why village tourism in Indonesia growing better than in India. The government also more concern in developing village tourism.

Village Tourism in India

Based on the result of preliminary research in India, has found that tourist villages also the mainstay of local government to accelerate the development of the country. The government also wants that tourism village contributes to the improvement of the local community economy, preservation of tradition, culture and environmental conservation. Actually the implementation of village tourism in India has different style with Indonesia. Tourist villages in India are more appropriately referred as rural tourism. OECD (1994) defines rural tourism is a complex multi-faceted activity: it is not just farm-based tourism. It includes farm-based holidays but also comprises special interest nature holidays and ecotourism, walking, climbing and riding

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holidays, adventure, sport and health tourism, hunting and angling, educational travel, arts and heritage tourism, and, in some areas, ethnic tourism. Activities of village tourism in India more precise as a rural tourism. Accommodation provided by private party, there was no interaction between the guests to the local people. They only come for visiting the village for holiday, adventure, hunting, or farm based tourism. The government and private sector gain the profit from the activities. Local people are only as employees or street vendor.

These pictures describe my research activities in the rural life in Andhra Pradesh India. Religious tourist activities, and local people activities in Araku Valley and Museum, Dwaraka Tirumala, Vijayawada, Amaravathi, Simhachalam, and Annavaram. All this place are initiated and manage by the government.

Figure 2: Activities in Village Tourism in India

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Source: private document (2018)

Based on the both profile of village’s tourism, it showed that management concept of tourist villages in India and Indonesia has similarity and differences. Table:1 below describe the comparative study of implementation of village tourism in Indonesia and in India:

Table: 1 . Similarities and Differences of Village Tourism in India and Indonesia

NO ASPECT INDONESIA INDIA 1 Concept Village tourism = village

tourism Village tourism = rural tourism

2 Definition & contextual

According to Wiendu (1993), tourist village is a form of integration between attractions, accommodation and supporting facilities presented in a community life structure that integrates with the prevailing rules and traditions. Tourist village usually has a tendency of rural areas that have uniqueness and attractiveness as a tourist destination.

OECD (1994) Rural tourism is a complex multi-faceted activity: it is not just farm-based tourism. It includes farm-based holidays but also comprises special interest nature holidays and ecotourism, walking, climbing and riding holidays, adventure, sport and health tourism, hunting and angling, educational travel, arts and heritage tourism, and, in some areas, ethnic tourism.

3 Organizer Private, government, local communities, foundation, NGO, religious institutions

Private and government. Local people only as employees.

4 Attraction, accommodation & supporting facilities.

Integrated and provide by local people.

Not integrated, own and manage by private sector.

5 Local Community

Full participate in all activities

Only as an employee in the tourist object, hostel or souvenir shop.

6 Activities Prevailing roles and Farm base, ecotourism

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traditions, culture, religious activities, archeology

base, hunting, heritage tourism, ethnic tourism.

7 Advantage Direct improving quality of life of local community. Creating specific local product for specific market.

Profit / gain to private or government. Only providing mass product.

8 Impact Direct improving quality of life of local community.

Profit / gain to private or government.

According to this research, both countries emphasize community-based tourism activities (CBT) as potential alternative tourism to preserve the culture, improve the economy and welfare of local communities. The different climates, cultures, natural resources and human resources involved in the management of tourist villages need to be solved also in various strategies.

Based on the results of research on the five tourist villages in India, concluded the fundamental difference in the concept and implementation of tourist villages. This differences also makes the village tourism program in Indonesia is very potential in accelerating the equity of development. Community-based tourism activities in tourist villages in Indonesia are able to involve the community, improve community economy, preservation of culture, traditions and ancestral heritage as well as environmental conservation. Community empowerment efforts in village tourism activities foster participation voluntarily, serve with pleasure, proud of the area visited and live mingle with tourists. Thus emigration can be anticipated earlier

Destination management implemented to ensure economic progress and benefit for local people. In both of village tourism need commitment to develop. Particularly in Indonesia; requires skilled human resources in handling this project. There is direct involvement to the guest, so they should have sense of hospitality, high willingness to help and professional in handle the guest. Their management competencies will facilitate them in serving the standard product and satisfying the guest. So the activities of village tourism will totally impact to quality of life through improving the local people economy, culture, environmental conservation.

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Conclusion

Generally tourist villages feature natural elements, local cultural heritage, customs, local food, and local uniqueness. The local people's paradigm of service, their contribution, their competence is crucial to the success of the tourist village. The whole tourist village that became the object of research has similarities with other tourist villages in the world. In order the village tourism is the mainstay way to develop local economy, culture preservation and conservation of environment, both of the countries should committed to improve the quality of village tourism.

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17. Nicolas, N. (2007) Stakeholder Perspective on the Pitons Management Area in St. Lucia: Potential for Sustainable Tourism Development. PhD Dissertation in Recreation. Park and Tourism of Florida, United States.

18. OECD (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development Paris. 1994. Tourism Strategy and Rural Development.

19. Perda No 12 Tahun 2009 Pasal 12 tentang Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah Provinsi Bali tahun 2009-2029.

20. Putra, I.N.D. & Pitana, I.G. 2010. Pariwisata Pro-Rakyat Meretas Jalan Mengentaskan Kemiskinan di Indonesia,Jakarta: Kementrian Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata Republik Indonesia., Jakarta.

21. Responsible Travel.com. 2013. Travel Like a Local, What Is Community Based Tourism? Available from http://www.responsibletravel.com/copy/what-is-community-based-tourism

22. Samah, Abu, Asnarulkhadi and Aref, Fariborzed. (2009). People’s Participation in Community Development (A Case Study in Planned Village Settlement in Malaysia). Journal of World Rural Observation, 2009; 1 (2) 45-54. ISSN 1944-6543.

23. Selvam, V. 1998. Community participation in the conservation and management of mangrove wetlands: A planning framework. An Anthology of Indian Mangroves : Seshaiyana, 5 (2): 57‐ 63

24. Shkira, Esmeralda., Zoto, Stela., Theodhori, Oriola. (2011). Community Based Tourism for Sustainable Tourism Management in Korca Region. Faculty of Economic, Korca Albania.

25. Tosun.C. 1999. Towards a Typology of Community Participation in the Tourism Development Process.Anatolia 10(2): 113-134.

26. Wiendu, Nuryati. 1993. “Concept, Perspective and Challenges”. Laporan Konferensi

27. William, J., and R. Lowson (2001) Community Issues and Resident Opinions of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 28, 269-290.

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PARTICIPATION OF SCHEDULED CASTE HOUSEHOLDS IN THE MGNREGS

Chandra Sekhar Kuraganti

Research Scholar Department of Economics

Acharya Nagarjuna University Guntur

Abstract

This paper analyzes participation of the Scheduled Caste households in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). The study is based on primary data collected using questionnaire from 500 Scheduled Caste MGNREGS workers in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. The study finds that significant percentage of the sample respondents are registered either through Gram Sabha or thorough oral request. Merely one sixth of the sample respondents had obtained job cards within 15 days of registration. About three fourths of the sample respondents are keeping their Job Cards with themselves. Only one adult is employed under MGNREGS in the case of majority of the sample households. As far as factors influencing participation of sample Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS is concerned, it is noticed from the study that various factors like enhancement of wage rate, registration and issue of job cards at the door step, creating awareness about various provisions of the scheme and payment of timely wages.

Keywords: Scheduled Castes, MGNREGS, influencing factors

This paper analyzes participation of the Scheduled Caste households in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). The study has examined the registration and working details of the sample respondents, which include mode of registration, waiting period between registration and obtaining job card, custody of job card and number of adults employed. The study has also examined the factors influencing participation of Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS, satisfaction with amount of wages, perception of sample respondents on attitude of officials connected with MGNREGS and convenience of working time.

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Barna Maulick (2009)1 carried out a study titled, “Implications of NREGA – District Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh: A Case Study”, to examine employment generation under MGNREGS. It is found that NREGA is playing the role of a catalyst in rural economy. NREGA has also encouraged the transfer of local solutions and best practices through the online Knowledge Network. Majority of the beneficiary workers were in the age group of 18-35 years. The beneficiaries came from scheduled castes households also. Women participation is very low. There has been no involvement of the contractor and the machines in the works relate to the schemes.

Shanthi and Geetha (2014)2 assessed the impact of MGNREGS in enhancing quality of life of Tribals. It is found from the study that under the MGNREGA, the sample beneficiaries have marginally gained in terms of better employment opportunities and increased days of employment, which had improved their per capita income and helps to lead a better standard of life. The quality of life index prepared revealed that the tribal households, especially those below the poverty line had poor socio-economic index and the need to ameliorate the living standards by enhancing their income levels. It is opined that there is huge potential for using the MGNREGA programme as an approach to reduce the vulnerability in the livelihood of tribal household both in the short term and long term.

The study made by Rishabh Khosla (2011)3 attempts to measure the effect of caste reservation policies on the provision of public goods and services in the Gram Panchayats in Andhra Pradesh using data from the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. The data set for this study is comprised of GP-level electoral, reservation and NREGA employment aggregates. The findings in this paper have clearly shown that the functioning of Panchayat Raj institutions is highly context-dependent. Even within the unitary institutional space of Andhra Pradesh, there are tremendous variations in socio-politics, caste-competition, and local institutions, all of which conspire to influence the outcome of reservations. The results lay to rest the view that NREGS in Andhra Pradesh is insulated from politics. Even in Telangana, where it appears that the NREGS is most neutral to politics and caste, one can reasonably argue that the situation is only the result of a political stalemate between political parties and caste alliances. The findings in coastal Andhra and parts of Telangana also show that

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reservation unequivocally has effects on the distribution of NREGS resources. Thus, at least in certain circumstances, the panchayat system still appears to carry some political and institutional weight at the grass-roots level.

The study made by Prasanna V. Salian and Leelavathi (2014)4 evaluated the performance of MGNREGA in Karnataka since inception and examined the issues and challenges in the implementation of MGNREGA in Karnataka. It is suggested that a quality awareness campaign (IEC) with a focus on details of the provisions and entitlement of the scheme should be undertaken to popularise the scheme and to bring awareness among the rural households and general public to know about the objectives of the scheme and their basic entitlements wherever the low ground awareness is noticed. Strengthening of demand registration processes so that all those who wish to apply for work under MGNREGA be facilitated and unmet needs for wage employment be fully addressed. Provision of adequate human resources at all levels of programme implementation holds the key to success of MGNREGA. The PRIs need functionaries, especially at Gram Panchayats to perform to their fullest potential. Further, all who are involved with the planning and implementation under the Act need some kind of capacity building.

The study made by Binoy Goswami and Alok Ranjan Dutta (2014)5 examined the trends in the number of job cards issued and work demanded against the job cards over time in MGNREGS in Assam. The study has also examined the participation of vulnerable groups in terms of employment provided is maintained over time. Further, the study has assessed the awareness level about various provisions in the MGNREGA among the beneficiaries and also analyzed the impact of the Act on the beneficiaries. The study observed that the shares of the Scheduled Castes (SC) and the Scheduled Tribes (ST) in total mandays generated in Assam have declined over the years. It has been observed that demand for work under the MGNREGA in Assam has declined sharply over time implying that the Act has failed to meet the aspiration of the target group to a large extent. The most pertinent issue that emerges from the analysis of the data is that of the poor governance in the implementation of the schemes under the MGNREGA. It is observed that there is significant scope for improvement with regard to the implementation of the provisions of

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the Act especially with respect to the provision of unemployment allowance to the job card holders who were not provided with work within fifteen days of demanding for it. It has further emerged from the analysis of the primary data that although the MGNREGA was envisaged to be a demand driven programme, it has largely remained supply based, at least in the context of the field study location of the study. Further, impacts of the MGNREGA on the standard of living of the beneficiary households in the location under the study have been found to be merely visible.

Deepti Goel and Ashwini Deshpande (2016)6 investigated the relationship between social identity, specifically caste identity in India, and perceptions of self-worth as measured by the amounts that individuals consider as remunerative earnings from self-employment. The study has also investigated if institutional change like as an employment guarantee programme mitigates this relationship. The study finds that find that caste identity affects actual earnings from self-employment. It is observed that MGNREGS boosts Backward Classes’ perceptions of remunerative earnings vis-à-vis Upper Caste Category perceptions and a pro-Dalit ruling party boosts Dalit perceptions of remunerative earnings vis-à-vis upper-caste perceptions. MGNREGS or the change in ruling party didn’t have differential effects on the consumption expenditure of caste groups.

Against this background, the present study examines participation of the Scheduled Caste households in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. The study is based on primary data collected using questionnaire from 500 MGNREGS workers in Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh.

Results and Discussion

1. Mode of registration

Sample respondents are asked to state mode of registration under MGNREGS. Distribution of the sample respondents by mode of registration under MGNREGS is given in Table – 1. It is noted from the table that about 46 per cent of the sample respondents are registered through Gram Sabha, while another 46 per cent of the sample respondents are found to be registered under MGNREGS thorough oral request. Sample respondents, who applied for

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registration under MGNREGS through written request, account for merely around 8 per cent of the sample respondents.

Table – 1

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE RESPONDENTS BY METHOD OF REGISTRATION

Mode of registration Number of respondents

Percentage

Through Gram Sabha 231 46.20 Through Oral request to the Gram Panchayat staff

230 46.00

Through Written request 39 7.80 Total 500 100.00

Source: Computed from the Primary Data

2. Waiting period between registration and obtaining job card

Sample respondents are asked to state waiting period between registration and obtaining job card. Table – 2 shows distribution of the sample respondents by waiting period between registration and receiving of job card. It is clear from the table that merely 15 per cent of the sample respondents had obtained job cards within 15 days of registration, while about 56 per cent of the sample respondents had got job card within 15-30 days from the date of registration. On the other hand, job card is received by around 29 per cent of the sample respondents after 30 days from the date of registration.

Table – 2

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE RESPONDENTS BY WAITING PERIOD BETWEEN REGISTRATION AND

RECEIVING OF JOB CARD

Waiting period Number of respondents

Percentage

<15 days 75 15.00 15-30 days 282 56.40 More than 30 days 143 28.60

Total 500 100.00 Source: Computed from the Primary Data

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3. Custody of Job Card

Sample respondents are asked to state where they keep their job card. Distribution of the sample respondents by custody of job card is given in Table – 3. It is revealed from the table that about three fourths of the sample respondents are keeping their Job Cards with themselves (76.80 per cent), while around one fourth of the sample respondents are only keeping their job cards of MGNREGS with their Mate (Group Leader) (23.20 per cent).

Table – 3

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE RESPONDENTS BY CUSTODY OF JOB CARD

Custody of Job Card

Number of respondents

Percentage

Self 384 76.80 Mate 116 23.20 Total 500 100.00 Source: Computed from the Primary Data

4. Number of adults employed under MGNREGS

Sample respondents are asked to state number of adults in their household are employed under MGNREGS. Distribution of the sample respondents by number of adults employed under MGNREGS is given in Table – 4. It is revealed from the table that only one adult is employed under MGNREGS in the case of majority of the sample households (83.80 per cent), while two adults are employed under MGNREGS in the case of about 16 per cent of the sample respondents.

Table – 4

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE RESPONDENTS BY NUMBER OF ADULTS EMPLOYED UNDER MGNREGS

Number of adults Number of respondents

Percentage

Two 81 16.20 One 419 83.80 Total 500 100.00 Source: Computed from the Primary Data

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5. Factors influencing participation in MGNREGS

Sample respondents are asked to state factors influencing participation of Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS. Table – 5 shows distribution of the sample respondents by factors influencing participation of Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS. It is obvious from the table that various factors like enhancement of wage rate, registration and issue of job cards at the door step, creating awareness about various provisions of the scheme and payment of timely wages. The data shows that timely payment of wages influences in the participation of Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS in the case of around 38 per cent of the sample respondents. Wage rate influences participation in MGNREGS in the opinion of 21 per cent of the sample respondents, while registration and issue of job cards at door step of the households influences participation in MGNREGS in the case of around 24 per cent of the sample respondents. The data further shows that awareness about various provisions of the MGNREGS influences participation of Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS in the opinion of about one sixth of the sample respondents.

Table – 5

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE RESPONDENTS BY FACTORS INFLUENCING PARTICIPATION OF SCHEDULED

CASTES IN MGNREGS

Influencing factors Number of respondents

Percentage

Enhancement of wage rate 105 21.00

Issue of job cards at door step of the households

119 23.80

Awareness about various provisions of the MGNREGS

88 17.60

Timely payment of wages 188 37.60

Total 500 100.00


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6. Satisfaction with amount of wages

Sample respondents are asked to state whether they are satisfied with the amount of wages under MGNREGS. Distribution of the sample respondents by satisfaction over amount of wages is given in Table – 6. It is striking to note from the table that only around 14 per cent of the sample respondents are satisfied with the amount of wages under MGNREGS on the whole. On the other hand, about 86 per cent of the sample respondents expressed that they didn’t satisfy with the amount of wages under MGNREGS. Hence, it is suggested that amount of wages under MGNREGS be enhanced.

Table – 6

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SAMPLE RESPONDENTS BY SATISFACTION OVER AMOUNT OF WAGES UNDER

MGNREGS

Opinion Number of respondents

Percentage

Satisfied 69 13.80

Not satisfied 431 86.20

Total 500 100.00


Conclusion

In summary, regarding registration and working details of the sample respondents, it is observed from the study that significant percentage of the sample respondents are registered either through Gram Sabha or thorough oral request. Merely one sixth of the sample respondents had obtained job cards within 15 days of registration. About three fourths of the sample respondents are keeping their Job Cards with themselves. Only one adult is employed under MGNREGS in the case of majority of the sample households. As far as factors influencing participation of sample Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS is concerned, it is noticed from the study that various factors like enhancement of wage rate, registration and issue of job cards at the door step, creating awareness about various provisions of the scheme and payment of timely wages. The study shows that timely payment of

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wages influences in the participation of Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS in the case of just little over one third of the sample respondents. Wage rate influences participation in MGNREGS in the opinion of about one fifth of the sample respondents, while registration and issue of job cards at door step of the households influences participation in MGNREGS in the case of around one fourth of the sample respondents. The data further shows that awareness about various provisions of the MGNREGS influences participation of Scheduled Castes in MGNREGS in the opinion of about one sixth of the sample respondents. Only about one sixth of the sample respondents are found to be satisfied with the amount of wages under MGNREGS on the whole. It is suggested that wage rates be enhanced according to the market wage rate. Further, steps should be taken to create awareness through different means about various provisions of the scheme so as to encourage more number of Scheduled Castes to participate in the Scheme.

References

1 Barna Maulick (2009), “Implications of NREGA – District

Barabanki, Uttar Pradesh: A Case Study”, Kurukshetra (A Journal on Rural Development), Vol.58, No.2, December, pp.35-37.

2 Shanthi M. and Geetha K.T. (2014), “Assessment of MGNREGA in enhancing quality of life of Tribals in Karamadai Block in Coimbatore District”, Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 33, No. (4), pp.399 – 416.

3 Rishabh Khosla (2011), “Caste, Politics and Public Good Distribution in India: Evidence from NREGS in Andhra Pradesh”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLVI, No.12, March, pp.63-69.

4 Prasanna V. Salian and Leelavathi D.S (2014), “Implementation of MGNREGA in Karnataka: issues and challenges”, Journal of Rural Development, Vol. 33, No.3, pp. 261-279.

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5 Binoy Goswami and Alok Ranjan Dutta (2014), “Status of

implementation of the MGNREGA in Assam: All is not well”, Journal of Rural Development, Vol.33, No.2, April – June, pp.173-182.

6 Deepti Goel and Ashwini Deshpande (2016), “Identity, Perceptions and Institutions: Caste Differences in Earnings from Self-Employment in India”, Discussion Paper, No. 10198, September, The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Germany, pp.1-31.

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SEXUAL VIOLENCE AMONG MARRIED WOMEN: A STUDY OF GREATER HYDERABAD MUNCIPAL CORPORATION

AREA Subbalakshmi.N.V.S

Department of Economics Sardar Patel College

Padmarao Nagar Secunderabad

Telangana State Abstract

Sexual Violence against women is widespread, and may affect women of any age, class, race, religion, sexuality, or ability. Factors which may increase women's vulnerability to some types of violence include age, disability, and poverty. Across all forms of violence and abuse, women are most at risk from men, Significant numbers of women experience more than one type of violence. Sexual Violence against women has a significant impact on the health and socio-economic status of women. It affects the health and wellbeing of children and young people who witness violence against their mothers and other women. The costs to society of responding to violence against women, and the overall economic impact, are significant and measurable. However, there is a need for improved data collection systems across all agencies involved in responding to women who have experienced violence. Although there has been an increase in the number and range of services like SHE teams, Sakhi available to women who have experienced violence, there is relatively little evaluative research. The available research suggests that women value advocacy and support, and want service providers to be more proactive in offering these. Research into interventions tends to focus on discrete aspects of Sexual violence against women in Greater Hyderabad Municipal corporation area. The present study has been conducted sexual violence among married women in GHMC area to know the seriousness of the problem and to find reasons and suggest some measurements.

Key words: Sexual Violence, Married women, Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation, She teams

Introduction

Violence against women is not a new incident. Women have to bear the

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burns of domestic, public, physical as well as emotional and mental violence against them, which affects her status in the society at the larger extent. The statistics of increasing crimes against women is shocking, where women are subjected to violence attacks i.e. foeticide, infanticide, medical neglect, child marriages, bride burning, sexual abuse of girl child, forced marriages, rapes, prostitution, sexual harassment at home as well as work places etc. In all the above cases women is considered as distressed person.

Sexual violence is not only a violation of human rights, but also a public health problem, with intimate partner violence and sexual violence among the most pervasive forms of violence against women. universal, one in three women experience either physical or sexual partner violence or non-partner sexual violence. The lifetime prevalence of sexual partner violence reported by women, in age group of 15 to 49 years, in the WHO multi-country study ranged from 6% in Japan to 59% in Ethiopia, with rates in the majority of settings falling between 10% and 50%. The observed inter community; country and regional variation in the prevalence of violence imply that sexual violence within marriage can be addressed and preventable. The existing prevention programmes need to be tested and scaled up. The majority of women tend to avoid reporting these experiences due to associated shame, reprisal or gender inequity. Current topic is an attempt to address the sexual violence among married women in a silent misery.

The World Health Organization defines sexual violence as “any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work”.

Sexual violence is a broader term than sexual assault. The term encompasses sexual homicide, rape, incest, molestation, fondling, stalking, intimate partner violence, and verbal harassment, of sexual nature. Sexual violence includes creating an environment that feels unsafe based on sexual messages or images. Sexual violence is a sexual act that is completed or attempted against a victims will or when a victim is unable to to consent due to age, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs. The act may involve actual or

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threatened physical force, use of weapons, coercion, intimidation or pressure.

Sexual violence refers to any violence physical or psychological that targets sexuality or is enacted by sexual means, including; rape and attempted rape, forcing a person to strip naked in public, coercing two subjects to perform sexual acts on one another or harm one another in a sexual manner. All types involve victims who do not consent, or who are unable to consent or refuse to allow the act. It constitutes a profound violation of the body and person and is usually carried out in order to use control and dominance over the survivor and to degrade and demean the survivor. Anyone can experience sexual violence, but most victims are female. The person responsible for the violence is typically male and is usually someone known to the victim.

Sexual violence includes any sexual act that is perpetrated against someone’s will. There are many types of sexual violence as it encompasses a range of offences included non-consensual sex act (rape), attempted non-consensual (attempted rape), other abusive sexual contact such as unwanted touching and non-contact sexual abuse including threats, exhibitionism, verbal sexual abuse. It is a horrific violation of one’s dignity and person. It is usually an act of power and control over the victim to degrade and low-rate him or her.

The United Nations defines violence against women as 'any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.'

Methodology

The status of women in India was viewed by reformers of 20th century as one of the indices by which to measure the extent of modernization and transitionalism of a nation was measured. The women constitute almost half the population of India. Many of them are engaged for employment in factories, mines, construction industry, agricultural activities, private organisations and government offices. They are found in both organised and unorganised sectors of employment. Majority of them are facing a number of problems. One of the serious problems faced by women at work place is the sexual harassment at work place by co-workers, supervisors, managers, senior officers and also the

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principal employers. The problem has assumed a serious form after 1970 and today it has become a disease in all establishments. No official statistics are available on the incidence, extent and impact of sexual violence of women in the society. The present study is undertaken in the backdrop of this situation. It is however, limited to the Greater Hyderabad Muncipal Corporation in the State of Telangana.

Study Area (Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation)

The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) comprises the erstwhile Hyderabad Municipal Corporation, plus 10 municipalities & 8 panchayats in erstwhile Ranga Reddy district, 2 municipalities in erstwhile Medak district.

GHMC

GHMC divided in to Five zones as, North, South, East, West and Central, 25 respondents selected from each zone for this research.For collection of supporting data from married women the sample of 120 was drawn on purposive sampling basis from the respective zones from the GHMC.

Sampling Design

The universe for the study constituted all the women in the society of Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation area in the State of Telangana. The sample of 120 married women was drawn from the different sections of the city of Hyderabad in the State of Telangana, giving equitable representation to the subjects from different categories of establishments. The sample of 100 married women respondents were drawn randomly from urban and rural areas. Thus the sampling design was based on stratified sampling method. There are 5 zones in the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation in the State of Telangana. Out of these the 25 respondents were selected from each zone at random and a total sample of 120 married women drawn on random sampling basis giving equal representation to urban and rural areas.

Tools and Methods of Data Collection

The Interview Schedule was the principal instrument used for collection of primary data. It was designed as a semi-structured tool with combination of diffused and open-ended questions. The following tools and techniques were used –

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1. Interview Schedules for married Women.

2. Observation Sheet for Investigators

Based on the major variables and parameters the Interview Schedules were drafted and extensively discussed at different levels.

Data Processing

For collecting primary data from married women female-investigators were trained and sent in different areas of GHMC of the State of Telangana. The work of data collection was carried out under the supervision and guidance of Principal Investigator and Research Officer.

The work of data processing was then taken up. On the basis of the filled in interview schedules the master chart was designed and filled.

The data analysis plan was designed in such a way that all possible errors during data processing would be excluded. The entire 120 interview schedules (25 of married Women, from each zone) were edited and checked for ambiguities and inconsistencies. The codes were verified and rechecked for each and every case during processing of data. Computers were used for data processing and statistical analysis of data. In the first instance sorting was done to generate frequency table for each independent variable.The report that follows incorporates the data, the analysis, the interpretation and the inference drawn are compared with the inferences drawn by other researchers who had undertaken studies in India and also in other countries.

Review of Literature

1. Speizer, Ilene S.; Pearson, Erin,Association between Early Marriage and Intimate Partner Violence in India: A Focus on Youth from Bihar and Rajasthan,Journal of Interpersonal Violence, v26 n10 p1963-1981 Jul 2011, The relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) and early marriage is explored using the 2005-2006 India National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3). The NFHS-3 collected data from a representative sample of women and men in India with a large enough sample size to have a representative sample at the state level. The focus is on youth from Bihar and Rajasthan, two

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states with high IPV and early marriage. Multivariate logistic regression analyses demonstrate that women aged 20 to 24 who married before age eighteen, the legal age at marriage in India, are more likely to have ever experienced IPV in their lifetime and recently experienced IPV (in the last 12 months) than their counterparts who married later. The results were significant in Rajasthan but not in Bihar. To reduce IPV, targeted efforts must be made to decrease the proportion of India's girls who are married under the legal age of marriage.

2. Slabbert, Ilze,Domestic Violence and Poverty: Some Women's Experiences, Research on Social Work Practice, v27 n2 p223-230 Mar 2017, Purpose: Domestic violence poses a major challenge to social workers. Low-income families are significantly more likely to have to contend with domestic violence, as poverty can act as a fuelling factor in this type of conflict. The objective of this study was to explore and describe the experiences of low-income abused women. Method: A qualitative research approach was followed to explore and describe the phenomenon of low-income abused women. Purposive and snowball sampling were used to obtain 20 participants. Data were collected by means of semi-structured interviews. The data were categorized into four themes. Results: Domestic violence and poverty are issues that some women might experience. Low-income abused women are especially more vulnerable to domestic violence and poverty limits choices and resources. Conclusion: Domestic violence and poverty should be seen in a serious light. Social workers should recognise the complexity and correlation between domestic violence and poverty.

3. Chibber, Karuna S.; Krupp, Karl; Padian, Nancy; Madhivanan, Purnima,Examining the Determinants of Sexual Violence among Young, Married Women in Southern India,Journal of Interpersonal Violence, v27 n12 p2465-2483 Aug 2012, The prevalence of sexual violence is increasingly being studied in India. Yet the determinants of sexual violence, irrespective of physical violence, remain largely unexplored. Here the authors identify the determinants of sexual violence, and additionally, explore how the presence of physical violence modifies these determinants. A cross-sectional analysis is conducted using baseline data from a longitudinal study involving young married

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women attending reproductive health clinics in Southern India. A multivariable logistic regression analysis is conducted to first identify determinants of sexual violence and then repeated after stratifying elements based on presence or absence of physical violence identified from participants' reports. The significance of male partners' characteristics warrants in-depth research, and in order to promote gender-equitable norms, future interventions need to focus on male behaviors and men's day-to-day survival challenges, all of which likely influence conflicts in marital relationships.

Profile of Study Area

Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad The Hyderabad Corporation and the Secunderabad orporation, were established in 1950 via the Hyderabad Corporation Act. Jubilee Hills Municipality merged in Hyderabad Corporation during this time.In 1955, the Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Act merged the municipal corporations overseeing Hyderabad and neighbouring Secunderabad. Once again in "1955", both the municipal corporations of Hyderabad and Secunderabad were merged to form Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad (MCH). In 1956, Hyderabad became capital of Andhra Pradesh after the state was formed.Now the Hyderabad is the capital city of Telangana state.

The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation was formed on 16 April 2007 by merging 12 municipalities and 8 gram panchayats with the Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad.

The Government Order 261 was initially issued in July 2005. Now, the Supreme Court has rejected the plea to interfere into the matter, the Andhra Pradesh government has passed the GO 261 that is related to the creation of Greater Hyderabad on 16 April 2007. Earlier, the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad had a population of 4.5 millions living in an area of 172 km². The new urban agglomeration sprawls across 650 square kilometers with a population of 6.7 millions. The erstwhile city of the Nizams has now transformed into an area far greater.

The Government has decided to divide the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation into five zones (south, east, north, west and central zones), 17 circles and 150 wards. Each ward would cover about

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37,000 people. The GHMC is headed by a Commissioner and also has a Special Commissioner both of whom belong to IAS. Each zone will have a zonal commissioner, an officer of the rank of additional commissioner with a deputy municipal commissioners heading every circle. There will also be a separate engineering wing with an Engineer in Chief and Chief Engineer at head office level and a superintending engineer for each zone; a town planning wing with Additional Commissioner (Planning) and a Chief City Planner at the head office level and a city planner for each zone. The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) comprises the erstwhile Hyderabad Municipal Corporation, plus 10 municipalities & 8 panchayats in erstwhile Ranga Reddy district, 2 municipalities in erstwhile Medak district. The 10 municipalities in erstwhile Ranga Reddy district are: L. B. Nagar, Gaddi annaram, Uppal Kalan, Malkajgiri, Kapra, Alwal, Qutubullapur, Kukatpally, Serilingampalle and Rajendranagar. The 8 panchayats in erstwhile Ranga Reddy district are:Shamshabad, Satamarai, Jallapalli, Mamdipalli, Mankhal, Sardanagar and Ravirala. And the two municipalities in erstwhile Medak district are: Ramachandrapuram and Patancheru.

At present, Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation is spread across 4 districts - Hyderabad district, Medchal district, Ranga Reddy district, and Sangareddy district.

Administration

The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation is headed by a Municipal Commissioner, an IAS officer. The commissioner wields the executive power of the house. The corporators are responsible for overseeing that their constituencies have the basic civic infrastructure in place, and that there is no lacuna on the part of the authorities. The Mayor is the head of the house.

Executive

The Telangana Government has appointed Chief Commissioner of GHMC. There is also a provision for a directly elected mayor of Hyderabad. However, the Chief Commissioner can allocate more funds and in general has more power

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Legislature

The term of the legislature of precursor to the GHMC namely the Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad, then simply called by the same name ended before the formation of the GHMC. The Standing Committee of the Legislature takes a major role in the decision making process within the legislature when it is in session

Sexual Violence against women in Greater Hyderabad

The violation of women’s fundamental rights through physical, mental, emotional, and sexual violence against women has become almost commonplace in the Indian context. Violence against women has taken particularly acute forms in circumstances where populations are already marginalized, such as in areas affected by armed conflict, areas undergoing mass displacement.

Table 1: kind of violence the married women facing

S.No Response Number %

A Physical 02 1.7

B Psychological 08 6.6

C Oral 06 0.5

D Any other 04 3.3

E Multiple 100 83.3

The above table explains that how the married women facing different kinds of violence. In this study out of 120 sample majority number of respondents i.e 100 (83.3%) said they are facing multiple problems like physical, oral, psychological and other and next number of respondents that is 8(6.6%) revealed that they are facing psychological problems, others 6(0.5%) said that they are facing oral only 2(1.7%) said they are facing physical problems and last not the least 4(3.3%) said that facing other kind of problems not mentioned particularly. From the above table it may conclude that majority of respondents are facing different kinds of multiple problems from sexual violence and it is understand that sexual violence is creating many other problems.

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Table 2: support/guidance in this situation

S.No

A Husband 04 3.3

B Friend 30 25

C Parent 30 25

D Teacher 06 0.5

E None 50 41.6

The above table express that when married women sexually harassed by different people in this context whether anybody helped, supported and guided. Out of 120 respondents in the study majority of respondents 50(41.6%) said that they have got support from the none many respondents did not get any support in this issue, and next number of respondents said that they have support from their parents, next equal number of respondents said that they supported by their friends and only few 4(3.3%) said they have support from their husbands and some of the respondents who are students said that they have got support from their teachers about this issue. From the above table it may conclude that as majority of respondents revealed that when they faced sexual harassment they got help and support and guidance from their parents and also from friends so it may be understand that in Indian society there is freedom to discuss the personal issues with parents and friends.

Table 3: Cases gone to Police station to lodge a complaint in this situation

Yes 08 6.7

No 112 93.3

The above table explains that if the married women faced sexual harassment whether they complain in the police station or not. Out of 120 respondents as majority 112(93.3%) said that they have not gone to police about this issue and only few 8(6.7%) of respondents said that yes they have gone to police station about this issue.

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From the above table it may be conclude that majority of the married women if they faced sexual harassment even they never gone to police to give a complaint and only few they responded positively.It may understand that in Indian society its feels bad to go to police station to give a complaint and it is observed that women feel shame to approach police in sensitive issues.

Table 4: Impact of Harassment on Married Women

s.no

A Family 48 40

B Society 24 20

C Office 02 1.7

D Relatives 12 10

E Multiple 24 20

F None 20 16.7

The above table explains that if the married women faced sexual harassment and there is bad impact of the situation on that women and hoe the different stakeholders responded on this issue. Out of 120 respondents which as many as 48(40%) respondents said that there is impact on their family and society shows bad on this issue and next number of respondents said that 24(20%) respondents said that there impact of society on this issue, and next number of respondents 24(20%) said that there is multiple reaction from different stake holders like family, society, office, relatives and there is bad impact on victim next 20(16.7%) said none means not mentioned, next number of respondents 12(10%) said that there is impact of family about this issue and only 2(1.7%) respondents said that there is impact in the office about this issue. From the above table it may conclude that there is impact after sexual harassment on married women majority impact is on family because in a society family is important and in India such an issue treated as bad.

From the above field study it can be noted some findings and conclusions are following

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Some Reasons for Sexual Violence are:

1. Boys and Girls are neglecting the culture and western culture and dressing also reason for sexual violence

2. Alcohol consuming also reason for sexual violence 3. Orthodox culture 4. Male dominated society 5. Social media, and roots of the family 6. Mass media influence 7. One of the women said that her husband does not earn money

and beat her and doubting her on extra marital affairs 8. Late marriages 9. Financial problems 10. Illiteracy 11. Psychological feelings of men over women 12. Inferiority complex of men 13. Lack of moral values 14. Lack of awareness about the laws 15. Films and Movies 16. Proper implementation of laws relating to sexual violence

Suggestions:

1. There should be given equal protection to boys and girls 2. Government should ban alcohol 3. Spiritual attitude and practice of Yoga will help full 4. Education is important, should be given proper education to

parents 5. Counselling at school level 6. Ethical values to be improved 7. Social reforms to be brought 8. Women should be given importance in the society 9. Proper support and guidance to be given to the harassed or

victimised women 10. Women education 11. Awareness on Laws and acts on protection of women 12. Serious punishment to be given to culprits who commits sexual

violence 13. Parents should teach children on morals

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14. Boys and Girls should be treated equally 15. Education at school level on sexual violence and acts relating 16. Police, Advocates and Psychologists form a group and bring

wide publicity on sexual violence and acts in government departments and educational institutions.

17. Sexual violence has to be discussed at every level 18. Social imbalance should be removed 19. Society should give right position to women 20. Awareness programmes on sexual violence should be conducted

References

Black MC. Intimate partner violence and adverse health consequences: implications for clinicians. American J Lifestyle Med 2011; 5:428–39.

Garcia-Moreno C, Watts C: Violence against women: its importance for HIV/AIDS prevention. AIDS 2000; 14(suppl.3):253-65.

Puri M, Tamang J, Shah I: Suffering in silence: consequences of sexual violence within marriage among young women in Nepal. BMC Public Health 2011, 11:29.

Rickert VI et al. Rates and risk factors of sexual violence among an ethnically diverse sample of adolescents, Archives of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 2004; 158(12):1132–39.

Santhya KG et al. Consent and Coercion: Examining Unwanted Sex among Married Young Women in India. International Family Planning Perspectives 2007;33(3):124-32.

World Health Organization. Violence against women – Intimate partner and sexual violence against women. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2011.

World report on violence 2002 chapter 6 sexual violence pp. 149-181

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LIBRARY RESOURCES AND SERVICES IN THE

SELECTED ENGINEERING COLLEGE LIBRARIES OF KARNATAKA, INDIA-A SURVEY

Mr. Satheesha H Lecturer

Mettu University Mettu, Ethiopia

Dr. Mallikarjun Vaddankere Librarian

Pujya Dodda Appa College of Engineering

Abstract

This paper describes the role of selected Engineering college libraries in Karnataka, India in higher education and research of Engineering. This paper comprehensively studies the functioning, the resources and services of these libraries. The collection development, library membership, staff position, working hours, services offered and e-resources subscribed by these libraries are also discussed.

Keywords: Engineering libraries, resources and services, automation, information needs, Karnataka

1. Introduction

Engineering libraries play a vital role in the achievement of the objectives of the Institution. It is an integral part of the teaching learning process at the academic level. In order to successfully play its role in the Engineering system a library must have appropriate resources like information resources, staff, space, etc. The Engineering libraries make efforts to better serve the users by providing maximum service with their available means or resources. In the light of this, the library can serve its users effectively only when it knows their specific requirements. The Kothari Commission in its report on education and national development (1964-66) further emphasized that, ‘No Engineering, college or department should be set up without taking into account its library needs in terms of staff, journals, space, etc. Nothing could be more damaging to a growing department than to neglect its library, the library should be an important centre of attraction on the college or Engineering campus.’

This study is an attempt to present a comprehensive and up to- date overview of library services and their resources in the state of

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Karnataka, India. The present study covers the below mentioned 3 Engineering colleges. The rationale behind the selection of the Engineering libraries is two fold–first, two state level Engineering libraries are compared with a Private Engineering library in terms of resources and services. Second, a random selection of the colleges are made on the basis of year of establishment i.e., recently established Engineering college libraries, which are operating from independent buildings.

1.1 Description of Engineering Colleges. (1) Sri Jagadguru Chandrashekaranatha Swamiji Institute of

Technology (SJCIT) imparting technical education since 1986. The college is situated on Bangalore – Hyderabad National Highway-NH7, 45 kms from Bangalore city about, 20 kms from Kempe Gowda International Airport (Bangalore International Airport) and about 5 kms from Muddenahalli, the birth place of Sir M. Visvesvaraya. SJCIT is affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU), Belgaum. The Institution is recognized by the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi, Accredited by NBA and ISO 9001:2008 certified.

(2) ‘Adarsha’ signifies the resolve of the Management to develop it as a model Engineering College with best faculty, infrastructure and placements. It is a college started in 2013 under ‘Sharada Education Trust’ by a group of well educated philanthropists with ‘Service’ as their motto. The Management aims to develop AIT-B as a benchmark institution with excellent academic results and placements. It also aims at providing affordable quality education with a number of scholarships. Encouragement for sports & cultural activities by providing numero-uno facilities and training is also given at AIT-B.

(3) M. S. Engineering College is a Bengaluru based Engineering College promoted by M. S. Educational Trust. The college offers quality Education to students to achieve their goals of becoming much sought after professionals. Spread over an area of 25 acres, M. S. Engineering College is equipped with the best of infrastructure and has highly accomplished professionals who form part of the teaching and the administrative staff.

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All Programmes offered by M. S. Engineering College are approved by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), an apex body of the Government of India. The college is affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University. (VTU), Karnataka. The college is ISO 9001:2008 Certified

Table 1. Selected Engineering libraries

S. No.

Name of the Engineering Abbreviation website address Year

1.

S.J.C.INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, P.B.No. 20, B.B.Road, Chickballapur - 562 101 SJCIT www.sjcit.ac.in 1986

2.

ADARSHA Institute of Technology, Kundana, Bangalore Reural – 562 110 AIT-B

http://www.ait-b.edu.in 2013

3.

M. S. Engineering College Navarathna Agrahara, Bengaluru - 562 110 MSEC

http://www.msec.ac.in/ 2002

2. Literature Review

Conducted a study on ‘Status of State Libraries in Karnataka, and revealed that the state public libraries in Karnataka are not in a good condition. The Library services are ill supported, undernourished, unappreciated and under staff, struggling to provide minimal service. There has been growth in some limited areas, but it is only a beginning and there is still a long way to go before the public is assured of satisfactory library service. There is a great challenge before the state government to nourish these state libraries in order to strengthen the knowledge base of the people of Karnataka. reported in his study on “Library Resources and Services in Indian Institute of Technology” that each IIT library has a well-resourced Central Library to support their academic and research mission. On the technology front, Central libraries in IITs have multipurpose space, better infrastructure, service areas, reading areas and other utilities. Singh1 found in his study on ‘Information technology applications in Technical Institute libraries of Karnataka’ that all the technical institute libraries have a membership

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of library consortium. The majority of the libraries has the membership of DELNET to use the online journals. None of the College Libraries have UGC-INFONET consortium. All of the libraries are paying an amount for subscription of consortium.

3. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the study are to:

(a) Get the current status of the available information resources in the selected Engineering college libraries of Karnataka

(b) Find the status of e-resources in the Engineering college libraries

(c) Determine the types of services being provided by the libraries to its patrons

(d) Find out about the physical infrastructure of the Engineering college libraries

(e) Suggest the ways and means for effective use of resources and services in the Engineering College libraries.

4. Methodology

The study was intended to know the current status of selected Engineering college libraries in Karnataka. A questionnaire was prepared and personally administered to the librarians of the respective Engineering colleges and responses of three selected libraries were received, which was subjected to analysis. The response rate was 100 %.

5. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS

The data obtained through the questionnaires is presented and compared using tables and figures method and analyzed by using the simple calculation method subsequent sections for easy comprehension:

5.1 Library Resources

The library collection is a sum total of library materials that makes up the holding of a particular library. Through this study an attempt has been made to analyze the collection strength of the selected Engineering college libraries. The findings were as here under.

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Table 2. Status of collections

(a) Books collection SJCIT AIT-B MSEC

Text books 28630 4000 20237

Reference collection 4200 1200 2000

Book Bank collection 8000 1000 -

Total 40,830 6200 22237

(b) Journals collections

Indian journal 56 15 23

subscribtion

Foreign journal 15 06 12

subscribtion

Back volumes 650 320 410

Total 721 341 445

Table 2 shows that SJCIT library has the largest number of print materials including text, reference and book bank books, i.e., 40,830 followed by MSEC library with 22,237 and AIT-B library has the lowest number of book collection i.e., 9000. It has been noted that no book bank facility is provided by SJCIT and AIT-B library.

Table 2 also shows that all the Engineering libraries provide the facility of printed journals. SJCIT library has the largest collection of printed journals i.e., 650 back volumes, 56 Indian and 15 foreign current journals are subscribed during the current year. This is followed by the MSEC library with 410 back volumes, 23 Indian and 12 foreign journals are subscribed during the current year. AIT-B library has the least collection of printed journals

5.2 Library Membership

Engineering college libraries offer free membership to its academic users. This study tried to look into the user base of the libraries and got an overview of the current types of members being catered by the Engineering College Libraries.

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Table 3. Library membership

Category of members SJCIT AIT-B MSCE

Faculty 160 35 80

Research Scholar 26 4 10

Students UG+PG 4600 160 3500

Non-Teaching/Tech. Staff 50 12 30

Total 4836 211 3600

Table 3 highlights the library membership. Faculty membership (including visiting faculty) is maximum160 in the SJCIT followed by 80 in the MSEC and minimum 35 in the AIT-B. The student membership is maximum in the SJCIT i.e., 4600 followed by 3500 in the MSEC and the lowest 160 in the AIT-B. Library members of technical and non-teaching staff are maximum 50 in the SJCIT followed by 12 in the AIT-B and 30 in the MSEC.

5.3 Library Staff and Timings

In the current scenario the pace of change in higher education is quite rapid. As the learning and development and research experience become more interactive with technology, it is imperative on libraries to must adapt themselves accordingly. Human resource plays a prominent role in the successful management of any institution. Hence, library staff also plays and important role in collection, storage and dissemination of the information in the swift and user friendly manner to its patron.

Table 4. Staff in the Engineering libraries

S. No. Position SJCIT AIT-B MSEC

2. Librarian 1 1 1

3. Deputy Librarian 1 0 0

4. Asstt. Librarian 6 1 2

5. Library Assistant 3 0 2

Total 11 02 05

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Table 4 deals with the library staff available in the Engineering

Libraries. The maximum number of staff is in the SJCIT library i.e., 11 while the other 2 libraries AIT-B and MSEC have 02 and 05 professional staff members respectively. Though it is a very good sign that all of the selected Engineering

5.4 Library Services

Library services help in using the collection in the best possible way. Library buildings are Wi -Fi enabled, which facilitates users to bring laptops to have seamless access to their e- resources through IP range. The OPAC is one of the most heavily used services in the selected Engineering libraries. A detailed list of library services offered by the selected Engineering libraries has been given in the Table 5.

Table 5. Services offered by the Engineering libraries

Services provided SJCIT AIT-B MSEC

Current Awareness Services √ √ √

Selective Dissemination of information

√ √ √

Bibliographic Services √ √ √

Photocopy Service √ √ √

Reference Service √ √ √

Circulation √ √ √

Membership √ √ √

Book Bank √ √ √

OPAC/Web OPAC √ √ √

Departmental Library √ X X

Table 5 shows that all of the Engineering college libraries offer a range of services including CAS, SDI, photocopy service, bibliography service, document delivery service, reference service, circulation, membership, OPAC/ Web OPAC services. The SJCIT and AIT-B libraries offer book bank service toothier students and only the SJCIT

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is having departmental library services.

5.5 Purpose of Library Visit

Table 6. Reasons for library visit

Reasons for library visit

Graduates

Post graduates

Research scholars Total

% of total respondents

(N=72) (N=88) (N=60) (N=220)

Study 68 81 41 190 86.36

Use of library materials 40 47 26 113 51.37

Borrow books 44 61 24 129 58.63

Use the computers/copiers 22 32 17 71 32.27

Research 14 26 45 85 38.63

Leisure reading 13 22 8 43 19.54

Reference work 6 9 26 41 18.63

Group study 17 15 17 49 22.27

Instructed by teacher 17 11 9 37 16.81

Use of audio-visual facilities 2 5 4 11 5

Table 7 shows that most of the respondents i.e., 190 (86.36 %) visited the library for study purposes, followed by 129 (58.63 %) to borrow books, followed by 113 (51.37 %) using different library material. Further almost all graduates & PG students i.e., 68 out of 72 and 81 out of 88 respectively visited the library for study purpose. It was also noted that use of A-V aids is the least preferred reason opted by students for library visit. Out of 60 research scholars, 45 (75 %) were among top respondents for visiting library for research purposes. Reference work was also one of the preferred reasons for research scholars for library visit.

6. Recommendations

Based on the data gathered from the respondent libraries, the

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following suggestions are to improve and maximize the usage of the Engineering college libraries.

(a) It is necessary to prepare the library staff through appropriate training. Rediscovery may be as important as the creation of knowledge itself in view of the development in information technology.

(b) Though the user base of the AIT-B library is less yet the services provided are up to the mark and cater up to the maximum. State Engineering authorities should adopt a mechanism to raise their service standards.

(c) Special funds provision should be made in the annual budget to improve the status and non-book materials in the state Engineering libraries. The subscription of e-resources should be increased.

(d) The new technological invasion has drastically affected the education system. Most of the core schools are using technology for effective dissemination of information and they have seen the results in positive directions only. Hence, AV sections may be envisaged in advance by the Engineering authorities.

(e) Libraries should join more consortia in order provide vast and current information to its users.

6. Findings and Conclusions

The Engineering college libraries are valued by the users for their support in academic and research through user services, highly skilled staff and easy to use collection. The present survey was aimed to study the condition of engineering college libraries in the context of resources, services and Library automation activities. To conclude, the Engineering college libraries need support from higher authorities in terms of constant financial support, trained personnel and better infrastructure, it may play a vital role in raising the efficiency in library services. With the advent of new technologies in every sphere of life, it has become mandatory in technical or non-technical academic institutions to access and check their strength and weakness. This comparative study of the libraries not only brought out their relative strengths and weaknesses, but also will serve as a launching pad for further in depth study. The survey highlighted the resources and services of the selected Engineering college libraries in Karnataka and

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will be somewhat helpful to the society in imparting rational education to their younger generation for a better tomorrow.

References

Shoeb, Zahid Hossain. Identifying service superiority, zone of tolerance and underlying dimensions: service quality attributes in a private university library in Bangladesh. Library Review, 2011, 4, 293-311.

Adeniran, Pauline. User satisfaction with academic libraries services: Academic staff and students perspectives. Intern. J. Lib. Inf. Sci., 2011, 3(10), 209-16.

Sivathaasan, N. Impact of library collections on user satisfaction: A case study. European J. Busi. Manag., 2013, 5(13), 141-46.

Hernon, Peter; Danuta, A. Nitecki & Ellen, Altman. Service quality and customer satisfaction: An assessment and future directions. J. Acad. Lib., 1999, 25(1), 9-17.

Karn, Sanjay, et al., ‘Status of state libraries in Jharkhand: An analytical study.’ ILA Bulletin, 2006, 42(1), 22-26.

Jotwani, Daulat. Library resources and services in Indian Institutes of Technology. Annals of Lib. Inf. Stu., 2013, 60, 204-11.

Singh, Mehar. Information Technology Applications in Technical Institute Libraries of Karnal, Karnataka. Golden Research Thoughts, 2014, 3(7) 1-7.

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram Engineering of Science and Technology–Murthal. http://www.dcrustm. org/ (accessed on 12/07/14)

O.P. Jindal Global Engineering, Sonipat. http:// www.jgu.edu.in/ (accessed on 12/07/14)

B.P.S. MahilaVishwavidyalaya, Sonepat. http:// www.bpswomenEngineering.ac.in (accessed on 12/07/14)

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DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF AWARENESS

TEST ON VISUAL DISABILITY

T N Rama Ph.D Research Scholar

Department of Education, Sri Padmavati Mahila

Visvavidyalayam Tirupati. A.P.

Dr. P. Renuka Assistant Professor

Department of Education Sri Padmavati Mahila

Visvavidyalayam Tirupati. A.P.

Abstract

The present study is designed to construct an Awareness test on Visual disability. An Awareness test was developed and standardized by administering it on 370 randomly selected government school teachers of Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh State and conducting Item analysis to eliminate the inconsistent items in a tool. The Final form of Awareness test on Visual Disability consists of 30 items, classified into six sections namely – Nature, Identification, Causes, Characteristics, Educational provisions and Facilities. All the items of Awareness test are Multiple Choice type with three options.

Key Words: Development, Standardization, Awareness Test, Visual Disability.

Introduction

A child with disability is one who deviates intellectually, physically, socially or emotionally so markedly from what is considered to be normal growth and development that he cannot receive maximum benefit from a regular school programme and requires a special class or supplementary instructions or services. The various categories of disability are - Hearing disability, Speech and language disability, Visual disability, Mental retardation, Learning disabilities, Orthopaedic disability, Giftedness etc.

Education of children with disabilities is a challenging field. Education generally enables a child with disability to overcome largely his disability and makes him into a useful child. The different types of available educational programmes for the children with disabilities are Segregated (Special) education, Integrated education and Inclusive education.

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Segregated education through special schools is very costly. So

many educationists nullify the idea of Segregated education on the grounds that it never equalizes the educational opportunities; rather it creates a feeling of differentiation among children. Integrated education is an educational programme in which the children with disabilities attend classes with normal children on either part time or fulltime basis. Integrated education is less expensive when compared with special education.

Inclusive education has evolved as a movement to challenge exclusionary policies and practices of general schools. The principle of inclusive education is - all the children should learn together, wherever possible regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have. Inclusion is the full time placement of all children including the children with mild, moderate and severe disabilities in regular classrooms (Staub and Peck – 1995).

The effectiveness of inclusion depends on the readiness of general educational system. Before implementing the inclusive education, our educational system is to be adopted to meet the needs of all the children with disabilities.

Visual Disability

The Persons With Disabilities (PWD) Act-1995 defines blindness as a condition where a person suffers from any of the following conditions namely

Total absence of sight

Visual acuity* not exceeding 6/60 or 20/200**

Visual field*** of an arc of 20 degrees or less.

The Act describes a person with low vision (partially sighted) as a person with impairment of visual functioning even after treatment or standard refractive correction but who uses or is potentially capable of

* Visual acuity is the ability to see the objects clearly at a standard distance (20 feet).

Normal visual acuity is 6/6 or 20/20 ** If a person being tested can read at 20 feet, what the person with normal vision can

read at 200 feet, his/her visual acuity is 20/200. *** Visual field is the amount of side to side space , that can be seen at one time. Normal

visual field is 160.

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using vision for planning or execution of task with appropriate assistive device.

Awareness

The Dictionary of Psychology defines the word awareness as being conscious of external or internal events or experiences. In the Hutchinson Encyclopedic Dictionary (1994) awareness is explained as ‘having knowledge or realization.’ There was complete dearth of the appropriate and standardized tools for measuring Teachers’ Awareness on Visual Disability, hence it was thought to construct the same.

OBJECTIVES

To construct an Awareness Test on Visual Disability.

To standardize an Awareness Test on Visual Disability.

AWARENESS TEST ON VISUAL DISABILITY

An Awareness Test was constructed and standardized to measure the level of Teachers’ Awareness on Visual Disability. The steps followed for its construction and standardization are as follows:

• Planning

• Preparation of Preliminary Form

• Pre-try-out

• Editing

• Try out (Pilot Study)

• Item Analysis

•Preparation of Final Form

Planning

During Planning, it was decided prepare the statements with reference to - Nature, Identification, Causes, Characteristics, Educational provisions and Facilities in the Awareness Test on Visual Disability.

Preparation of Preliminary Form

The researcher prepared preliminary form of Awareness test on Visual disability with 42 - simple and clear multiple choice statements.

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For each statement three alternative answers - a, b and c were given. Then the researcher classified the statements of Awareness test on Visual Disability under different sections namely – Nature, Identification, Causes, Characteristics, Educational provisions and Facilities.

Pre-try-out

The preliminary form of Awareness test on Visual Disability was given to 15 special school teachers and 10 teacher educators for their observation and criticism regarding the clarity of statements, appropriateness of the language of statements and the pattern of responses against each statement. Based on their suggestions the constructed tool was put for further editing.

Editing

Soliciting the responses of the teachers and teacher educators approached at the pre-try-out stage, the editing of the constructed tool was completed. On the basis of criticisms and suggestions of experts involved, 8 statements were detained and 34 statements were retained in the Awareness test on Visual Disability.

Try out (Pilot Study)

For the standardization of constructed tool, the researcher conducted pilot study. The constructed tool was administered on 370 randomly selected government school teachers of Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh State. The teachers were instructed to mark their responses for all the statements of Awareness test. Further they were given assurance that their responses would be used only for research purpose. They were also convinced that their responses would be kept confidential. There was no time limit, but the teachers took 40 to 50 minutes to complete the test.

The responses of the teachers for the statements in the Awareness test were corrected with the help of scoring key and for each correct response one mark was given.

Item Analysis

Item analysis was carried out to eliminate inconsistent statements (Items) in tool by comparing the proportion of cases, who are placed in top 27% and bottom 27% criterion groups and by calculating Difficulty

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and Validity indices for each and every item. The items having difficulty indices 0.4 or more (corrected to first decimal place) and validity indices 0.2 or more (corrected to first decimal place) were retained, where as the items having difficulty indices less than 0.4 and validity indices less than 0.2 were detained.

Table 1: Difficulty and Validity Indices for the Items of Awareness Test on Visual Disability

Item number in Awareness Test

Difficulty Index Validity Index Remarks

1 0.59 0.29 Retained 2 0.84 0.26 Retained 3 0.72 0.28 Retained 4 0.51 0.29 Retained 5 0.55 0.41 Retained 6 0.63 0.30 Retained 7 0.42 0.30 Retained 8 0.48 0.37 Retained 9 0.75 0.31 Retained 10 0.62 0.04 Detained 11 0.62 0.26 Retained 12 0.43 0.38 Retained 13 0.80 0.00 Detained 14 0.60 0.33 Retained 15 0.42 0.38 Retained 16 0.57 0.45 Retained 17 0.48 0.49 Retained 18 0.47 0.08 Detained 19 0.56 0.41 Retained 20 0.72 0.09 Detained 21 0.64 0.43 Retained 22 0.53 0.20 Retained 23 0.62 0.38 Retained 24 0.64 0.34 Retained 25 0.55 0.20 Retained 26 0.57 0.37 Retained 27 0.66 0.31 Retained 28 0.56 0.25 Retained 29 0.63 0.38 Retained 30 0.52 0.25 Retained 31 0.58 0.37 Retained 32 0.54 0.29 Retained 33 0.45 0.29 Retained 34 0.35 0.32 Retained

In the Awareness test on Visual disability 4 items were detained and 30 items were retained.

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Table 2: Section - wise Distribution of Items of Awareness Test

on Visual Disability

Sl. No

Name of the Section

Item number in Awareness Test

Total number of ites

1 Nature 3, 5, 7, 10, 12 5

2 Identification 21, 25, 27 3

3 Causes 2, 9 2

4 Characteristics 1, 14, 15, 18, 30 5

5 Educational provisions 6, 19, 22, 24, 29 5

6 Facilities 4, 8, 11, 13, 16, 17, 20, 23, 26, 28

10

Preparation of Final Form

After item analysis the Final Form of Awareness Test on Visual Disability was prepared with 30 retained items.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY TOOL

Test-retest reliability coefficient of Awareness test on Visual Disability was determined on the basis of scores of 50 randomly selected teachers. These 50 teachers were approached after a gap of one month and their scores for the same Awareness test was recorded. Their scores at two instances viz. testing and retesting were put in a tabular form for establishing Test-retest reliability coefficient by using Karl Pearson’s Correlation Co-efficient formula. The test-retest reliability coefficient of Awareness test on Visual Disability was 0.72. Hence the developed tool was highly reliable.

On the basis of opinions of experts, the items of the Awareness test were structured. The Difficulty and Validity indices of all the items of the tool were high. The Coefficient of Intrinsic validity of the tool was 0.85. Hence the developed tool has Content validity, Item validity and Intrinsic validity.

CONCLUSION

In India, till now most of the school teachers are not sufficiently aware of disabilities. Therefore, during Pre and In-service training

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programmes they should be made aware of Nature, Identification, Causes, Characteristics, Educational provisions and Facilities of different types of disabilities so that they can impart education in a proper way to the Children With Disabilities in the Inclusive classrooms.

REFERENCES

Chintamani Kar (2002), “Exceptional Children - Their Psychology and Education,” Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi.

James E. Ysseldyke., Bob Algozzine., Martha L. Thurlow (1998), “Critical Issues in Special Education,” Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, PP. 49-61.

Khan, Sarfaraj (2005), “Awareness of Low Vision and Barriers to its Care Among Eye Care Professionals in India,” Vision - 2005, www.google. com.

Panda, K.C. (2003), “Education of Exceptional Children,” Vikas Publishing House Private Limited, New Delhi.

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THE GLOBAL ERA ON THE NEW WOMEN: SHASHI DESHPANDE’S THAT LONG SILENCE

Dr. Suribabu Ambati Asst. Professor in English

Mrs. AVN College Visakhapatnam, AP, India

Abstract

The consciousness of women in contemporary Indian fiction has undergone a tremendous change during the last four decades. Women writers have moved away from traditional portrayal of enduring and self-sacrificing women to self-searching women establishing their unique identity in the Post- Independence scenario.

My paper explores ShashiDeshpande’s new vision through her protagonist Jaya in That LongSilence, through whom the novelist takes us to the inner consciousness of her women characters to present their

plight, fears, dilemmas, contradictions and ambitions. The novelcomes relatively closer to real experience and achieves greater credibility from the fact that Jaya, the protagonist, is a very well-read person, possessing a literary sensitivity which corresponds to her fictional role. Jaya goes into an intense introspection of her life and after seventeen years of playing out much-faceted roles of a loyal wife and tireless mother, her silence becomes deafening at the end of the novel.

The paper is an attempt to reflect ShashiDeshpande’sThat Long Silence as an expression of the silence of the modern Indian woman and the growing consciousness of Indian women writers in the global era.

Key words: Consciousness of women,unique identity, new vision,

intenseintrospection, Modern Indian women, Women writers in the global era, Optimism.

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Women writers of Indian-English fiction have always focused on the predicament of women in society, their conflicts, anguish and so on. While doing so, they have also given voice to the socio-cultural modes and values of their times that have given the Indian women a unique place in the world in general and the world of letters in particular.

These writers chief contribution consists of an exploration of the moral and psychic dilemmas and repercussions. In the process the women in their fictional world face or experience harmony of relationships within and without. Living in the patriarchal society, most times women suffer in the hands of tradition-bound, male dominated society and sacrifice their lives for the welfare of the family. A woman’s struggle normally goes unrecognized and is taken for granted which results in women falling victims to psychological problems.

Kamala Markendeya, Anita Desai and ShashiDeshpande are a few of the outstanding women novelists of the second generation women writers in Indian Writing in English. Most of Kamala Markendaya’s works present idealistically innocent peasants, fabulously rich Maharajas and self reliant women. Anita Desai’s fictional world is occupied with emotional and hyper-sensitive women

through whom the novelist offers a deep insight into the darker and unexplored depths of feminine psyche. ShashiDeshpande through her works takes the bull by its horns and ventures to give voice to women, their sufferings and their degradation in the male dominated society. The present study takes into accountShashiDeshpande’sSahitya Academy Award winning novel, That Long Silence. Jaya, the protagonist, is found by traditional norms. She is self-centered and pro-modern influenced by the West.

As Karl Max rightly said, “The relation of man to woman is the most natural of one person to another.” (P:132)1 The novel, That Long Silence which looks at social history from the perspective of the family and exploring man-woman relationships in Indian content portrays the

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conflict that has occupied the mind of the narrator between her roles of being a writer and a housewife. In the words of Vimala Rama Rao, “ Jaya is one of the rare narrative voices in Indian English fiction who possesses and displays a literary sensibility commensurate with her fictional role as a writer telling her own story, one whose college

education and reading habits are in evidence in her speaking voice. This indeed is an achievement.”2 Jaya manages to suppress her feelings for seventeen long years, thinking that it is more important to be a good wife than to be a good writer. She might have remained in the shadow of her husband. After marriage, Jaya has systematically suppressed many traits of her personality that could not fit into her role of a wife and mother. She is into the culture of silence; a victim of patriarchy and also of her own silence. Jaya bags prizes for her literary works before marriage. After marriage, Jaya, a mother of two healthy children appears to be a satisfied housewife married to an apparently caring man.

However, a closer scrutiny of her life reveals that to achieve this state of fulfilment as a wife, Jaya had to suppress her zeal for life because she is nurtured on the importance and necessity of stable

marriage and family in a woman’s life. Her husband, Mohan, accepts and takes pride in being the husband of a writer. But his male ego does not allow him to act sensitive and tolerate a particular short story written by Jaya. The story is about a couple, a man who cannot reach out to his wife except through her body. Mohan thinks the story portrays their own personal life and he turns very apprehensive of the idea that his acquaintances may assume that he is the kind of person portrayed in the story. Mohan asks Jaya, “How could you, how could you have done it? How can you reveal us, how can you reveal our lives to world in this way”? (P:144). Jaya knows the truth but she does not try to reason with him. Jaya says, “Looking at his stricken face, I had been convinced. I had done him wrong.” (P:144) This is enough to

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jeopardize Jaya’s career as a writer. As a modern Indian woman safeguarding her marrital status, she begins to write under an assumed name Seeta to satisfy her inner spirit and pride as a writer. Though she understands her husband's feelings, she does not leave her writing. Suffering and suppression is not a serious one in her life.

After a catastrophe in Mohan’s life with his involvement in a shady deal, the family shifts temporarily into hiding at a Dadar flat. ShashiDeshpande who employs beautiful images to describe Jaya’s married life, unmasks the characteristic traits of both Jaya and Mohan when they run into stormy weather and their shelter washes away like water colours in a rainy storm. The appropriate usage of mythical characters is highly praised in this novel. In contrast to her mythical counterpart and the Indian model of women hood, Seeta, Jaya follows her husband into exile unhesitatingly displaying her sati-dharma like Gandhari who bandaged her eyes to become blind like her husband.

The most important aspect of Jaya’s personality which clashes with her image of an ideal wife and mother is her platonic friendship with Kamat, a shadowy figure who lives above Jaya’s flat and treats her as an equal. He encourages her creative expression and analyzes the

rejected stories which are devoid of any strong emotion since she has carefully censored all anger from the stories making them impersonal and shorn of personal vision. Jaya asserts, “A woman can never be angry. She can only be neurotic, hysterical and frustrated.” (P:147) Virginia Woolf’s “A Room of One’s Own” can be related to Jaya’s own life and thought. Kamat staunchly refuses her voice and gives wider scope to her literary endeavour. This stops Jaya from thinking of herself in self-pity. In course of time, Jaya develops physical attraction towards Kamat. He says, “ Jaya, your name is like your face.” (P:14)

Though having ample opportunity to be with Kamat physically, Jaya overcomes her yearning in the interest of safeguarding

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her marriage. She is a modern woman with traditional values. When Jaya visits Kamat’s flat, she observes Kamat lying dead on the floor. She is unable to pay homage to her friend for the fear of getting involved in any scandal which might endanger her marriage. A terrible feeling of guilt envelops her but she remains helplessly passive.

SaralaPalkar says of Jaya, “She, Jaya, perhaps does her role of wife to perfection but fails as a human being.” 3 The act highlights the plight of women who are bound firmly by the shackles of tradition in spite of education and career.

When Mohan leaves the house in a bit of anger, Jaya is thunderstruck and is engaged in the "cruel process" of self-revelation. In Jaya’s retrospection, she recalls Mohan’s sister Vanitamami’s advice, “Remember Jaya, a husband is like a sheltering tree. Keep the tree alive and flourishing, even if you have to water it with deceit and lies” (P:32). This idea had stayed with her forever. In the opinion of Jaya, it is felt that the life of any wife without her husband is treacherous, unprotected, insecure and vulnerable and above all it is the duty of the wife to keep the family tree alive. ShashiDeshpande clearly describes the relation between a man and a woman after marriage, “A pair of

bullocks yoked together.” (P:8) Jaya honestly questions to herself whether her idea of relationship between wife and husband can be substituted for the reality. She rejects the image that has influenced her and feels that she has totally mistook the whole concept of marriage. Generally in the Indian context, once a girl gets married to a man, the husbasnd completely dominates her. If the wife does not conform to the norms and ideals set by the husband, there is disharmony and disgust between the couple. The difference between Mohan's and Jaya's outlooks is so marked that they fail to understand each other. This greatly affects their marital life. It becomes more of a compromise than a relationship based on love and understanding. Deshpande uses an apt image of a worm crawling into a hole to describe

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the state of Jaya, a budding writer dwindling into a stereotyped Indian housewife. She speaks, “Middle class. Bourgeoise.Upper-caste.Distanced from real life.Scared of writing.Scared of failing. Oh God, I had thought, I can’t take any more. Even a worm has a hole it can crawl into. I had mine-as Mohan’s wife, as Rahul’s and Rati’s

mother. And so I had crawled back into my hole. I had felt safe there. Comfortable.Unassailable.” (P:148) G.D. Barche observes, " Unhesitatingly the modern educated young woman's crusade against years of slavery, suffering and suppression is a serious one. However, in the process of this crusade, we see her suffering from certain weakness and complexes which have been highlighted by the Indian women novelists. The first weakness she suffers from can be summed up what Pope has said of Addison: ' Willing to wound, yet afraid to strike.'4 In course of her recollection of the past, she again reinforces the same image. She indulges in self-pity and feels that she was prodded out of her warm and safe hole of domesticity. The couple is under a loveless married tree which causes the wife and the husband to drift away from each other. They live together but there has been only emptiness.

It is however important to note that Deshpande’s protagonist,

Jaya, makes a powerful statement on the totally unmerited system prevailing in our society. Jaya is always aware of her secondary status in society and family. The most notable example is the family tree episode, in which the names of Jaya and other women members of the family get excluded. Once Jaya’s uncle, RamuKhaka, excitedly shows her the family tree which is proud of him to be able to go back nearly two hundred years to trace the line of their ancestry. Jaya is shocked by the missing names of women. She asks, “But Ramukaka, ‘I‘d exclaimed, ‘I’ m not here!’ ‘You!’ He had looked up, irritated by the interruption, impatient at my stupidity. ‘How can you be here? You don’t belong to this family! You’re married; you’re now part of Mohan’s family. You have no place” (P:142). This illustrates the utter lack of importance and

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highlights the grossly unequal status of women in the Indian social set up. TapanBasu says that this is the story of Jaya, " who has spent a lifetime in surrender of her will to social mores and customs that had relegated women to a second class status."5

At the end of the novel, a telegram from Mohan written in,

“All well” establishes the dilemma in the mind of Jaya. Her heart raises many rhetorical questions. “Does he mean by this that we will go back to being ‘as we were’? Does it mean that, now that Mohan has sorted out his problem, and no longer fears prosecution, joblessness and disgrace, we can go back to our original positions? Does it mean that he will come back and give me a carefully edited version of what has happened – as he has done so often till now – and then ask me, ‘what do you say, Jaya’? (P:192). She struggles alone with the trauma though it upsets her mental equilibrium. It is true that she feels utterly helpless and finds a sense of vacuum in her life. When she finally comes out of her emotional turmoil, she comes to terms with her position and herself. She pours out her inner most thoughts, giving vent to her feelings, her fears, her doubts and everything. Now she is primarily concerned with the recognition of woman as a being, an autonomous

being and realizes herself through self-analysis. SarabjitSandhu says, " Jaja, the protagonist thinks of her past days and tries to analyze herself, "to decide who she really is."6

Jaya, who stands for the modern emancipated woman, has asserted her individuality by challenging the taboos and destructive social norms. At last she wants to break the silence that is within and without. Subhash Chandra comments, “ By permitting her story, she has achieved articulation of her predicament, her constrains, her anguish and has thereby broken her silence."7 She now realises her inner strength to break the self-made illusions that she had created and then face life courageously. She undergoes a kind of transformation through self-realisation. She makes an introspective study of her

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relation to self, family and society. It is an enormous transformation in her life. According to Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gita, change is inevitable and is natural. Jaya’s refusal to give the key of Dadar flat to Mohan is symptomatic of the subtle change in their relationship. She wants to have liberation from male-chauvinism. Generally, no one ever

changes overnight. It is possible that we may not change even over long periods of time. But we can always hope, without which, life would be impossible. Deshpande’s optimistic view successfully employs in this context.

The study supports the word optimism which plays a crucial role in coping up with individual tragedies. Jaya ultimately returns to the truth of the dictum from the Bhagavad-Gita: "Do as you desire.”(P:192) which becomes her guiding principle. Lord Krishna told Arjun at the end of his long sermon: ' I have given you knowledge, now you make your own choice. The choice is yours.' So, if God wants each person to do what he or she desires, how can Jaya help others if she cannot help her own self? After gaining knowledge, Jaya comes to realise that life can always be made possible. She is now a matured woman to understand the core and crux of life. Eventually she reclaims

her real self to write without using any fictitious names to prove her creative talent. SumitraKukreti rightly remarks, " The realization that she can have her own way-yathaecchasitathakuru-gives a new confidence to Jaya. This is her emancipation."8

The novel, That Long Silence, breaks the self-imposed barriers of silence to overcome the challenges in the global era. Truly speaking from a feminist standpoint, ShashiDeshpande pulls the best threads of the story through the protagonist, Jaya who re-defines herself in the modern society and is able to come up by way of articulating her own blues and woes. She is aware of the fact that breaking off the bonds of family would result in loneliness and disintegration of the larger social set up and looks for happiness and self-fullfilment within the family

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itself. The novel shows that the day is not far off when men and women are valued equally, ensuring unsullied dignity, individuallity and self respect to women but it need not be anti-woman. P. Ramamoorthi remarks: "The attempts to create 'female enclaves' are extremist reactions but the recent trends in feminist literature are an indication

that it is possible for a woman to live in the world where men also live." 9

References

ShashiDeshpande, That Long Silence ( Virago Press Limited 1988)

Vimala Rama Rao, " Rev.ofThat Long Silence, " The Journal of

Indian Writing in English, Vol. 21, Jan. 1993, No. 1, 72.

SarlaPalkar," Breaking the Silence, ShashiDeshpande's That

Long Silence, " Indian Women Novelists, Set 1, Vol. V, 166.

G.D. Barche, " Facets of Feminism," Indian Women Novelists,

Set 111, Vol. V, ed. R.K. Dhawan (New Delhi: Prestige, 1995), 15.

TapanBasu, " Jouning a Select Club, " Rev. of That Long Silence, Sunday, No. 8-14, May 1988, 98.

SarabjitSandhu, " The Image of Woman in That Long Silence," Indian Women Novelists, Set 1, Vol. V, p. 138.

Subhash Chandra," Silent No More: A Study of That Long

Silence, " Indian Women Novelists, ed. R.K. Dhawan ( New Delhi: Prestige, 1991). Set 1, Vol. 1, 148.

Kukreti, Sumitra, "Female Protagonists in ShashiDeshpande's

Novels" In The Fiction of ShashiDeshpande.ed. R.S. Pathak. New Delhi: Creative Books, 1998.

P. Ramamoorthi, " My Life is my own: A study of

ShashiDeshpande's Women," Indian Women Novelists, Set 1, Vol. V, p. 38.

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INDIAN NATIONALIST MOVEMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON

VIETNAM

Dr.K.P.Thirupal Naik Dept of AIHC& Archaeology

Sri Venkateswara University Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh

The countries of Indochina came under the French rule by the

middle of the 19lh century and India was already under the British rule. The exploitation attitude of the colonial masters gave vent to nascent struggle against foreign domination which ultimately turned out to be nationalist movements both in India and Indochina region1. The Indian national leaders perceived the anti-colonial struggle in Southeast Asia as an indivisible from their own freedom struggle against colonialism. Nehru was convinced that the future of India could not be separated from the future of Asia, Particularly Southeast Asia.2

The Indian nationalist movement had its impact on the national movements of the neighbouring countries including Vietnam. Indian nationalists evinced keen interest in the nationalist activities in the neighbouring Asian countries3. Contacts between the Indian and Vietnamese nationalists began from 1927 when Jawaharlal Nehru met Ho Chi Minh and Duong Van Gieu, two distinguished leaders of Vietnam, at the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities held in Brussels in February 1927. The Indian desire to create a common understanding among the oppressed nations of Asia got much encouragement at the Brussels Congress where the League against imperialism, a permanent body was established, in 1928 Motilal Nehru met Ho Chi Minh when the two leaders were taking part in the meeting of the Executive Committee of the League against Imperialism held in Brussels4. Ho Chi Minh used to tell his colleagues about his memorable meetings with Motilal Nehru5.

Jawaharlal Nehru thought that the League against Imperialism would offer Asians a common meeting ground. He urged the Indian National Congress to invite fraternal delegates from other countries6. Occasionally nationalists from Vietnam attendedannual sessions of the Indian National Congress. In 1928, for instance, Gieu attended the Calcutta session of Indian National Congress7.

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In 1929 Tagore visited Vietnam, and in his speeches stressed the

age-old cultural ties between the peoples of India and Vietnam. In one of his speeches he said:

Before human joys and human miseries, my heart always beats with the same rhythm as that of those of my predecessors who in the most distant past lived among you I bring you the greetings of that radiant India, who lavished her light on their land as well as the message of sympathy and brotherhood of present India who lives separated from you by geographic distance and by the dead solitudeof her own darkness8.

From 1924 to 1931 Ho Chi Minh wrote a series of articles in International Press Correspondence on the Indian people's struggle9. In the 1940s there were close contacts between Nehru and Ho Chi Minh. When they were in jail, they "were exchanging letters and trying to project each other's countries' problems10. Ho Chi Minh wrote a poem on Jawaharlal Nehru in the early 1940s when he was in Jail35. The Vietnamese people followed with profound sympathy and resolutely supported the freedom struggle in India. Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were held in high esteem by the Vietnamese people12.

During the World War II the Vietnamese too helped the independence movement led by Subhash Chandra Bose. Though the French administration did not permit the establishment of a branch of die Indian Independence League in Saigon and Hanoi, the old Indian Association of Vietnam, however, continued its activities and collected more than $ 1.5 million for the movement led by Netaji3!. In 1945 Netaji's13. Provisional Government was permitted to establish a radio station and a purchasing mission in Saigon14. He took the fatal flight from Saigon on 18 August 1945 in a plane that crashed over Taiwan15.

Throughout the period since the founding of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 to the Victory over the French colonialism in Dien Bien Phu in 1954, India extended its sympathy and support to Vietnam16. The developments in Indochina afterthe Second World War received the attention of the Indian nationalist leaders. After the war, when the Indian troops were used by the British to help the reestablishment of French authority in South Vietnam and suppress the Vietnamese nationalist movement, prominent Indian nationalist leaders condemned it. In January 1946 Nehru indignantly remarked

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that **we have watched British intervention there [Vietnam] with growing anger, shame and helplessness, that Indian troops should be used for doing Britain's dirty work against our friends who are fighting the same fight as we17.

When the interim government was formed in India on 2 September 1946 headed by Nehru, Ho Chi Minh, President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, greeted Nehru. Nehru reciprocated the greetings and looked forward to "close fraternal relations between free India and Democratic Vietnam18. As head of the Government, Nehru declared in December 1946 that India sided with Indochina's struggle for freedom and resented the attempts of the French to crush the Vietnamese nationalists.19Vietnamese cause was also supported by various sections of Indian society. 'Vietnam Day' was observed by students on 21 January 1947 in India with expressions of solidarity with Vietnam marked by demonstrations before the French Consulates in Bombay and Calcutta, shouting slogans calling for the withdrawal of French troops from Indochina20.Sarat Cbandra Bose, elder brother of Subhash Chandra Bose, planned to recruit volunteers to go to Vietnam to fight the French by the side of the Vietnamese. Nehru turned down the move on the ground that it would raise international issue21.

The Indian nationalists viewed the struggle in Vietnam purely as an anti-colonial struggle but the Government's perception was different as there were two governments in Vietnam (the DRVN and RVN) competing for popular support. India did not wish to interfere in Vietnam till a clear picture emerged. However, the Vietnamese nationalists made sincere efforts to draw India's support to its struggle. When India convened the Asian Relations Conference in 1947 in New Delhi, both the regimes of Ho Chi Minh and Bao Dai in Vietnam were given representation at theConference. The DRVN representative at the Conference had asked for material, political and moral support22.Nehru, however, did not wish to accept either of the two Vietnamese. He wished to keep his Government neutral.23 However, both the government and the people of India extended full sympathy to the Vietnamese independence struggle.

The emergence of India as an Independent nation on 15 August 1947 had an impact on the independence movement in Vietnam. Nehru, as Prime Minister of independent India, was careful in his approach to the Indochina problems. His government was not prepared

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to intervene in spite of the paper’s of Sarat Chandra Bose and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. He, however, agreed to bring pressure on France to soften its attitude towards the nationalists. It may be of interest to note the attitude of Nehru towards the situation in Indonesia and in Vietnam. While he took several steps in favour of decolonization of Indonesia, he was not as active with regard to Vietnam because the two situations were not identical. In the case of Indonesia, unlike in Vietnam, there were no internal divisions and power politics. India, therefore, adopted a policy of neutrality as regards Vietnam. The character of the nationalist leadership in Vietnam arid the emergence of Communist regime in China restrained Nehru's enthusiasm, and Indian diplomacy was limited to efforts to keep China and the United States "within safe limits" to prevent the influx of Cold War into the conflict.24 yAs is known, Vietnam since Second World War became the battleground for nationalism, communism and colonialism which were "intertwined to support nationalism without strengthening colonialism and communism amounted to tight rope walking.25 India tried to help the forces of nationalism without strengthening colonialism and communism in Vietnam.

References

Birendra Prasad, Indian Nationalism and Asia, (Geneva, 1963), p. 119.

Ibid. T.N. Kaul (ed.),India and Indochina: Perspectives of Cooperation,

(New Delhi, 1987), p. 1. Dong Hoi Xuan, "Firm and Lasting Solidarity between Vietnam and

India", Vietnam Courier, Vol. XX, No. 10, October 1984, p. 1.

Ibid. Birendra Prasad, Indian Nationalism and Asia 1940-1947 (Delhi,

1979), p. 105. K.M. Panikkar, The Future of India and Southeast Asia (London,

1945), p. 74. Nguyen Dang Thuc, "Tagore in Vietnam", in Rabindranath Tagore:

A Centenary Volume 1861-1961, Quoted in Birendra Prasad, Indian Nationalism and Asia, p. 90.

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Vo Von Sung, "Common Bonds of Friendship and Cooperation", in

T.N. Kaul (ed.), India and Indochina, Perspectives of Cooperation, p. 14.

"Broadening People to People Contact with Indochina", Asia News, November-December, 1983, p. 24.

Vo Von Sung, "Common Bonds of Friendship and Cooperation", p. 14.

Ibid., p. 15. D.R. Sardesai, Indian Foreign Policy in Cambodia, Laos, and

Vietnam 1947-1964 (Berkeley, 1968) (See Notes No. 9), p. 261. Ibid. Ibid, T.N. Kaul (ed.), India and Indochina: perspectives ofCooperation, p.

14. Quoted in Birendra Prasad, Indian Nationalism and Asia,1900-

1947, p. 198. Quoted in A. Lakshmana ChettyIndia's Foreign Policyin Southeast

Asia, 1947-1954(Madras University, 1981)(Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis).

Birendra Prasad, Indian Nationalism in Asia, 19OO-1947, p. 198. Ibid., p. 199. Ibid Report of the Proceedings and Documentation of the First Asian

Relations Conference, New Delhi, March-April, 1947, (New Delhi 1948), p. 77.

A.K. Majumdar, Southeast Asia in Indian Foreign Policy: A Studty of India's Relations with Southeast Asian Countries, 1962-82 (Calcutta, 1982), p. 33.

D.R. Sardesai, Indian Foreign Policy in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, 1947-62, p. 26.

Ton That Thien, India and Southeast Asia 1947-1960, (Geneva, 1960), p. 120.

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eq[; 'kCn %& tuuh] ejnkuh] QxMksy] dsUnjk] ekanj] >ka> vkfn mÌs'; %& d- LFky ds uke ls xhrks ds jkx & t’kiqfj;k] xksyokjh] vlfe;k] xaxyk] >wej] ukxiqfj;k] lksuiqfj;k] gsaBxfB;k

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[k- fn’kkvksa ds uke ij xhrks ds jkx & iwjcgk] ifNekgk] mrjkgk] nf[kukgk vkfnA x- le; ds uke ls xhrks ds jkx & f>axQwfy;k] ifgy lak>k] v/kjfr;k] fHkulfj;k] fcguqok vkSj izHkkrhA /k- eghuksa ds uke ij xhrks ds jkx & vblkjh] tsBokjh] Hkknqokjh] Qxqvk] ckjgeklk vkfnA M- ioZ &R;kSgkj ds uke ij xhrksa ds jkx & QxMksy] Qxqvk] dje] thfr;k] n’k;Wa] lksgjk;A p- laLdkj ds uke ij xhrksa ds jkx & lksgj] >ka>u] yyuk] fookg vkfnA N- LFky ioZ ds uke ij xhrksa ds jkx & vaxubZ] trjk A t- uR; ds vk/kkj ij xhrksa ds jkx & BfM+;k] yglqvk] Bg:vk] n/kmvk] >qeVk] p<urjh] yq>dmvk] yq>jh] jldhjkZ] MbZM+/kkjk vkfnA >- fofo/k ukeksa ls xhr ds jkx & Medp] ekBk] tnwjk] [kseVk] jax nknbZj vkSj pkpbZj vkfnA ´- Hkkoksa ds uke ij Hkh xhr dss jkx & mnklh] HkfDr bl rjg ls jkx vkt fofHkUu ukeksa ls gksrs gq, Hkh yksxksa ds d.Bgkjksa esa jprk &clrk vk;k gSA ftlesa ge eq[; &eq[; jkxksa dh ppkZ ,oa foLrkj djsxsa & 1 Medp 2 Qxqvk jkx 3 ikol jkx 4 mnklh jkx 5 >qebj jkx & tuuh] ejnkuh] caxyk 6 vaxubZ jkx 7 Qxqvk iqNkjh 1 Medp jkx & Medp jkx dks ns[kk tk; rks ;g ,d jkx Hkh gS vkSj uR; HkhA ;g L=h iz/kku jkx gSA efgyk,Wa bl jkx dks viuh e/kqj vokt ls lqUnj :Ik nsrs gSaA bl jkx dks xkus dk le; nsoBku fcgku ls ysdj pyrh jFk nqfr;k vk”kk< rd xk;h tkrh gSA nsoBku efguk ds ckn gekjs lkektksa esa ?kjksa esa ‘kknh &fookg ‘kq: gks tkrh gSA ?kj &eqgYys ds efgyk,Wa 15 fnuksa ds igus ls vkWaxu esa ukp &xku ‘q: dj nsrs gSA ;g jkx ,dgfj;k] nksgjh] vkSj >qeVk rhuksa :iksa esa ik;k tkrk gSA bl uR; ,oa xhr esa le; ck|; ;a= gksrs gSa tks laxhr dh lqUnjrk dks v<+krk gSA MkW- fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ds erkuqlkj & ßMedp efgyk iz/kku uR; laxhr gSA ijUrq fcuk uR; ds Hkh bls xk;k tkrk gSA iq:”k Hkh bls xkdj jl ys ysrs gSa A ij bldh izdfr dksey L=h dh gha HkkWafr gksrh gSA Medp xkus dk le; dkfrZd eghus ds nsomBku ls ysdj

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vk”kk<+ ekl ds jFk ;k=k ds ykSVus rd izpfyr gSA ‘kknh &fookg ds r; gks tkus ij fookg dh frfFk ds 15 fnu iwoZ ls gh yM+dk ,oa yM+dh dk ?kj vkWaxu esa xkWao &?kj dh ;qofr;kWa xhr xkrh gaSA dHkh &dHkh vkSj dgha &dgha bl uR; xhr esa iq:”k Hkh Hkkx ysrs gSaA dHkh xk;u rks dHkh oknu esa vkSj dHkh urZu esaAÞ1 Medp jkx dh fo’ks”krk &Medp jkx ds xhr {ks= fo’ks”k esa viuk Loj y; rky ,oa Loj iwjd /ofu cny ysrs gSaA blh ls {ks=h; :I fn’kkvksa ,oa LFkku fo’ks”k ds uke ds jkx izpfyr gks x, gSa tks fuEu gSa d ,dgfj;k Medp jkx [k nksgjh Medp jkx Xk >qeBk Medp jkx lek/kku %& d ,dgfj;k Medp jkx & Medp ds ,dgfj;k jkx dh fo’ks”krk gS fd ;g jkf= d izFke igj esa p<+urjh jkx esa xk;k tkrk gSA bl jkx esa lgtrk ljyrk vkSj papyrk fn[kkbZ iNrh gSA ;g jkf= ds izFke ls e/; igj rd pyrk gSA bl jkx esa lqj dh p<+kb dk Hkko gSA ,dgfj;k esa izFke nks iafdr;ksa dks nks &nks ckj nqgjkrs gSA blds ckn Loj iwjd /ofu;ksa dk iz;ksx gksrk gSA ,dgfj;k Medp ds xhr izLrqr gS & ß dksu cVs vkgs uhjs] tke tqM+h >fj;k\ dksu cVs vkgs uhjs] uokWa llqjkbjAA iwjcs rks vkgs uhj]tke tqM+h >fj;k ifNes rks vkgs uhjs] uokWa llqjkbjAA dblu djsyk js] uokWa llqjkbj\ dblu djsyk js] tke tqM+h >fj;kAA gn & gn djsyk js] tke tqM+h Nfg;kWa >yey djsyk js] uokWa llqjkbjAAÞ izLrqr xhr esa dgk x;k gS fd & dksbZ O;fDr ,d nwljs O;fDr ls iwN jgk gS fd dkSu lh fn’kk esa taxy >kj >kM+h gS\ vkSj dkSu lh fn’kk esa esjk u;k llqjky gSA nwljk O;fDr tokc esa dgrk gS iwjc fn’kk esa gS vkidk taxy >kj igkM+ ioZr vkSj ifPNe fn’kk esa gS vkidk u;k llqjkyA blh izdkj vkxs fQj ls iwNus dk dke djrk gS vkSj dgrk gS og taxy >kj dSlk fn[krk gS vkSj dSlk yxrk gS\ bruk gh ugha esjk u;k llqjky dSlk gS\A fQj tokc esa dgrk gS taxy >kj esa ikuh fxjus dh gn & gn djus dh vkokt lqukbZ iM+rh gS] vkids u;k llqjky esa fctyh ls txexkrh gqbZ jkS’kuh ns[kus dks fey jgs gSaA

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[k nksgjh Medp jkx & nksgjh Medp dh fo’ks”krk gS fd ;g iwoZ jkx ls vf/kd xafHkjrk gksrk gSA e/; jkf= esa ls rhljs igj rd ;g vius iwjs mQku ij jgrk gSA blesa tedj ctkrs] ukprs ,oa xkrs gSaA vr% bl jkx esa tks’k] mRlkg] meax] vkuUn dkfQ c<+ tkrk gSA Xk >qeVk Medp jkx & >qeVk Medp jkf= ds rhljs igj ls Hkksj rd pyrk gSA ;g jkx uR; ds mrkj dk Hkko izdV djrk gSA yksx e/; jkf= ds mÙkstd uR; xk;u ls Fkd dj pwj gks tkrs gSaA vr% Fkdku mrkjus ds fy, >weVk xkrs gSaA bldh /ofu xfr ean gks tkrh gSA bls >qeVk vFkkZr ykx ,d txg tek gksdj rkyh ctkdj dj Hkh cSB dj xkrs gSaA vUr esa ukpuk cUn dj nsrs gSaA blfy, bls FkiM+h ¼vFkkZr rkyh½ jkx Hkh dgk tkrk gSA Medp xhr ds jkxksa dk {ks=h; foLrkj & Medp jkx dh {ks= ns[kk tk; rks dkfQ foLrr gSA >kj[k.M jkT; esa 24 ftyksa ds vykos blds vkl & ikl iM+kslh jkT; gSa ftlesa ;g jkx dqN & u & dqN :Ik esa vkt Hkh fo[;kr gSA blh ds laca/k esa euiqju uk;d fy[krs gSa fd&ß Medp jkx ds xhrksa dk {ks= >kj[k.M vkSj mlds lhekorhZ jkT;ksa ds lhekUr thys gSa tSls caxky] vksfM+lk] Nrhlx<] vkSj vle caxky ds pk; cxku bykds ,oa v.Meku fudksckj }hi lewg esa tgkWa ukxiqjh Hkk”kh tk cls gSa vHkh Hkh Medp fookg & ‘kknh ,oa bl ekSle esa rFkk laxhr dk;Zdzeksa esa yksx xkrs gSaA Þ2 Medp jkx dh igpku & vkt ukxiqjh xhrksa esa ftrus Hkh jkx gSa lHkh ds vyx & vyx Loj] y;] rky ,oa igpkuus ds xq.k gaSA dgha ij gs gksjh] rks dgha ij cqpw] nbZ;k] gk;js & gk;js] , lqxh] , eSuk] gs lkyks] ‘kCn vkrs gSa tks xhr ds jkxksa dks vkSj Hkh vf/kd Hkko izdV djrk gSA ftlesa Medp jkx esa ns[kk tk; rks euiqju uk;d ds erkuqlkj &ß Medp jkx ds xhrksa dh igpku cqpw] lksuk] eSuk] jSyks] lkyks] lktbu] fdjs] uhjs] tSls Loj iwjd /ofu;ksa dk iz;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blesa nks ;k nks ls vf/kd ny gksrs gSaA ,d ny dk ,d xk;ukgk ¼xk;d½ xhr mBkrk gSA ,d iafDr mBkrs gh mlds ny ds yksx iwjs xhr esa lkFk nsrs gSa vkSj ctfu;k ¼oknd& ctkus okyk½ rky mBkrs gSaaA igys ny ds }kjk xhr dh igyh dM+h dks >ksadrk gS ;k yksdrk gS ;k iqujkZofr djrk gSA bl rjg Medp xhr Hkh yksdk & yksdh ;k >ksadk & >ksadh pyrk gSA xhr dh lekIrh ij nwljk ny u;s xhr mlh rjg mBkrk vkSj igyk ny mldh iqujkofr djrk gSA Þ3 Medp jkx ds xhr esa laxr nsus okys ok|; ;a= & ok|; ;a=] tks xhr ds lkFk & lkFk laxhr dh e/kqjrk dks cgqr mPph f’k[kj rd igqWapkus esa egRoiw.kZ vnk gksrh gSA bldh vkokt lqurs gh yksx vius vki esa fFkjdus ds fy, etcwj gks tkrs gSa vkSj ukp mBrs gSaA ;s eq[;r rhu izdkj ds gksrs gSaA ?ku

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ok|; ;a= ftls ihV &ihV dj ctk;k tkrk gSA tSls ekUnj] <kWad] uxkM+k] <ksyd vkfnA lqf”kj ok|; ;a= ftls ;a= dks QwWad dj ds ctk;k tkrk gSA tSls ckWalqjh] ‘kgukbZ] Hksj] eqjyh vkfnA rUrq ok|; ;a= ftls rkj ds }kjk dEiUu djds mldk lqe/kwj /ofu fudkyk tkrk gSA tSls lkjaxh] dsUnjk] Vksghyk vkfnA ;s lHkh ok|; ;a= dqN & u & dqN :iksa esa vo’; ctrs gSaA tSls Medp jkx esa <ksy uxkMk] <kWad] ‘kgukbZ] Bspdk] >ka>] djrky] ckWalqjh] ekUnj] ?kqWa?k:] eqjyh] Vksghyk] lkjaxh] dsUnjk vkfnA rhoz rFkk dksey ok| nksuksa blesa ctrs gSaA >qeVk Medp jkx ds xhr ßjkrh dgyh fi;k Ik;Wajh x:ok, nsew Ik;Wajh esa >qudh yxb;k gks fi;k Pkouh ykxy ?kq?kqj] ckt, gksa fi;k] cksySa gks fi;k] Pkouh ykxy ?kq?kqj AA jkrh dgyh fi;k iksVjk x:ok, nsew iksVjk esa >qudh yxb;k gks fi;k Pkouh ykxy ?kq?kqj] ckt, gksa fi;k] cksySa gks fi;k] Pkouh ykxy ?kq?kqj AA jkrh dgyh fi;k Bf<+;k x:ok, nsew Bf<+;k esa >qudh yxb;k gks fi;k Pkouh ykxy ?kq?kqj] ckt, gksa fi;k] cksySa gks fi;k] Pkouh ykxy ?kq?kqj AA Þ4 izLrqr xhr esa dgk x;k gS fd ,d efgyk tks vius ifr ls vuqjks/k dj jgh gS fd jkr esa vki esjs fy, ik;y tks cuokus ds fy, cksy jgs FksA ftlesa ik;y esa >qudh vkSj ?kq?kqj yxkus dh ckr dg jgs Fks tks vHkh rd Hkh vki ugha cuok,Wa gSaA ogha ifr tokc esa mls Hkjkslk fnyus dh ckr dgrk gSA cfYd dgrk gS fd ik;y esa >qudh ?kqWa?kq: yxus ls rqEgkjs iSj dh lqUnjrk c<+ tk,xh vkSj rqe lqUnj Hkh fn[ksxhA bl rjg ls >kj[k.M jkT; esa ns[kk tk; rks ;gkWa ij vusd /kEkZ& leqnk; ifjokj ds yksx fuokl djrs gSaA dHkh vius ifjokj ds izfr dkfQ izse ,oa mlls cgqr gh [kq’k jgrs gSaA os vius ifjokj ds ekrk &firk HkkbZ &cgu cky & cPps ogha vius iRuh ls] lHkh ls dkfQ izse djrs gSaA 2 Qxqvk jkx & clUr _rq ds vkxeu gksrs gh ou & miou igkM+ & ioZr] unh & ukyk] ?kus & taxy] dks;y & dkjksa lHkh [kq’kh ls >we mBrs gSaA bls ;g le>k tkrk gS fd ;g _rq mYykl dk _rq gSA _rqvksa esa lcls egRoiw.kZ clUr _rq dks ekuk x;k gSA bl eghus esa gekjs izdfr ds pkjksa vksj isM+ksa esa u, eatj] u, iÙks l`tu gksus yxrs gSaA izdfr vius vki esa >we mBrh gSA lkFk gh yksxksa esa Hkh vkilh meax ,oa [kq’kh ns[kus dks feyus gSaA dgkWa l[kqvk ds Qwy

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dgkWa iyk’k ds Qwy fn[kus esa yxs tSls vCchj] xqykyy] jax & fcjaxs lkM+h esa yxh gksA blh mYykl esa yksx Qxqvk ds jkx cksy iM+rs gSaA euiqju uk;d ds vuqlkj & ßHkkjr o”kZ esa gksyh dks R;ksgkjksa dk jktk dgk tkrk gSA d”.k ,oa xksfi;kWa vius dky esa mUekn eukrs FksA ;gh ijaijk vkt Hkh ns’k ds izR;sd jkT;ksa esa bls vius & vius jhfr & fjokt ds vuqlkj eukrs gSaA blh izdkj >kj[k.M izns’k esa Qxqok xhr ,oa uR; dh ,d vyx Hkwfedk iznf’kZr gksrh gSA bl R;ksgkj esa jax] vCchj ds lkFk <ksy] ekUnj] uxkMk] >kWa> ,oa djrky ds rky ls jfld ukp & ukp ,oa >we & >we mBrs gSaA bl jkx ds xhr esa ekUnj dk iz;ksx ugha gksrk gSA ijUrq mUekn jkl esa bldk lkeatL; ls rky e/kqj gks tkrk gSA Þ5 nwljs ‘kCnksa esa dgk tk; rks Qkxqu dk eghuk] meax vkSj mYykl dk eghuk gSA bl eghuk esa yksx vklke & HkksVku x;s] lHkh vius ?kj ykSV vkrs gSaA isM+ & ikS/ks esa ubZ ifÙk;kWa Hkj vkrh gSA l[kqvk ds Qwy vkSj egqvk ds Vhi & Vhi fxjuk] ftlesa HkWaojs ges’kk e.Mjkrs jgrs gSaA izdfr vius esa >qe mBrh gSA izdfr ds ftrus Hkh Qwy & dpukj] /kksik lHkh izQwfYyr gks tkrs gSaA blh ls bl _rq dks clUr _rq vkSj clUr _rq dks _rqjkt dgk tkrk gSA ;g _rqvksa dk jktk gSA yksx blh [kq’kh ls Qxqvk ds xhr cksy iM+rs gSaaA blh xhr ds ckjs esa fopkj nsrs gq, ukxiqjh ds dkfo=h MkW- dqekjh cklUrh fy[krs gSa fd & ßQxqvk xhr _rq xhr gS tks clUr _rq esa xk;s tkrs gSaA _rqvksa esa lkoZf/kd yksdfiz; gksus ds dkj.k clUr dks _rqjkt dgk tkrk gSA /kjk/kke esa clUr _rq ds inkZiu djrs gh izdfr dh NVk vfr’k; jef.k; rFkk fpUrkd”kZd gks tkrh gSA ou & miou esa fofHkUu izdkj ds izlwu izQwfVr gks tkrs gSa] ean & lqxU/k vkSj ‘khry miou dk Li’kZ fpÙk dks izQwfYyr djus yxrk gSA ‘kky] vke] ykequ vkfn ds o{k eatfj;ksa ls yn tkrs gSaA clUr nqfrdk dks;y mudh Mkfy;ksa esa cSBdj iape rku lqukus yxrs gSaA iykk’k] /kksobZ] lsEcy] xqyeksgj vkfn ds jr & jr ]yky vkSj xqykch Qwy ,sls yxrs gSa tSls clUr us ou & miou] ioZrksa esa vCchj vkSj xqyky NhaV fn;k gksA /kobZ] iyk’k] vkfn ds yky Qwy efnj LkkSan;Z jDr vkSj jkxk:.k iz.k; eknoZ ds izrhd gSaA clUr _rq esa xk;s tkus okys Qxqvk xhr bu lHkh izrhdksa dk izfrfuf/kRo djrs gSaAÞ ukxiqjh xhrksa dh Nun jpuk ysfdu vly esa ns[kk tk; rks Qkxqu ds jkx Qkxqu eghus ls gh ‘kq: gks tkrh gS] vkSj ;g Qkxqu ls ysdj >.Mk vfUre rd xk;k tkrk gSA blesa xk;dksa dh dbZ la[;k jgrh gS tks nks ny esa cWaV tkrs gSaaA lkFk gh xhr xk & xkdj ,d nwljs ls vCchj xqyky yxkrs gSaA fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ds erkuqlkj & ßQkYxqu ekl esa Qxqvk ds xhr vkjaHk gks tkrs gSaA ;g QYxqu rFkk pSr ds eghus esa xk;k

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tkrk gSA ;g clar fjrq ds xhr gSA QxMksy esa Hkh Qxqvk ds xhr xk;s tkrs gSaA clar iapeh ls ysdj >aMk vFkkZr jkeuoeh rd bldk le; gSA ;g iq:”k iz/kku uR; laxhr gSA dyh ;k upuh urZdh gks rks og Hkh lfEefyr gksrh gSA Qkxqvk esa izk; nks nyksa esa xk;d cQaV dj xkrs gSaA buds e/; ukpus okys dyh urZdh rFkk ctkus okys gksrs gSaA xkus okys >ksadk& >ksadh ;k yksdk & yksdh xhr xkrs gSaA igys ny ds xk, x, xhr nwljk ny nqgjkrk gSA uR; ,oa xhr lkFk & lkFk pyrs gSaA blesa cuts okys ok| ;a= gSa <ksyd] uxkM+k] <kWad] ekanj] >ka>] djrky] ckWalqjh] eqjyh] ‘kgukbZ vkfnA Þ6 bl izdkj ls Qkxqu ds jkx eq[;r% nks :iksa esa ik;s tkrs gSa & d- Qxqvk iqNkjh [k- Qxqvk ipjaxh d- Qxqvk iqNkjh &;g jkx ls gesa ;g izrhr gks jgh gS fd dksbZ iwNus okyk iz’uA vFkkZr ekuo ds thou esa Hkh vkt ns[kk tk; rks dqN & u & dqN :iksa esa vo’; izfr;ksfxrk ges’kk pyrs jgrk gSA os vius esa ,d nwljs ds eu dh ‘kfDr dks tkWapus dk iz;kl djrs gSaA lkFk gh mlds lkspus] le>us dh ‘kfDr dks ij[kk tkrk gSA os dHkh fdlh oLrq ls lacaf/kr iz’u iwNrs gSa] dHkh xhr ds tfj, rks dHkh vkSj & vkSjA O;fDr vius eu ls lksapdj tokc nsrk gSaA blh izdkj Qkxqu eghus esa Qxqvk ioZ dk cgqr gh meax ds lkFk vkxeu gksrk gSA ftlesa xk;d nks ny esa cWaV tkrs gSa rFkk ,d nqljs ny dks xhr ds ek/;e ls iz’u djrk] cfYd iwNrk gS ftldk mRkj xhr esa gh cM+s vlkuh ds lkFk nsrs gSaA ;g jkx Qkxqu eghus esa xkus ds dkj.k bl jkx dks Qkxqvk] vkSj ;gh jkxksa ls iz’u iwNus ds dkj.k iqNkjh ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA bl eghus esa izdfr ds pkjksa vksj [kqf’k;kWa & gh & [kqf’k;kWa fn[kkbZ nsrh gSA MkW- fxfj/kkjh jke ds ‘kCnksa esa & ßblesa nksuksa nyksa ds chp xhrksa esa iz’uksrjh dh ifr}fU}rk oyrh gSA xhrksa esa n”dwV igsyh myVokWalh o jgL;oknh Hko dh iz/kkurk jgrh gSA igyk ny xhrksaesa gh iwNrk gS ,d dfBu my>k gqvk iz’uA nwljk by mldk mrj xhrksa esa gh nsrk gSA blh ls bls iqNkjh Qxqvk dgrs gSaA ,d iqNkjh ds xhr & cktk esa dkSu cktk lqUnj ckts gks ckts dgkWa dsdj ?kjs ckts ykxs ugha irk eksds cktk ckts dgkWa dsdj gsds vly cktk gsds Bhd ckts gksA ckts dgkWa dsdj ?kjs ckts\ Ckkts tsdj ?kj tkcS lsdj xksMs xhjs Ckktk esa lqanj cktk ckts gks

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Ckkts dgkWa dsj ?kjs ckts\ ckts cktk nwlj ?kjs ns[kw ukp dcd ?kjsA Ckktk esa lksgku cktk ykxs A ckts dgkWa dsdj ?kjs ckts\A Ekw<+ vtZqu iwNs cktk fugha dsds :psA :ps ugha rsds jkstk jksts gksA Ckkts dkgkWa dsdj ?kjs ckts\A mÙkj esa nwljk ny dgrk gS& Ckktk esa lqUnj cktk ckts Ckkth ugha dqVklh cktk fdlku fugha gkscSa rktk fcuq dqVlh cktk ckth uk lekB cktkA cktk esa lqUnj cktk cktsA Ckkth dqVklh cktk rc ckth lekB cktkA fiNs c<+uh cktk ckth ?kjsa lwi cktkA Ckktk esa lqUnj cktk cktsA Ekw<+ vtqZu lksps lquh cktk mBs ukpsA yksgkj ugha ckth &<ksy <kWad cktkA cktk esa lqUnj cktk ckthA Þ7 izLrqr xhr esa dgk x;k gS fd Qxqvk iq Nkjh ds jkx dks nks ny ds xk;d xk jgs gSaaA ,d ny ds xhr esa dwN iz’u iwN jgs gSa] dgrs gSa & cktk esa dkSu lh cktk lqUnj ctrh gS] vkSj og ctrh gS rks fdyds ?kjks esa ctrh gS\A;g cktk bruh lqUnj ct jgh gS ftldh vkokt ls eSa eksfgr gks x;k gwWaA vFkkZr eSa mldh vkokt lqudj f[kaph pyk vk jgk gWawA eSa ,l vktk ds ekfyd ls fourh d:Waxk] gkFk tksMdj ekWaxus dk iz;kl d:WaxkA ;g cktk dh feVBh vkokt dks lqurs gh yksxd fFkdus ds fy, etcej gks tkrs gSaA vkSj jkp iMrs gSaA bl iz’u dk mrj esa nwljk ny ds xk;d dgrs gSa fd cktk esa dqVklh dh cktk lqgku ctrh gSA ftldh vkokt lqcg &lqcg fdlku vius [ksrksa dks tksus ds fy, rS;kj gksrs gSaA rks dqnky] gy &Qkj dks /kkj rst djrs gSaA tc ;g cktk fdlku vius [ksrksa esa dke ds fy, ugha tkrsA mlds ckn lqcg dh cktk ?kj dh lQkbZ djus ds fy, >kM+w ftldh vkokt lqgku yxrh gSA vUr esa pkoy dks lkQ djus ds fy, lqi dh vkokt eu dks pkj xquk rst dj nsrh gSA bl izdkj vkt bl lalkj ea ns[k tk; rks tc ek ;s rhus dh vlkiot ugh gksrh gS rks dksbZ dk;Z ‘kqH ugha gksrh gSA <ksy & <kWad dk rks dguk gh ugha gSA ;g cktk lcds ?kjksa esa ctrs gh ctrs gSaA

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[k- Qxqvk Ikpjaxh jkx & ipjaxh ;kfu ikWap jax okykA dgus dk rkRi;Z ;g gqvk fd Qkxqu ds eghus esa gekjs okrkoj.k ds vkl & ikl] cfYd ?kus taxyksa esa fofHkUu rjg ds Qwyksa dh lqUnjrk] mldh egd tks euq”; dks dkfQ izQwfYyr dj nsrh gSA euq”; mu Qwyksa ls jax & fcjaxs xqyky] vCchj vkSj vusd rjg dk jax cukus esa iz;ksx esa ykrs gSaA bruk gh ugha izdfr dh yhyk esa Hkh ikWap jax fn[kkbZ iM+rs gSaA blh jax ds leku Qxqvk ds xhr Hkh ikWap izdkj ls xk;s tkrs gSaA blh ls bl Qkxqu ds jkx dks ipjaxh jkx dgk x;k gSA og jkx gS & Medp] ikol] mnklh] >qeVk vkSj yq>jh ds jkxA MkWa- fxfx/kkjh jkx ds erkuqlkj & ß;g Qxqvk dh gh ,d Hksn gSA blesa ikWap jkx ;k blls Hkh vf/kd jkx dk iz;ksx gj dM+h ij cnyrk tkrk gSA dsoy /kqok iafDr ;k eq[; iafDr ogh jg tkrh gSA jax & jax ds vFkkZr rjg & rjg ds jkxksa ds lekos’k ls Qxqvk iapjaxh gksyh ds fofo/k jaxksa ls bldk lkSan;Z o e/kqjrk c<+ tkrh gSAÞ8 ,d Qxqvk ds jkx ns[k ldrs gSa & ß,lks dj Qxqvk esa ?kjs u[k;Wa gks nqrh Ekkas; rks vkcyk ukjh] dbls [ksyc gksjh& jax vchjA , l[kh fi;k xsy;Wa ijnsls] dbls gksc;Wa nwj nsls Ekkas; rks vkcyk ukjh] dbls [ksyc gksjh& jax vchjAA , l[kh xjhc ?kjd /kksrh NqVy] fi;k fcuq jax QkVyA Ekkas; rks vkcyk ukjh] dbls [ksyc gksjh& jax vchjAA , l[kh v’kksd gkFk tksjh] jax xqyky gksoh] ,lks dj Qxqvk esa ?kjs u[k;Wa gks nqrhA Ekksa; rks vkcyk ukjh] dbls [ksyc gksjh& jax vchjAAÞ9 izLrqr xhr esa dgk x;k gS fd Qkxqu dk eghuk meax dk eghuk gSA bl eghus esa lHkh meax ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA blesa ?kj & ifjokj ds tks Hkh lnL; ckgj vklke & HkksVku dke djus ds fy, tkrs gSa] os vius ?kj ykSV vkrs gSaA ftls ml ifjokj esa [kqf’k;kWa & gh & [kqf’k;kWa ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA blh rjg ftlds ?kj esa mlds dksbZ ifjokj ds lnL; ugha ykSVrs gSa rks] ml ?kj & ifjokj ds lnL;ksa esa nq%[kh eu ns[kus dks feyrk gSA lkFk gh ml ?kj ds lnL;ksa esa mRlkg] meax ugha ns[kus dks feyrk gSA blh rjg ,d efgyk vius izns’k x;s ifr dks ;kn dj jgh gS] og jksrh gS & bl o”kZ ds Qkxqu eghus esa esjs ifr ?kj ij ugha gSaA eSa vdsyh ukjh gwWa] dSls ;g jaxksa dk R;ksgkj euk,Waxs] jax & vCchj fdls yxk,WaxsA bl ikou le; esa esjs ifr lkFk esa ugha gSaA eq>s vPNh ugha yx jgh gSA os vHkh izns’k esa dSls gksxsa] fdl rjg ls gksaxs\A ftl rjg ls ,d xjhc ds ?kj esa iguus ds fy, /kksrh ugha gkrh gS mlh izdkj esjs

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ifr ds fcuk jax esa meax ugha gSA vUr esa xhrdkj mudks gkFk tksM+dj fourh djrs gSa] cfYd Hkjkslk fnykrs gSa fd vkids ifr tgkWa Hkh] dgha Hkh gksaxs vPNs gh gksaxsA 3- ikol jkx & lkou ds eghus esa gekjs izdfr ds pkjksa vksj gfj;kyh & gh & gfj;kyh fn[kkbZ iM+rh gSA fdlku vius gy & cSyksa ls [ksr fd tksrkbZ djrk gS] rks ?kj dh efgyk,Wa mls flaxkj djus esa jksius dk dke djrh gSA ogha pkjkas vkSj fpfM+;kWa dh ‘kksj & gh & ‘kksj lqukbZ nsrh gSA rks >juksa dh xkrh jkx rks eueksfgr dj nsrh gSA ,sls esa D;ksa u Hkyk ge ikol ds jkx xquxquk;A ckfj’k dh fjef>e djrh cwUns tks eu dks eksg ysrh gSA ,sls le; esa ,dkUr txg esa cSB dj dksbZ O;fDr ls vius vki jkx QwV iM+rs gSaA vFkkZr lkou ds eghus esa ftl jkx dks xkrs gSa mls ikol jkx ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA ;g jkx esa mnklh Hkh ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA tc fdlh ?kj & ifjokj esa dksbZ O;fDr vklke & HkksVku pys tkrs gSa] ftlds dkj.k ?kj esa ckjh’k ls fVi & fVi fxjrh cwUnsa ftls cukus okyk dksbZ ugha gSA blh Hkouk dks ;kn djds dksbZ eghyk ikol jkx ds xhr esa vius foifr dks ,d nwljs ds lkeus j[krh gS ;k vius esa eg’kq’k djrh gSA fxfj/kkjh jke fy[krs gSa fd & ßvk”kk<+ ekl ds p<+rs gh ikol jkx ds xhr vkjaHk gks tkrs gSaA o”kkZ _rq esa bl jkx ds /kqu vkSj y; ,d ls gks tkrs gSaA ;g Hkh iq:”k iz/kku jkx gSA blesa izk;% Jaxkj] ohj] fojg vkfn Hkko ds xhr vkst esa xk, tkrs gSaAÞ10 HkbZt ysgqWa lr xq:d uke rs;xy Eku ldy dke dk eksg esa ijs phrgqWa phr 2 Hkyh rks voljs l[kh euq[k ru fQj uk vorjs---------- 4- mnklh jkx & xjeh ds eghuk esa fpyfpykrh /kwi pkjksa vksj fpfM+;ksa dh lUukVkA izdfr ds pkjksa rjQ lUuVk & gh & lUukVk Nk tkrh gSA unh & ukyk] >kjuksa dh xkrh jkxksa esa [keks’kh ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA mWapk & uhpk] igkM & ioZrksa esa dks;y dh xkrh e/kqj rku :d tkrh gSA lHkh efgyk & iq:”k vius & vius lHkh ifjokjksa ds lkFk ?kjksa esa jguk ilUn djrs gSaA rst xjeh dh gok ls izdfr ds pkjksa rjQ mnklh Nk tkrh gSA ,sls esa dksbZ iq:”k ,dkUr esa isM+ ds uhps Nk;k esa cSB dj vkylh eu ls dksbZ jkx cksy mBrk gSA ;g jkx mlds vdsyk iUu gksus dk ,glkl fnykrk gSA ftls xk & xkdj vius eu dks lqdqu fnykrk gSA ftl xhr dks dksbZ O;fDr vdsys esa xkrk gS mlesa ok|; ;a= ugha ctrs gSaA ogha dksbZ lqolj gks rks f/keh xfr ds rky ct ldrs gSaA bl izdkj ds jkx dks mnklh jkx dh laKk nh tkrh gSA mnklh ;kfu mnkl eu ls xk;s tkus okyk jkx dks mnklh jkx dgk tkrk gSA ßfxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ds

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erkuqlkj & tsB oS’kk[k ds mnkl ekSle esa vFkkZr xehZ _rq esa mel o rki ls xzflr le; esa mnklh jkx ds xhr xk, tkrs gSaaA blesa rhoz ok| ugha ctk, tkrsA dksey] e/kqj] efnj] /ofu] okys ckts ct ldrs gSaA ;g izk;% iq:”k iz/kku xhr gSA blesa dsanjk] Vksfgyk] ckWalqjh] eqjyh] lkjaxh] cue vkfn ckts ctk, tk ldrs gSaA ;g ,dkUr {k.kksa ;k v[kjk esaa Hkh xk;k tkrk gSA Þ11 ßTk; chj ctjaxh] dsljh uUnu gS chj-------- ,ds gkFks xnk /kjh ,d esa igkj lquq gkej iqdkj------2 bxukl; jkmjs vkxs ,dks lq[k iou Ykads’oj yadk MkWals Lksys tyk; nsyh dks;yk Hkhj;k; nsyh-------2 Yk{eu dj dkyd ckgj nsy eksj Nsn gs chj--------- ,dys vUnjs cjs] lathouh cqVh [kkrhj Ykkus; igkj dj;Wa] lmc ds vkikjA Tk[kus Qkjy Nkrh jke flrk fcjkts---- gs chj----- cuyh csjkts pkjh fcurh vkikj] dj;Wa gkej iqdkj Lkquq gkej iqdkjAÞ12 izLrqr xhr esa dgk x;k gS fd gs chjksa ds chj egkchj guqeku] ftudk HkDr djs ges’kk xquxku A gs dsljh uUnu vki esjs ladV ekspu] nq%[k gju] vkidk djs ge igys vfHkuUnuA gesa vki ‘kfDr iznku djsa] esjs v’kkfUr esa ‘kkfUr iznku djsaA bl izdkj guqeku tks ,d gkFk esa xnk /kjrs gSa rks nwljs gkFkksa esa os cM+s igkM dks ys tkrs gSaA jko.k tks yadk dks MkWalus ds fy, vius esa Bku ysrk gS] ftls chjksa ds chj egkchj guqeku viuh rkdr cy vkSj fnekx ls tykdj jk[k dj nsrs gSaA tc muds I;kjs y{e.k dks ck.k yx tkrk gS rks muds nkok ds fy, lathouh cqVh ykuus ds fy, iwjs igkM+ dks m[kkM+ ykrs gSaA muesa jke y{e.k vkSj lhrk ds izfr cgqr vf/kd izse FkkA os ges’kk jke ds fnyksa esa jguk ilUn djrs FksA blh ls [kq’k gksdj jke lhrk muds Nkrh esa ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA 5- >qebj xhr ds jkx & vkt bl lalkj esa ns[kk tk; rks izR;sd lektksa ds laLdkjksa esa] ioZ & R;ksgkjksa esa] ;gkWa rd fd dksbZ [kq’kh & meaxksa esa ;gkWa ds yksxksa

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}kjk dksbZ & u & dksbZ ur; & laxhr dk vk;kstu t:j ls t:j gksrk gSA os bl [kq’kh esa Qwys ugha lekrs vkSj ukp iM+rs gSaA ;gh ukpus ds dze esa os >qe & >qe dj uR; fd;k djrs gSaA bl izdkj dgk tk ldrk gS fd izR;sd uR; esa yksx >qek djrs gSaaA fdUrq ukxiqjh Hkk”kh; {ks= >kj[k.M esa ns[kk tk; rks ;g uR; FkksM+k vyx ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA ukpus ds dze esa os vf/kd >qe & >qe dj uR; fd;k djrs gSsaA blesa os xhr ,oa rky ds lkFk & lkFk dne ls dne feykdj vius ‘kjhj dks ypdnkj cukdj uR; djrs gSaA vf/kd >qeus ds dkj.k bls >qebj dgk x;k gSA blh uR; ds lkFk tks jkx esa xhr xkrs gSa mls >qebj jkx dgk tkrk gSA ;g volj gesa >kj[k.M ds fofHkUu ioZ & R;ksgkjksa esa tSls ljgqy] lksgjk;] nsoBku] djek vkSj vU; mYyklksa esa ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ds erkuqlj & vaxub yglqvk jlfdjkZ Bg:vk p<+urjh ifgy lka>k v/kjfr;k fHkulfj;k xhr dh e/kqjrk o”kkZ dky dh dfBukbZ dks Hkxk nsrh gS vaxub rFkk tukuh >wej ds xhr ukjh Loj iz/kku xhr gksrs gSaA ijarq iq:”k Hkh xk ysrs gSaa blh o”kkZ esa gh ban dk R;ksgkj dje ds ckn vkrk gS rc ls ysdj Qxqvk iwoZ rd >wej laxhr vkjaHk gks tkrk gS >wej rhu izdkj ds ukxiqjh esa izpfyr gSa & tukuh >wej] ejnkuh >wej vkSj caxyk >wej vkfnA >wej ds bu rhu :iksa dk ukedj.k vius uke ds vuq:Ik gSA >wej >we & >we dj xkus o ?kwe & ?kwe dj ukpus ds Hkko dks vfHkO;Dr djrk gSA tukuh >wej ;k tuh >wej efgykvksa dks vfHkO;Dr djrk gSA ;g efgyk iz/kku jkx gSA blh ls bls tuh >wej dgrs gSaA iq:”k Hkh dHkh & dHkh] dgha & dgha bl xhr o uR; esa lfEefyr gks tkrs gSa ysfdu iz/kkurk efgykvksa dh gh jgrh gSA d- ejnkuh ÷kwej [k- tukuh ÷kwej x- caxyk ÷kwej d- ejnkuh >qebj ds jkx & ejnkuh jkx iq:”k iz/kku jkx gSA ;g jkx dks dsoy iq:”k oxZ ds ykx gh xkrs gSaA blesa iq:”kksa dh dbZ la[;k gks ldrh gSA lHkh ,d nqljs ls gkFk tksMkdj xksyk vkdj es leku uR; djrs gSaA uR; djrs le; ;g jkx iq:”kksa ds }kjk xk;s tkrs gSaA ;g volj ml le; ns[kus dks feyrs gSa tc muds }kjk dksbZ g”kksZYykl euk;k tk jgk gksA ;g muds fofHkUu ioZ R;ksgkjksa esa tSls lksgjk;] djek ljgqy vkfnA dgha & dgha ;g Hkh ns[k tkrk gS fd iq:”kksa dk uR; ny esa dyh ¼L=h½ Hkh ns[kh tkrh gS] ftlls ctkus okys oknd vkSj xk;dksa esa ohj jl dh iz/kkurk ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA bl jkx dks laxr nsus okys ok|; ;a= <kWad] uxkM+k] ekUnj] <ksyd vkSj >ka> ctrs gSaA ,d ejnkuh >qebj ds xhr ns[k ldrs gSa & ßgk;js dksby vkxs & vkxs

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dksu eNbj Nydbrs vkos rc] gk;js dksby vkxs &vkxs------ dksu eNbj vkxk &fcxk] dksu eNbj /kkjh gk;js dksby vkxs & vkxs------- dksu eNbj Nybdrs vkos rc] gk;js dksby vkxs & vkxs----- Ckqnw eNbj vkxk &fcxk] bpk eNbj /kkjh gk;js dksby vkx &vkxs--- iksBh eNbj Nydbrs vkos rc] gk;js dksby vkxs vkxs----A Þ13 izLrqr xhr esa dgk x;k gS fd eNyh ty dh jkuh gSA og ges’kk ty esa jguk ilUn djrh gSA mlds fy, fdruksa cM+k leqUnj gks ;k fQj dqvkWa] rkykc] nksu & VkWaM+] unh & ukyk] >hy lHkh ,d lh gSA gkWa ;gh dkj.k gS fd NksVh lh txgksa esa og iwjh rjg ls /kweus & fQjus esa mls vktknh ugha feyrh gSA blh izdkj dksbZ O;fDr dgrk gS fd dkSu & lh eNyh gS tks fd b/kj & m/kj /kqerh jgrh gS] rFkk dkSu & lh eNyh gS tks ,d lkFk esa feydj pyrs gSa\A tokc esa dksbZ O;fDr dgrk gS cqnw eNyh gS tks b/kj & m/kj /kwers jgrh gS] ogha bapk ds eNyh lHkh ,d lkFk /kkjh esa feydj pyrs gSaA bruk gh ugha iksBh eNyh tks] tksj & tksj ls NykWax yxkrh gSA [k- tukuh >qebj ds jkx & ;g jkx L=h iz/kku jkx gSA ;g jkx dks dsoy L=h oxZ ds yksx gh xkrs gSaA blesa fL=;ksa dh dbZ la[;k gks ldrh gSA lHkh ,d nqljs ds gkFk esa gkFk & tksM+dj ejnkuh >qebj ds tSlk gh xksyk vkdkj esa uR; ,oa xhr xkrs gSaA ;g jkx esa fL=;ksa }kjk Jaxkj jl dh iz/kkurk ns[kus dks feyrs gSa] tks ,d nqljs ds eu dks eksg ysrs gSaA ;g volj gesa dje] ftfr;k] rht ioZ esa ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA jke mfpr flag ds erkuqlkj & tukuh esa tukuh >qebj xkosd dj le; g; jFk nqfr;k ls nsoBku ,dknlh rdA b jkx [kkl dbj ds ijc rsgkj tbls rht dje ftrh;k dj ts fnu tkok /kjy tk;yk oksgs fnu ls [kkl ijc fnu vkmj cklh fnu nj HkBh rd xkoy ctky tk;ykAÞ14 ,d tuuh >qebj ds xhr ns[k ldrs gSa & dksu cksus Qwyy dkjh dksjb;k Qwy] ltuh js dksu ckus Qwys dpukj] ltuh js------------------A ju cus Qwys dkjh dksjb;k Qwy] Lktuh js cksus cksu Qwys dpukj] ltuh js---------------A dksu Mkjh rksjc dkjh dksjb;k Qwy] ltuh js

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dksus Mkjh rksjc dpukj] ltuk js-----------------A lksus Mkjh rksjc dkjh dksjb;k Qwy] ltuh js :is Mkjh rksjc dpukj] ltuh js---------------A dksu lwrs xkWaFkc dkjh dksjb;k Qwy] Lktuh js dksu lwrs xkWaFkc dpukj] ltuh js------------A izLrqr xhr esa ;g dgk x;k gS fd taxy <kj esa fofHkUu izdkj ds Qwy Qwys gSaA ftlesa ,d eghyk dh viuh ilUn okyh Qwy gks tks taxy esa fn[k ugha jgk gSA blh ls og vius ifr ls dgrh gS fd dkSu lh taxy esa dksjb;k ds Qwy Qwys gSa] vkSj dkSu lh txy esa Qwy dpukj gSA fQj dgrh gSju cus Qwy Qwyh gS vkSj lHkh taxyksa esa Qwy dpukj gSA fQj ogh dgrh gS dkSu lh isM+ dh Mkyh esa dksjb;k ds Qwy gS mls eSa rksM+uk pkgrh gwWaA lksuk ds isM+ dh Mkyh esa dpukj Qwy gS mmls eSa rksMuk pkgrh gwWaA blh izdkj dgrh gS og Qwy dks ekyk cukus ds fy, /kkxk [kkstrh gS & dgrh gS & dkSu lh /kkxk esa Qwyksa dh ekyk cuk,WaxsA x- caxyk >qebj jkx & ;g jkx gesa caxyk Hkk”kk ls vuqxzghr dj jgk gS] ij ,slk Hkh gS & caxyk dk vkFkZ jktk egkjktk tehunkj ;k /kuh ekuh O;fDr ftuds ikl vusdksa /kUu nkSyr lEifr ls ifjiw.kZ gksA os vius vkSj vius ifjokj ds lnL;ksa ds [kq’kh ,oa euksjatu ds fy, vius cM+s ?kj ds vkWaxu esa dksBjh esa xhr & uR; dk vk;kstu fd;k djrs Fks] ftlds dkj.k ;g jkx dks caxyk >qebj jkx dgk tkrk gSA caxyk dk vFkZ gqvk & jktk egkjktk tehunkjksa dk mWaph mWaph cM+s ls cM+s ?kj edku tgkWa ij os jgk djrs FksA bruk gh ugha os vius iztk ls Hkh fey tqydj ,d lkFk jgk djrs FksA ogha dksbZ nq%[k eqflcr gks rks jktk mu iztkvksa dk lg;ksx Hkh djrs FksA os vius iztkvksa ds meax ,oa [kq’kh ds fy, xkWao esa ioZ & R;kSgkj ,oa esys dk Hkh vk;kstu gksrk FkkA ysfdu jktk rks jktk gh gksrs gSa] muds ?kj ds L=h] cgq] csVh;ksa dks esys esa tkuk oftZr djrs FksA os vius ifjokj ds lnL;ksa ds fy, vius ?kj ds vUnj cM+s vkWaxu esa xhr & uR; dk vk;kstu fd;k djrs FksA blh izdkj cM+s caxyk ?kj ds vUnj xkus ds dkj.k bl jkx dks caxyk jkx dgk tkrk gSA nwljs ‘kCnksa esa dgk tk; rks ;g caxky {ks= ds vkl & ikl lhekorhZ {ks= ls izHkkfor gSA bl jkx esa caxyk Hkk”kk dk ‘kCn FkksM+k fey tkus ds dkj.k bls caxyk >qebj jkx dgk tkrk gSA blh ds laca/k esa fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w fy[krs gSa fd & >kj[k.M jkT; ds ukxiqjh ,oa iapijxuk {ks= esa caxyk >wej ds uR; xhr [kwc pyrs gSaA caxyk ds ;gkWa nks rkRi;Z gks tkrs gSaA ,d rks caxyk Hkk”kk ds dqN ‘kCn ;k caxyk dh rjg dqN ‘kCnksa dk mPpkj.k blesa djrs gSaA nwljk ;g jktk tehankj ;k /kuh ekuh jfldksa ds caxyksa esa ;g uR; xhr gksrk Fkk blfy, Hkh bls caxyk >wej

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dgk x;k gSA caxyk >wej esa fcuk caxyk ‘kCn o mPpkj.k ds Hkh xhr Hkjs iMs+ gSa] ysfdu mlds jkx xaxyk >wej ds gh gSaA blds mnHko ,oa fodkl ij vHkh rd dksbZ ‘kks/k dk;Z ugha gks ik;k gS fd ;g uR; xhr dc ls dgkWa ls fdlus vkjaHk fd;k ;g crk;k tk ldsA >wej vU; izns’kksa ,oa Hkk”kkvksa esa Hkh izpfyr gS ysfdu >kj[k.M ds ;s >wej vius <ax ds viuh fof’k”Vrk o igpku cuk, gq, gSA cgqr laHko gS vkjaHk esa f’kdkj [ksyus f’kdkj dks ?ksjus idM+us ds fy, gkFk esa gkFk idM+ pkjksa vksj ls xksykdkj cukrs gq, ‘kksj epkrs nkSM+rs Hkkxrs vkxs ihNs gksrs jgs gksaxsA blh dze esa mUgsa ,d lkFk ,d dze esa ,d dne rky ij nkSM+rs fjne dk vkHkkl gqvk gksxk] vPNk yxk gksxkA bl rjg ls L=h iq:”k ds bl lfEefyr izfdz;k ls >wej dh mRifr izrhr gksrh gSA tc ;s taxy ds f’kdkj ds LFkku ij v[kjk ;ds uR; xku esa bldk iz;ksx fd, gksaA vkSj ;g >wej budk ,d :Ik ys fy;k gksA vkxs pydj blds dbZ Lo:Ik cus gksaxs ftlesa L=h o iq:”kksa ds fy, vyx & vyx :Ik fu/kkZj.k fd, x;s gksaxsA tgkWa tuh >wej /kheh] dksey Loj ypdnkj uR; xhr gS] ogha ejnkuh >wej rst] dfBu mÙkstd vkSj Fkdk nsus okyk uR; xhr gS tks iq:”kksa ls gh laHko gSA ckn esa iq:”k urZdksa o xk;dksa ds e/; dyh ;k dfy;ksa dks uR;xku dh ‘kksHkk c<+kus ds fy, lfEefyr dj fy;k x;k gksA blh rjg caxyk >wej ds ‘kCn ] Loj ‘kSyh ds ikFkZD; ds dkj.k caxyk >wej dk fodkl gqvkA ;s lHkh ds Hksn cudj viuk Lo:Ik fLFkj dj fy, gSa vkSj blh uke ls vfHkfgr fd, tkrs gSaAÞ15 6- vaxub jkx & vaxub jkx ls gesa ;g tkuk iM+rk gS fd vkWaxu esa xk;s tkus okyk jkx dks vaxub jkx dgk x;k gSA fQj vkxs iz’u ;g mBrk gS fd ckfd tks xhr gSa og vkWaxu dks NksM+dj dgha nwljs txgksa igkM+ & iorksZa esa xk;s tkrs gSa\A bl iz’u dk mrj bl izdkj ls fn;k tk ldrk gS fd oSls xhr ftldks dksbZ volj ij dsoy vkWaxu esa xk;s tkrs gSaA ;g volj dksbZ ioZ & R;ksgkj ls lacaf/kr iwtk & ikB esa ns[kus dks feyrs gSaA ftrh;k] dje ;k rht gks bl jkx dks vkaxu esa gh xk;s tkrs gSaA bl rjg ds jkx esa L=h & iq:”k nksuksa c<+ p<+dj ds fgLlk ysrs gSaA fL=;kWa xhr ,oa uR; djrh gSa rks iq:”k oxZ ds ok|; ;a= ctkrs gSaA blesa <kaWd] uxkM+k] ekUnj] <ksyd] vkSj >kWa> vkfn ctrs gSaA bl izdkj vkWaxu tks ?kj dh lqUnjrk dks c<+krk gSA bruk gh ugha og yksxksa dk vkjke ,oa foJke djus dk eq[; LFkku ekuk tkrk gSA ogha ?kj& ifjokj ds yksx ml ikou txg ij ‘kknh &fookg dk ‘kqHkkjaHk djrs gSaA blh ds laca/k esa euiqju uk;d fy[krs gSa fd & ßvaxub dk ukedj.k vWaxuk ¼vkaxu½ ls gqvk gS ,slk dgk tkrk gSA vkSj ;g lgh Hkh gS A ;g fL=;ksa }kjk vkWaxu ;k v[kjk esa xk;k rFkk ukpk ctk;k tkrk gSA vkaxuk dk vFkZ gksrk gS lqUnj vaxksa okyh L=h

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vFkkZr blh vaxuk ‘kCn ls cuk vaxub Li”V djrk gS fd ?kj dh lqUnj vaxksa okyh vFkkZr lt & /kt dj ?kj ds vkWaxu esa uR; xhr djukA blfy, bls vaxub dgk x;k gSA vkaxu ij fL=;ksa dk vf/kdkj vf/kd gksrk gS blh ls iq:”k ?kj ds vkaxu dh txg xkWao ds vkaxu esa uR; xhr laxhr ds fy, tkrs gSaA ftls v[kjk dgrs gSa A vkaxu dk vFkZ gksrk gS Vgyus dk LFkku] vkaxu] Pkksss Sd vFkkZr v[kjkA v[kjk Hkh xkWao dk pkSd gh gksrk gS ;k dgsa tSls ?kj dk vkxu gksrk gSA oSls gh xkWao dk v[kjk vkaxu dh rjg iwjs {ks= dk v[kjk] trjk dgykrk gSA ?kj dk vkaxu gh foLrkj ikdj dze’k% vaxuk] v[kjk vkSj trjk dgykrk gS tks ewyr% uR; LFky ds :Ik esa fo’ks”k :Ik ls tkuk tkrk gSA ;g Bhd gS fd v[kjk esa vU; lkaLdfrd ,oa lkekftd dk;Z Hkh laikfnr gksrs gSaA ijUrq v[kjk uR; laxhr dk ,oa xkWao dk gn; LFky gSA fu"d"kZ %& vaxub jkx ds izeq[k Hksn & p<+urjh] ifgylkWa>k] v/kjfr;k] fHkulfj;k] fcgfu;k] m/kmok] Bf<+;k] yq>jh] ¼yq>dmok½ yglqok] [kseVk] MabM+/kkjk] Bg:vk] jldzhjk ,oa {ks= foLrkj ds vkk/kkj ij iwjckgk] ifNekgk] mrjkgk] nf[kukgk] lksuiqfj;k] ukxiqfj;k] t’kiqfj;k] xkaxiqfj;k] gsB?kfV;k vkSj vlfe;k vkfnA vaxub ds leLr Hksnksa dks ukxiqjh laxhr ds vPNs tkudkj Hkh cryk ugha ikrs gSa] bruh bldh fofo/krk;sa gSaA xhrksa dks ns[kus ij[kus ls fofnr gksrk gS fd bldh vusdkusd jkx & jkfxfu;kWa gSaA orZeku ih<+h bls Hkwyrh tk jgh gSA ijUrq iqjkus xhrksa ls bldh cgqfofo/krk dk vanktk yxrk gSA vaxub mPp Loj ls gksus okyk jkx gSA ;g jkx if’peh {ks= dh nsu gS ,slk dgk tkrk gSA ;g efgykvksa }kjk o”kkZ _rq esa cgqjk] rht] dje] ftfr;k vkSj nlWa; vkfn esa xk;s tkus okyk yksdfiz; jkx gSA bl jkx dks xkus dk le; vk”kk<+ eghus ls dkfrZd ekl rd ds nsoBku rd dk gSA Þ16 lanHkZ xzaFkksa dh lwph ,oa lk{kkRdkj %& 1 >kj[k.M dk yksdlaxhr& fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ^fxfjjkt*] Ik”V la[;k &85 lsA 2 ukxiqjh yksdxhr vkSj ekUnj ds rky & euiqju uk;d] Ik”V la[;k & 13 lsA 3 ukxiqjh yksdxhr vkSj ekUnj ds rky & euiqju uk;d] Ik”V la[;k & 14 lsA 4 >kj[k.M dk yksdlaxhr& fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ^fxfjjkt*] Ik”V la[;k &90 lsA 5 ukxiqjh yksdxhr vkSj ekUnj ds rky & euiqju uk;d] Ik`”V la[;k & 124 lsA 6 >kj[k.M dk yksdlaxhr& fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ^fxfjjkt*] Ik”V la[;k &57 lsA 7 >kj[k.M dk yksdlaxhr& fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ^fxfjjkt*] Ik”V la[;k &58 lsA

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8 >kj[k.M dk yksdlaxhr& fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ^fxfjjkt*] Ik”V la[;k &67 lsA 9 lk{kkRdkj & v’kksd dqekj cM+kbZd] xzke & djkZ] fleMsxk] mez & 35 o”kZA 10 >kj[k.M dk yksdlaxhr& fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ^fxfjjkt*] Ik”V la[;k &61 lsA 11 >kj[k.M dk yksdlaxhr& fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ^fxfjjkt*] Ik”V la[;k &60 lsA 12 lk{kkRdkj & egkchj ukbZd] xzke + iks”V & mesM.Mk] Fkkuk & cqM+ew] jkWaph lsA 13 ukxiqjh y; jkx eatjh & jke mfpr flag] Ik”V la[;k & 9 lsA 14 ukxiqjh y; jkx eatjh & jke mfpr flag] Ik”V la[;k & 26 lsA 15 >kj[k.M dk yksdlaxhr& fxfj/kkjh jke xkSa>w ^fxfjjkt*] Ik”V la[;k &78 lsA 16 ukxiqjh yksdxhr vkSj ekUnj ds rky & euiqju uk;d] lsA

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APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET OF THINGS FOR SMART

LIBRARIES: AN OVERVIEW Dr. P.J. Rosario Vasantha Kumar

Librarian St. Joseph’s Institute of Management

St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous) Tiruchirappalli

Abstract

The Internet of Things will, positively, be a hugeagreement in Library and its services. Among possible areas of IoT use in the author listed: tracking books; organizing self-guided tours; making exhibits in special collections more interesting; providing options for contactless payments; checking availability of equipment; and providing more detailed information about collections. In this Context this article seeks to explain the applications of IoT and how this type technology is used for library services as well as explicate the advantages and disadvantage this technology.

Key Words: Internet of Things, Applications, Challenges, Advantages and Disadvantages

INTRODUCTION:

The term “IoT,” which was first proposed by Kevin Ashton, a British technologist, in 1999, has the potential to impact everything from new product opportunities to shop floor optimization to factory worker efficiency gains that will power top-line and bottom-line gains. It is believed that IoT will improve energy efficiency, remote monitoring, and control of physical assets and productivity through applications as diverse as home security to condition monitoring on the factory floor. Now IoT has been used in markets in the field of health care, home appliances and buildings, retail markets, energy and manufacturing companies, mobility and transportation, logistics companies, and by media. So the Internet of Things will, positively, be a big deal in future Library and its services. Among possible areas of IoT use, the author listed: tracking books; organizing self-guided tours; making exhibits in special collections more interesting; providing options for contactless payments; checking availability of equipment; and providing more detailed information about collections. In this Context this article seeks

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to explain the applications of IoT and how this type technology is used for library services as well as explicate the advantages and disadvantage this technology.

INTERNET OF THINGS:

According to Techopedia “The Internet of Things is a computing concept that describes a future where every day physical objects will be connected to the Internet and be able to identify themselves to other devices”. As per Whatis2 “The Internet of Things is a scenario in which objects, animals or people are provided with unique identifiers and the ability to transfer data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction. IoT has evolved from the convergence of wireless technologies, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) and the Internet”. In simple terms, Internet of things enables, any natural or man-made objects to communicate each other and transfer data using assigned IP address with or without human interventions. As with any new thing, different people coined different names for IoT. Some of the names are smart devices, ubiquitous or pervasive computing devices, machine to machine communication and so on.

History of IOT:

Dewy (1983) posited that, “libraries are schools and the librarian in the highest sense a teacher.” Oyedeji (1980) describes a library as having “a machinery” for the use of the collection. In the modem world, a wide range of information is disseminated through the printed word, yet it is impossible to have access to all forms of information and knowledge through wide reading alone. Other facilities and agencies thus exist that emphasize audio-visual learning. They include electronic media such as radio, television, cable satellite, the Internet. These media give wide publicity to events, objects, discoveries, scientific findings, new products, and new services [8]. In the 1990s, Internet connectivity began to proliferate in enterprise and consumer markets, but was still limited in its use because of the low performance of the network interconnects. In the 2000s Internet connectivity became the norm for many applications and today is expected as part of many enterprise, industrial and consumer products to provide access to information. However, these devices are still primarily things on the Internet that require more human interaction and monitoring through apps and

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interfaces. The true promise of the IoT is just starting to be realized – when invisible technology operates behind the scenes dynamically responding to how we want “things” to act [10]. As early as 1995, Louis Rosenfeld, founder of the clearinghouse for subject-oriented internet resource guide at the University of Michigan, edited a monographic series covering the area of health and science, humanities, social science, business, and law. There are also numerous wed sites devoted to the “best of the wed” in given subject area [11]. The term “Internet of Things” was popularized by the work of the Auto-ID Centre at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which in 1999 started to design and propagate a cross company Radio frequency identification infrastructure. In 2002, its co-founder and former head Kevin Ashton was quoted in Forbes Magazine as saying, “We need an internet for things, a standardized way for computers to understand the real world” [11]. To date, the world has deployed about 5 billion “smart” connected things. Predictions say there will be 50 billion connected devices by 2020 and in our lifetime we will experience life with a trillion-node network which provides strong connection nodes [12].

Application of IoT(3):

Smart home

Smart Home clearly stands out, ranking as highest Internet of Things application on all measured channels. More than 60,000 people currently search for the term “Smart Home” each month. This is not a surprise. The IoT Analytics company database for Smart Home includes 256 companies and startups. More companies are active in smart home than any other application in the field of IoT. The total amount of funding for Smart Home startups currently exceeds $2.5bn. This list includes prominent startup names such as Nest or AlertMe as well as a number of multinational corporations like Philips, Haier, or Belkin.

Wearables

Wearables remains a hot topic too. As consumers await the release of Apple’s new smart watch in April 2015, there are plenty of other wearable innovations to be excited about: like the Sony Smart B Trainer, the Myo gesture control, or LookSee bracelet. Of all the IoTstartups, wearables maker Jawbone is probably the one with the biggest funding to date. It stands at more than half a billion dollars!

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Smart City

Smart city spans a wide variety of use cases, from traffic management to water distribution, to waste management, urban security and environmental monitoring. Its popularity is fueled by the fact that many Smart City solutions promise to alleviate real pains of people living in cities these days. IoT solutions in the area of Smart City solve traffic congestion problems, reduce noise and pollution and help make cities safer.

Smart grids

Smart grids is a special one. A future smart grid promises to use information about the behaviors of electricity suppliers and consumers in an automated fashion to improve the efficiency, reliability, and economics of electricity. 41,000 monthly Google searches highlights the concept’s popularity. However, the lack of tweets (Just 100 per month) shows that people don’t have much to say about it.

Industrial internet

The industrial internet is also one of the special Internet of Things applications. While many market researches such as Gartner or Cisco see the industrial internet as the IoT concept with the highest overall potential, its popularity currently doesn’t reach the masses like smart home or wearables do. The industrial internet however has a lot going for it. The industrial internet gets the biggest push of people on Twitter (~1,700 tweets per month) compared to other non-consumer-oriented IoT concepts.

Connected car

The connected car is coming up slowly. Owing to the fact that the development cycles in the automotive industry typically take 2-4 years, we haven’t seen much buzz around the connected car yet. But it seems we are getting there. Most large auto makers as well as some brave startups are working on connected car solutions. And if the BMWs and Fords of this world don’t present the next generation internet connected car soon, other well-known giants will: Google, Microsoft, and Apple have all announced connected car platforms.

Connected Health (Digital health/Telehealth/Telemedicine)

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Connected health remains the sleeping giant of the Internet of Things applications. The concept of a connected health care system and smart medical devices bears enormous potential (see our analysis of market segments), not just for companies also for the well-being of people in general. Yet, Connected Health has not reached the masses yet. Prominent use cases and large-scale start up successes are still to be seen. Might 2015 bring the breakthrough?

Smart retail

Proximity-based advertising as a subset of smart retail is starting to take off. But the popularity ranking shows that it is still a niche segment. One LinkedIn post per month is nothing compared to 430 for smart home.

Smart supply chain

Supply chains have been getting smarter for some years already. Solutions for tracking goods while they are on the road, or getting suppliers to exchange inventory information have been on the market for years. So while it is perfectly logic that the topic will get a new push with the Internet of Things, it seems that so far its popularity remains limited.

Smart farming

Smart farming is an often overlooked business-case for the internet of Things because it does not really fit into the well-known categories such as health, mobility, or industrial. However, due to the remoteness of farming operations and the large number of livestock that could be monitored the Internet of Things could revolutionize the way farmers work. But this idea has not yet reached large-scale attention. Nevertheless, one of the Internet of Things applications that should not be underestimated. Smart farming will become the important application field in the predominantly agricultural-product exporting countries.

IOT ‘S POSSIBLE SERVICES IN LIBRARY:

Target:

Libraries can target members and non- members in the nearby area, by lure them via SMS with beacon technology and then display a welcome message on their reception screen with digital signage as they walk in.

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Navigation:

When a person walks in, digital signage can be used to show directions to each of them. And Beacons allow the library authorities to know before whether the person is a member or not, the person got past the foyer if any books had already been borrowed, and help them even to find the book if they were misshelved. The beacons can also learn the person’s preferences to serve a more personalized experience as he or she walks toward another collection.

A self-guided virtual tour:

Beacons can be placed anywhere in the library and send users off on a tour. When a user gets to each location their phone plays them videos, or audio, and gives them more information on how to get the most from that area.

Contactless fine payment:

The beacon allows library authorities and users to know how much they owe, and it also have the capability to let users pay it without making them queue for a till or a card reader.

Availability:

Beacons allow users to easily check the availability of PCs, scanners, books within their phone when they enter the library. For school libraries, beacons help students look up seats and study materials that are vacant.

More details of the book:

In the same way, when a user enters into the library with the digital signage the library can show the detailed information of the books that are available there. Beacons can send notifications about the specific books on a shelf.

Digital signage and beacon technology in libraries naturally attract attention and can even be a source of additional revenue through advertising. Libraries should also need to modernise theircommunications too if they want to remain relevant to younger generations. The beacontechnology and the digital signage represents a new way for the library to provide and market the resources and services in a way that is consistent with the communications methods being employed by today’s digital device users.

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Disadvantage:

Compatibility: As of now, there is no standard for tagging and monitoring with sensors. A uniform concept like the USB or Bluetooth is required which should not be that difficult to do.

Complexity: There are several opportunities for failure with complex systems.

Privacy/Security: Privacy is a big issue with IoT. All the data must be encrypted so that data about your Library can viewed by others.

Safety: There is a chance that the software can be hacked and your personal information misused by others.

CONCLUSION:

IOT has a great potential for libraries. If applied in the desired lines, may bring in desired results and make value addition to library resources and services. It is still in evolving stage and it makes sense for librarians to learn about this new technology and wait until the technology is more widely accepted, adopted and available for better implementation in libraries. At the same time, it would be also interesting to learn from early adopters and devise better ways to maximize the benefit of IoT adoption in libraries. Libraries are prone for change and it has been witnessed over a period of history, hence IoT would be the next big thing after Internet, which is going to bring in plethora of changes to the library arena particularly the way library connects and communicates with its patrons.

REFERENCES:

1. Srinivasan, S., and Vanithamani, R. (2013). An internet of things approach to library management and monitoring. International journal of research in engineering and advanced technology, 1(2).

2. Lee, Tae-Yang., Kim, Ki-Hoon., and Jeong, Gu-Min. (2014). Design of an easy-to-use Bluetooth library for wireless sensor network on android. Contemporary engineering sciences, 7(16), 801-805.

3. https://iot-analytics.com/10-internet-of-things-applications/ 4. (2014). Understanding the internet of things(IoT).

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5. Dulaney, Christine K. (2011). Library in the clouds: Cloud

computing and its impact on library services. American university, Washington college of law.

6. http://www.slidershare.net/negard1/internet-of-things-for-libraries 6) (2014). What the internet of things(IoT) needs to become a reality.

7. Chiemeke, S., Umar, S. S., and Shaib, I. O. (2007). Users’ perceptions of the use of academic libraries and online facilities for research purposes in Nigeria. Library philosophy and practice.

8. The evolution of the internet of things. Texas instruments. 9. Jackson, Rebecca., and Pellack, Lorraine. (2004). Internet

subject guides in academic libraries: an analysis of contents, practices and opinions. 43(4).

10. Mattern, Friedemann., and Floerkemeier. (1966). From the internet of computers to the internet of things.

11. Gubbi, Jayavardhana, (et. al.). (2013). Internet of things(IoT): a vision, architectural elements, and future directions. Future generation computer systems, 29(1)

12. Yuvaraj, Mayank, (2013). Cloud computing applications in Indian central university libraries: a study of librarians use. Library philosophy and practice.

13. Kaushik, Anna, And Ashok Kumar, Application of cloud computing in libraries. International journal of information dissemination and technology, 3(4), 270-273.

14. Kim, Miri, And Cheeyong, Kim, (2015). Augmented reality fashion apparel simulation using a magic mirror. International journal of smart home, 9(2), 169-178.

15. Gupta, Ekta, (et.al.). (2015). Fashion accessories using virtual mirror. International journal of soft computing and engineering, 5(2).

16. Blum, Tobias, (et. al.). (2012). Mirracle: an augmented reality magic mirror system for anatomy education. Technische university munchem.

17. Murugan, Senthur, (2013). User education: academic libraries. International journal of information technology and library science research, 1(1), 01-06. 18) Gubbi, Jayavardhana, (et. al.). Internet of things(IoT): a vision, architectural elements, and future directions.

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INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND GIRL CHILD LABOUR:A

CONFLICTING REALITY

Chandrakala Diyali Assistant Professor

Department of Social Work University of Delhi, Delhi

This paper is an attempt to study the conflicting scenrio ofvery esteemedly celebrated and highly proclaimed Day of International peace and a miserable groundreality of huge prevalence of girl child labour in select slums in Industrial capital of Uttar Pradesh; Kanpur, India. The study focuses on the questions as when the whole world is ushering toward commemorating yet another International Day of Peace (“Peace Day”) on 21 September that was brought into being by United Nations Resolutions in 1981 and 2001 forall humanity to commit and strengthen the ideals of peace both within and among all nations above all differences and to contribute to building a Culture of Peace;the children who should be the focal part of the celebration across the world; are cornered as child labourers to suffer and deny any virtual rights of even being a child. How can the global community from any works of lifehave even a moral discussion on making the world a peaceful abode,when the most valued population ‘the children’ who form the very foundation for our future world citizen presently,constituting one third of the total population of the world;168 million are still in the clutches of child labour menance and their numbers are no longer dropping but are climbing back up. Hence, even the deterrent laws against the child labour and related Rights for the children seems to be all an ‘EYE WASH’

Keywords: Peace, Child labour, Poverty, Formal and Informal Sectors.

How can we ever think of dreaming to make the world to be at peaceful state when even after a great strides made by International and National Women and Child Rights Movement to reinforce the Rights of children especially girl child over many years; girls around the world and in India; in particular are still married as children,trafficked into forced labour, sex slavery and most hidden and less focused-on is the increasing number of girls child labour that have been breeding and

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thriving within the never-ending vicious circle. The slower decline in the number of girl child labourers, almost stagnating since the last five year or so, raises doubt over many serious issues like the outreach of different government programmes aimed at eradication of child labour,

Chandrakala Diyali, Assistant Professor, Department of Social work,University of Delhi.

the situation may also raise serious policy concerns and the most unending of all is the beautifully hidden concern of Gender differentials and discrimination in our society in terms of education opportunity, nutrition, sex typing of the work, low status conferred to the work of a female and hence lead to low wages, unskillful manual work or uneconomical home based piece rated jobs for girls. Child Labour is a Social and Economic loss, to the way of development criteria. The girl child labour requires special mention in the context of child labour. Girls remain deprived of adequate access to basic health care, nutrition and education; the problem is further compounded by early marriage of the girls and subsequent early motherhood. Even though Human Rights Watch and other International and National Forum are working toward the realization of women’s empowerment and gender equality that is protecting the rights and improving the lives of women and girls across the world. The ground reality has not been able to show comprehensive change in the various indicators of gender equality. The child labour as such; a social problem is a curse in the modern society and on top of it the fast increasing number of girl labour is a disturbing fact which finds its encouraging and strong roots in the cultural tradition and low mindset of Indian society which requires immediate and focused global concern not only in terms of formulation of legislation but also in its serious and systematic implementation.

Hence, in this paper the researcher has attempted to study the question of girl child labour prevalent in select slums in Industrial capital of Uttar Pradesh; Kanpur, India. The study addresses the issues of why the households supply girl labour for wages in the labour market; how the girls are exploited, how they are caught in the debt trap and the uncontrollable and inconspicuous vicious circle.

However, there has been very limited empirical evidence to show that girls are more deprived and disadvantaged than the boys.

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Hence, an in-depth understanding of the causes, extent and consequences of Child labour is necessary as the issues associated with girl child labour are not merely socioeconomic and cultural but also relate to social justice and human rights more specifically the rights of women and girl’s child and the pertinent question of Gender.

Most debates on child labour leave the specific problems of the girl child unanswered.Part of the reason is that while boys can be seen working in workshop and factories, in some of the most hazardous working conditions. Whereas, Girls with a few exceptions, work at home and are therefore invisible to the casual observer. This invisibility has serious negative consequences in terms of her status within the family which in turn determines her role in the family and society. Girls accompany parents to the field and in addition to their domestic work ,they are also involved in large numbers in the unorganized sector industries such as match, coir, carpets, lock, beedi (local cigarettes),gem polishing, zari (gold thread embroidery) making, ground nuts shelling etc. In the urban areas they work as domestic servants, rag pickers, newspaper vendors etc.

About 42% of the Indian population consists of children and nearly half of them are girls. And about 40% are girls in the age range of 0-14 years. While much has been written about the differential status of girls and boys with respect to health, nutrition and education not much is known about the working girls.

The main objective of the paper is to look at the various factors of girl child labour in India with special reference to select slums of Kanpur District in Uttar Pradesh in North India. More specifically, this paper will identify the push and pull factors of girl child labour in this region as compared with boy child labour and understand the parent’s attitudes towards the employment of girl child.

Definition of child Labour

Childlabourisdefineddifferentlybythevariousorganizations and group of people. The International LabourOrganization(ILO) defines childlabouras ‘worksituationswherechildrenare compelled to work on a regular basis to earn a living forthemselvesandtheir families,and asa resultare disadvantagededucationallyandsocially; where childrenworkin conditionsthat are exploitativeanddamagingtotheirhealthandto theirphysical andmental development; where childrenareseparated from

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their families,often deprivedofeducational andtrainingopportunities; wherechildrenare forcedtolead prematurelyadult lives.TheFactories Act of1948 definethat ‘a person below the age of 14 years is to be regardedasa Child’ anddefinechildlabour‘as work by a child’.

The term Child Labour means different things to different societies. A universally accepted definition of child labour is not available. A distinction is often made between child work and child labour.

The distinction between child labour and child work may be briefly stated as follows:

Table -1

CHILD WORK CHILD LABOUR

Light work(children learn to take responsibilities)

Hard & hazardous work, exploitation

Respect of Children’s right to health & education

Deprivation of children’s rights to health & education

Occasional Constant & for long hours

Legal Illegal

Based on ILO (2006a), the notion of child labour in this study refers to the concept of economic activity and covers all activities undertaken by girls below the age of 14 years, in the production of goods and services, whether,

For the market Paid or unpaid Part time or full time Performed on a casual or a regular basis In the formal or informal sector The activities are legal or illegal.

This empirical study excludes chores undertaken in the girl’s own household.

Emily Delap (2001) revealed that economic factors clearly have a role to play in decisions regarding child work force entry in urban Bangladesh. Low household incomes are also associated with high rates of both, child income generation and household work. Many families

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rely on children’s income- generating and expenditure reducing activities to survive in times of need. Income stability can also have an effect on children income generating work. Girls are considered a liability by parents who are influenced by traditional values, societal norms and social institutions like family, kinship and marriage. The Subordination of adult women in the household runs parallel with subordination of the girl child, socializing the latter into the preordained role that she will assume as an adult. The implications of such unequal treatment result in limiting the opportunities and choices that girl children may have both in the present and in the future

Vast and interesting literature has emerged on different dimension of the theoretical and analytical issues of child labour. Until proper stress is not laid on education, child labour cannot be eradicated. However depending solely on compulsory education to get children out of the labour force would not be the desired effects. Anti-Poverty schemes and campaign against the discrimination of the girl child also need special attention as remedial measures (Sharma Rajeev & Sharma 1997). Child labour is closely associated with non-schooling of children (Dreze and Sen, 1995). Poverty of parents is the prime cause of driving the children to join the labour force although it is not the only cause (Sharma 1997). Saxena (1996) found that there has also not been any provision for children employment in agricultural occupation and as domestic servant. It is very essential to adopt measures for stopping the evils connected with the employment of child labour. Winter (1996) argues that cultural attitudes, rather than poverty, are the key cause of child labour in India. To quote Dreze and Sen(1995:159), “the capabilities of girls will be severely restricted by the denial of education. If freedom is the goal of development, it will be substantially restricted by the fact that illiterate girls will become illiterate women”.Ejaz Ali Khan Rana (2003) stated that the children from female- headed household has a positive impact on child’s schooling; among the parent’s parameters mothers education is more important than father’s; parental education is positively associated with child labour. The ownership of assets impact the schooling positively, and labour negatively; the household size affects the schooling negatively, and work positively, and household composition also has a significant effect on schooling and child labour, the children from urban areas are more likely to go to school.

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Girl Child labour is not only deprived of education and recreation, but

they are also “exposed to the risks of sexual harassment and their moral, and psychological development is at stake” (Srinivas Reddy and Ramesh, 2002:16). About sixty-five million girl children are out of school. Girls are vulnerable to poverty and hunger, and are at greater risk than boys from HIV/AIDS, sexual exploitation and child trafficking (UNICEF, 2004).BuraNeera (2001) stated that recent developed literature (in particular the work of AmartyaSen) has brought out the importance of female agency in the welfare of the family and society. They also find that attitudes within families have undergone transformation, gender relations have become more equitable and families have begun to value education for their girl children. JafareySaquib, LahiriSajal (2002) investigated that the poor households have access to credit markets at responsible rate of interest if we want a serious reduction in the incidence of child labour. However, credit on its own is unlikely to eliminate child labour. One also needs to improve the economic conditions of the poor households and to provide their children with better quality primary education.

Hazan Moshe &Berdugo Binyamin (2002) depicted that the dynamic evaluating of child labour, fertility and human capital in the process of development. In early stage of development, the economy is in a development trap where child labour is abundant, fertility is high and output per capita is low. Technological progress, however, increases the wage differential between parental and child labour, decreases the benefit from child labour and ultimately permits a take-off out of the development trap. Parents find it optimal to substitute child education for child labour and reduce fertility. The economy converges to a sustained growth steady- state equilibrium where child labour is abolished and fertility is low.

Child labour in the World

Child labour is a global phenomenon. There is no precise data on the magnitude of child labour and all the estimates fall short of the actual figure. Due to multiplicity of definition, there are different methods of computation and the collection of data at different point of times; there are variations in the data on child labour. In the context of global incidence of child labour, a recent report of the US Labour Department has pointed that more than 50% of world’s estimate 100

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million to 200 million child labour are in Asia, and constitutes a large part of the work force in part of Latin America and Africa.

Childlabourandthe worstformsofchild labour,as definedbyinternational labour organization (ilo) Conventions, damagechildren’shealth, threatentheir educationandleadtofurtherexploitationandabuse. UniCeFdoesnot opposework thatchildrenmay performathome,onthe familyfarm orforafamily business–aslongasthatwork isnotadangertotheir healthandwell-being,andif itdoesn’tpreventthem fromgoingtoschoolandenjoyingchildhoodactivities.In2004, therewere218millionchildrenengaged inchild labour, excluding child domestic labour in the world. Some12.6millionchildrenaged5–17are believed tobeengagedinhazardouswork. Itisestimatedthatchildrenrepresent40–50per centofallvictimsofforcedlabouror5.7million childrenare trappedinforcedandbondedlabour. The child labour problem is not unique to India; worldwide, about 217 million children work, many full-time.The 1998 National Census of India estimated the total number of child labour, to be at 12.6 million, out of a total child population of 253 million in 5-14 age group. A 2009-2010 Nationwide Survey found child labour prevalence had reduced to 4.98 million children (or less than 2% of children in 5-14 age groups). The 2011 National Census of India found the total number of child labour, aged 5–14, to be at 4.35 million, and the total child population to be 259.64 million in that age group.

Childrenworkinginthe homeofathirdpartyor‘employer’are extremelyvulnerabletoexploitation andabuse.Iloestimatesthatmore girls underage16are indomesticservicethaninany other categoryofwork orchild labour. Between 2000 and 2008 the number of child labourersworldwide fell by some 30 million. Notwithstanding this progress, at the end of that period there were still over 215 million child labourers, and over half of them were doing hazardous work (WorldReportsonChildLabor;Hague Global Child LabourConference of 2010). Moreover,

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theoveralldownwardtrendmaskedrisingnumbersofchildrenineconomicactivity in sub-Saharan Africa from 2004 to 2008 (ILO, 2010d).It conveys a clear message of hope and progress against child labour, Which is possible with sound policychoicesandsubstantialnationalandinternationalcommitment. In Sub Saharan African 1 in 4 children aged 5-17 work, compared to 1 in 8 in Asia Pacific and 1 in 10 in Latin America (ILO 2010 Facts on Child Labour).ILO estimates that throughout the world, around 215 million children under 18 works, many full-time. Although aggregate numbers suggest that more boys than girls are involved in child labour, many of the types of work girls are involved in are invisible. It is estimated that roughly 90 per cent of children involved in domestic labour are girls. (UNICEF 2011 State of the World’s Children).Even though the prevalence of child labour has been falling in recent years everywhere apart from Sub Saharan Africa where it is actually increasing with regard to children aged 5-14 (ILO 2010 Facts on Child Labour), it continues to harm the physical and mental development of children and adolescents and interfere with their education ( UNICEF 2011 State of the World’s Children and UNICEF Child Info webpage on child labour). UNICEF estimates that around 150 million children aged 5-14 in developing countries, about 16 per cent of all children in this age group, are involved in child labour (UNICEF 2011 State of the World’s Children).

National Scenario

Number of children working in India has declined 60% from 12.6 million in 2001 to 4.9 million in 2010. But yet India continues to host the largest number of child labourers in the world today. In India as in many other countries obtaining accurate, detail information about children working in different sectors is a major challenge because in many cases children work are mostly in non- regulated and informal sectors like agriculture, domestic servants etc. The rapid urbanization in our country has opened new avenues for employment of children below 14 years like rickshaw pulling, shoe shining, car cleaning, cycle repairing, garage work, hotel boys, domestic servants etc. and also in many black trends like smuggling, drug trafficking, begging as well as traditional occupation like beedi work, carpentry, laundry, match, fire work, agarbattis, etc. Therefore there is absolute truth in the statement that there is no sector where child is not employed. Inter-state

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differences in the incidence of child labor suggest that more than 50% of child workers (6.7 million) are concentrated in the 5 states – UP, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The incidence seems to be less in states like Punjab and Haryana.Uttar Pradesh has an estimated 1.7 million children working in various sectors. These children include those working in “hazardous” and non- hazardous industries, receiving low wages and are reportedly out of school. The Children are involved in number of industries in UP including metal ware, glassware, carpet industries etc. West Bengal and Rajasthan also show high numbers, although the estimated number of working children in UP is three times that of West Bengal

Hypotheses

In this study, following are the hypotheses that were considered:

1. Girl child labour causes and sustains poverty. 2. Incidence of girl child labour is larger among the following

category of households: Low socio-economic households Lower caste households, Female- headed households.

Methodology:

Slums of Kanpur District were chosen as the Geographical area of the study as it accounted for one of the largest concentration of child labour in Kanpur District. About 250 girl child worker in the age group of 5 to 14 years purposively selected from the slum areas for the study. With the help of Structured and unstructured interview schedule, relevant information were gathered from the children and the head of the family and information was also gathered from about 12 employers through informal discussions . Participatory and observation techniques were also employed in the collection of primary data.

The primary survey was carried out by the researcher during the period 2010-11.The data was collected on each household for different socio-Economic facets of girl child labour.

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Findings of the Empirical Study on Pull and Push factors of Girl Child Labour

An analysis of the age of the sample girl child workers at the time of the survey revealed that the largest number (134), i.e. more than 50 per cent were in the age group of 12-14 years, nearly one-third were in the age group of 10 to 12 years and remaining 14 per cent were in the age group of 5 to 9 years.

(i) Poverty was the main factor that pushed about 47.27 per cent of the girls into paid labour force.

(ii) The second most obvious reason for the girls doing the paid work was because of their socio-cultural background that mostly belong to the lowest rung in the Varna- system ie Schedule Castes (20.90%).The largest concentration of women in the labour force belongs to the Scheduled Castes which automatically engulfs their daughters in the labour market. The main reason is the widespread poverty which exists among this section of the population and moreover due to stark poverty these sections do not pose severe restriction on the movements of females for their livelihood. Who are mostly engaged in the household work like domestic servants, piece-rate wages etc. The system of sub-contracting keeps these women and girls in low-paid jobs.

(iii) An interesting observation in this regard is that, while 10.90% i.e 24 girls said that the employment of their mothers and elder sisters (who were in the age group of 15-18) encouraged them to give up studies and take up a job.

(iv) The other compelling factor was the employment of their girl friends in the community and easing up of their parents and family economic life was the motivating force behind their paid employment.

(v) Around 9.09% of the girls are socialized to believe that there is sex- typing of the work. The girls and women are to crowd into the domestic chores and the work their mothers have been engaged in, in order to adhere to the norm of the society. This has a direct bearing on their lack of motivation in studies they either do not go to the school, drop out or go when there is no work (frequent absents).

(vi) Around 3.63 per cent of girls had taken up paid employment on account of the unemployment and underemployment of adults in the family.

(vii) Household debt was also reason for about 3.63 per cent of girls to enter the labour market.

(viii) Nearly 2.27per cent of the girls had entered the paid job market due to distance to the school facilities in their area. The area to which these

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sample girls belong lacked school facilities nearby (walk able distance) which would mean incurring a lot of time and money to reach to the school which also mean a great loss on the economic front for them and their sustainable families survival, which is possible by sitting at home and working at your own pace and ease (home based piece-rated jobs). Therefore, they could not pursue their studies beyond primary standard: if they had to continue studies that would mean long hours of walk, lack of safety, etc, and hence, had no option but to take up paid employment.

(ix) The loss of bread winner is another factor which compels the girls’ children to take the responsibility to feed the dependent in the family which includes 2.27%.

Push Factors of Girl Child Labour

Table 4

There are many pull factors that interplay in each women/ girls life to pull her into the labour market which would not ensure her for any kind of security and skill-formation rather endanger her life, keeping her off the track of mainstream development in terms of education, health, skill-formation and other basic privileges which is supposed to be her birth right.

(i) The availability of job opportunities in both unorganised and organised sectors as well(home based piece-rated) for

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children in the study area was the major pull factor contributing to the prevalence of child labour as mentioned by the average of (84.3 percent) of the parents.

(ii) The children (girls) are put to work by their mothers as the work is available at home (both in the organized and unorganized sectors) piece rated home- based work. It does not entail the girl children to bear the brunt of travel and go to the factory/unit of production.

(iii) The work that are given (home-based piece-rated) is easy, monotonous and does not need any technical- skill were the pull factors for the entry of girls in the labour market.

(iv) Approach from the employers was yet another factor that had promoted girl child labour, as reported by about 82 per cent of the mothers.

(v) About 90% of the parents said as the work available for the children gives them their source of livelihood and add to their meagre family income for their survival. Pull factors of Girl Child Labour

Table 5

Other than the above factors there are many interlinking reasons that play roles in pull and push of these little children into the big giant world of labour market.

As far as the boys are concern lack of motivation and interest in studies, negative income shocks in the family, the urge to impart a skill to boys for ensuring the regular flow of money into the house (livelihood), prevalence of greater opportunities for the employment of boys with higher wages and to prevent delinquency among boys who had dropped out from schools were some of the main reasons for the parents to supply their sons to the labour market. Whereas, with respect to girls, some of the reasons that forced parents to send their daughters for work are lack of easy access to schools, less importance

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given to education of girls, household debt, preference to spend on the education of sons, save for the marriage of their daughters and absence of security at home.

A Schematic Presentation of the Empirical Findings of Girl child Labour of Kanpur.

Table 6

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Suggestions for getting the Girls children out of Vicious Cycle of labour market (both hidden and unhidden) and to prevent or rehabilitate the existing Child Labor in the state and the country as a whole.

The problem of child labour has assumed paramount importance globally, with the setting up of the WTO and with the developed countries emphasizing on minimum labour standards for accepting the goods originating from the developing countries. The United States had taken the initiative by passing the Harkin’s Bill (U.S. Congress, 1999), also known as the child Labour Deterrence Act of 1999, banning the import of goods from developing countries manufactured by using child labour.

Ensuring the rights of all the children (both boys and girls) including their right to survival, development, protection and participation are upheld. A good start to life and opportunities

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to develop will ensure that children do not fall through the cracks.

Making available qualitative primary education to all children (6-14 years) is the most important and preventive strategies towards elimination of child labor. A good quality education in a safe and nurturing environment is the most effective way to, deal with the problem of child labor both as a preventive and rehabilitative mechanism.

Speedy enforcement, regulation and monitoring of all legislation related to child labor – quick disposable follow up of children detected, important to prevent them from being reemployed, Linkage of families to social welfare measures and deterrent punishment to employers is needed.

Linkage of family to employment is very important and monitoring of interventions

like the NREG Act (Rural Employment Guarantee act). And other social protection schemes are very important.

Large scale social mobilization and communication to educate communities on the harmful effects of child Labor and the importance of education.

The use of children themselves as their strongest advocates by promoting role models and children’s participations. Children themselves can become powerful agents of change in identifying their own concerns and demanding their own rights to be met.

The media can play a very effective role by reporting the positive stories of change that can motivate the communities to change.

Good coordination between the education and labor department helps in identifying the most vulnerable children and in extra efforts to ensure that they have access to schools.

Civil society organizations can play a catalytic role to reach out to families with messages that promote a culture of protection of child rights at the community level.

Women can play exemplary leadership roles as champions of child rights in families. Not only does their empowerment benefit their own children and families but they act as peer leaders and influencers for other women and families around them.

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Focus on the girl’s education is effective in breaking inter –

generational cycle of poverty and therefore preventing children from being drawn into labour.

Social protection schemes and their targeted delivery can be a very effective preventive mechanism against Child Labor and also addressed equity and social exclusion. It is now just few months for the whole world to celebrate yet another International Day of Peace (‘Peace Day’) 2017 and this year’s U.N. Peace Day Theme has been chosen as:Together for Peace: Respect, Safety and Dignity for All.The theme is based on the TOGETHER global campaign that promotes respect, safety and dignity for everyone by bringing TOGETHER the organizations of the United Nations System, the 193 member countries of the United Nations, the private sector, civil society, academic institutions and individual citizens in a global partnership in support of diversity, non-discrimination and acceptance of refugees and migrants.Hence there is an urgent need to replicate our promise of respect safety and dignity to the most important section of our society; the children in the labour market, especially the marginalized gender…the girl child labour…who are refused access to education or are under- educated not only that they are denied the basic rights of minimum nutrition, sanitation and in short the basic needs for survival.The households use their girls as a means of income in the labour market, the girls are abused by their parents and the profit- motive employers despite prohibitive legislation, they are trapped in an unrelenting, uncontrollable and inconspicuous vicious circle of poverty, crowd into early employment in the meagerly paid non-skillful formal (home based piece rated) and informal sectors jobs. Such discrimination against girls may damage their productivity, efficiency and development in the long run and eventually may hinder the economic and related progress of the country. There have been evidences of strong gender bias in the Indian culture which begins first within the household in the distribution of resources. All accounts of women’s work focused on the adult woman and even gender sensitive researchers have found the girl child invisible. This follows quite naturally from the fact

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that till very recently women did not include the work they did at home as labour and most of their work was categorized as household activities. When 16-20 hours of women’s work went unrecognized, it is not surprising that the work done by girls was not seen as ‘work’ at all! As the society is fast headingtowards super advancement there is tendencyof accumulation of resources and its benefits in the hands of most powerful and favoured population and the weaker and most vulnerable section of the society:girls child in the labour market,are getting swiped in the most unfavourable situations therefore, we need political, Socio-cultural and economic investments in cohesion and equity, so that pace of development is rightly seen as ray of hope for one and all and there is peaceful coexistence of all different and diverse groups. Together, let us stand up against child labour and girl child labour as they are hidden, ignored and unfocussed even in terms of ensuring…their share of human rights. Together, let us build bridges. Together, let us transform despair into hope and unrest- into peace."

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Barooah, P; Working Children in Urban Delhi, New Delhi: A Research Report, Indian Council for Child Welfare.

Census of India (2001, 2011) Directorate of Census Operation, Uttar Pradesh.

Mathew,Moiley: ‘women workers in the unorganised Sector of Coir Industry inKerela, Kottayam’. Indian Institute of Regional Development Studies.

BhadurAnimesh (2005) Energy trends in labour management relations in the contemporary socio economic scenario Ph. D. Thesis University of Lucknow,Lucknow

ChandelKamlesh (2007) Child labour in social structure a Sociological study Ph. D. Thesis University of Lucknow,Lucknow

Nawaz Shah (2008) Social work intervention for reference to RALC Lucknow Ph. D. Thesis University of Lucknow,Lucknow.

Singh kumud (2007) Children work a sociological study of child labour in unorganised sectors in Lucknow city Ph. D. Thesis University of Lucknow,Lucknow

Singh Anandkumar (2006) Unorganised sector of empowerment rural people in India Ph. D. Thesis University of Lucknow,Lucknow.

Diyali Chandrakala (2010-2011) “A study of child labour in the urban slums of Kanpur” M.Phil Thesis University of Lucknow,Lucknow”.

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PERFORMANCE OF MGNREGS IN ANDHRA PRADESH – A SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CHITTOOR DISTRICT

G. Siva Sankar Research Scholar

Dept of Political Science & Public Administration SVUniversity, Tirupati

ABSTRACT: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) was implemented all over the country in three phases. The Act covered 200 districts, in the first phase with effect from 2nd February, 2006. In second phase 113 districts in April 1st

and 17 districts in May 15th 2007 and all the remaining rural districts have been covered by this scheme in 1st April, 2008. The principal objective of the programme is to provide guaranteed employment for at least 100 days in a financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work and to provide wage employment. The novel idea involved in MGNREGS is creation of assets both at individual and the community level in rural areas. The intention of the scheme is to strengthen the natural resources management and addressing causes for chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil erosion and thereby to achieve sustainable development. The main objective of the study is to assess the employment and the nature of assets generated by the programme in India, Andhra Pradesh and Chittoor District. INTRODUCTION Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) was announced in September 2005 and implemented all over the country in three phases. The Act covered 200 districts, in the first phase with effect from February 2nd, 2006. In second phase 113 districts in 1st, April 17 districts in 15th May 2007, the remaining parts of rural areas have been notified with effect from 1st April, 2008. The objective of the programme is to provide guaranteed employment for at least 100 days in rural areas in a financial year to every rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work and wage employment. The novel idea involved in MGNREGS is to create assets both at the individual and the community level in rural areas. The aim is to strengthen the natural resources management and addressing causes for chronic poverty like

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drought, deforestation and soil erosion and thereby to achieve sustainable development. The salient features of MGNREGP

The main features of the programme are, a) right based framework and time bound guarantee, b) provides work up to 100 days in a financial year per household, depending on the actual demand, d) to provide intensive works for labour e) to eliminate contractors/ machinery, f) all works must be approved by the Gram Sabha, g) at least 50 per cent of works must be approved by the Gram Panchayats for execution, h) work site facilities, i) at least one –third of beneficiaries should be women, j) transparency and accountability: through social audits and k) grievance redressel mechanism.

Organizational Structure and Implementation Section 3 of MGNREG Act clearly states that, the State governments are responsible to provide work under this Scheme. Every State Government is required to provide not less than 100 days of guaranteed employment in a financial year, to those who demand work. (Section-4) The organization of MGNREGS at the national level consists of board of members, Executive Directors responsible for policy formulation and implementation at all India level. The Executive director is assisted by programme manager, Administrative Officer and Account Officer with necessary staff. The programme manager is assisted by specialists like project coordinator (Agriculture) Project Coordinator (Livelihood and poverty) and Project Coordinator (General) and these three project directors are assisted by field workers. At the State with particular reference to A.P. the Development Commissioner (Rural Development) is made overall responsible for policy making and implementation and he is assisted various Deputy Development Commissioners and Assistant Commissioners. At the district level A.P. Review of Literature Review of literature is important aspect in any research work. It is a measure stating the output on a particular area of research. The main objective of the review of literature is to understand the Research activities that have taken place in a particular discipline in general and in the area of research in particular. Since the date of implementation of MGNREGS various social scientists have made

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attempt to study the impact of MGNREGS and also its implementation procedures.

Leelavathi and K H Rao (2010), based on the field survey results in four districts of A.P. estimated the performance of MGNREGS in A.P with 23 indicators. He observed that, Inter district variations are found in terms of performance. The overall effectiveness score was 43.68 per cent and concluded that the performance of MGNREGS in A.P is moderate.

Harish and Chengappa (2011), in their study on “Impacts and Implications of MGNREGS on labour supply and income generation for agriculture in Central Dry Zone of Karnataka”, evaluated the impact of MGNREGS on employment, income and savings of the MGNREGS workers and analyzed the impact of MGNREGS wages on labour availability of agriculture. Further, they concluded that the MGNREGS programme often poses the problem of labour scarcity for some of the agricultural linked to market wage rates.

Prasad (2012) in his research paper on “Performance of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (MGNREGP): An Overview”, Observed that the main objective of this study was to explore the current status of MGNREGA. He concludes that MGNREGA serves as an effective safety net for the unemployed especially during famine and drought. It has enabled them with purchasing power and they are able to get at least their basic necessities.

Kaushik (2013) in his paper on “Challenges Faced by Women Entrepreneurs in India”, the aim of the study was to motivate and de-motivate internal and external factor of women entrepreneurship. Further this focused on the socio-economic background, total investment made by the women entrepreneurs and the number of hours devoted for their business. The study suggests that there is a fair need to provide financial assistance for investment by financial institutions.

M.K.Sebastian and P.A. Azeez (2014) Mentioned that women SHGs such as Kudumbasree are playing an important role in the implementation of MGNREGS and as such are actively involved in improving road connectivity, flood control and harvesting and forestry operations. (The Hindu Report, 13th August 2015) The MGNREGS households were likely to obtain higher levels of educational attainment than their

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Non- MGNREGS households. This scheme reduced poverty up to 32 per cent and prevented 14 million people from falling in to poverty. Economic growth contributed to overall poverty reduction due to the significant role played by the MGNREGS. (The Hindu Report, April 27th 2016) Through MGNREGS, income has raised, rural economy is more diversified, and water supply facilities have improved. Also, a semblance of social security system has emerged in rural India, with permanent income support measures. This also reduces people’s dependence on special relief measures in drought years. Methodology/ Sources of Data The data required for the study is collected on the basis of the reports published by the Government of India and articles published in journals by the scholars and professionals. The performance of MGNREGS is evaluated for the period from 2012-13 to 2015-16 by considering the number of persons employed, categories of persons employed and the financial progress of the Programme. The Time-line of preparatory activities under MGNREGS is provided in table 1.

Performance of MGNREGS Table 1. Time-line of preparatory activities under MGNREGS

August 25th ,2005 NREGA enacted by legislation

September 5th ,2005 Assent of the Present

September 7th ,2005 Notified in the Gazette of India

February 2nd ,2006 Came into force in 200 districts with 100 days employment

April 1st , 2007 113 more districts were notified

May 15th,2007 17 more districts were notified

April 1st , 2008 Notified and extended for the remaining all rural districts in India.

October 2nd , 2009 Renamed as MGNREGS

December 10th ,2010 SMS service was introduced

April 20th ,2011 Report for daily expenditure

July 5th ,2013 Workers mobile number can be added in the data

---- 2014 Increased 150 days of employment (selected states only which include A.P.)

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Source: www.mgnega.nic.in

Funding Priority will be given for activities covered under MGNREGS like water harvesting, ground water recharge, drought-proofing and flood protection. It focuses on eco-restoration and sustainable livelihoods and that will lead to an increase in land productivity and aid the workers in moving from wage employment to sustainable employment. It is observed that about 80 per cent of the works undertaken under the programme related to soil and water conservation. The nature of works undertaken through this programme stress on increasing land productivity, recharging ground water levels and increasing water availability. Central Government provides 100 per cent wages for unskilled manual work, 75 per cent of material cost of the scheme including payment of wages to skilled and semiskilled workers. State Government bears 25 per cent of material cost plus payment of wages to skilled and semi skilled workers. If the state is failed to provide full employment for the rural households then it is obligatory on the part of the State Governments to pay 100 per cent unemployment allowances. Recent amendment to the act permit MGNREGA works to provide land for individuals like SC/ST/BPL/IAY/ land reform beneficiaries will augment the impact on agricultural productivity and household income. The total expenditure at different levels of MGNREGS given in table-2

Table 2. MGNREGS - total expenditure at different levels from (2012-16)

S Year Expenditure National level

(in Cr)

Expenditure in Andhra

Pradesh (in lakhs)

Expenditure in

Chittoor District (AP) (in

lakhs)

July, 7th 2015 World biggest rural employment programme by World Bank

____

2016

60 per cent of the MGNREGS budget spent on agriculture and agriculture allied activities

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1 2012-13 39,778.29 (25.14) 4,57,921.11 (28.43)

19,753.29 (20.70)

2 2013-14 38,553.53 (24.36) 4,70,504.75 (29.12)

20,210.29 (21.08)

3 2014-15 36,025.04 (22.76) 2,83,913.38 (17.57)

21,044.32 (22.05)

4 2015-16 43,860.59 (27.72) 4,03,038.94 (24.95)

34,411.18 (36.06)

Total + Average

1,58,217.45 (24.99)

16,15,378.18 (25.01)

95,419.08 (24.97)

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in In order to assess the performance of MGNREGS at National, State (AP) and Chittoor district (in AP) levels and an attempt is made to prove relevant data, it is very clear at three levels (National, State (A.P) and District (Chittoor)) and the data relating to three levels are provided in table -2. The above table that the expenditure incurred during 2015-16 constitutes 27.72 per cent and it is high for remaining years i.e. 25.14 per cent in 2012-13, 24.36 per cent in 2013-14 and 22.76 per cent in the year 2014-15. Further, it is to be noted that the expenditure made for MGNREGS during the year 2015-16 is more than the national average expenditure. The decline is due to the less budget allocation for the financial year 2013-14 and 2014-15. At the state level there is significant increase and sharp decline occurred. i.e. 29.12 per cent in 2013-14 and 17.57 in 2014-15 respectively. The percentage of total average expenditure is high which is compared with remaining given levels. The expenditure at the district level during the year 2012-13 to 2015-16 is continuously increased from 20.70 per cent to 36.06 per cent. But the overall average percentage of expenditure is high in Andhra Pradesh compare with the national and district levels. The data relating to Labour Budget for MGNREGS activities is given in table-3.

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Table.3 Labour budget for MGNREGS activities in India S.No

Item 2015-16

2014-15

2013-14

2012-13

1.Budget approved for labour ( Rs in Cr)

239.11 220.67 258.57 278.71

2.Person days generated (in Cr) 235.32 166.21 220.37 230.46

3.Percentage of total labour budget 98.42 75.32 85.23 82.69

4. Percentage of SCs in total person days

22.27 22.40 22.81 22.22

5.Percentage of STs in total person days

17.71 16.97 17.52 17.79

6.Percentage of women in total person days

55.24 54.88 52.82 51.30

7.Percentage of others total person days

04.78 05.75 06.85 08.69

8.Total (4+5+6+7) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in

Table 3, indicates that, the budget approved for MGNREGS has declined during the study period. The person days generated increased 4.86 per cent in 2015-16, when compared with the 2012-13.The labour component of the budget is significantand it is observed that during the year 2012-13. The percentage of total labour budget is 82.69, but when it compared to the 2015-16 therer was an increases of 15.73 percent. SCs person days have secured significant percentage and STs Person days increased slightly in all the four years. The Women person days also increased continuously in all the consecutive years, i.e. from 51.30 per cent to 55.24 per cent. The others percentages are continuously decline in all the span of four years. It can be concluded that the labour budget for the activities undertaken under MGNREGS has been increased for all the components during the financial year 2015-16. The total percentage of others person days are decreased continuously during study period, i.e. from 8.69 in 2012-13 per cent to 4.78 per cent in 2015-16. Here we can conclude that the percentage of women percent days increased. The average employment days provided to the household in India are indicated in the table 4.

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Table.4 Average employment days provided to households in India

S. No

Item 2015-16

2014-15

2013-14

2012-13

1. Average employment days provided to household

48.89 40.17 45.97 46.2

2. Average Wage rate per day per person (Rs)

154.11 143.92 132.70 121.41

3. Average person days per SC households

22.27 22.40 22.81 22.22

4. Average person days per ST households

17.71 16.97 17.52 17.79

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in The data provided in table.4 shoes that, the average employment days provided to the households has gradually declined during the study period from 2012-13 to 2014-15, but in 2015-16 the employment increased to 48.89 per cent. Average wage rate per day per person is increased gradually, i.e. Rs 121.41 to Rs.154.11. The total average SC person days are 22.42 per cent, but the STs average person days is less (17.49 per cent) when compared to SCs average person days. Table 5 gives the details elating to works completed under MGNREGS in India.

Table .5 Works completed under MGNREGS in India S. No

Item 2015-16

2014-15

2013-14 2012-13

1 Total no of works taken up(New+ Spill in lakhs)

109.83 97.65 93.52 104.62

2 No of ongoing works ( in lakhs)

79.05 68.21 66.10 79.09

3 No of works completed 30.77 29.44 27.42 25.53

4 Percentage of expenditure on agriculture and allied Activities

63.22 52.81 48.70 56.10

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Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in It is observed from the table.5, that the number of works undertaken and completed is higher (109.83) in 2015-16 and it is 104.62 in 2012-13 and fallowed by 2014-15 and 2013-14.However, the number of ongoing works during the above period is almost equal. But it is observed that, the number of completed works are gradually increased from 2012-13 to 2015-16. The percentage of expenditure on agriculture and allied works is increased from 56.10 per cent in 2012-13 to 63.22 per cent in 2015-16.It can be concluded that the number of completed works are high in the year 2012-13 and 2015-16. The financial progress of MGNREGS in India is indicated in table -6

Table .6 Financial progress of MGNREGS in India Item 2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-

13 1 Payment of Wages (In Cr) 30856.2

6 (70.35)

24187.26 (67.14)

26491.21 (68.71)

27153.52 (68.26)

2 Material and skilled wages (In Cr) Percentage of material expenditure of the total expenditure

10728.72 (25.80)

9421.11 (28.03)

9693.72 (26.79)

10429.52 (27.75)

3 Total administration expenditure(In Cr)

2275.32 (5.19)

2416.67 (6.71)

2367.68 (6.14)

2194.78 (5.52)

4 Total expenditure (in Cr) 43860.59

36025.04

38552.62 39778.27

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in The table.6 depicts that, the wage component of the MGNREGS continuous to increase from 68.26 per cent to 70.35 per cent, except in 2014-15 (67.14 per cent). The materiel component of the expenditure declined (25.80 per cent) in 2015-16, when compared (27.75 per cent) to 2012-13. The total administrative expenditure increased in the span of three continuous years 2012-13 to 2014-15, i.e. 5.52 per cent to 6.71 per cent. But in 2015-16 it is decreased to 5.9 per cent. Finally it can be observed that during the financial year 2015-16, the financial progress of MGNREGS for all the components is high when compared to the remaining years except for the total administrative expenditure.

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Performance of MGNREGS in Andhra Pradesh The Andhra Pradesh state (Excluding Telangana) has thirteen districts, 655 Mandals and 12,996 Gram Panchayats. As many as 90.25 lakh job cards have been issued and 204.21 lakh workers are working in works relating to MGNREGS in the state. Andhra Pradesh is the only state which has provided employment to all who demanded the employment. The data relating to Labour Budget for MGNREGS activities during the study period is given in table-7.

Table.7 Labour budget for MGNREGS activities in Andhra Pradesh

S. No

Item 2015-16

2014-15

2013-14

2012-13

1. Budget approved for labour ( Rs in lakhs)

1954.16

1958.66

3642.50

3690.40

2. Person days generated (in lakhs)

1988.12

1269.26

2993.53

3273.35

3. Percentage of total labour budget

101.72 64.80 82.19 88.7


22.58 23.84 23.17 23.38

5. Percentage of STs in total person days

12.32 11.24 14.67 15.43

6. Percentage of women in total person days

57.79 58.46 58.68 58.34

7. Percentage of others total person days

07.51 06.46 03.48 02.85

8. Total (4+5+6+7) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in The budget approved for activities undertaken under MGNREGS has been declined during the study period (table-7). The person days generated decreased from 2012-13 to 2015-16. The labour component of the budget is increasing significantly, however it increased from 88.7 per cent in 2012-13 to 101.72 per cent in 2015-16. The percentage of SC person days decreased from 23.38 per cent in 2012-13 to 22.58 per cent in 2015-16, except in 2014-15 (23.84). The Percentage of person days relating to ST has been decreased from 15.43 per cent to 12.32 per cent.

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The average per cent of total women share also constitutes 59 per cent and it is higher than the national person days for women in Andhra Pradesh. The total percentage of others increased continuously from 2.85 per cent to 7.51 per cent during the study period. The information pertaining to average employment days provided to households MGNREGS in A.P. has been provided in table-8.

Table.8 Average employment days provided to households in Andhra Pradesh

S. No

Item 2015-16

2014-15

2013-14

2012-13


55.28 40.91 49.57 55.92

2. Average wage rate per day per person (Rs in lakhs)

129.47 116.33 110.99 105.04


42.86 42.47 46.34 52.01


19.53 19.15 19.05 20.53

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in It is observed from the table.8, that the average days of employment provided to the households has gradually declined to 0.64 per cent (55.92 per cent in 2012-13 to 55.28 per cent in 2015-16). The average wage per day per person increased gradually from Rs. 105.04 to Rs 129.47. The average person days per SC households decreased in all the four years, i.e. from 52.01 per cent in 2012-13 to 42.86 per cent in 2015-16. The average person days per ST household has also declined in all the four years i.e. from 20.53 per cent in 2012-13 to 19.53 per cent in 2015-16. It can be concluded that the percentage of decline among the SCs is higher than the STs. The information relating of works completed under MGNREGS in A.P. is presented in table-9.

Table .9 Works completed under MGNREGS in Andhra Pradesh S. No

Item 2015-16

2014-15

2013-14

2012-13

1. Total no of works taken up(New+ Spill in lakhs)

11.26 12.23 20.08 49.98

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2. No of ongoing works ( in lakhs)

9.8 12.16 15.76 46.98

3. No of works completed (in lakhs)

146302 72802 432022 300669

4. Percentage of expenditure on agriculture and allied Activities

50.49 56.87 48.63 64.24

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in The number of works undertaken under MGNREGS are very low in 2015-16, when compared to 2012-13, i.e. 49.98 per cent to 11.26 per cent respectively (table-9). The number of ongoing works during the above period also declined from 46.98 per cent to 9.8 per cent during the above period. The completed works also declined, but it is sharp declined in 2014-45. The percentage of expenditure incurred on agriculture and allied works is decreased from 64.24 per cent in 2012-13 to 50.49 per cent in 2015-16. It can be concluded that the number of completed works are high in the year 2012-13 and 2014-15. The information about financial progress of MGNREGS in A.P. is given in table 10. Table.10 Financial Progress of MGNREGS in Andhra Pradesh S. No

Item 2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13

1. Payment of Wages (in lakhs)

257270.03 (56.78)

171522.13 (60.41)

331582.55 (70.47)

347762.45 (75.94)

2. Material and skilled wages (in lakhs)

16898.89 (39.35)

65075.65 (27.52)

139054.33 (29.53)

110159.58 (24.05)

3. Total administration expenditure

23428.54 (5.17)

47285.59 (16.65)

-----

-----

4. Total expenditure (In lakhs)

453038.94 283913.38 470504.75 457921.11

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in The table 10, Indicate that, the wage component of the MGNREGS continuous to decline from 75.94 per cent to 56.78 per cent. The material component of the expenditure increased from 24.05 per cent in 2012-13 to 39.35 per cent in 2015-16. The total expenditure on administration is high in 2014-15, i.e. 16.65 per cent and short fallen to 5.17 per cent in 2015-16. The percentage of others to total person days

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increased in all the financial years, except in 2013-14. The data relating to Labour Budget for MGNREGS activities is given in table-11.

Table.11 Labour budget for MGNREGS activities in Chittoor

S. No

Item 2015-16

2014-15

2013-14

2012-13

1. Budget approved for labour ( Rs in lakh)

104.44 120.22 149.97 149.36

2. Person days generated (in lakh)

128.39 99.66 111.36 116.29

3. Percentage of total labour budget

122.93 82.90 74.26 77.86


30.57 31.30 32.54 32.90

5. Percentage of STs in total person days

3.68 3.67 3.56 3.63

6. Percentage of women in total person days

57.79 58.17 57.94 56.92

7. Percentage of others in total person days

07.96 06.86 05.96 06.55

8. Total (4+5+6+7) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in It is clear from th table 11 that, the budget approved for MGNREGS has declined the study period from Rs. 149.36 lakh in 2012-13 to 104.44 lakh in 2015-16. However, the person days generated increased in 2012-13 to 2015-16, except in 2014-15. The labour component of the budget is increased from 77.86 per cent in 2012-13 to 122.93 per cent in 2015-16, and fallowed by 2014-15 and 2013-14. At the same time, the percentage of SCs in total person days has been decreased continuously from 32.90 per cent in 2012-13 to 30.57 per cent to 2015-16. But the average person days per ST households increased slightly from 3.63 per cent to 3.68 per cent. The women’s share of average total person days generated is nearly 54 per cent in all the four years in Chittoor District, I.e. equal to total average women per cent of Andhra Pradesh, i.e. 54.79 per cent. The percentage of others to total person days increased in all the financial years, except in 2013-14. The information relating to

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average number of days employment provided to household in Chittoor District is shown in table 12. Table.12 Average employment days provided to households in

Chittoor S. No

Item 2015-16

2014-15

2013-14

2012-13


63.64 54.71 59.26 63.39

2. Average wage rate per day per person (Rs)

143.63 120.01 114.79 106.17


30.57 31.30 32.54 32.90


3.68 3.67 3.56 3.63

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in The average employment days provided to the households has increased to 63.39 per cent in 2012-13 and 63.64 per cent in 2015-16, and fallowed by the 2013-14 and 2014-15. The average wage rate per day per person has gradually increased from Rs.106.17 in 2012-13 to Rs. 143.63 in 2015-16. The average Person days per SC households decreased continuously from 32.90 per cent to 30.57 per cent during the study period. But the average person days per ST’s households increased slightly from 3.63 per cent to 3.68 per cent in the span four years. The works completed under MGNREGS in Chittoor district is provided in table 13.

Table .13 Works completed under MGNREGS in Chittoor S.No

Item

2015-16

2014-15 2013-14 2012-13

1 Total No of works taken up(New+ Spill in lakhs )

1.32 0.88 0.86 1.62

2 No of ongoing works ( in lakhs)

0.97 0.82 0.80 1.55

3 No of completed works 34764 6274 6229 7465

4 Percentage of expenditure on agriculture and allied activities

63.23 68.30 67.35 14.82

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in

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It is observed from the above table 13, the number of works completed has been decreased to 1.62 per cent in 2012-13 to 1.32 per cent in 2015-16.The same find number of ongoing works as par as. The number of works completed has been increased only in 2012-13 and 2015-16, and the decline is sharper in the financial year 2013-14.The percentage of expenditure on agriculture and allied activities is increased in 2013-14 and 2014-15, when compare with the 2012-13 and 2015-16. The financial progress of MGNREGS in Chittoor district is provided in table 14.

Table .14 Financial progress of MGNREGS in Chittoor S.No Item 2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13 1 Payment of

Wages (Rs in lakhs)

18569.24 ( 53.96)

11691.12 (55.55)

13192.70 (65.27)

12090.82 (61.20)

2 Material and skilled wages ( Rs in lakhs) Percentage of material expenditure of the total expenditure

13956.93 (42.91)

6101.39 (34.29)

7017.59 (34.72)

7662.47 (38.72)

3 Total administration expenditure ( Rs in lakhs)

1885.01 (5.47)

3251.81 (15.45)

___ ___

4 Total expenditure ( Rs in lakhs)

34411.18 21044.32 20210.29 19753.29

Source: mgnregaweb4.nic.in The table 14 explains that, the wage component of the MGNREGS decrease from 61.20 per cent to 53.96 per cent in 2012-13 and 2015-16, but high in 2013-14 (65.27). The material component of the expenditure in MGNREGS works is low compared to the average expenditure on material component initially 38.72 per cent, but in 2015-16 it is increased to 42.91 per cent. The total administration expenditure is high in 2014-15, I.e. 15.45 per cent. But it is very short fallen to 5.47 per cent in 2015-16. The total expenditure is continuously increased in all the four financial years, i.e. 2012-13 to 2015-16.

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Conclusion: MGNREGS is introduced to mitigate rural distress a consequence of agrarian crisis caused by the implementation of the neo-liberal policies in our country. The implementation of MGNREGS resulted to demand by the people as their right to get employment for at least 100 days in a year in rural areas. The purpose of the act is to create community assets and right to employment for small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. The assets created resulted in increasing the productivity of agriculture and it prevented distress migration to some extent. However, some people claim that, the implantation of MGNREGS resulted in increasing wages and non availability of farm labour for agricultural operations. But, the research finding shows that the job cards are not issued to all the households. Further very few households claimed 100 days work through the programme, hence and it indicate that there is no scarcity of labour in rural areas. Even though if scarcity exists it is not due to MGNREGS but some other factors which improve agricultural productivity enhanced the demand in rural areas. Besides, public investment in employment and asset creation is necessary to compensate the deficiency of agrarian economy. MGNREGS is not only necessary but also it has to be strengthened through convergence of various departments to pool technology, skill and resource for efficient delivery. MGNREGS created employment and hence income to hitherto excluded sections and thereby it lead to achieve inclusive growth in rural areas. The performance of excluded sections as well as the average person days of women’s participation in MGNREGS is more in Andhra Pradesh when compare with the average of National and district levels. However, the Andhra Pradesh is the only state which has provided employment to all who demanded the employment. The MGNREGS is not only delivered economic benefits but also many social benefits to the society to attain social security which lead to sustainable development. Hence, financial allocations to MGNREGS should not be curtailed but it should be strengthened by removing any pitfalls in its implementation. The continuation of MGNREGS is essential to curtail excess migration to urban areas, enhances literacy rate in rural areas and strengthening social security to the poor and concluded that if MGNREGS continued, it is to be step towards inclusive growth.

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References:

1. www.mgnrega.nic.in 2. RBI Report on MGNREGS Performance, Feb 2016, pp.4-5. 3. Harender Raj, ‘Effective Implementation of MGNREGS Vital

for Social Security of the Poor,’ Kurukshetra Vol -62, Oct – 2014, pp.24-27.

4. Jayathi Ghosh , ‘Equity and Inclusion through public Expenditure : The potential of the NREGS, Paper Presented at International Conference on NREGS, Ministry of Rural Development and ICAR,21-22 January 2009.

5. Jeans Dreze., “Employment Guarantee Act: promise and demise”, Kurukshetra,Vol.45, No.5, May, 2005. pp. 9-13.

6. Siddhartha and Anish Vanaik., “CAG Report on NREGA: Fact and Fiction”,Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLIII, No.5, June 21-27, 2008, pp. 39-42.

7. Subhabrata Dutta “NREGA in West Bengal: Success and Challenges” Kurukshetra, Vol. 58, No.2, December, 2009, pp.31-33.

8. Ashok Pankaj Rukmini Tankha, Empowerment Effects of the NREGS on Women Workers: A Study in Four States, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XLV, No.30,July 24, 2010, pp. 45-55.

9. Jawed Akhtar S.M. “MGNREGS: A Tool for Sustainable Environment” Kurukshetra Vol.60, No.8, June 2012, pp. 38-41.

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का यषिन पणत ा ण

िशवरामःभ वत शोध छा ः

क।स। व।ब गल

मानवानाम तरा म य क रतभाव कटनाथ भाषा उ ता । उ ता सा भाषा विच समय सा दिभक वषय कटनाथमसमथा भवित । अनन भाषासाम य

प रिमतसाम यिमित नायत । प ती यथ भाषायाम उपमानोपमय, उ ा, पन इ या ल कारोपायाणा िन पः यत । अय मः कवल थ न लोक यवहारऽ प यत । यथा ीर पी वा एको वदित अमतपानिमव अभत , तथा एक य दान वा क पव य मरणमभ दित । एव लोक यवहारऽ प जना अल कार वना न यवहर त। मनिस उ तानक वधभाव कटनाथ सामा यवा यसमथा इित म वा समीचीनतया कटनाथ वशषण य, उपमान य, यय य वा साहा यन वा य र यत । तदा

सामा यवा या अनल कत वा य अल कत भवित । वा य य यनता िन का य साम य परयित । व यमाणवा य याशय यन अल भवित तदव अल कार अथवा का यत िम य प व श यत । भाषा मानव या य त मखमपकरणम । अ म वषय द ड वदित वाचामव सादन लोकया ा वतत इित । भाषा वना भावािभ य न भवित ।

सामा जक यवहारोऽ प न भवित । भाषा इ य मन य य वाग चारणिम यथः। इद वाच पनः योगयो यता ा नोित । भाषणा ाषा इित त इदमव िनवचन कटयित । उ च रत वाक भाषायाः भौितकाशः, अथ त भावाशः । लोक भस मता, िम स मता, का तास मता, इित स मता यम यत । भ इव या आ दशित सा भस मता । वदा दष यत यथा स य वद,

धम चर, वा याया मा मदः, जात त मा यव छ सीः, इ या द पण । अ विधरव धाना । यमाण काय जमागणा दशित । त मात भस मता इित

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वदाद ना यवहारः । शा श दष प रव यसह व आ य तकम । आ द श दना शा ाद ना हणम । पराण स स मतम । यथा ह स त व यमथ नाना ा तोपबि तन य िनकरण करणानगण विचत कठोरया विच च कोमलया श या व तरण वशद करोित तथा पराण नानाकथोपकथािभः वशद करोित । अ त सव यथः सय क न यत यथा- अनन अस यमिभ हतम, त माद य ई शी वप ः । अनन ग णामनादरः कतः त माद यता श क म । अनन दान कत त माद य भतम यिम या द । त माद सय क न पणम । अत एव वव त अथ विच प रवतन स प नम प न महत दोषाय सव म।का य पन आ यामभा याम प िभ त । का तास मता वात । यथा ह का ता कमनीयगा ा काण वा द दोषः र हता सौ दय वलासा दिभः सम वता स ाभरणा वका त वशीक य हतमप दशित तथा क वतय सलिलतश दाथयगला माधया दिभः सम वता द व वा दिभ वर हता यमकोपमा दिभ भ षता तदवोप दशित स दयम । ना ितपादक य श द य धानता । अत एव मख च इव स दरिम यादौ सवऽ प श दाः प रव सह त

। ना प ितपा याथ य । अत एव अनपदो वा य मख च सा य य िन पण न का प बलवा रा य ः कमलसा य य िन पणऽ प समी हत य िन पादात । त प रशषात ितपादन प यापार यव धानता । त ाधा य च चम कारजनक वात । अत एव मखम य त स दरिम य ाव प वा य य च का य वम । यापार अिभधा दः ।

एव च भस मताया जमागः वतत । श दप रव च न सहत । िम स मताया सय किन पण यत । वव त अथ विच प रवतन स प नम प न महत दोषाय । का तास मता आ यामभा या िभ त । ना ितपादक य श द य ाधा यम । ना प ितपा याथ य । अ त यपार यव धानता ।

लोक का यम यत शा म यत । का य त ल य थः शा त ल ण थः । यो व कारण प िभ न वतत । व मनी िगरो द याः शा च क वकम च । नोप न तयोरा ितभो वम तमम इित । शा कमणोः आ शा

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नयो प न भवित । तथव तीय का य त ितभो प न भवित । शा वचारशीलता अप ता । त मात ब ः सहका र ण । िच व य काद ना नावकाशः । का यो व ितभा अप ता । सषा ितभा य प य यासज या महाप ष सादा प ना च विचत िमिल वा विचत ाधा यन का यिनमाण हतभवित । तथव का यशा योः उ शोऽ प िभ न एव । त व नानजननम शा ो शः । रसानभवः का यो शः । एव का यकारण का यो श िभ न एव । त मात शा वषय यका य वशो ना त । का य प च व ाः शा ीया अ प वचाराः श कता प र य य स दय दया ाद जनय त, िच वकासय त च । तदाह राजशखरः या तकककशानथान स वा यत क वः । सयाशव इव दौ तका चदच त का तताम इित । यदा का य शा य वशो भवित तदा श कशा प उ सौ दयम वित ।अननव नायत यत शा म यत का यम यत इित ।

श दाथ का य य शर रम । रस प विनः आ मा । आ म विश श दाथ पक वकम का य भवित । कवल का य न उ मो मका यमव भवित । तथाऽ प ता शो मो मका या प सौ दय वधियत सहकव त का यत ा ण । तदव क वराज व नाथः वदित- उ कषहतवः ो ाः गणाल कारर तयः इित । माधया दगणाः, उपमा थाल काराः, अन ासा दश दाल काराः,वद या दर तयः एत अशाः का यसौ दयवधका इ यथः। उदाहरणाथम- पराणष व मानाः नक वषयाः का या दष य त। त ह योः क वल य इित चत, पराण दष कवल व तिनदशः, पर त का या दष का यत योजनन व तिनदशः। उदाहरणम- यथा भागवतपराण अ म क द व मानम गज मकरयोः पवच रतम तथा तषा उ दार इित नामक चतथा याय भगवान गज ित वदित- यो ा महत उ थाय माम, वम, पवतम,गदाम, च ाद िन मरित सः सम तपाप वम यत इित । अ त पापिनवारण गदायाः कारण वम त । त मात कवल नामिनदशः यत। ीव स कौ तभ माला गदा कौमोदक मम । सदशन पाचज य सपणपतग रम ॥ इित।

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अयमव वषयः िशशपालवधका य माघक वना एव िन यत – वरोिधना व हभदद ा मतव श ः विचद खल ती । िन य हरः स न हता िनकाम कौमोदक मोदयित म चतः॥इ थ ित जगिमषोः व णोः समीप व मानायधाना वणनावसर गदायाः वणन चकार । वरोिधना शर रभद द ा, सव खिलतव ः, िन यिनकट भवा, कौमोदक गदा मितम साम यिमव आसी द य ा । अ कवल नामिनदशः ना त पर त का यत ः सह नामिनदशः वतत। त ह अ कािन तािन त ा ण इित चत- वशषण यम, तथा उ ाल कारः, थम वशषणन व रणा धयनाशक आसीत इित नायत। तीय वशषणन सदा क णसवाया िनरता इित नायत। ततीय वशषणन

क णस तोषविधनीित नायत। एव थ वा मता श इव ण यचतोहार असी दित वशषण यण उ ाल कारण च त ण सह कौमोदक गदा वषयः व णत इित भागवतात अ वशषः।

एव व णत वषयाणा वणन बह िमलित। उदाहरणाथम – रामायण व णताः वषयाः रघवश उपल य त। तथव महाभारत उपव णताः वषयाः च पभारत उपल य त। एव एक व णत वषयाः अ य ल य त एव। अ ः उदित व णत वषय य पनवणनन का िचः। पव वषय यव ाि ः खल? इित। स य ितपा ाथ यऽ प ितपादन मभदात िभ न िचरव। नन मभदन अथभदः भवित खल? इित चत,

अथभदो न भवित पर त नव व भजत। इममव वषयम व यालोककारः आन दवधनः व - पवा अ प थाः का य रसप र हात। सव नवा इवाभा त मधमास इव माः॥ इित। रसप र हात पवा ह अथाः का य नव व भज त। उदाहरणाथम- रामायण बालका ड अ ादशसग ादश ोकः वतत- कौस या शशभ तन प णािमततजसा । यथा वरणदवानाम दितव पा णना ॥ इित। एव वा म कना रिचतरामज मव ा तः कािलदासन रघवश रिचतः। अथा यम हषी रा नः सितसमयसती। प तमोपह लभ न योित रवौषिधः ॥ इित। उभय ा प रामज मव ा त एव। पर त वणनवपर यम यत। उभय ा प एकमव छ दः॥ पर त उपमाना दष य यासः यत। व णतशली त िभ ना। रामायण कौस या शशभ इित पदनव रामज मव ा त नान जायत । पर त रघवश प लभ इित ज िच तम। पर त द ोपमान वशषण च िभ नता यत। रामायण

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अिमततजसः राम य, व पा ण र ः उपमानम। कौस यायाः अ दितः उपमानम। पर त रघवश कौस यायाः, िनराशा धकार य रा ः अ धकारः उपमानम। प य राम य, योितः उपमानम। अ स मावलोकनन नायत रामायण द मपमानम पराणा तगतमपमानम। रघवश द मपमानम लौ ककमपमानम। रमायण व मान ोक याथः अ रघवश नव व ा ः िन पण कार य िभ न वात।रामायण कौस यारामयोः स ब धः अ दती स ब धोपमानन िन पतः। स ब ध ाय पराण िस द इित लौ ककर वात अथ फटता न जनयित। रघवश त तयोः स ब धः ओषिध योितषो पमानन िन पतः। एतयो पमान ययोः लौ कक वात झ ट यथ तीित फट जनय त। परो ोपमानाद प य ोपमाननव अथ फटतायाः सवानभविस द वात। उपमान त अथ वषद करणायवोपाद यत का यष य द तदव यास नय त ह अरमणीय एव यात। कत रामायणो ोपमान य लौ ककानभविस दतर वात अर जक वम। ओषिध योितषोः स ब ध त लौ ककानभविस द वात तषा झ ट यथावभासन मनोहरतीित पव माद व गणािध यमनपला यम। यथा वा रामायण बालका ड स ष तमःसग वा मी कना िन पतम- ततः स राजाजनकः सिचवान या ददशः। धनरानीयता द यग धमा या वभ षतम इित ोकम रघवश एकादशसग कािलदासः या ददश गणशोऽथ पा गा कामकािभहरणाय मिथलः जजस य धनषः व य

तोयदािनव सह लोचनः ॥ इ यरचयत। उभय ा प ोक िमिथलािधपतः धनरानयन वषयकादशः वतत। थम ोक कवल आदशः यत। पर त तीय ोक सह लोचनः तोयदान इव यत। त माद का यत भवित

अल कारम प का यत ष अ यतमत वात। का यत योजनन रामायण ोकात रघवश य ोक एव रमणीयतायाः दशनम। त मात का यत यो यम। तथव रमायण त मन का ड तदवसग एव धनरारोपणवणन वतत- प यता न सह ाणा बहना रघन दनः आरोपय स धमा मा सलीलिमव त दनः ॥इित। अ त कवल वषय तितवतत । पर त इममव वषय कािलदासः व थ रघवश अवणयत – आतत यमकरो सससदा व मय तिमतन मी तः। शलसारम प

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नीितय तः प पचापिमव पशल मरः ॥इित। रामायण ोकात अ ोक बह उ कषः यत। त ोक कवल नसह ाणा प यता रघन दनः। अ त सभया व मयन वी यमाणः रामः, शलसारधनः मरः पशलम प पचापिमव रामः शलसारधनः नीितय न मौव य मकरोत इित उपमाल कारः, एव एत अशा अ अिधकतया वत त। एत अशा एव का यत ा ण भव त। एतः अशः पवा अ प थाः नवा इवाभा त।

अ ः उदित ितपा दत याथ य पनः ितपादनात ितपादन मभदन अथः नवतामपती य म अथ य नव वन को लाभः? इित चत क वराजः व नाथः वदित- चतवगफल ाि ः सखाद पिधयाम प का यादव इित। तथा भामहः वदित- धमाथकाममो ष वच य कलास च करोित क ित ीित चसाधका यिनषवणम ॥ इित। का यष लौ ककोपमानलौ कक वशषणाना योजनन अ पिधयाम प प ाथ तीितभवित। तथव अथावगमनन धमाथकाममो ष वचारः कलास च ीितः उ वित । ितपा दताथ य िभ न कारण ितपादन लाभाय न त हानय। एव ितपादनन का यकतः प ठत मित वकासो भवित। का य िभ निभ नशा ाणा बहपराणाद ना च वचाराणा व मान वात। त मात एतषा सवषा प ाथ ती यथ का यिन पणत ा णप रशीलनीयािन

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A STUDY OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION ASSERTIVENESS

AND ANXIETY LEVEL OF PROFESSIONAL AND NONPROFESSIONAL COLLEGE STUDENTS

Puppala Malathi

Dept of Psychology Kakatiya University

Warangal

Abstract

Achievement motivation is the desire to do better, to achieve unique accomplishment, to compete with standard of excellence, and to involve oneself with long-term achievement goals. In general achievement motivation is expectancy of finding satisfaction in mastery of difficult and challenging performances but specifically in the field of education it stands for the pursuit of excellence. The basis of achievement is motive to achieve excellence. A person, who is engaged in a task on account of an achievement motive, is said to work under the spirit of achievement motivation. Today Education is most important in our life. Day to day education system some changes. Education begins at birth and continues throughout life. The achievement motivation is conceived as a latent disposition which is manifested in over striving only when the individual perceives performance as instrument to a sense of personal accomplishment. Anxiety is a generalized mood state that occurs without an identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is

distinguished from fear, which occurs in the presence of an external threat. Assertiveness is a trait taught by many personal development experts and psychotherapists and the subject of many popular self-help books. It is linked to self-esteem and considered an important communication skill.

Keywords: Achievement, Motivation, Anxiety, Assertiveness

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Introduction

Education is an important mean to shapes the personal growth and life chances of students, as well as the economic and social progress of our Nation. Pleasurable educational experiences of young students, such as reading daily, practical demonstrations, encourage the development of essential skills and prepare students for success in colleges. Parents send their children to school and colleges to achieve

increasingly high educational attainments.

This is an age of globalization. Many foreign universities intrude India. International schools and colleges invade the land. Foreign companies are creating a network in educational settings. In the field of higher education govt. imparted traditional arts, science and commerce education which is called as non-professional and simultaneously engineering, management and medical education called as professional. Though the strength of students is large in the non-professional stream, the opportunities of services and jobs are very less to them. Day by day, the gaps between the professional and non-professional streams are becoming vast. The Researcher herself is from non-professional stream education system. Simultaneously, she has been working in the senior arts, science and commerce college. She is associated with students. Therefore, she has been attracted towards the problem. She

observed many differences in living style, thinking patterns and attitudes of professional and non-professional college students.

In this context anxiety, assertiveness and need for achievements of professional and non-professional college students are the major psychological constructs which are important to understand. In this study researcher has been concentrated on the higher educational atmosphere of the individual which is leading to his or her overall development. Anxiety leads to participate in high-risk or illegal behaviors can have severe, long-term consequences for youth and

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society. Past researches proved that encouraging parents who serve independence to their children, Praise and rewards for success, Association of achievement with positive feelings, association of achievement with one's own competence and effort, not luck, a desire to be effective or challenged, intrapersonal strength is there, then the

children achieve more and more upto their potentials without any anxiety and become more assertive in their life. Professional college students are the students of various medical, engineering and nonprofessional college students are of the arts and commerce stream which also called traditional education. Generally it is observed that traditional educational students are having more anxiety and stress about their future so their achievement level will be low. And it is general observation that professional college students are more assertive than nonprofessional college students.

Importance of motivation

Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized. The major question among psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or secondary influence on behavior. That is, are changes in behavior better explained by principles of environmental/ecological influences,

perception, memory, cognitive development, emotion, explanatory style, or personality or are concepts unique to motivation more pertinent.

Anxiety

Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, apprehension, or worry. Anxiety is a generalized mood state that occurs without an identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is distinguished from fear, which occurs in the

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presence of an external threat. Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviors of escape and avoidance, whereas anxiety is the result of threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable. Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress. It may help a person to deal with a difficult situation, for example at work or at school, by prompting one

to cope with it. When anxiety becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder.

Assertiveness

Assertiveness is a term first used by Joseph Wolpe. Wolpe is most well known for his reciprocal inhibition techniques and systematic desensitization which revolutionized behavioral therapy. For the successful negotiation of any transaction whether political, business, social or exchange of intimacy and pleasure, prerequisite thing is the absence of aggression and tolerance for other’s individuality. As pointed by Sharma, G. C. (1982), ‘Individuals whose mode of relating to others, if based solely on submissiveness and self-sacrifice, will in the long range are likely to feel angry, frustrated and chronically depressed since they postpone meeting their own needs and dealing with their own feelings. On the other hand, the aggressive individual shows no regard for the needs and the feelings of others and consequently ends up alienating others and thus failing to meet his personal and

interpersonal needs. Fortunately, the option of being assertive is available to those who choose to avoid extremes and have deep rooted faith in the rights and responsibilities of others.’

Assertiveness is a trait taught by many personal development experts and psychotherapists and the subject of many popular self-help books. It is linked to self-esteem and considered an important communication skill. As a communication style and strategy, assertiveness is distinguished from aggression and passivity. How people deal with personal boundaries; their own and those of other

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people, helps to distinguish between these three concepts. Passive communicators do not defend their own personal boundaries and thus allow aggressive people to harm or otherwise unduly influence them.

Review of Literature

Deemer, Sandra A (2004) studied that how teachers beliefs about

teaching and learning influence their instructional practices and students goals in the classroom is important for understanding how to create learning environments focused on mastery and understanding. Most of the previous research on this topic has investigated these

relationships in teachers, classrooms and students at either the elementary, middle or college level. Using this research as a guide, the current investigation examined relationships among teaches beliefs, instructional practices and classroom goal orientations in high school science classroom.

Flower, Thomas Richard (2003) concentrate on the variable of

academic motivation as a primary mediating factor in the educational achievement of low- income urban students. This project supports the hypothesis that negative influences inherent in low - income, urban environments are responsible for a unique set of emotional and cognitive characteristics that disrupt the development of academic motivation in low - income, urban students. Bernard Weiner’s Attribution Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion is reviewed to support the variability of academic motivation in low - income, urban students.

Tyagi, Poonam; Kaur, Praveen (2001) examined the effects of

gender on the relationship between adolescents self - concept and perceptions of others. 200 11th grade students (aged 15-16 years)

completed an abridged version of the children’s self - concept scale (CSCS) concerning behavior, intellectual and school status, physical appearance, anxiety, popularity, happiness, and satisfaction.

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Additionally, friends, parents and teachers completed the CSCS. Results show wide agreement in the perceived opinion of parents, teachers, and friends regarding students. Male students’ self - concepts differed more from the opinions of other than did self - perceptions of female students’

Sud, A; Prabha, I (2000) reported that the effectiveness of cognitive as well as relaxation therapies were respectively determined on the

nonclinical sample of high and low test anxious high school girls (mean age 14 years). Differentiated in terms of worry and emotionality trait scores or the Hindi version of the Test Anxiety Inventory. Treatment - related changes were not expected from low test anxious Ss. Results show, however, that besides the therapeutic change for high test anxious girls, non targeted therapeutic effects were observed for test low anxious Ss on anagram performance and general anxiety levels, which maintained till the follow-up. Discussion and implications for future research are given.

Objectives of the Study

1. To study the assertiveness in professional and nonprofessional college students with relation to gender.

2. To study the relationship between anxiety, assertiveness and need for achievement of professional and nonprofessional college students.

3. To find out the achievement motivation in professional and

nonprofessional college students.

Research Methodology

The present study based on secondary data. The data was collected from books, journals, articles, magazines, internet etc.,

The psychoanalytic approach: Freud Sigmund Freud, the

originator of the theory and method of psychoanalysis, attempted to

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explicate the nature and meaning of anxiety within the context of psychological theory. He was concerned with the persons suffering from psychopathology and tried to find out the causes of neurosis. In this attempt he explained the symptoms on the basis of this theory of anxiety. In his view the experience of anxiety was an everyday

phenomenon and as such needed no introduction. The main problem before the psychoanalyst was to understand while some persons appear to be more vulnerable to it and show a high degree of intensity in their feeling of this emotion. In his earlier writings he solved this problem by positing two types of anxiety. The first of these two was realistic anxiety that is anxiety that has reference to real objects in a person's and environment.

Test anxiety

Test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam. Students suffering from test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth, fear of embarrassment by a teacher, fear of alienation from parents or friends, time pressures, or feeling a loss of control. Emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical components can all be present in test anxiety. Sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, and drumming on a desk are all common.

An optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam; however, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, it results in a decline in performance.

Measuring achievement motive: McClelland and coworkers

believed that our fantasies often reveal motivational basis of our actions. He attempted to make use of the fantasies to explore and measure achievement motivation. He tried in to collect information from his subject by menus of projective technique’s creative production. He is TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) pictures to collect information

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on the fantasies of the subjects. The assumption underlying TAT pictures is that when we present a picture of another person in a social setting under ambiguous and unstructured circumstances and ask him to tell a story about what is happening in the picture, in doing so he (subject) may often reveal about himself.

McClelland and his associates made qualitative and quantitative studies of TAT stories written by their subjects. The results as reported by them were positive. The technique is reliable and promises development in the field of measuring motivation. The most significant contribution of McClelland and associates is that they advocated that motives develop out of affective arousal. Their theory of motivation is called affective arousal theory

Similarly achievement efforts can be persuaded through internal and external means. The individual level goals were predominant across all the three groups the low social class group received greater concern for materialistic goals than the other groups. The goal of praise and social approval from significant others was inversely related to the level of social class. Internal means were used more frequently by the high social class group. The low social class sample reported broad

environmental factor more important mean of achievement than the other groups.

N-Ach theoretical description

David C. McClelland’s and his associates' investigations of achievement motivation have particular relevance to the emergence of leadership. McClelland was interested in the possibility of deliberately arousing a motive to achieve in an attempt to explain how individuals express their preferences for particular outcomes-a general problem of motivation. In this connection, the need for achievement refers to an individual's preference for success under conditions of competition. The vehicle McClelland employed to establish the presence of an

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achievement motive was the type of fantasy a person expressed on the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a series of pictures that subjects were asked to interpret by writing stories about them. The procedure in McClelland's initial investigation was to arouse in the test audience a concern with their achievement. A control group was used in which

arousal was omitted. In the course of this experiment, McClelland discovered through analyzing the stories on the TAT that initial arousal was not necessary. Instead, members of the control group- individuals who had no prior arousal- demonstrated significant differences in their stories, some writing stories with a high achievement content and some submitting stories with a low achievement content. Using results based on the TAT, McClelland demonstrated that individuals in a society can be grouped into high achievers and low achievers based on their scores on what he called "N-Ach".

A high n-Ach person tends to persist in the face of adversity: He tends to raise his level of aspiration in a realistic way so that he will move on slightly more challenging and difficult task. He is not easily discouraged by failure. His underlying self-confidence leads him to carry on despite setbacks. He looks at failures as temporary and as a natural part of the game. He uses the knowledge of his failures as a

learning experience. The achievement motivated individual is not content to live the task unfinished. He feels tension so long as there is something undone. Some step must be taken to achieve the goal. So he tends to carry on or go back to the unfinished task and put forth extra efforts to carry it through to a definite conclusion. This is not to say, however, that he will continually hit his head against the wall. When it becomes clear that the odds are too much against him, he readily shifts tactics or ever objectives, it is noticeable, however, that he is not quick to abundant a task simply because he has encountered difficulties.

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A high n-Ach person tends to be innovative: Once he has

determined his goals, he is prepared to try. First one approach and then another, we may say that he is more goal-oriented than technique-oriented. For him, the method of choice is the method which will work best. If the commonsense approach does not work, he will invent new ones. He is not a creative person in the sense that a painter or writer is. He is, however, ingenious at adapting and modifying whatever is at

hand to solve the problem or achieve the objectives. He like to work situations in which he has some control over the outcome, n-Ach peoples are not gamblers.

A high n-Ach motivated individual is oriented towards the future: He tends to be persistent in working on tasks on which he

perceives as career related. While he may not necessarily have a clear idea of his long-term goal, he addresses himself with maximum efforts to his task with the underlying feeling that his successful accomplishment of this task will prepare him for more important activities in the future. Perhaps we can say that he has some sense of destiny, that is, the belief that he is destined for bigger things. Accordingly, each current task, no matter how, insignificant it may be is perceived as important in itself because of its relationship to his own growth process and preparation for the future.

Conclusion

Education is the process of developing the capacities and potentials of the individual so as to prepare that individual to be successful in a specific society or culture. From this perspective, education is serving primarily as an individual development function. Education begins at birth and continues throughout life. It is constant

and ongoing. Schooling generally begins somewhere between the ages four and six when children are gathered together for the purposes of specific guidance related to skills and competencies that society deems

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important. In the past, once the formal primary and secondary schooling was completed the process was finished. However, in today’s information age, adults are quite often learning in informal setting throughout their working lives and even into retirement. The criticisms advanced by psychologists against verbal, self-report inventories are,

therefore, applicable to all these measures. In the measuring tool for anxiety, there are no checks against defensiveness or acquiescent response style. Further, except in case of the measure of needs, social desirability variable has not been controlled in the development of either the anxiety-measure or the measure for traits.

Refeerences:

1. American Psychological Association (2001). Publication Manual (5th ed.). Washington DC: Author.

2. Chatterjee, S. & Mukherjee, M., Chakrabarty, S. N. and Hassan, M. K. (1976). Effect of sex, urbanization and caste on anxiety. Journal of Psychological Researches, 20, 55-58.

3. Deemer, Sandra A (2004). Classroom goal orientation in high school classrooms: Revealing links between teacher beliefs and classroom environments. Educational Research. Vol. 46 (1): 73-90.

4. Flower, Thomas Richard (2003). Achievement motivation in

low-income urban students : An application of weiner theory of attribution and emotion. Dissertation Abstracts, International Section – B, The Science and Engineering. Vol. 64 (3-B), 1488.

5. Tyagi, Poonam; Kaur, Praveen (2001). Inter-personal perception of selfreflections among adolescents. Psycho-Lingua. Jul 2001; Vol. 31 (2): 139-142.

6. Sud, A; Prabha, I (2000). The targeted and non targeted effects of treatments. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. Vol. 26 (1-2): 77-86

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7. McClelland, P.C. (1951). Personality. New York: Sloane.

McReynolds, P. (I956) A restricted conceptualization of human anxiety and motivation. Psychoiogical Reports, Monographs Supplement, 2, 293-312.

8. Sharma, K. L. & Gandhi, N. (1971). Hierarchy and amount of

fear low and high anxious groups of students. Indian Psychological Review, 8, 29-30.

9. Wolpe Joseph (1969). The Practice of Behavioral Therapy, (New York: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1969), 100-122.

10. Varma, A. K. & Sinha, D. (1971). Anxiety and perceptual constrictions. Indian Journal of Psychology, 46 (4), 377383.

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THE RELIGION AS THE SOURCE OF HAPPINESS IN THE

WORLD

Aaliya PhD Scholar

Urdu Department Delhi University,Delhi

Introduction to Happiness

In psychology, happiness is a mental or emotional state of well beings which can be defined by, among other things, positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy.1 Happy mental states may reflect judgments by a person about their overall well-being.2 The "pursuit of happiness" is something this society is based on, and different people feel happiness for different reasons. Whenever was something caused happiness, people usually want to do more of it. No one ever complains about feeling too happy. There is a more proper explanation to the word “happiness” by great scholars:

1. The ancient Greeks defined happiness as: "Happiness is the joy that we feel when we’re striving after our potential."

2. Academy Award winner, Shirley MacLaine, said: "To be happy, you have to be willing to be compliant with not knowing."

3. Aristotle said:"Happiness is a state of activity."

4. Mastin Kipp, (“The founder of Daily Love” Book) said: "I don’t expect always to be happy, I simply accept what is. And that acceptance is key. This is what self-love is all about, really, acceptance and the ability to love yourself right where you are."

5. Mahatma Gandhi said, “Happiness is when what you think, what you say and what you do dare in harmony.

From this definition we can categorize happiness into three categories:

False happiness: This lasts only for a short period of time. This form of happiness is the result of sudden good fortune. Many believe that happiness can be attained through drugs or substance abuse and on account of this

1 “Happiness”. Wolfram Alpha. 2 Anand, P150, Happiness Explained. Oxford University Press, 2016.

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misconception; they consume drugs and liquor to avoid the problems of everyday life. They believe happiness is achieved initially by forgetting about the problems of life. Drug abuse gives one an illusion of happiness, which quickly dissipates when the drug is discontinued, plunging that individual into a state of complete misery. This would then drive him to consume more drugs, and ultimately become captive to drugs and a useless member of society. Furthermore, this individual may contract a number of psychological and physical diseases.

Experienced Happiness: when achieved through the pre-set goals. It is similar to the previous form of happiness in that it is short-lived, although it is less harmful than the previous form of happiness. When great efforts are exerted in attaining a goal and it is finally achieved, one would wonder, what’s next? The pain one would experience after the climax and an initial bout of happiness is somewhat similar to the pain experienced in the first category. In total, this happiness is a short-lived experience, which at best makes one happy for a short period of time.

True happiness: This form of happiness will remain with an individual under all circumstances; through delight and anguish, poverty and prosperity, sickness and health and whether or not one would attain this world what they wish for or not. This happiness is the result of one’s firm belief

Concept of Happiness in different Religions.

Buddhism

From the point of view of the Buddhist tradition, True happiness can be broadly defined as a state of mind. As many of us know, the Dhammapada is a famous collection of the lord Buddha’s sayings, taken from various points in his 45-year teaching career. One of the chapters of the Dhammapada is titled, “Happiness” in which some of the Buddha’s teachings about happiness are listed. In this chapter lord the Buddha described elements of a happy life as cited below:

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• Living without hate among the hateful.

• Living without domination of the passions among those who are dominated by passions.

• Living without yearning for sensual pleasures among those who yearn for sensual pleasure

• Living without being impeded by the Three Poisons of craving, anger and ignorance which are seen as hindrances to spiritual progress.

• Giving up thoughts of winning or losing.

• Overcoming the Five Aggregates ( Sense of objects, emotional attachment to those objects, and categorization of those objects, mental states arising from contact with those objects, a dualistic view of a perceiver and that which is perceived).

• Subjugating the passions.

• Not being in the company of the foolish but being with the wise

. • Attaining the final happiness which is Nirvana, sometimes referred to as Bliss.

The Noble Eightfold Path is the path that leads to the ultimate happiness, Nirvana is the ultimate Bliss.

I’d like to close with some words which were written by Ven. Narada Mahathera, a famous Buddhist teacher and author from Sri Lanka, who was talking about acting in ways that promote happiness. He said, “The world is full of thorns and pebbles. It is impossible to remove them. But, if we have to walk in spite of such obstacles, instead of trying to remove the, which is impossible, it is advisable to wear a pair of slippers and walk harmlessly.”

Islam

In Islam commandments of God is the path of righteous and happiness. It is the religion that follows the Quran and Prophet. Islam is the religion that is more than a religion; it is the religion that is a complete way of life. Nothing is too small or too big to be covered by the teachings of Islam. Rejoice and be happy, remain positive and be at

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peace.3 This is what Islam teaches us, through the Quran and the authentic teachings of Prophet Muhammad, may God praise him. Every single one of God’s commandments aims to bring happiness to the individual. This applies in all aspects of life, worship, economics, and society. Therefore, in the verse Quran there is a clear mention about happiness.

For example

“Whoever works righteousness - whether male or female - while he (or she) is a true believer verily, to him we will give a good life (in this world with respect, contentment and lawful provision), and We shall pay them certainly a reward in proportion to the best of what they used to do (i.e. Paradise in the Hereafter).” (Quran 16:97)

True happiness is to seek to know God,especially through his name and attributes. The Seeking of knowledge is the true happiness.

God says in the Quran, “Verily! I am Allah! None has the right to be worshipped but I, so worship Me.” (Quran 20:14). The key to happiness is knowing and worshipping God. When one worships and remembers the Creator as He should be worshipped and remembered, happiness can be observed all around us, at any given moment and even on the darkest night. It is there in the smile of a child, at the touch of a comforting hand, in the rain on the earth, or in the smell of spring.

Christianity

In Christianity there is a great talk about happiness and joy as the subject of being happier. An ungrounded, dangerous separation of joy,of happiness has infiltrated the Christian community.

The following is typical of the artificial distinctions made by modern Christians: Joy is something entirely different from happiness. Joy, in the Biblical context, is not an emotion. There is a big difference between joy and happiness. Happiness is an emotion and temporary; joy

3 Al Qarni, Aaidh Ibn Abdullah, p123 (2003), Don’t be sad. International Islamic Publishing House, Saudi Arabia.

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is an attitude of the heart.4. There are a few verses of the Bible, which talk about joy and happiness together.

For the Jews it was a time of happiness and joy, gladness and honor. (Esther 8:16)

I will turn their mourning into joy and bring happiness out of grief. (Jeremiah 31:13)

Give your father and mother joy! May she who gave you birth be happy. (Proverbs 23:25)

The relationship between joy and happiness in these passages refutes two common claims:

(1) That the Bible doesn’t talk about happiness.

(2) That joy and happiness have contrasting meanings. In fact, the Bible overflows with accounts of God’s people being happy with him.

The Dictionary of Bible Themes defines happiness as “a state of pleasure or joy experienced both by people and by God.”5 Happiness is joy. Joy is happiness. Virtually all Dictionaries, whether secular or Christian, recognize this.

Hinduism

nanda literally means bliss or happiness. In the Hindu Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita, nanda signify eternal bliss which accompanies the ending of the rebirth cycle. Those who renounce the fruits of their actions and submit themselves completely to the divine will, arrive at the final termination of the cyclical life process (sa s ra) to enjoy eternal bliss ( nanda) in perfect union with the godhead. The tradition of seeking union with God through passionate commitment is referred to as bhakti, or devotion.6

4 Brian Cromer, “Difference between Joy and Happiness,” Briancromer.com (blog), April 28, 2008. 5 Martin H. Manser, Dictionary of Bible Themes: The Accessible and Comprehensive Tool for Topical Studies (London: Martin Manser, 2009), s.v. “happiness.” 6 J. Bruce Long; Laurie Louise Patton (2005), "LIFE", Encyclopedia of Religion, 8 (2nd ed.), Thomson Gale, pp. 5447–5448

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According to Hindu philosopher and scholar there are different meaning of happiness (ananad):

Swami Vivekananda

Swami Vivekananda has claimed that the reason different meanings of nanda and different ways of achieving it are present in Hindu philosophy is that humans differ from each other, and each one chooses the most appropriate path to nanda for him or herself.7

Sri Aurobindo

According to Sri Aurobindo, happiness is the natural state of humanity, as he mentions in his book ‘The Life Divine’ he informs about it as A delight of existence. However, mankind develops dualities of pain and pleasure. Aurobindo goes on to say that the concepts of pain and suffering are due to habits developed over time by the mind, which treats success, honor and victory as pleasant things and defeat, failure, misfortune as unpleasant things.8

Advaita Vedanta

According to the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, Ananda is that state of sublime delight when the Jiva becomes free from all sins, all doubts, all desires, all actions, all pains, all sufferings and also all physical and mental ordinary pleasures. Having become established in Brahman it becomes jivan mukta (a being free from the cycle of rebirth).9 The Upanishads repeatedly use the word nanda to denote Brahmans, the innermost Self, the Blissful One, who unlike the individual Self has no real attachments.

Therefore, achieving the happiness one has to follow four different paths, i.e Bhakti yoga, Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Raja yoga.

Bhakti yoga: It is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards a personal god.

7 Pathways to Joy: The Master Vivekananda on the Four Yoga Paths to God 2006 , Swami Vivekananda 8 The Life divine 2005,and he calls his way of yoga as Integral yoga p. 98-108 9 Vedanta-sara of Sadananda. Translated and commented by Swami Nikhalananda. Published by Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata. Verse VI.217 p.117 http://www.estudantedavedanta.net/Vedantasara-Nikhilananda.pdf

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Karma yoga: it is one of the several spiritual paths in Hinduism, one based on the "yoga of action

Jnana yoga: it is one of the several spiritual paths in Hinduism that emphasizes the "path of knowledge”, also known as the "path of self-realization".

Raja yoga: In Sanskrit texts Raja yoga refers to the goal of yoga (which is usually samadhi) and not a method of attaining it. In basic sense it means royal yoga, classical yoga etc.

Conclusion

From all above major religions we can see all the religion have different perspective and meaning of happiness. All the holy books of religions talk somehow of the same meaning of happiness and there is less dissimilarity towards happiness. Therefore few believe, worship of god is true happiness and bliss, another considers this outlook of that action and karma leads to a life of happiness.

Reference:

1. “Happiness”. Wolfram Alpha.

2. Anand, P (2016). Happiness Explained. Oxford University Press

3. Al Qarni, Aaidh Ibn Abdullah, Don’t be sad. International Islamic Publishing House, Saudi Arabia, (2003).

4. Brian Cromer, “Difference between Joy and Happiness,” Briancromer.com (blog), April 28, 2008.

5. Martin H. Manser, Dictionary of Bible Themes: The Accessible and Comprehensive Tool for Topical Studies (London: Martin Manser, 2009), s.v. “happiness.”

6. J. Bruce Long; Laurie Louise Patton (2005), "LIFE", Encyclopedia of Religion, (2nd ed.), Thomson Gale, pp. 5447–5448.

7. The Life divine 2005,and he calls his way of yoga as Integral yoga p. 98-108

8. Vedanta-sara of Sadananda. Translated and commented by Swami Nikhalananda. Published by Advait Ashrama, Kolkata. VI.217 p.117 http://www.estudantedavedanta.net/Vedantasara-

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Nikhilananda.pdfthways to Joy: The Master Vivekananda on the Four Yoga Paths to God 2006 , Swami Vivekananda

Holy book

Bible Quran Bhagavad Gita Dhammapada

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BUDDHIST SITE “SALIHUNDAM” : A CULTURAL STUDY

Dr.T.Surendra Reddy Assistant Professor

Oriental Research Institute S.V.University, Tirupati

Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh

Abstract

The present article analyzes the Buddhist Stupa of Salihundam, Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh to understand its historical, artistic and religious significance. The study aims to appreciate the culture of the Buddhist site of Salihundam. The analysis is based on archaeological remains from the excavations as well as inscriptions discovered in the region. Salihundam assumes significance from the fact that some inscriptions and artifacts are believed to be referring to Asoka and Kalinga region.

Key Words:- Salihundam, Buddha, Stupas, images, inscriptions.

This is a small village in the Srikakulam District (Andhra Pradesh) on the banks of the river Vamsadhara. The distance from Srikakulam is about 12 miles and from Kalingapatnam is about four miles. There was a sea port with a heavy traffic in those days in Kalingapatnam. There are two hillocks on the south of this village. On the eastern hill and its slopes are seen the remains of Buddhist Stupas etc. The rocks of the hill appear green and the Buddhists might have made use of this rock for their constructions.

The exact meaning of the word Salihundam is not determined. Scholars gave different types of derivations to the word which become the name of place. It is said that the word ‘hunda’ in Oriya is equal to the word ‘konda’ in Telugu. Sali means rice. As such this place should have been a ‘hill of rice’ i.e., a granary of rice. The inscription dated A.D.1260 which was discovered at this place gives a different story. According to this inscription, this place called ‘Salivendam’ which was gifted away to god Kumaranatha at Srikurmum by one of the Eastern Ganga subordinates. From this inscription it is also felt that the word Salihundam is a corrupted form of Salivendam.

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During excavations two inscribed conches have been discovered. They give us the name of the place as Salipadaka or Salipataka. As Sali means rice, pataka or vataka or its variants vatika or vada might mean the place or the village where rice was stored or marketed. There is also a local legend which says that a potter’s child who defeated and put to death the King Salivahana Vikramarka of Ujjain under whose persuation this place learnt the art of war with the toy rathas, elephants, caparisoned horses and foot soldiers made of mud which were abundantly unearthed. Manda Narasimham1 also confirms the rule of Salivahana over this place. According to him the King Salivahana, the most famous of the later Satavahana Kings took this village along with some other villages around it from the King of the Kalinga to save the cause of Buddhism. He further says that the word hundam or hunda is the name given to a place which is formed with a cluster of ten to fifteen villages. Likewise this place should have been named Salihundam after the name of the King Salivahana. This shows that this place was under the rule of the kind Salivahana. If this were to be true we do not know why the potter’s son tried to capture this place from the King Salivahana as the King could not be a tyrant in the wake of his Buddhist activities. As such we may presume that toy army made of clay discovered during excavations, might have been meant for export business.

It is also well known that the Mauryan emperor Asoka conquered Kalinga. It was this war that brought a reformation in him when he turned a Buddhist and propagated Buddhism throughout the world. As Kalinga was included in the empire of Asoka and Salihundam was on the threshold of Andhra, it might have been chosen by the missionaries at that time to be a centre of their activities in the light of the heavy business carried on in and abroad. The discovery of a stone inscription here, which reads Dhamarano Asoka-Sirino of the Dharma Asoka-Sri proves that this place also was considered important some time before the second century A.D.2 At that time, the coastline of Andhra became famous for its Indo-Roman trade. The coins of Yajnasri Satakarni showing a two-masted ship on the east-coats, speak of the sea-trade in vogue. As such it can be presumed that Salihundam also was chosen for a centre by the Buddhists, as it happened to be an important place on the coast-line.

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It is already noted that on the hill at Salihundam over looking the river Vamsadhara was discovered the remains of a monastic establishment with a monastery an apsidal shrine and a Stupa. Of these, the most important structure was the main Stupa which yielded three stone caskets containing crystal reliquaries and gold flowers.

In addition to this main Stupa, there are a number of other structures like the Stupas, a gate way leading to a rubble paved ramp, sanctuaries – apsidal – circular and oblong and monasteries. It is also felt that the two apsidal sanctuaries immediately after the gate are specially conspicuous. The sanctuary on the south side of the ramps contains a seated image of the Buddha made of bricks, finished with stucco and installed on a semi-circular moulded platform. The stone Stupa, with a brick core, on the north, also became equally conspicuous.

The main Stupa was of a brick construction on which marble slabs are fixed. There is a Pradaksinapatha and a spacious entrance. The parasol is made of stone. Unlike in Nagarjuna Konda in Salihundam the Stupa-caitya and Buddhacaitya monastic cells, pillard halls, dining and kitchen rooms have been exposed to view. Peculiarity is seen in the construction of Stupacaityas. The shrine chambers are all circular with one side openings enshrining Uddesika-stupas. The roofs also must have been circular but nothing of it has come down to us. We cannot even imagine its plan as no representation of it on any slab was shown.

Apart from those that are found on the hill, some more relics have been noticed in the village Salihundam. Slabs decorated with creepers and toranas are found in abundance. In this connection, it is interesting to note that A.H.Longhurst3 had brought out about twelve Buddhist images in his excavations. Of these, according to Subrahmanyam4 only eight are valuable. It seems five of these images were found in the centre of the village along with stone foundations of temples for them. Subrahmanyam in the course of his excavations found a cut stone temple of Marici also.

The images of Marici are carved out of a single block of granite 6’.9” x 4’.4” x 1’.2”. Her right leg was bent while the left leg was out stretched in the Alidha pose. The lower part of the body was clad in a thin cloth with fine horizontal lines of lace. There is a wrist belt decorated with a Simhalalata in the centre. The upper garment

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slipped down and looks like a flowing ribbon across the thigh. She has six arms and three faces, and wears a head dress. Excepting one, all the other five hands were mutilated. She wears a bow and string in the hand that is intact. A portion of the right arm is uplifted and holds a sword. The right corner of the frame is decorated with a symbolic representation of sun while on the left a bunch of Asoka flowers are shown. Dhyana-buddhas seemed to have been represented at each foot of the goddess. The pedestal is in the shape of a chariot drawn by seven horses and there is a female charioteer sitting in a lalitasana. Marici5 is the goddess of dawn, a personification of the rising sun. Her three faces indicate the three phases of the sun at dawn, noon and dusk. The figures of Marici, Tara found there are in support of this Sakti cult. Subramanian6 feels that the images represent the growth of a mystical sex symbolism like the Tantric Sakti worship. To each Bodhisattva was assigned a female counter part and male and female deities came to usurp the religion of no deities.

Subrahamanyam says that the present idol does not satisfy the rules given in Sadhanamala for the image of Marici, as she is shown with two legs, six hand and three human faces in Alidha pose. The charioteer also is represented with legs as against the cannon which says that she has only one head and no other body. As such, he feels that the sculptor might have followed some other text which has not come down to us so far.

In this connection, it is proper to note that Manda Narasimham feels that this is the image of Tara, a sea Goddess which is equally worshipped by both Buddhists and Hindus for a successful voyage7. He also says that the three faces signify the face of Sarasvati, Lakshmi and Parvati from left. He also describes the articles held in the hands of the goddess. She was considered a counter part of Hindu Sun God.

A Bodhisattva measuring 2.2” x 1’6” x 10” is also obtained. He is seated on a lotus throne in Ardhaparyankasana. Two recumbent lions are carved at the two corners of the base. There is also a woman worshipper in the middle. The right arm, left leg and the halo behind the hand are broken. Longhurst identifies this as Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. But Subrahmanyam takes this to be Manjusri on the strength of the belief of the Mahayanists. The laksanas8 given in the Sadhanamala also strengthen this.

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A Buddha image measuring 5’6” x 3’9” x 1’6” is unearthed. He is shown as seated cross legged on a double lotus in Bhumisparasamudra. The halo is broken. Two recumbent lions adorn the pitha on either end. A Bodhisattva is represented in the middle. A simhasana supported by lions is shown behind. There are vyala heads on either side. There are two Churibearers behind the throne. In the right hand he holds the camera and in the left a lotus. Buddha is represented to be in dhyana.

One more image of Buddha seated on a lotus also is seen. This is some what crude and decayed. He has a parasol over his head and two Yaksas carrying flower garlands are shown above. The bar behind the seat is having makara heads from which Siddhapurusas are emerging.

Next is the image of goddess measuring 3’6” x 1’5” x 1’0”. This is nicely carved with six arms. The goddess is shown as seated on a lotus throne. Her right foot is hanging and resting on a lotus flower. Two female worshippers are portrayed on the plinth. She is holding in her hands a bell, drum (dhanka) Vajra, sword and a bowl. Longhurst identifies this as Marici.

There is another image of a goddess with two arms. She is seated on a lotus throne in lalitasana. She holds a blue lotus in the left hand and the right hand is in varadamudra. A couple offering worship to the goddess, kneeling against their knees is portrayed on either side. This is identified as Tara. She is considered the Sakti of Avalokitesvara and her worship seems to have been introduced in Mahayanism in about sixth century.

Then comes the image of a goddess with four arms. She is in a padmasana posture with legs crossed. Three of the four heads are intact. The left upper hand holds a flower and the left lower holds a cintamani. The right upper arm is missing and the lower arm is in varadamudra. She is identified with Sitatara even in the absence of Marici and Mahamayuri Sitatara is said to be one of the four deities that emanated from the combination of the five Dhyanabuddhas. Vajratara, Prajna paramita and Kumkulla are the other three.

The excavations yielded beads of many varieties, terracotta objects like human and animal figures, seals etc., spools, ear ornaments, tiles, finials, moulded bricks, stone objects like Harmikas,

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inscribed slabs, stucco objects, iron objects, ivory and shell objects and relic caskets etc. Most of these articles belong to the middle and later phases. Those that belong to the earlier phase can be counted on fingers. It is unfortunate that even the traces of that efforts taken by Asoka to the cause of Buddhism are not seen whereas they are visible in places like Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, etc.

CONCLUSIONS:- From the inscriptions it is understood that Salihundam came into prominence from the second or first century B.C. and enjoyed its glory till the seventh or eighth century A.D. Here we notice Mahayanism as the main sect and the Sakti cult gradually took hold of the region. We find the image of mother goddess also.

We do not know whether the Saptamatrakas and the Durga found there have any direct bearing on the Sakti cult in those days. At present they are observed in the Hinduism. Some Hindu temples probably of later origin are in Salihundam.

Though we do not have any traces of the earlier phase of Buddism in Salihundam we cannot ignore their activities in this place as it is directly connected with the reformation of Asoka.

References

Bharathi (A Telugu Literary Monthly Journal), 1953, 30(8), Vijaya Sravana, pp.184 ff.

Amita Ray, Life and Art of Early Andhra Desa, Agamkala Prakashan, Delhi, 1983, P.100.,

Madras Archaeological Report, 1919-20, P.34 ff.

R.Subramanyam, Salihundam – A Buddhist Site in Andhra Pradesh, Govt. of A.P., 1964, P.92.

Marici is eminated from Dhyana Buddha Vairocana. She resides in Caitya as vairocana is the lord of the sanctums. Her chariot is drawn by pigs. She is also regarded as the Sakti or Amitabha. Six distinct forms of Marici are described. She is usually represented with one, three, five, or six faces, and eight, ten or twelve arms – Forms are ---

o Arya Marici – 2 hands, holding needle and string

o Samksipta Marici – 3 faces, 8 arms

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o Ubhayavaraha – 3 faces, 12 arms, Alidha pose.

o Nana Marici Desabhdjasita – 2 faces.

o Marici – 5 faces, 10 arms, 4 legs.

o Vajra Dhatvisvari, Marici – 6 faces, 12 arms, Alidha pose, ferocious appearance – Sadhana mala, P.394.

K.S.Subramanian, Buddhist Remains in South India and Early Andhra History 225 A.D. to 610 A.D. Cosomo Publications, New Delhi, 1981, P.30.

‘Buddha Sidhilamulu – Salihundam’; Bharathi (A Telugu Monthly Journal), 1953, 30, (8), P.184.

Manjusri is the greatest of Bodhisattvas whose worship gives wisdom, intelligence, eloquence and retentive memory. The Sadhanamala enumerates Vagisvara, Manjuvana, manjugosa, Svapalana, Siddhai bovirra etc. are the caksanas.

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INDIAN DIASPORA FICTION OF INDIAN WOMEN WRITERS

IN AMERICA

Dr. N.Nagabhushanam Reader & HOD of English

MR College (A) Vizianagaram

Introduction

The ‘model minority’ in America is the Indian Diaspora community. They are working in IT, medicine, teaching and many other fields. This migration started in the last decade of 20th c., esp. to Canada. Sikh-Canadian community of Indian origin migrated over 100 years ago. Sikhs from Punjab landed in USA at Seattle and San Francisco in the late 19th c. and early 20th c... After World War II the immigration policy was changed by America. So the large waves of Indian immigrants started in 1960s and continued in 70s, 80s, 90s and 21st c. The most recent and the largest wave of immigration to date

occurred in late 1990s and early 2000.

Content

People of Indian Diaspora contribute to different fields of their adopted country and homeland. They are in every sphere of human life such as – commerce, industry, fine arts, science, technology, agriculture, politics and literature. There is a notable and sizable Indian Diaspora literature in English. There are many fiction writers of Indian Diaspora who are awarded different literary prizes.

Fiction by Indian women writers constitutes a major segment of contemporary Indian Diasporic literature. The women novelists of Indian diaspora in USA are Bharati Mukherjee, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, Anjana Appachana, Kiran Desai, Sujata Massey, Indira Ganeshan and Jhumpa Lahiri and many more.

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These writers have won many laurels to their credit. Bharati

Mukherjee was awarded the National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction in 1988, Jhumpa Lahiri bagged the Pulitzer Prize in 2000, Kiran Desai won the Man Booker Prize of 2006 and NBCC. The other writers who have migrated to other parts of the world are awardees of Nobel

Prize (V.S.Naipaul), Commonwealth Writers Prize (Shauna Singh Baldwin, 2000), the Best of the Booker Prize (Salman Rushdie, 2008), and Man Booker Prize (Arvind Adiga, 2008).

These made their homeland memorable and popular by writing about it. Through the movements of migration or immigration writers are turned diasporic. It depends upon individual’s response to the adopted country and acceptance by the host. This acceptance also depends upon the value and importance of diasporic individual to the host society. At the initial stage they are ‘outsiders’ and face the question – who am I ? The initial works of diaspora writers are autobiographic and focus on the issues like nostalgia, rootlessness, homelessness, dislocation and displacement.

There are two moves of the diasporic writer-1) Temporal move- a look backward to the past and a look forward at the future. It

produces nostalgia, themes of survival, and cultural assimilation. 2) The Spatial move - involves a deterritorializaton and reterritorialization connected by journey. There is a loss of territorygeographical and cultural and gain of new territory. So Diaspora fiction deals with space, move between ‘home’ and ‘foreign’ country, between ‘familiar’ and ‘strange’, ‘the old’ and ‘the new’. The contrasts and comparisons between these two spaces are frequent in the novels of diasporas, which are different from the regular Indian English fiction.

It is the passage to India with its images and impressions of India of their past, and its memory of an imaginary homeland. They

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blend their India of memory with their present as the country of their birth and its ties do not allow them psychologically to acculturate and assimilate in immigrated country. They turn homesick, homeless, alienated, nostalgic, and rootless and hence they go on deriving sustenance from the country of their residence. The cross-cultural

experiences, idea of homeland, harsh 29 journeys taken by them, their unhousement and rehousment, dislocation, relocation, racial discrimination, language problem, and culture shock faced by them are the issues of the diaspora discourse. They engage in cultural transmission and double identification.

A great body of fiction by Indian diaspora writers has emerged in the post-colonial period on the world literary scene. It is a distinctive force which supports the Indian English fiction. Diaspora writers are identified as either expatriate or immigrant or transnational writers. But there is a sharp line of difference among these categories. Hybridity and Multilingualism or bilingualism is the by-products of diaspora.

Diaspora writer writes in the adopted language and shows his/her sense of ‘belonging’ and affection for the ‘new home’ and

culture. It is the conscious decision to abandon the part of one’s cultural heritage and tradition. In this process he has to live with a divided self. Bharati Mukherjee, Jhumpa Lahiri, Anjana Appachana, Kiran Desai are educated, westernized elites who have lived in many countries, multicultural and multilingual. English is their second mother tongue. The books of Indian Diaspora constitute a minority discourse, surfacing with urgency in the field of cultural studies and ethnic studies in the USA. The Indo-American community in the present is neglected by politicians and social historians but their forced invisibility is challenged by the Indian women diaspora writers, the products of two cultures, like Bharati Mukherjee, Chitra Banejee,

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Meena Alexander, Jhumpa Lahiri and Kiran Desai. Visible and invisible certain and uncertain of their place in mainstream and minority group.

Indian diaspora fiction writers try to move from margin to centre to an empowerment of them and transform American cultural and literary scenario. The in-between space of Indian women writers of

diaspora is positive and they have turned it to advantage.

The women writers present the two colourful worlds of cultures for example Bharati Mikherjee (b. 1940) was an American writer and professor emerita in the department of English at the University of California, Berkeley. She is the author of a number of novels and short story collections, as well as works of nonfiction. Bharati Mikherjee is a pioneer of Indian English diaspora fiction. She has discussed the issues of expatriates, and immigrants and supplied solutions for their problems. She projects her own personal sense of dislocation and relocation in her novels. She maps the experience that is shared by many others and stands for the Indian immigrant community. Her fiction suggests her move in backward and forward which is connected by travel. Each of her novels is set in India and USA, home and adopted country / new homeland. There is a contrast and comparison between

the two spaces. Since the publication of The Middleman and Other Stories (1988) she pictures the lives of immigrants in USA with positive attitude. Her characters try to assimilate and belong to the adopted country. Hybridity and identity find expression with new orientation. She concentrates on dislocation and relocation of the immigrants. So in her Jasmine (1989) she writes there is “adventure, risk and transformation” (240).

The processes of relocation, assimilation and transformation are the outstanding issues for her. Yet she returns and tries to search for the roots in her Desirable Daughters (2002) and The Tree Bride (2004). Since The Holder of the world (1993) it seems that national borders are

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blurred and have vanished. Might be it is the part of the process of globalization, globalized India, and transnationalism.

Chitra Banerjee (b. 1956), Calcutta born, educated in India and America, Bharati Mukherjee, lives in the USA since her early 20s. The author of the novels The Mistress of Spices (1997), Sister of My Heart

(1999), The Vine of Desire (2002), Queen of Dreams (2004), and collections of short stories, Arranged Marriage (1995), and The Unknown Errors of Our Lives (2001).

Bharati Kirchner, another Indian diaspora woman writer in America, by profession an engineer, tried with the idea of writing fiction and produced Shiva Dancing (1998), Sharmila’s Book (1999), Darjeeling (2002), and Pastries (2003). With Nostalgia she looks backward (pastIndia) and forward (USA-adopted country). Her Pendulum swings between the two worlds, but doesn’t stabilize either in the land of her birth or adoption. The protagonist Meena Kumari in Shiva Dancing, a victim of child-marriage, and kidnapping, turns a successful computer software designer in San Francisco. Yet she desires to reconnect with her past - family, village, her love, and India itself. The theme of nostalgia 31 dominates here.

Like Bharati Mukherjee and Chitra Banerjee she has exposed the new layer of woman’s life. For her progress or fluidity is possible in USA, especially to the victims of Indian tradition.

India-born Kiran Desai (b. 1971), a daughter of noted Indian diaspora English author, Anita Desai, is the author of two novels – Hullabaloo in the Guava Orchard, (1998) and The Inheritance of Loss (2006) and awarded of Man Booker Prize of 2006. Since her teens she has been living outside India. The setting of the Inheritance of Loss is the North Eastern Himalayas and Kalimpong. (Nepal Gorkha Land). It was part of India, but now is independent. The hero of The Inheritance

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of Loss is caught into the dilemma of his being Indian and American. That is the common theme of all diasporic writing.

Jhumpa Lahiri (b. 1967), of the second generation of immigrants, born and brought up outside India is attracted by India and its culture. But like Bharati Mukherjee she considers herself an

American. The Indian American experience is at the core of her first short story collection entitled – Interpreter of Maladies (1999). It received the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 2000. Her first novel The Namesake (2003) made Mira Nair produce a film with the same title. The novel examines the nuances involved with being caught between two conflicting cultures with their highly distinct religious, social and ideological differences. The Bengali couple, Ashok and Ashima, from Calcutta migrates to USA where their two children - a son - Gogol-Nikhil and a daughter-Sonia are 32 born. Gogol is named after his father’s favourite author but hates his name Gogol and the inherited values. He sets his own path to find his identity which depends on other factors than his name. The two generations, disconnected and alienated, are described in The Namesake.

Anjana Appachana (b. 1956) lives in America, though born and

brought up in India. She has obtained degrees from Delhi University and Jawaharlal Nehru University. She learnt Creative Writing from Pennsylvania State University. She feels writer’s life is comparatively more comfortable in America than in India. Her Listening Now (1997) is about the experience of the ordinary Indian woman, her dreams and passions frustrated and realized, through and in spite of the mundane repetitive and domestic pattern of life.

Meena Alexander (b. 1951) is a poet and scholar. She has produced two novels - Nampally Road (1991) and Manhattam Music (1997).

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Anita Desai (b. 1937) is a Bengali on her father’s side and a

German on her mother’s. Born and raised in India she lived the major part of her life in India but now resides in USA. She has introduced the psychological novel in Indian English fiction. Her Cry, the Peacock (1963) is similar to Bharati Mukherjee’s Wife (1975), in which

protagonists (Maya and Dimple) murder their husbands. Yet there is a line of difference between them.

Conclision

So all cultures are contaminated with and by the cultures they come in contact with. Out of this double or split consciousness, duality and hybridity are born. Diaspora writing, in its theory and practice, is the work of exiles / expatriates / immigrants who have experienced unsettlement at all levels. Theorists like Homi Bhabha, Stuart Hall, Edward Said, Franz Fanon, Freud, Erikson, Du Bois, Gilroy, Appadurai and writers like V. S. Naipaul, Salman Rushdie, F. Dhondy, R. Mistry, Kamala Markandaya, Bharati Mukherjee, Bapsi Sidhawa, Chitra Banerjee, Jhumpa Lahiri, K. Desai, et. all were either exiles or expatriates or immigrants by force or choice.

References

Indian Writing in English: Perspectives :edited by Joya

Chakravarty.

Contemporary Indian Writing in English: Critical Perceptions

o By N. D. R. Chandra.

Postliberalization Indian Novels in English: Politics of Global Reception ...edited by Aysha Iqbal Viswamohan.

Indian Women Writing in English: New Perspectives o edited by Sathupati Prasanna Sree.

Contemporary Fiction: An Anthology of Female Writers edited

by Vandana Pathak, Urmila Dabir, Shubha Mishra.

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The Indian English Novel of the New Millennium: edited by

Prabhat K. Singh.

Indian English Poetry and Fiction: Critical Elucidations,

Volume 2 o By Amar Nath Prasad, Rajiv K. Mallik. o Internet Sources: o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhumpa_Lahiri o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharati_Mukherjee o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meena_Alexander o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasmine_(novel)

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TEMPLES AND BASADIS MENTIONED IN THE INSCRIPTIONS OF CHALUKYAJAYASIMHA II

Shivaraju

Assistant Professor Department of History

Government First Grade College Koratagere Tumkur District, Karnataka

Introduction

Jayasimha-II of the Chalukyas of Kalyana was well know emperor and was popularly called as “Jagadekamalla’, “Mallikamoda” and so mentioned in the inscriptions. He expended the empire that was free from Rastrakutas. He defeated Chola, GurjaraPrathihara, Malva. It was stated in Salur Inscription of 1017 AD. That he ruled territory encircled with four oceans. The vast empire was divided into divisions and they were ruled by the Prabhus and administrators.

Money is not everything in the life of a man. Hence, people in those days believed it a divine thing to spend at least 1/4th of whatever wealth they earned on charity and religious activities. Thus, it was very common in ancient Bharat to construct temples, Basadis, Viharas, lakes, dormitories, etc. and donate liberally for such projects. The inscriptions belonging to the period of Jayasimhadeva II are not exception to this tradition. They display a large number of details of such charity works and endowments made for them. This period in the history of Karnataka is a witness to the abundance of cultural and religious activities as per the edicts of the time. They included Shaiva, Vaishnava and Jain sects. And especially, spread of Shaivism into different cults; Paashupata, Laakula and Kaalaamukha is recorded in the inscriptions. A number of Shaiva temples were built, and Aditya temples symbolic of worship of Sun God were constructed too. They were either attached to the Shaiva temple or built independently.

Jainism prevailed as an integral part of the common life of the people of the time. They had many influential organisations of their own and were politically strong. This period stands witness to a huge number of constructions of Jain Basadisthrough out the Empire.

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An attempt to study the temples, Basadis, Viharas and

Chaityalayas as mentioned in the rock writings of this period is made in this chapter. However, there is no attempt made to discuss the architectural details of these monuments as it is not the objective of this study. This discussion is only limited to get a picture of the Shaiva,Vaishnava and SJaina temples built during Jayasimhadeva’s governance as given in the inscriptions and to know what temple was built for which God.

Shaiva Temples

The era of Jayasimhadeva II shows a certain growth of pro-Shaivite activities in the society. The inscriptions give the details of a number of Shivacharyas and new Shivalayas and Mathas built during this period.

A.D 1012-22 edict of Hiremagalageri1 writes about MahasamantadhipatiMahaprachandaDandanayakaPolalamayya’s gift of land to VakkhanaJeeya’s disciple BrahmaraasiJeeya. In the same way, MahamandaleshwaraJagadekamallaNolambaPallavaPermaanadiUdayaditya’sManevergadeMahamatyaBrahmaadiraja donates a wetland below the lake of Nelnidhi for offerings and burning uninterrupted lamp for Lord Swayambhudeva.

The Pura inscription of A.D 10182 mentions about donations made to Moolastthaanadevaru, Lord Kalideva and Lord Brahmadeva. So also, the Bagali edict of AD 10183 describes that PallavaPermaanadiUdayadityadeva made charity of valagulla land in the border of Chaturaaghata field in Logeshwara, in the Shankaroja and Naranoja lakes in Bikkiga 70 when he visited PampapuraTeertha. This donation was made for burning uninterrupted lamp and offerings to Lord Kalideva in Bagali, for the livelihood of the Tapodhanas, Satra, 12 courtesans, Soolevaliga, Vanchinga, Parekaara, Paatra and food for the local students. This endowment was done after washing the feet of SomasinghaBalaara following other rituals. Further, Badami edict of AD 10184 also mentions that MahadevaDandanayaka and PaaladevaDandanayaka donate 10 Gadyaanaponnu from their Siddaaya to Lord Yogeshwaradeva temple built by Paramanadadeva on HeggadeRamadevarasa’s request.

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According to Velupagond inscription of AD 10195

MahamandaleshwaraSomapermaadi donated for Lord Mailaaradeva while he was governing Savalakke and Mukkunda 300 divisions.

Kallihal edict of AD 10196 also contains details of SettiwaalaSahadeva building a Shivalaya in Ajjadi and made donations to it. Roogi edict of AD 10197 also states that grants were made to the Nagareshwara temple of Roovige in Aane. MahasamantaDaasarasa begets and from the Emperor to gift it to the Nagareshwara temple along with AruvanaGadyaana for its renovation and livelihood of the Tapodhanas, etc. to BaalachandraPandit.

Irivabedangadeva’s son Kundamarasa makes grant of agriculture land, wetland and a garden for the maintenance of the Nandikeshwara temple and offerings to the God after renovating the temple(Balligaavi edict of AD 1019).8

It is said in the inscription of Devasuguru of A.D 10229 that MahasamantaChikadaraChikkeyarasa donates 12 mattaru black soil land to Lord Sankeshwara while AD 1022 Nagarahalli edict10 says that TribhuvanaNarayanaDharmasetty builds a temple for Lord Dharmeshwaradeva and donates land to it.

Further, it is written in A.D 1022 edict11 of Rona that VibhudaagraganyaAytavarma’s son Sankimayya provides for Moolastthaana. His elder brother Maachimayya then builds a Satra for 12 Brahmins and makes grant of land, a garden and an oil mill to it. It is registered in Hegguru AD 1024 inscription12 details of land donations made by MahasamantaAytavarmarasa to Lord Rebbalaeshwaradeva in Pergeruva, to a Satra, for Lord Samabaleshwara, Lord Holeshwara and Lord Lokeshwara. Yet another edict of Hegguru of AD 102413 also records a grant of 24 mattaru(6 mattaru for the God and 18 mattaru to VaadighantaDevadattaPandit for education) land by Aytavarma to Lord Rebbaleshwara.

Emperor Jayasimhadeva’s queen Rani Padmaladevi makes an endowment of black soil land and a garden to Lord SwayambhuKalideva at Govantige in Karadikallu 300 region as per AD 1024 edict of Gotagi.14Havasabhavi writing of A.D 102415 registers a donation made by Ketagavunda of TuyyalaBegooru in Nagarakhanda 70 to MallikarjunaPandit in the presence of the subjects.

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The details of a gift of land for the unction of Lord

Bhogeshwaradeva and for the tapodhanas over there, enroute to Pandigola in Kariyaala, to Nakareshwara(in Annigeri) MaleyaalaPandit’s pupil DevasinghiPandita are available in AD 1026 edcit of Asundi.16 It says that this donation was made by MasamanatadhipaatiSauchayanayak when he was ruling BhattagaaveEleyaPasundi in Belvola 300 division as Jayasimhadeva’spaadapadmopajeevi.

Mulugunda inscription of A.D 102817 describes donations made to various Shivalayas.

MahamandaleshwaraKundamarasa’s son MahasamantaSatyashraya’s devotion to Lord Shiva is displayed in the inscription of AD 1031, Kodugere18 who made a grant of wetland below Gaangere bund on the South of KoodalaTeertha, in the plains of Sattigaala for daily offerings of MoolastthaanaDevaru and Lord Swayambhudeva in KoodalaTeertha. He makes thisdonation after taking a dip in the Teertha to BaalachandraJeeya’s disciple ShantashivaBhalaara after washing his feet performing all the rituals(dhaarapoorvakamaagi).

So also the edict of AD 1032, Bavooru19 registers an endowment of 12 mattaru land for the maintenance of PanditBhattaaraka’sMoolastthaana Lord by MunjarajaMaadaata ‘AbhinavaTaila’ MahasamantaMailarasa.

MahamandaleshwaraKundayyainstals a Linga according to Kalluru edict of AD 1032.20 Further, according to AD 1032 inscription of Beguru Agrahara,21JagadekamallafalicitatesMaarasingavunda of Behooru with the title of Jagadekamalla and presents all the royal signs to him, and then Maarasingavunda makes grant of wetland, Beddalu land, Arecanuts in the Arecanut garden, tax on beetlenut, site for house and oil mills for nadaadeevige to the Shivalaya built by his younger brother Dekagavunda for its smooth running.

Rajooru record of AD 103322 also carries the details of Lord Sri Kalideva’sAchaari(Acharya)Chandrabhushanadeva receiving donation of land for the unction of God Bhogeshwara and renovation of the temple. This gift was made after Lord Bhogeshwara was anointed at Rajooru in Kisukaadu 70 of Kuntala region by the Aravattokkalu of Rajooru and Jogagavunda. Local Gavaregandaru and Mummaridandaru

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were also involved in this sacred act. Jayasimhadeva’s daughter Somaladevi gifts a site for house, an oil mill and a garden to BallanittigeGokarnaraasiJeeya for Lord Bankeshwaradeva of BhattagramaBallanittige of Mosalekallu in Ededore 2000 region. Somaladevi is said to do this donaton on JayachandaratiMaarabe’s request when she was in the capital of Pottalakere as per the writing of AD 1034, Nugudoni.23

Yet another edict of Malleshwaram, AD 1038,24MahamandaleshwaraKandooraanemarasa not only donated Chimile to TapodhanaJagadinduPandita of Agasteshwara, for the education but also gives land to ChideshwaraPandita for MooguteshwaraSatra built in the same place, that is, Agasteshwara. Further, the details of HeggadePrasaaditaDuggimayya’sArdhaangaLaxmi(wife) Balikabbe Gaudi’s generous charity to God Baleshwara and Lord of Moolastthana are available in the inscription of A.D 1033, Tammadhaddi.25

According to Vemulawada edict of AD 1033,26Chikaraja establishes God Rajarajeshwara in Vembulawaadi and then grants Jonnagaave in ChiduranaaraavuleVennesaale 70 in Kulalaana 1000 division for the Srikhanada, flowers and Dhoopa for the God and for the courtesans over there. Then there is the edict of Hallooru of A.D 1033-3427 which explains the donations made by MahasamantaNagatiyarasa to Sri TejoraashiPandita after washing his feet. And Talavagilu AD 1034 edict28 mentions that about the charity of field, a wetland and a garden made by JagadekamallaUdayadityadevaNolambaPallavaPermaanadi toLordBhogeshwarainTalavage and for the workers in the temple. It is said in Chimnahalli writing of AD 1034-3529 that JagadekamallaNolambaPallavaPermaanadi’sManevergadeKeteyanayaka also gifts land and a garden to DuggarajaPandit after washing his feet for Kalideva temple in Nelkudure.

It is said in Aaduru inscription of AD 1034-3530 that Vamadeva, who was disciple of Swayambhudeva’sStthanadhipatiDevaraasiJeeya, was known for integrity of character. He kept an vow of fasting till he went to Vaasaadri(Srishaila), did Lord Mallikarjunadeva’spooja and came back. Later, his son Shivayya donates land to Banashankari temple.

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Singer Kaamavve’s daughter, her daughter Siriyavve, who was a

‘tottu’ of Lord Kalideva dedicated her house in the service of the Lord. She puts a condition that whoever of her family lived in the house, including herself, would pay two Panas annually for the Nandaadeevige of Lord Kalideva as per AD 1035 edict of Bagali.31 This indicates that even common people used to involve themselves in charities works.

Further, in the edict of AD 1036, Balligavi32 has the details of the details of donation of land for khandasputitamaata(repair) of the temple in which, Lord Panchalingadeva is said to be anointed by the Pandavas, and also for the gandha(sandalwood paste), dhoopa and naivedya(offerings) for the God and food and accommodation for the Tapodhanas and the students studying in this KaalaamukhaBrahmasttahana in the capital of Balligave. The inscription of Jetprole of AD 103833 also regisrers gift of Ettapi in Govaddavana 500 to LakuleshwaraBhattaaraka of Ramateertha on the bank of Pindi in Talakaadunaadu.

RajendraCholaDaarisetty, GandaraMerusetti, RajendraNemisetty and some others donate land for Srikhanda and Nandaadeevige for Lord Brahmeshwaradeva(Alampur, AD 1038 edict).34

Kanchikere AD 1039 inscription35 also states that SandhivigrahiAndaasayya first installed a Linga and then donated a land below the lake. The edict of AD 1040, Ucchangidura36, records four different names the place was called in four Yugas. And then continues to record that the temple for Lord Taileshwaradeva was built Chalukya Emperor Tailapa and TrailokamallaNolambaPermaadiJayasinghadeva granted land for the rituals of the presiding deity.

The inscription of Kwarya of AD 104037 also registers the details of charity of land by AsheshaKottali for Lord Kammateshwara’sNandaadeepa. Then, the edict of AD 1041 of Kannoli38 contains the details of MahasamantaGopalarasa’s grant to VaamashaktiPandita for Lord Bhogeshwara in Kannavalli. Further, MahasamantaGonarasa builds temples for Lord Goneshwaradeva and Lord Shauchmaatand Deva in the Agrahara established by Andhaasura. Later, he hands over the Goneshwara temple and the Shaurymartandastthana to KaalaamukhaagranyaVaadirajarudraPandita after washing his feet. And also donates land and a garden the Tapodhanas for education as

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per the writings of the inscription of AD 1042 of Achapur.39MahamandaleshwaraKundaraja’s wife Jogaladevi’s charity to the Sahadeveshwara temple built by Sahadeva finds a mention in the edict of Halliyaala of AD 1042.40 So also the edict of Tediyillada Tumbigere41 says that KaditavergadeChandimayyaNayaka gives a wetland below piriyakere(lake) for the offerings of the Moolasthaanadevaru of Tumbugere in Bikkiga 70 of which he was governor. This donation was made with an appeal to JagadekamallaImmadiNolambaPallavPermaanadideva, who was ruling Kadambalige 1000, Kogali 500, Karividi 30 and Panchagrama from the capital of Gangati and Chandimayya was ruling in Bikkiga 70 as his paadapadmopajeevi.

Vaishnava Temples

It was a time when the kings and the emperors respected and treated all faiths equally. It did not matter to which cult or belief they belonged to, or practiced in their personal life. They never interefered in the matters of routine rituals or traditions of the temples or in the charities made to them bytheirfollowers. Thus, the era belonging to Jayasimhadeva II saw a rise in the Shaiva cult; it also witnessed an encouragement to the Vaishnavite practices as mentioned in the inscriptions of this period.

For example, Emperor Jayasimhadeva makes a grant of Black soil 13 mattaru land in capital Mosangi, for the offerings of Lord Vishnu built by BaggatiMaadinayya as recorded in the edict of AD 1031, Lingasooru.42MahapradhanaAnantapaalaDandnayaka endows land for the presiding deity JalamantapaNarasimhadeva for His Angabhoga and Rangabhoga after renovating the temple in his capital Vijayapura. He makes this charity when he was governing TardawadiSaavira on the command of Jagadekamalla according to the writing of AD 1033 of Vijayapur43.

A reference in the edict of AD 1037, Gadag44 says that Daamodarasetti buys a land from the OorodeyaMaddimayyaNayaka of Lokkigundi to donate it for Traipurushadeva and BaarahaNarayanadeva temples built by PergadeDoyipayya along with Baraha Vishnu temple and Garuda MaanaStambhas.

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Bhootagavunda of Nidugunda begets land from Jayakeshi of

Puligere 300 to gift it to Lord Narayanadeva as mentioned in the Hullooru edict of AD 1038.45

Jaina Basadis

The inscriptions belonging to this period carry the details of construction of Jinalayas, description of Jain Munis, their Aahaaradaanadifferent Ganas and Sanghas and endowments made to them.

Thus, Mubarakapur inscription of AD 102646 records the details of Pampa Permaanadi’s donation of 10 mattaru land to KumaaraBaragayya for the Basadi in MatataalaKumaaradayya in Naamakasavule. So also, AD 1027 edict of Maski47 explains that Jagadekamalla’s daughter Sahajavedangi Sri Somaladevi gifts land, a flower garden and an oil mill for the offerings in the Basadi built by Besavoja at the behest of Sodorevadiya’sRevanayya. This donation was done on the appeal of TambivattiBesavoja and the Pradhanas when she was in the camp ofPulipodaruPalauvappayana.

According to Hosuru edict of AD 1028,48Aychagavunda built a Basadi in memory of his wife KanchikabbeGavundi and donated it to NagachandraSinddhanti along with 4 mattaru land and site for 4 houses on the South of the Basadi, after washing his feet. Later, 700 people together gift one beetle leaf creeper and an arecanut tree each in their garden to this Basadi.

A.D 1029 record of Ballatagi49 also mentions donation of black soil land, a garden and an oil mill in Piriyakolu to the Basadi in BhattagramaBallanittage in Ededore 2000 division by Jayasimha’s daughter Somaladevi.

Yet another edict of Maski of A.D 103250 mentions that grant of black soil land, a wetland, a garden and an oil mill in the capital of PiriyaMosangi were made to JagadekamallaJinalaya belonging to DesigaGana. This charity was taken up by Jagadekamalla when all the Pradhanas request him at the behest of Sodorevadiya, Kaalidaasayya’sChoolaaytaRevana and AshopanandiBhalaara’s appeal.

Saidapur inscription of A.D 103451 contains the details of the donations made to Buddhasena and VaidyaratnakaraJinalayas built in Muppinapalli at Aaleru 40 in Kollipake 7000 division on

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VaidyaratnakaraPraanaacharyaAggalayya’s request and in Ikkurike respectively. Both gifts were made for the renovation works and Sudhakarma of these Jinalayas. Jayasimha’spaadapadmopajeeviNolambaGhateyankakaara also donates land to MaaravolalaBasadi as per the writings of TediyilladaMarola shasana.52

Conclusion:

The art and architecture formulate civilization like a mother, who cares her child in her womb. It takes care of the development of any civilization. The gradual development of man through many centuries had undergone many radical changes in the name of civilization. When we look at this background, the kings did not pay much attention for constructing of their palaces. Instead, they paid greater interest to build temples. The architects of hard and found satisfaction by constructing temples and basadis.

Money is not major to man. Fourth third of the money earned should be reserved and utilized for donations and religions. It was the quite generous attitude of the people. So constructions of temples and basadis were encored and funded by the people. Shaiva religion had sects like Pashupatha, Lakula, Kalamukha, etc. They had temples and Kalamukha sect had shiva, Vishnu and the sun, tri-idol worshipping system in the temples.

Since Jainism was also an important one, there were Jaina Associations and temples and centers for education. The basadis, viharas and chaithyalayas were speculated. There was no discussion on the style of temples and Basadis

End Notes

S.I.I. IX (i) No 82, 1022, Hiremagalageri, HarapanahalliTaluk, Davanagere District.

Kannada university shasanasamputa II, No-18, 1018, Pura, KushtagiTaluk, Koppal District

S.I.I. IX (i) 80, 1018 December 23, Bagali, HarapanahalliTaluk, Davanagere District.

I.A. VI No. XXXIII, 1018, Badami, BadamiTaluk, Bagalkot District.

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SadaneSamputa- 9, Sanchike- 1, Page No.59-62. 1019 July 12,

Velupagonda, JogipetaTaluk, Sangareddy District. S.I.I. XVIII No.44, 1019 December 24, Kallihala, HaveriTaluk,

Haveri District. S.I.I. XX No 21, 1019 December 24, Roogi, Indi Taluk, Bijapur

District. I.A.V No 9.P. 15, 1019, Balligavi, ShikaripuraTaluk, Shimoga

district. IthihasaDharshanasamputa 17, Page No.74-75, 1022,

Devasuguru, RaichurTaluk, Raichur District. S.I.I. XI (i) No.58, 1022, Nagarahalli, MundaragiTaluk, Koppal

District. E.I. XIX No.38 A, 1022 December 25, Rona, Rona Taluk, Gadag

District. IthihasaDharshanasamputa 19, Karnataka Ithihasa Academy

Page No 67-68, Bangalore.1024 December 8, Heggur, BeelagiTaluk, Bagalkot District.

S.I.I. XI (i) No.62,1024 December 24, Heggur, BeelagiTaluk, Bagalkot District.

Kannada university shasanasamputa II, No-3, 1024 december 24, Gothagi, KushtagiTaluk, Koppal District.

Kannada university shasanasamputa II, No-3, 1024 december 24, Gothagi, KushtagiTaluk, Koppal District.

S.I.I. XI (i) No.63, 1026, Asundi, GadagTaluk, Gadag District. c E.C. (old) VII part I Shikaripura 30,1031, Kodagere,

ShikaripuraTaluk, Shimoga District. S.I.I. XI (i) 67, 1032 December 24, Bavuru, Muddebihalataluk,

Bijapur District. E.C. (old) VIII part II Soraba 283,1032, Kalluru, SorabaTaluk,

Shimoga District. E.C. (old) VII Shikaripura 20, 1032, Beguragrahara,

ShikaripuraTaluk, Shimoga District. E.C. (old) VII Shikaripura 20, 1032, Beguragrahara,

ShikaripuraTaluk, Shimoga District. Hirematta Channabasava:2000, MaanviTalukinaShsanagalu 16,

Kannada sahithyaparishath, Bangalore. 1034, Nugudoni, MaanviTaluk, Raichur District.

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Inscriptions of AP: Mahabubnagar District volume.I No.50, 1038

July 15, Malleshwaram, KollapuraTaluk, Mahabubnagar District

S.I.I.XI (i) 68, 1033 December 23, Thammadhaddi, Muddebihalataluk, Bijapur District.

Kannada university shasanasamputa V part II, No.394. 1033 december 24, Vemulawada, SirisillaTaluk, Karimnagar District.

S.I.I. XI (i) 71, 1033-34, Halluru, BagalkotTaluk, Bagalkot District.

S.I.I. IX (i) 87, 1034 December 2, Thalavagilu, HarapanahalliTaluk, Davanagere District.

S.I.I. IX (i) No.88, 1034-35, Chimnahalli, HadagaliTaluk, Bellay District.

S.I.I. XX No.24, 1034-35, Aaduru, HanagalTaluk, Haveri District.

S.I.I. IX (i) 89, 1035 December 25, Bagali, HarapanahalliTaluk, Davanagere District.

E.C. (old) VII Shikaripura 126,1036, Balligavi, ShikaripuraTaluk, Shimoga District.

Inscriptions of AP: Mahabubnagar District volume. I No.51,1038 July 15, Jathprole, KolhapuraTaluk, Mahabubnagar District

Inscriptions of AP: Mahabubnagar District volume. I No.53,1038 December 9, Aalampura, AalampuraTaluk, Mahabubnagar District

S.I.I. IX (i) 94, 1039 April 23, Kanchikere, HarapanahalliTaluk, Davanagere District.

S.I.I. VI (i) No 571, 1040, UcchangiDurga, HarapanahalliTaluk, Davanagere District.

E.C. (old) XII Sira No.37, 1040 Kwarya, MadakasiraTaluk, Ananthapuam District.

E.C. (old) XII Sira No.37, 1040 Kwarya, MadakasiraTaluk, Ananthapuam District.

E.C. (old) VIII part II, Sagara 110,1042, Aachapura, SagaraTaluk, Shimoga District.

E.C. (old) VIII part II, Sagara 110,1042, Aachapura, SagaraTaluk, Shimoga District.

S.I.I. IX (i) No.96, Thumbigere, HarapanahalliTaluk, Davanagere District.

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The corpus of Telangana Inscriptions part IV No.5, 1031 june

14, Lingasur, Raichur District. S.I.I. XVIII 51, 1033 April 7, Bijapur, BijapurTaluk, Bijapur

District. S.I.I. XI (i) No.72, 1037 June 20, Gadag, GadagTaluk, Gadag

District. E.I. XVI No.25, 1038 December 24, Hulguru, ShiggaviTaluk,

Haveri District. Inscriptions of A.P: Medak District No- 22,1026, Mubarakpura,

SangareddyTaluk, Medak District. HAS. No.18, A Corpus of Inscriptions in the Kannada Districts

of Hyderabad State No.3,1027 December 24, Maski, LingasurTaluk, Raichur District.

S.I.I. XI (i) No.65, 1028 December 24, Hosuru, GadagTaluk, Gadag District.

Hirematta Channabasava:2000, MaanviTalukinaShsanagalu 10, Kannada sahithyaparishath, Bangalore. 1022, Ballatagi, MaanviTaluk, Raichur District.

HAS. No.18, A Corpus of Inscriptions in the Kannada Districts of Hyderabad State No.4.1032 Febraury 21, maski, LingasuruTaluk, Raichur District.

Kannada university Shasanasamputa V part II 593, 1034 July 4, Sydapur, BhuvanagiriTaluk, Nelgonda District.

S.I.I. XI (i) No.61, 1024, Marola, HungundTaluk, Bagalkot District.

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE HISTORY OF INDIAN SOCIETY

Dr.Y.Ranganatha Lecturer in History

Govt.PU - College Mysore

Introduction

The evolution of the status of women in India has been a continuous process of ups and downs throughout history. Considering the vast body of empirical research available on the topic, two approaches seem valid: one is classical text view; and the other, empirical view. For the purpose of depicting a brief survey of the changing position and role of women in India throughout history, two broad periods are considered: (a) 2500 B.C-1500 B.C., and (b) 1500 B.C. - 1800 A.D. These divisions are based on degree of freedom that women enjoyed and the role differentiation within the family. Throughout classic literature on the status of women there is almost consistent opinion among great scholars that during the age of Vedas (2500 - 1500 B. C.) a woman's status was equivalent to that of a man. Though it is difficult to specify the exact chronological time as to when the deterioration in woman's status started, one can state that gradual changes appeared during the age of Brahamanas, 1500B.C. and by the age of Sutras and Epics, 500 B.C. to A.D. o 500 and the age of the later Srutis, A.D.500 to A.D. 1800 the status had deteriorated considerably.

Women in the Upanishad

Each of the four Vedas has four parts, the fourth of which comprises its Upanishads, which expound the otherwise obscure philosophical meanings. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (part of the (Yajur Veda) contains an account of a philosophic congress organized by King Janak of Videha. The aforementioned Gargi, one of the eminent participants, challenged the sage Yajnavalkya with questions about the soul which confounded that learned man. Another incident in the same Upanishad relates the spiritual teachings given by Yajnavalkya to Maitreyi.

Women in the Mahabharata

In the epic history Mahabharata, the noble prince BhishmaPitamah declares, “The teacher who teaches true knowledge is more important than ten instructors. The father is more important than ten such

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teachers of true knowledge and the mother is more important than ten such fathers. There is no greater guru than mother.” Some people question Draupadi’s having five husbands, considering that to be evidence of inferior status. Does the opposite practice, polygamy, indicate the inferior status of its male practitioners? Ancient Women and Education: There are some bright exceptions in this dismal picture. The role of women in Ancient Indian Literature is immense. Ancient India had many learned ladies. There were two types of scholarly women — the Brahmavadinis, or the women who never married and cultured the Vedas throughout their lives; and the Sadyodvahas who studied the Vedas till they married. Panini mentioned of female students’ studying Vedas. Katyana called female teachers Upadhyaya or Upadhyayi.

Ancient Women in Politics:

Women often enjoyed prominent roles in politics. Megasthenes mentioned the Pandya women running the administration. The Satavahana queen, “Nayanika ruled the kingdom on behalf of her minor son. So did Pravabati, daughter of Chandragupta II, on behalf of the minor Vakataka prince.

Epilogue:

Women from the aristocratic classes enjoyed education and other privileges but the common woman still suffered ignominy, deprivation and hurdles.

British Period:

When the British came in to contact with the Indian people in the latter half of the 18th century, the position of Indian woman had deteriorated to the lowest level. Ideologically, women were considered a completely inferior species, having no significance, no personality. Socially they were kept in complete subjection, denied all rights and were suppressed and oppressed, on having been branded as “basically lacking an ethical fibre”. A few women overcame their social handicaps and achieved positions of distinction. They included Toru Datta, Ramabai, SwaranaKumari Devi and Kamini Roy. These attempts notwithstanding, women did not get the benefit of Western education. Women of upper classes suffered from the custom of enforced widowhood and a ban on divorce. Among the lower classes the practice of “Devdasi” was in vogue. However, some promising beginnings were

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made. From about 1878, university studies particularly medicine, began to attract Indian women and around 1888 some women went across the seas even to America to seek new knowledge. As early as 1892 the first Indian woman took her Civil Law degree in England. The ban on women practicing law was removed in 1920 in England. Among the first batch of women to be called to the London Bar was an Indian woman. During the non-cooperation movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi, he directly appealed to the women of India that led to the awakening of thought in women. Women joined men in equal footing during the great struggle for Indian’s Independence.

This participation of women in the national struggle loosened the social bondage in which they were held. Their equal participation with men in the struggle led to the breakdown of traditional conceptions and brought about a profound change in the attitude of women.

Improvement in condition and revival of status of women during the British period:

The early years of the 20th century witnessed rapid progress in breaking down prejudices against women’s education. A number of women’s societies sprang up. The Women’ Indian Association was founded by Mrs. Annie Besant in 1917, with the primary aim of promoting women’s education. The Federation of University Women was formed in 1920 to affiliate women graduates’ associations for more effective advance in the status of women. The National Council of Women was founded in 1925 to federate the Provincial Women’s Council and other women’s organizations. The first All-India Women’s Educational and Social Congress was held in 1926.

On 26th January, 1931, the Indian National Congress passed a historic resolution on Indian women. After Independence: The improvement in women’s position and status became further evident when immediately after the independence, Indian women made their mark by becoming Governors, Cabinet ministers, and ambassadors. Several measures were taken by the Government of India to assign equal status to women in the economic, political and social fields. More avenues were opened to them to show their talents and have a sense of participation in national activities.

Current Status of women In India:

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The position and status of today’s Women in India is considered high in modern Indian Society. The population of women is almost half of the total population of India. A country or a community cannot be considered civilized where women are not honoured. Indian laws have been made without discrimination against women. As a result Indian women enjoy high position in our society. Women today occupy high ranking posts like. I.A.S, I.F.S. Indian Women are also in our Defense Services. The modern Indian women participate in various sports and games like football, hockey, cricket, table tennis, lawn tennis and also in athletics. The Contemporary Indian women serve as M.P., M.L.A, governors and ministers. Women of recent times like Mother Teresa, Indira Gandhi, VijaylakshmiPandit, M.S. Subhalakshmi, LataMangeskar and now the president of India PrativaPatil have achieved international fame. Women have also achieved high fame in the areas of literature, music and acting. More and more women are joining the field of science and technology. In fact there is no sphere of activity in which women are unsuitable or incompetent. Lets now have a look at the darker side. Though the Indian law does not discriminate between men and women, the status of women of our country today is practically far below the status of men. Wife burning for failure to pay dowry as demanded also continues unabated all over India. It is a matter of great shock that such cases are increasing in every year. In our country bride is burnt or murdered for non-payment of dowry. The literacy rate of women is also lower than that of male persons almost all over India. Though the status of today’s Women in India is high, the overall picture of women’s position in India is not satisfactory.

Conclusion

Traditionally, an Indian woman had four fold status-role sequences. These were her role as a daughter, wife, housewife (homemaker), and mother. The woman, whose status and role traditionally was well defined and almost fixed in the society, is now experiencing farreaching changes. The woman in modern times is entering into certain new fields that were unknown to the woman’s sphere of role-sets. They are activating participating in social, economic, and political activities. The women of the present generation have generally received higher education than the women of their preceding generation. There have been far reaching consequences in the economic status of their families.

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References:

1. Josette S. Shiner, Role of women in 21st century

2. Ground Report, Status of women in 21st century India

3. Findlaw, Gender discrimination

4. Jayapalan. N, Status of women in Hindu Society

5. R. C. Mujumdar, The History and culture of the Indian people, vol-1

6. R. S. Sharma , India’s Ancient Past

7.BipanChandra ,History of Modern India,

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF TRIBAL WOMEN IN INDIA

Manjunatha.K.N Assistant Professor

History Department Sayhadri Art’s College,Shimogga

Introduction:

The tribal population in India numerically constitutes a small segment of the total population of the country but is a significant part of the population. According to 2001 census data1, total population of Scheduled Tribes constitutes 8.2% of the total population of the country. Most of the Scheduled tribe people lives in rural areas and their population comprise 10.4 % of the total rural population of the country. The term ‘scheduled tribes’ first appeared in the Constitution of India, to confer certain constitutional privileges and protection to a group of people who are considered disadvantaged and backward. In the Constitution of India, Article 366 (25) defines Scheduled Tribes as "such tribes or tribal communities or part of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to the scheduled Tribes (STs) for the purposes of this Constitution".

The Scheduled Tribes, who are also referred to as ‘Adivasis’, meant original inhabitants. For long periods of history, they were always socially and geographically isolated. They belonged to different races with diverse cultural characteristics, speaking varied languages, following a variety of religions and spread across various ecological zones. Process of Sanskritization has affected them culturally, and other processes of displacement have made them a marginalized segment of the society. Since independence, various measures have been taken up at the national level for protecting the interests of the scheduled tribes of the country and particular attention has been given to tribal development in the different plan periods. Out of the total tribal population, tribal women add up to almost half. Like all other communities, development of status of tribal communities also to a large extent depends on the upliftment of the status of tribal women. The popular perception of the tribal women indicates two differing views. Some researchers are of the opinion that the tribal women enjoy

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higher social status compared to their non-tribal counterparts and some other studies indicate a low status for the tribal women. In fact, provisions made by the Constitution over the years have not made much difference to the status of tribal women. Their status is found to be lower than that of women belonging to the general population, Scheduled caste women and also lower than that of the status of Tribal men.

Objective:

The main objectives of this paper are -

1. To find out the social and economic status of tribal women in India.

2. To analyze the challenges faced by tribal women.

3. To suggest some strategies for handling the challenges faced by tribal women in India.

Methodology:

This is a theoretical research paper, where secondary information produced by different authors and researchers has been used. For obtaining necessary information, various books, journals as well as websites have been explored by the researcher which has been mentioned in the reference section.

Discussions:

Socio-economic status of tribal women in India:

The term status means position of a person in a society. Status has been defined by R.Linton (1936) as a position in a social system. The term role is closely linked to the notion of status. It refers to the behavior expected of people in a status. The status of a person or a group in a society is determined mainly by the educational status, health status, employment status and decision making ability. All these factors are closely related to one another. The higher level of education will generate health awareness, employment opportunities and decision making ability among these groups.

The status of women in a society depends to a large extent on the social structure and the type of society. In Indian social context, there is a predominance of patriarchal family structure were males predominate

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in all settings and social contexts. However, among many tribal communities, predominance of matriarchal families could be found. Contrary to patriarchal societies, status of women is found to be higher in matriarchal families. Various studies (Mitra, 2007; Burman Roy, 2012) have suggested that the Garo and Khasi tribes of the North East India assign relatively higher position to women due to the system of matrilineal descent, matrilocal residence and inheritance of property through the female line. But other tribal communities which follow patriarchal norms, the status of women is not as high as it is in matriarchal societies. For some other tribes, such as, Ho, Gond, the husband does not always enjoy a dominant role. Gond woman enjoys equal status with their male counterparts in many aspects of their social life. A study on the Naga women by Hutton (1921) indicated that they have substantial freedom and higher social status. This indicates that the status of tribal women are not same in all places, rather they vary according to the tribal group and the social structure. However, in tribal societies, tribal women are more important than women in any other social groups because tribal women are very hardworking and in almost all the tribal communities they participate in economic activities almost equally with men or works harder than men and the family economy and income also depend on women. Status is also determined by health conditions. The tribal groups health status is lower compared to that of the general population. They have high infant mortality rate, higher fertility rate, lack of awareness regarding diseases and health care, drinking water provisions, hygiene. In many parts of India tribal population suffers from chronic infections and water borne diseases, deficiency diseases. Incidence of infant mortality was found to be very high among some of the tribes. Malnutrition is common among them and it has affected the general health of the tribal children. It increases vulnerability to infection, and leads to chronic illness which sometimes may affect brain. Their health status is also related to economic and educational aspects. Their lack of ability to participate in the industrial economic activities of modern societies has deteriorated their living conditions. The tribals are mostly engaged in occupations which do not generate much income such as hunting, crafts making, agriculture. Industrialization and urbanization has brought about a change in the life and living of the tribals by uprooting them from their day to day activities and making them dependent on the vagaries of non tribals.

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The education level of the tribal population is low and formal education has made very little impact on tribal groups. The level of literacy among the tribals in most states in India is very low. Reservation policy of the Government has made some changes in the educational status. One of the main reasons for low level of literacy is their assigning relatively less significance on formal schooling. The school curriculum and education system do not create much interest in them, rather a much more practical based curriculum would be helpful for them. Moreover, since the tribes live in poverty they do not like to send their children to schools as they are considered to be extra helping hands for generating income.

Work participation rate among scheduled tribe women were higher in percentage as compared to others. Poor economic condition has a direct bearing on the degree of participation. Scheduled tribe workers are engaged in agricultural sector and in non gainful occupations. Considering the education, economic and health of the tribal women, their positions were not at all satisfactory. A study by Singh and Rajyalaxmi(1993), status of tribal women in terms of their demography, health, education and employment have been discussed. Since independence, various protections have been given to the tribal population by the Constitution of India. The study highlighted some aspects of tribal work; tribal women work equally with their male counterparts with lower pay, sexual exploitation. Tribal women don’t have property rights, they have lower literacy rate than scheduled caste and general population. Tribal women are not healthy and suffer from malnutrition and various diseases. The study highlighted the need to improve the status of tribal girl, to bring about change in the status of tribal woman.

Problems faced by tribal women

Most tribals faces a number of challenges which they need to overcome in order to improve their status in society. The researcher intends to discuss here the issues faced by tribal women in particular. Absence of any fix livelihood: Various literature studies reveal that although work participation among tribal women is higher compared to scheduled caste and general population but the livelihoods of the tribal people are neither permanent nor fixed. Most of them do not have a regular source of income, and they live below the poverty level. Tribal people residing in the rural areas pursue diverse low level activities for

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fulfilling their basic needs. Mostly they are engaged in agricultural activities. Apart from that, they are engaged in pastoral, handicrafts and at times as industrial labourers. Tribal women are

mainly not engaged in any kind of continuous work and much like their male counterparts are found to work in agriculture. A meager number of tribal men and women are engaged in government services. Economic conditions of households are related to other aspects of their life.

Lack of access to education: Most of the tribal women work outside their homes and are engaged in various activities. They work in order to earn money for their family. The women’s work involves daily labour, agricultural work. Even young children and girls go for work along with their mothers. Most of the time they do not go to school regularly or become drop outs from school. Even the parents in very poor families don’t always want to send the children to school because then their helping hands in work would be reduced. Effect of patriarchy could be strongly seen in most tribal groups and so whatever money women get from their work they give it to their husband and the husband very often spends the money on activities like drinking. Household works are done by the female members of the family. Household work involves cooking, cleaning, washing utensils and clothes, collecting fuel for cooking. The young girls who are studying in primary level in schools hardly learn anything in school and they don’t study at home also. The government has announced free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of 14 years, which nowadays encourage parents to send their children to schools with the hope that if their children receive proper education, then their conditions will improve. The children are given free school uniforms, books and mid day meals. However, the girls don’t continue school at a stretch. Sometimes they go to school, some other times they do not go to school and stay at home and go to work with their mothers and help their mothers at household work. As a result, they tend to forget what they have learned in school. After the girl child attains teenage the parents stop sending them to schools.

Poor condition of health: Lack of awareness about nutritional requirements mostly leaves the tribal women weak, anaemic and they suffer from various diseases. During pregnancy, special attention is required to be given to women otherwise that will affect the health of

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both the mother and child. Educational level, employment status, health status and decision making ability helps to measure the status of women in society. Women’s education has to be channelized to employment opportunities. This in turn, will increase the decision making ability of women. Women’s ability to communicate with other family members and to be able to convince them indicates a decision making ability of women. When the decision making ability is higher, women can have a higher status in the household.

Strategies for promoting a change in the status of tribal women in India

As it has been pointed out, low levels of economic activity and living conditions below the poverty level is a major problem faced by the tribal women. A practical way of dealing with this problem can be to provide skills and training to women which will help them in building up of self help groups. Awareness can be created through effort to empower these women. Various NGO’s can come forward to provide necessary trainings which will help them in becoming empowered and generate livelihood. Bridge trust an NGO has been working with tribal women in areas near Mumbai for generating empowerment for them. In an article by Nidheesh, the role of Self help groups in Kerala in empowering women have been highlighted where women worked to bring about a change in their identity at the local level and also beyond the local level. If the economic aspect is taken care off and awareness generated, then the tribal children can attend school which will help them to develop a strong base for their future. Preparing themselves for future lives will be possible through adequate education. It is essential to aware and motivate the tribal children the reasons why it is important to have education. It is not just for acquiring money but to improve their decision making ability.

The health of the tribal women is another aspect which needs attention because the tribal women work very hard and the income of the family depends on efforts of the tribal women. Among the tribal women, infant mortality rate is found to be higher as compared to national average, which is mainly due to their lack of awareness and facilities of child care. Tribal women suffer from nutritional deficiency. They have lower life-expectancy than the national average because they do not take the required amount of food and rest. From various reports

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it has been found out that, illiteracy is a cause of lack of awareness about health.

If economic, educational and health aspects are given adequate attention, then these factors may contribute to an increase in the decision making abilities of the tribal women. If they are convinced about the significance of financial institutions and if the banks extend their co-operation to these women then their security about financial matters will be enhanced. Moreover, if efforts are given to make women literate then that may help them to face the outside world in a confident manner, which in turn will enrich their lives.

Conclusion

In spite of various constitutional provisions and policies for the tribals, it is a hard reality that the tribal women still are lagging behind in many respects and they have to face many challenges. The study emphasized the need for tribal development in India. Their low level of economic activities, social backwardness, low level of literacy, poor health conditions makes it vital for a systematic process of tribal development. They work very hard and contribute significantly towards the economic condition of the family, but they are still in poverty mostly because no proper efforts are oriented towards them. During the plan periods, various programmes are taken up for the development of the Scheduled Tribe population and a lot of betterment has been already done, but still, a lot more requires to be done. The families need to have a sufficient income to enable them to cross the poverty levels. Since economic status determines other aspects of life and living conditions, it is of utmost importance. Education for tribal women is an essential aspect of development. Education is a vital instrument to bring about a change in the cultural norms and patterns of life of the tribal women and to change their outlook and made them economically independent. It would help them to organize themselves to analyze their situations and living conditions and be aware of their rights and responsibilities. Education will enable them to take up jobs so that they can improve their situation. Social and economic status of the scheduled tribe to a large extent depends on the educational attainment. Educated women will be able to face the present day society better than earlier times. In the present context, no one can remain completely isolated, but they are influenced by the growth of modern society and culture. Government is providing a lot of support

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and grant for the education of Tribal students. This will help to increase the literacy rate and it will lead to the right way to development. The health status of the tribals is explored to assess their awareness regarding their health. Sometimes they lack the essential nutrients. Many times they suffer from various diseases as there is a lack of health and hygiene awareness. Thus increasing the literacy rate and providing opportunities for gainful employment for tribal women will be instrumental in bringing about a change in the status of tribal women in India and to handle to challenges successfully.

References

1) Census of India, 2001 [Online]. Available from

http://censusindia.gov.in/(S(qngpn355boehkcaa2zw0qmrl))/Census_And_You/scheduled_castes_and_sheduled_tribes.aspx [Accessed 8th October 2014]. 2) The Constitution of India [Online]. Available from http://india.gov.in/my-government/constitution-india/constitutionindia-full-text. 3) Ministry of tribal affairs. Government of India.[Online]. Available from http://tribal.nic.in/Content/DefinitionpRrofiles.aspx [Accessed 18th November 2014]. 4) Chanda, Anuradha. Tribal Women. In Bagchi, Jadodhara(ed.) The Changing Status of Women in West Bengal, 1970 5) 7th Five Year Plan. Vol.2 Socio-economic programmes for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. [Online]. Available from http://planningcommission.nic.in. 6) Status of Women in Tribal Society of India – Essay [Online]. Available from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/society/status-of-women-in-tribal-society-of-india. 7) Bhasin, Veena. Status of Tribal Women.Available from http://nsdl.niscair.res.in. 8) Burman, Roy J.J., 2012. ‘Status of Tribal Women in India’, Mainstream, no. 12, Accessed from http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article.

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