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Beyer, Barry K., Ed.; Penna, Anthony N., Ed.Concepts in the Social Studies.National Council for the Social Studies, Washington,D.C.BULL-4571101p.National Council for the Social Studies, 1201Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036($2.25)

EDRS Price MF-$0.65 BC Not Available from EDRS.*Concept Formation, *Concept Teaching, CriticalThinking, *Carriculum Development, ElementaryGrades, *Fundamental Concepts, GeoqtaphyInstruction, History Instruction, Inductive Methods,Inquiry Training, Secondary Grades, *Social Studies,Spiral Curriculum*Illinois curriculum Program

ABSTRACTThese selections were chosen to give practical,

understandable answers to several questions concerning conceptteaching. WLit are concepts? Why teach them? How can concepts betaught? what are the implications of teaching? Here concept teachingimplies: 1) developing the learners ability to conceptualize; 2)evolving lore complex conceptualization; 3) teacher articulation ofconcepts, and being aware of previously learned concepts; 41developing inquiry-teaching strategies; 5) evaluating teachingthrough the learners concept application; and, 6) using many types ofmedia and personal experiences. With changes in the framework of thetraditional social studies classroom and curriculum using sequentialtopically organized courses or a spiral curriculum organization, aconcept-oriented curriculum can be facilitated. It is uecessatl,ho4ever, to limit the number of concepts to be learned, and to limitthe amount of content for the purpose of depth studies. In this wayconcept learning can be facilitated at any grade level. Parts of theSyracuse University Social Studies Curriculum and the IllinoisCurriculum are reproduced for illustration. (VLW)

Conceptsin the

SocialStudies

\oil (1 \ifti

Edited By

Barry K. BeyerAnthony N. Penna

Bulletin No. 45

NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE SOCIAL STUDIES

Conceptsin theSocial Studies

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Edited by

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Anthony N. Penns

I/ IL DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION 8 WELFAREOFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO.DUCED LKACTLY AS RECEIVD FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION OFIIGINATiNG IT POINTS OP VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU.CATION POSITION OR POLICY

BuiltitIn 45

NATIONAL

COUNCIL

FOR THE

SOCIAL

STUDIES

An Affiliate ofNational Education Association

1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W.Washington, IX C. 20036

Price $2.25

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tj

NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE SOCIAL STUDIES

PresidcntJohn JarolimekUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, Washington

President-ElectJean FairWayne State UniversityDetroit, Michigan

VicePresidentHarris L. DameKent State UniversityKent, Ohio

Executive SecretaryMerrill F. HartshornWashington, D.C.

Associate SecretaryT. Marcus GillespieWashington, D.C.

Assistant SecretaryMalcolm L. SearleWashington, D.C.

Editor, Social EducationDaniel P.oselleWashington, D.C.

Officers for 1971

Directors

Ralph W. Cordier

Charlotte A. Crabtree

Dorothy L. Dunn

Shirley H. Engle

William B. Fink

John McAulay

Howard Mehlinger

Donald William Oliver

James P. 3haver

Lee H. Smith

Ronald 0. Smith

Jean Tilford

Publications Committee

Stanley P. Wronski, chairman

C. Benjamin Cox

Nelda Davis

Joachim R. Schneider

James P. Shaver

Huber M. Walsh

The National Council for the Social Studies is a National Affiliate of theNational Education Association of the Urited States. Membership is open toany person or institution interested in teaching the social studies. Eachmember receives the yearbook, a subscription to SOCIAL EDUCATION, andoccasional other publications. Dues are ;12.00, For further information,write to the Executive Secretary, 1201 Sixteenth Street, NAY., Washington,D.C. 20036.

Cop) right 01971 by the NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE SOCIAL STUDIESLibrary of Congress Catalog Card Number 76-150355

ii

Foreword

One of the characteristics of nearly all of themajor efforts to reform social studies education of the past decade hasbeen the continuing concern for those basic organizing ideas that lieat the heart of the substantive components of the social studies cur-riculum. This concern has gone in many directions and has taken avariety of forms: the search for and identification of concepts; theeffort to explore various dimensions of concepts; the attempt to searchout the ways children form, attain, and extend concepts; the sequencingof conceptual learnings on a continuum of complexity; and the experi-mentation with teaching strategies that are most useful in helpinglearners develop an understanding of concepts. The term "concept"itself has been the object of a considerable amount of inquiry, vvithsome disagreement among &uthos concerning its precise meaning.

This bulletin brings together the thinking of s me of the mostprominent scholars and teachers who have addressed tl.mselves inrecent years to concepts and conceptual approaches. The names of theauthors will be familiar to readers who have an acquaintance withrecent professional literature. The essays are based on sound scholar-ship and at the same time are written in a way as to make their contentimmediately applicable to ctirricultnn development and teachingthe social studies. The four sections of the bulletin speak directly tofundamental questions relating to concept teaching: What are con-cepts? Why teach concepts? How can concepts be taught? What arc theimplications of concept teaching? Certainly a clarification of thesebask questions should contribute immensely to improved socialstudies education.

Writing for the publications of professional organizations carries,as does .ue, its own reward. Nonetheless, the National Council forthe Social Studies wishes to express thanks and appreciation to theeditors, &cry K. Boyers and Anthony Pcnna, and to the authors whocontributed to this 45th Bulletin of the Council.

John Jarolimek, PresidentNational Council for the Sociai Studies

Introduction

here has been much talk in recent yearsabout teaching concepts in social studies. Yet, there has been littleaction. Despite all that has been said and written on concept-teaching,only a few constructive attempts have been made to teach studentsconceptually. As a result, little purposeful teaching of concepts takesplace in our social studies classrooms today.

Many reasons account for this failure. Chief among these reasons,however, is she fact that much of what has been said and written aboutconcepts and concept-teaching confuses rather than clarifies. Before wecan engage in meaningful concept-teaching we must understand pre.cisely what it is we are trying to accomplish. This means that we mustdevelop clearly defined answers to at least four vital questions:

I. What are concepts?2. Why teach concepts?S. flow can concepts be taught?4. What are the implications of concept-teaching?

We have organized the selections included here to deal with thesefour questions and thus perhaps cut through some of the vagueness thatexists regarding concept-teaching in social studies. From the countlessexisting reports, articles, and statements by researchers, educationists,social scientists and teachers, we have selected those which in our judgment offer the most useful definitions of concepts, the cl.arest rationalefor teaching concepts, some practical teaching strategies, and discussionof some of the more significant implications of concept-teaching forstudents, teachers, and schools alike.

We have made no attempt here to interpret these selections or toexplain what they mean, for, as Neil Postman and Charles Wcingartnerhave already pointed out so well (Teaching As a Subversive Activity,New York: The Delacorte Press, 1969), making sense out of what ishere meaning-making is properly the responsibility of the readerhimself.

iv

We have, however, done several things to facilitate this meaning-making. The selections which follow are arranged in such a way as torelate to the questions outlined above. Moreover, they are arrangedin sequence so that each builds on or reinforces or sometimes chal-lenges those that precede.

The selections included here are not the only sources on concepts andconcept-teaching, of course. Nor are they especially theoretical. Theyare, in our judgment, however, quite practical because the purposeof this publication is to deal in readily understandable terms with someof the practical questions about concept-teaching that bother mostsocial studies teachers. If we have chosen well, perhaps the ideas pre-

sented help clarify the nature of concepts and concept-teachingand suggest ways by which the teaching of concepts can become areality in our social studies classrooms.

Barry K. BeyerAnthony N. Penna

Carnegie-Mellon UniversityDecember 1970

Contents

Foreword iii

Introduction iv

PART I What Are Concepts? 1

3 Concepts, Concepts, Concepts RICHARD F. NEWTON

6 Developing Geographic Concepts ZOE A. THRALLS

8 A Concept of DecisionMaking BARRY K. BEYER

11 Concepts in History ILLINOIS CURRICULUM PROGRAM

14 Social Science Concepts the Classroom VERNA S. FANCETT

17 Major Concepts ;or Soria! Studies SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY

SOCIAL STUDIES CURRIGCLUM CENTER

24 Selected Social Studies Concepts EDWIN FENTON, JOHN M. Goonand MITCHELL P. EICHIENBERG

PART TI Why Teach Concepts? 29

30 Concept as Ordering PAUL F. BRANDWEIN

34 Is a Concept Ever Right? LAWRENCE METCALF

36 The Functions of Concepts in History' ILLINOIS CURRICULUM

PROGRAM

39 The Role of Concepts in Learning JERoME S. BRUNER

Vi

PART III How Can ConceptsBe Taught? 43

45 Conceptual Teaching in the Social Studies BERTHA H. DAVIS

49 How Concepts Are Built GERTRUDE 1VHIPPLE

51 The Formation of Concepts JOHN B. CARROLL

56 Guidance in Concept Discover), Ro3ERT M. GAGNE

58 Development of Concepts ZOE A. THRALLS

61 Teaching Concepts in the Classroom BARRY K. BEYER

67 Students Develop the Concept Imperialism II LINOIS

CURRICULUM PROGRAM

76 How Concepts Develop VERNA S. FANCETT

PART IV What Are the Implications ofConceptTeaching? 81

82 Beginning Teachers' Problems in Developing Social StudiesConcepts AGNES M. S. INN

8G Sonic linplicat:ons of ConceptTeaching BARRY K. BEYER and

ANTHONY N. PENNA

For Further Study 91

Iii

PART I

What Are Concepts?

Before we can engage in teaching concepts wemust clarify precisely what a concept is. The selections that followattempt to generate by definition and example a more precise meaningfor the term concept. A practical definition of this term should evolvefrem these selections.

In the first selection Richard F. Newton deplores the present stateof confusion about the use of the term concept. He cites definitionsby psychologists and social scientists, however, which may eliminatemuch of the present ambiguity. He concludes that their definitionspoint out the hierarchical and interrelated nature of many concepts.Selections which follow use concepts from different social science disciplines to illustrate the nature and meaning of concepts. Barry K. Beyerdiagrams a concept of decision-making in order to illustrate the char-acteristics of concepts in general. Zoe A. Thralls shows how a conceptclassifies the common features of objects and occurrences. An excerptfrom a report of the Illinois Department of Public Ins ruction describesthe nature of open-ended and closed concepts from history. The selec-tion by Verna S. Fancett summarizes the outstanding features ofconcepts.

ThP. remainiii6 two selections are excerpted from the work of IOcurriculum centers. The report of the Syracuse Social Studies Cur-riculum Center identifies ano describes concepts from the various socialsciences which may be used as a basis for orgarizing social studies in.strurtion. The staff of the Carnegie-Mellon University Social StudiesCenter, whose report concludes this section, not only identifies anddescribes selected social science concepts but also classifies them according to their utility for learning. Identification, description, and classi-fication of concepts are essential prerequisites for meaningful rinceptteaching.

1 9

RICHARD F. NEWTON

Concepts, Concepts, Concepts

It seems that periodically certain bits of jargonsweep through the field of education with the fervor of a raging forestfire. Such was the case with the phrase, "progressive education." The"child-centered curriculum" was, and still is, twisted and distorted tojustify many questionable practices. To paraphrase a line from MyFair Lady: Educators don't care what they do exactly so long as theypronounce it correctly. Today we once more are adopting a new wordfor our vocabulary concept. One need only look at some of the newteacher's editions of classroom texts to appreciate how acceptable thisword has oerome. In most cases the word is used with an almost ris-tematic ambiguity, and is rapidly reaching the point at which it willbecome almost useless for any meaningful discourse. Before be readsthat point, however, ce should make a determined attempt to rescueit from the linguistic morass into which educators too frequent}' wander.

Since psychologists are quite often rather precise in their use of thelanguage, it might be well to start with them. Robert M. Gagne in arecent article writes that "... concepts are prior to principles and inthis sense are simpler than principles. To learn a principle, one musthave previously learned the concept of 'licit it is composed."'

Jerome S. Bruner works from another approach and states. "Theworking definition of a concept is the network of inference; that are ormay be set into play by an act of categorization. "' He seems by theword network to define a concept as a relationshi' rather than anentity unto itself....

11)ron C. Massialas and C. Benjamin Cox in a recent book are quickto point out the misuse of the word concept in educational literature.They go on to state that "...concer may legitimately :der to a logicalstructure which groups objects or phenomena within one class or

Richard F. 1:csetoti, "Concepts, Concepts Concepts." in Social Eduration32:41.42. Janus') 1968.

3 10

--...70-

4 CONCEPTS IN TIM SOCIAL STUDIES

category."' The words "logical structure" may easily be interchangedwith Bruner's "network of inferences." In sociology the concept "socialstratification" may Veridically be called a network of inferences which,in turn with other concepts, leads to the formulation of the principlethat all human behavior h ultimately predictable. In this sense, "Aconcept . .. is a cognitive al straction."

Nfassialas and Cox use the term concept from the point of view ofa social scientist. Herbert Feigle continues in this same vein, butclarifies it a bit more by explaining that "... the social scientists, likethe natural scientists, strive to discover highlevel theories which willexplain many facts with a few simple concepts."'

This process might be applied to the various postulates underlyingthe theoretical construct of a democracy. Underlying the basic concept,one might have an elected head and a representative assembly. Thesethen become the facts, or pieces, of our network of inferences, whichlead to the concept of a democracy.

McLendon is rather clear on this point and writes, "A conceptclassifies particulars that have relatable features, for example, moun-tains, multiple causations, democracies, trades, elections, and culturaltransmissions."' That is, if we find that government "X" has the par-ticulars of a known democracy and that the particulars of government"X" relate in the same pattern as those of the known democracy, thenwe may say that our government "X" is a democracy. This is to saythat the particulars fulfill our criteria; they form the network whichwe call the concept of democracy.

At this point it should become clear that concepts differ in thesize of the areas they embrace. While some cover a wide spectrum,others cover a relatively small field. It is not proper, however, to inferthat there is any relationship betweeit the magnitude of a concept andthe complexity of it. In effect, it becomes even more complex whenone realizes that a concept may be part of another even larger concept.What one eventually has is a hierarchy of concepts, all of which maybe inter-dependent.

Returning to our example of a democracy, it is dear that a democracyis a concept, but an executive head of state is more than a fact, per se;it, too, is a concept. The sante may be said for a judicial or legislativebranch of government. The concept that we call a democracy is theinterrelations between these branches, or functions. Thus one can itso inclined, literally create a flow-chart of concepts under our originalconcept democracy. . . .

The term concept takes on a %cry limited definition when used inthe context that we have been using it, a definition that is quite

11

Concepts, Concepts, Concepts 5

different from the sidewalk usage the term too often receives. The"network of inferences" definition seems to be the one most widelyaccepted. But even with this, problems exist; namely, no one is clear

on the idea of a hieraulty of concepts. It is too easy to infer from thegenera! literature that all concepts are on the same plane of sophisti.cation. Th;s is simply not true. Some are very simple and may becomprehended by anyone, while others defy explan Ition. The problemis t/tat too many people outside of the tight world of psychology andscholarly education have picked up the word concept and misused itto the point of absurdity, ,

FOOTNOTESiRobett M. Cagne, "The Learning of Concepts." The School Reriem, 75:195,

Autumn, 1965.Jcrcme S. Bruner. A Study of Thinking. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

1956. p. 224.a Byron C. Massialas and C. Benjamin Cox. Inquiry in Sorial Studies. NCV, York:

kfeCraw-Hill Company, 1966. p. 47.4 Ibid.8 I ru ing Morrissett, editor, Confefits and Structures i,t the New Social Science

Curricula. West Lafayette, Md.: Social Science Educati. n Consortium. 1966. p. 19

Jonathon C. McLendon. Social Studies in Secondary Education. New York: The

Macmillan Company, 1965. p. 48.

113

ZOE A. THRALLS*

Developing GeographicConcepts

the term concept may be applied to a class orgioup of objects, tccurrences, situations and/or ideas which. havecertain qualities or characteristics in common. Thus, we have aconcept when we recognize a group of objects, occurrences, situationsand ideas which have a resemblance or common elements. To such agroup we give a name or label. The name or label refers to the com-mon elements or characteristics and ignores the details in which theobject, the situation, or the idea differ. For instance, the term riverrefers to a large natural flowing stream of water. Specific rivers suchas the Congo and the Mississippi differ in details, but both are rivers;that is, both are ''large natural flowing streams of water." Both havemany characteristics common to all rivers. The term "metal" or"metallic" is tl: name or label that we may give to all objects whichhave certain common characteristics, although they may vary from apenny to a stove, or even a mountain of iron. Honesty, interdepcndence, or conservation arc all concepts or certain groups of abstractideas.

Cronback, in his Educational Psychology, says: "A concept has twoaspects. It is, first, a classification nr discrimination. The person recognizes what events or objects the concept applies to. Second, it is a setof associations. Once a thing has been classified, we call up manyassociations about t' _.(1;., .. Js the egret a bird? If so, then it probablylays eggs, has feathers, makes a nest, follows migration habits and hasa mind less kccn titan a n.,,,,mal.'

In geography, for instance, if 1 couiLl, s,i ii cl.§ 1 ;bit is a highplateau, we tecall du, 13rious asso-iations we hate with the term"platc-au," it is an extensive, warty-level arc t of elevated land. It maybe surrounded by n, ,, stains or bordered by steep scarps on one or

From boe A Thralls, "111, Importance of Descloping Geogiayhic Concepts,journnl of 6,,,pephy, .plembes, c960, /keynoted with pcimission,

6

Developing Geographic Concepts 7

more sides. It is probably arid or semi-arid. The population is usuallyrelatively sparse. Some questions also ar:,,e in our minds (What typeof plateau is intermontane, p;edmont or continental?) as we tryto extend our concept of "Tibet as a plateau." The moment that weare able to classify an object, event, or situation, we have a basis forthinking about it and extending its meaning to us....

FOOT NOTE1 lice J. Cronback, Edurraional Psychology, Harcourt, Brace and Joranovich, Inc.,

New Yoik, 1954, p. 281.

15

BARRY K. BEYER*

A Concept of Decision-Making

Aconcept is a mental image of something.The "something" may be anything a concrete object, a type of be-havior, an abstract idea. This image has two bask dimensions theindividual components of the concept as well as the rel..tionships ofthese components to each other and to the whole.

One way to describe a concept is by a wed or phrase which conjuresup the appropriate image. War is a word which suggests a particularmental image about a type of violence or conflict. Dog suggests amental image about an entirely different concept. Indian and cultureand decision.:naking and spatial interaction suggest still other concepts.The list is almost unending.

Concepts, however, are not mere words themselves. Words are onlylabels used to suggest concepts. Because they are so imprecise andusually mean different things to different people, words cannotthoroughly' describe a specific concept. Neither can simple dernitions.Concepts are much more complex than that.

A concept of decision-making, for instance, is a complicated inter-relationship of many elements. A mental image of decision-makingmight be diagrammed as follows:'

Factorsshapingthedecision

hocot oflaa.tingrIrci iont

From Bart). K. Acw, Inquiry in the Social Sniffier Cias7own: A Si rairgy forTeaching. Columbus, 0/tin: Chades E. NIctt ill Publishing Co, 19;1.

8

Concept of Decision-Making 9

What this image suggests is that when a political scientist thinks aboutdecision-making, he thinks about who makes the decision, what factorsare considered in making the decision, how the decision is made andthe resulting decision itself. The combination of these four elements

forms a concept of decision-making.Yet each of these elements is itself a composite of a number of other

elements. 'When, for example, this political scientist thinks of a"decision-maker," he is concerned about its individual traits (it maybe a person, a group or an institution) and its background, training,value system and ideology. His conception may be represented asfollows:

ValueSystem

When he considers the "factors shaping decisions," tie may think aboutthe information used, the influence of outside events, the expectationsof the decision-maker's clientele or constituents, the ideology of thoseinvolved as well as their frames of reference and the goals of theinstitution represented.

Furthermore, when to, thinks about each of ffese items he probablyconsiders even other more specific aspects of each of them. For example,he would most certainly include in the category of "information used"such things as sources of this information, types of information (such ashard data, personal opinion or advice, and precedent) and the variousalternatives availab '.e. In !his some way, each of the elements whichconstitute this particular concept of decision- making may similarlyconsist of a number of other interrelated factors. Taken together these

1G

IC CONCEPTS IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES

constitute a concept of decision-making that may be diagrammed asin Figure

OutsideErents

InformationUteed

nee ili1171.fa cr1r/olyiniatelerrei,ion

Instil:11G ma!God-,

triCeltrION.SI.%KING

twirl rrner rationor ey

Used

r

Nitro, oraLc

derition

Pro,. el..roire,Ort dererions

Guido.; Auks

Informal

Figure is A Concept of DecisionMaking

This diagram represents a mental image of a concept the conceptof decision-making. It is not the only way such a concept may beimagined. Different people might conceptualize it differently becauseof the way they go about it, the questions they ask while they do itthe nature of the data used and the degree of intellectual inquiry theyemploy. Some might not include all the elements included here.Others may well include many more or quite different elements.Nevertheless, this i: one way to conceptualize decisionmaking.

FOOTNOTEI Bawd on a iet of analytical questions reported in Edwin Fenton et at, A High

School Social c.dies Curriculum for Able Students: Final Report of UDEProject 115 041 ar.d 11.292. Pittsburgh: Social Studies Curriculum Center, Carnegie-Mellon University, 1969. p. 28.

ILLINOIS CURRICULUM PROGRAM

Concepts in History*

Aconcept consists of the uses that are madeof a term or verbal sign. Let us consider some historical concepts, for inthis way we shall illustrate more concretely what we mean by "concept."For example, let us take the concept democracy and inspect some ofthe uses that are made of it. The term "democracy" is frequently usedto refer to a form of government in which political power rests ulti-mately in the hands of the people, i.e., the governed select those whogovern them. Thns, this use of the term "democracy" contributes tothe formation of the concept democracy.

But the term "democracy" is also used in other ways. It sometimespoints out features or characteristics in a society which emphasize thedevelopment of individual persons, i.e., free communication of ideas,free interaction cmong individuals and among groups, equality ofeducational opportunity, widespread participation in the public de-cision-making process, and equality of economic opportunity. Thesefurther uses of the term contribute to the concept democracy, and it isin this fashion that concepts grow. In sum, a concept consists of theseveral uses that are made of a term, and as old uses are extended andnew uses are assigned, a concept is broadened. Moreover, as a termbegins to be employed for multiple purposes, the concept develops afamily of uses possessing both similarities and differences... ,

The view that the world of reality presents itself to us already neatlyclassified is erroneous, particularly in regard to historical concepts.The world of reality does not so present itself; it is we who do theclassifying. That there is nothing inherently necessary in the ways inwhich we classify is demonstrated by the fact that some systems ofclassification serve our purposes better than others. Consequently, if

From Fred P. /Jams, cd , Dewloping Concepts A Study in the Teaching ofHistory, The Curriculum Research Series, Bulletin No, G.TWO-A, Illinois De-partment of Public Instruction, 195t. pp. 1-4.

I I

12 CONCEPTS IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES

one wishes to claim that concepts are precise and definite, he will haveto find more convincing arguments for his claim.

The inexactness or vagueness of historical concepts is manifestedeven in the most stringent use of historical terms. For example, theconcept democracy sometimes includes reference to a form of govern-ment and sometimes, to certain features of societal life. In the futureit might include meanings or uses growing out of changes in the con-ditions of living. Wherein are the exact boundaries for the conceptdemocracy? It is our conclusion that there are no exact boundaries forthe uses in this concept (and for the uses in most historical concepts).

Historical Concepts are OpenEnded

Most empirical concepts are open-ended or essentially incompletebecause it is not possible to formulate a complete description of them.There are two reasons for this fact. First, no matter how many featuresone may state about an object or event, there is always something morethat can be said about it. For example, new techniques of observationmay be formulated which would enable us to observe some propertiesof an object or event not previously observed. Second, there is alwaysthe possibility that current terms will be used to refer to emergent setsof events. New usages of "democracy' and "imperialism" are a casein point. Open-endedness as a fundamental characteristic of empiricalconcepts may therefore be defined as that inexactness or incompletenessof observation and description ti hick yields no precise boundaries forthe use of a concept.

There are, however, cases where something approaching "closed"concepts is attainable even in history. Consider the concept treason.As defined in the Constitution of the United States, "Treason againstthe United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, orin adhering to their Enemies, giving Olen) aid and comfort." Doesconstitutionally defined treason provide us with a complete descrip-tion of the concept? It does only if the concept is employed in likecontexts. For example, for the purposes of classifying certain acts ofAmerican citizens against the United States in time of war, it does pro-vide us with the specific and definite boundaries of its use. However,for other purposes, such as classifying the acions of American Com-munists in time of peace, it does not provide us with such definiteboundaries.

Some historical concepts are, therefore, like theoretical concepts.When they are employed according to their stipulated use, they func-tion as closed concepts. However, in historical studies these closed

15,

Concepts in History 13

concepts differ from theoretical concepts. They are not defined interms of other concepts within a theoretical system, and they are notdefined for the purposes of explaining and predicting generalizations.These closed historical concepts, like most empirical concepts, are usedfor the purposes of describing particular phenomena in our world of

experience.In effect, most historical concepts are stated in the vocabulary of

everyday language and are used for the purposes of ordinary com-munication. This is a fundamental reason why most historical con-cepts are open concepts. The subsequent growth of closed concepts inhistory appears to be largely dependent upon the formulation of asystem of specialized, abstract concepts and the development of a cor-respk,nding technical vocabulary.

20

VERNA S. FANCETT*

Social Science Conceptsand the Classroom

The staff of the (Syracuse University SocialStudies) Curriculum Center has used as a working definition (of con-cept) the following composite statement drawn from the literature.

A concept isan individual's own way of making meaning of things he has

experienced.a mental image which assists a person in classifying his experi-

ences, and which continually changes as his experiences accunlate.

an abstraction or general idea in the mind of a person whichrepresents a class or group of things or actions having certainqualities or characteristics in common.

a synthesis of a number of things an individual has experiencedand conclusions he has drawn about his experiences.

represented by a verbal symbol which indicates the real contentof the insights and meanings the word evokes in the mind of anindividual.

Although the reader may not completely agree with this definitionof concept he is asked to accept the above statement for the purposesof the present discussion. It is expected that the way in which theCenter has applied the term will become increasingly evident as theillustrative list of concepts is examined, and as the units prepared foruse by students are read.

The Center has identified three types of concepts:Substantive conceptsValue concepts

Concepts of methodsFrom Verna S. Fancctt et al, Soria! Science Concepts in the Cbrisroorrr, Spacuse

Unimsity, Soda/ Studics Curriculum Ccntcr, 1968, pp. 4-s.

14

Concepts and the Classroom 15

Illustrative concepts were chosen under each of these three cate-gories, and outlines to define them were developed. Substantive con-cepts selected include such items as sovereignty, scarcity, and culture.Value concepts include loyalty, dignity of man, and freedom and equal-ity. Illustrative of the concepts of method are cause and effect, thegeographical approach, and the historical method. . . .

Concepts

Concepts are abstractions which refer to a class or group of objects,all of which have characteristics in common. Concepts apply to a num-ber of related facts and observations, thus having a degree of gener-ality that facts do not have. Concepts do not refer to single objects....

Concepts may refer to physical or material objects, or they may refer tomore abstract ways of thinking about non-material phenomena or ari-tudes. Examples of the first type of concept are "mountain," "plateau,""desert." On an even simpler level a child may have a concept of "dog,"but it has been said that the concept of "dog" can be reached only afterthe student has seen, felt and heard many dogs. A concept on stillhigher level would be "animal."

'Words are not concepts. They may represent concepts when theyrefer to a class or category of ideas or things. Concept formation is,therefore, quite distinct from mere fact learning; it is also distinctfrom the committing of a definition to memory.

Concepts of the non-material t)pe represent a greater degree of ab-straction than the examples given abc,ve, and concepts of this typeabound in the social studies. "Republic' is a concept, and "govern-ment" is another of a higher level or abstraction. In the same -..ty thecot,cept "city" and "urbanism" or "metropolitanism" reflect differentlevels of abstraction. The highest types of abstractions are found inconcepts such as democracy, justice, liberty, rights and responsibility.Although these concepts cannot be seen as physical e,bjects, they lizvemeanings which have grown out of human experience.

Concepts are built as the learner is able to develop a general ideaon the basis of his own experiences. No one ran "give" a concept tothe learner; lie must develo? it for himself. Concept development ex-tends throughout life as one g: ins (or accumulates} a more matureunderstanding on the basis of his experiences, vicarious or direct. Con-sider, for example, the way the concept "power" expands as one'sexperiences accumulate.

Concepts provide short cuts which make it possible for us to thinkand to communicate with cads other. 1 hey help us to organize info:tr

NI)lts 'I. Plats. "(:,,ncipli and the cria/ triwoion, 1apum1963, p. 21.

9

16 CONCEPTS IN THE SOCIAL. STUDIES

ration so that data take on new meaning as they are related to eachother.

It would be neither practical nor possible to attempt to draw up acomplete list of the concepts we attempt to build in the field of thesocial studies. What we can do is to agree upon some concepts thatneed to be built progressively throughout the student's experience inthe social studies. Other concepts are overarching in nature and applyto the total educational experience of each student. Value concepts. forexample, can and should be built into all subjectmatter areas.

. . . the concepts selected by the Syracuse University CurriculumCenter for emphasis includez

SUBSTANTIVE CONCEPTS:

SovereigntyConflict its origin,

expression, and resolutionThe Inchistrialtration-

Urbanization SyndromeSi:cid-id/ado!)Compromise and AdjustmentComparative AdvantagePowerMorality ChoiuScarcity

VA! UE CONCEPTS:

Dignity of FinEmpathyLoyalty

Asrrcts or Mittion:Historical Methrx1 and

Point of v'iewThe Ceogi aphica I ApploacnCausationObservation, Classification,

and MeasurementAnalysis and Synthesis

Input-OutputSavingThe .ModifiedMarket EconomyHabitatCultureinstitutionSocial ControlSocial ChangeInteraction

Government by Consentof the CoNemed

Freedom and Equality

Question answerObjectivitySkepticismImetpretationEvaluationEvidence

%%c Ktsc ahnnl this list b) adding In it all the concepts idculircd by theproject ai itolitd in Roy Pike I. al, 3 ajor Coml. f 7s f or Soria! Studies,Syracik: Social Studit.s r. I96i. pp. S

2

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITYSOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM CENTER

Major Conceptskr Social Studies*

(The Social Studies Curriculum Centee at Syracuse University hasidentified and described a number of concepts that may be taught inthe social studies classroom.) The 31 identified concepts have beenAnther broken down as IS Substantive Concepts, 5 Value Concepts andII Aspects of Method. . . Brief descriptive statements have b,scrtdrawn to add definition to the concept titles. (Following are briefdescriptions of several of these concepts:)

It is impossible for any inclivilual,party, or nation to dictate life to such an extent as to assure totalacquiescence to all its desires by all outside forces. (:ompromise,adjustment, and resolution of conflicts by other means become anessential part of facing reality.

IVIten conflicts arise there often comes a time when advantages mustbe weighed. It ev,:ti becomes ad% isabIL 10 permit an opponent to obtainadvantages in resources, time, geographical position, morale, or publicopinion in return for ad% stages considered of greater value in gaininga final objective.

firing the Scant() NVorld War, the Allies decided it was to theiradvantage to ship copper (indirectly) to `;erniziny in return for desperately needed ball bearings. China was a major source for tungsten steel(requited for minor plate and armor piercing shells) timing theKorean %Var. On the basis of comparatke zidvantage, the British soldtrucks to the Chinese in morn for shipments of tungsten.

From Ru) Frict ft nt, Major ("warps for Soria, Studio. SIrPcusc: SocialCU///0/71071 Cliettr, 39:6. pp. 4, A, II. IR. 2121, 28-29. SO.

"1 his is a r(pristlitatke sOtoioa of the ("maps 1,,,(11 in this l(pott. For afull des riprion of t!or complete lit of corm pt, xt pp 31 A this rcpott.

17


Comparative advantage extends from the child deciding whether totrade a sand bucket for a sand shovel while constructing a castle onthe beach to decisions regarding the exchange of prisoners of war.Without an understanding of this concept, a citizen is iilequipped toface a world in which no one ever does achieve "total victory." Stu-(' its should understand this concept in order to appreciate the needfor long range consideration of goals and methods....

Habitat and Its SignificanceEcosystems are produced by areal associations of interconnected

physical and biotic processes, without the interference of man. Thereare five groups of physical and biotic processes involved in formingthese areal associations: (1) surface features; (2) climate; (8) water;(4) b:ota; and (5) soils. Each of these elements forms a subsystem ofrelated parts, and each could be made the subject of a book or acourse of study by itself.

A habitat is an ecosystem that has been more r s modified bythe presence of man. Ever since man has occupied the earth it hasbeen subject to changes made by human action. These changes werepartly carried out by plan, and partly were unexpected products ofhis action. Primitive man set fires to aid his hunt, and these have hada profound effect on the pattern of vegetation.

Nine major habitats can be defined. Each is an areal associationof inter-connec ;)Itysical and biotic features; but each occupies aparticular place in the concept of global patterns. Eight are relatedto the pattern of climate; the ninth includes high inountains whichinsert an element of irregularity into the global patterns of habitat.

Habitats are significant, not only because they have in patt beencreated by human action, but also because the' provide the "natural"surrounding of man's o«upance of the eat dr. Any human society, if itis to survive for long. must form a workable connection with the earth'sresources. The habitat is the resource base of man's societies. It is ofthe utmost importance, then, to develop a valid concept regarding th'significance to man of the features of habitat. The student should notgo out into life believing all his actions and his culture are determinedby his physical t,ntround:ngs, and that he cannot alter this relat:oaship....

CultureIn the popular meaning culime generally refers to the finer things

in life such as art, literature, music, and philosophy. Culture in thisrespect is related to personal refinement. The "cultured" individual is

Major Concepts for Social Studies 19

expected "to prefer Bach to bebop and Beethoven to boogie woogie; heknows the difference between the philosopher Plato and the planetPluto; his palate presumably prefers crepes suzette to corned beef andcabbav, and French champagne to corn liquor; and he would ratherread Shakespeare in blank verse than Spillane in what could be mis-taken for prose."' However in sociological usage, and the manner inwhich we shall utilize it in this paper, culture is a much broaderconcept than personal refinement. As Dr. Paul Meadows has pointedout, the -e are now about 257 different definitions of the word culture,each placing emphasis in a particular direction. We shall use thefollowing definition:

Culture is the way of living which any society develops to meet its funda-mental needs for survival, perpetuation of the species, and the orderingof social organizations, learned modes of behavior, knowledge, beliefs,and all other activities which are developed in human association.Culture then is man's contribution to his environment'

It is everything men think, do, and have as members of society. Itshould be noted that culture, for analytical purposes, is often dividedinto its material and nonmaterial parts. Material culture comprisesthe physical objects of the culture, including the ways in which theyare used. Nonmaterial cu'ture consists of values, beliefs, ideas, customs,ideologies, and social structure. Although the nonmaterial aspects ofculture are less tangible, they' are often the most important. In theAmerican culture, the automobile is part of the material culture,while the belief in "equality of opportunity" is part of the nonmaterialculture.

An undet standing of each individual as a part, immersed in a sea of"culture" from birth to death, may help many young people to appre-ciate the relationship of the society around droll to themselves asindividuals. This could help many youths to avoid blindly strikingout in all ditections in rebellion against we invisible pressures of theirculture.

Social Change

Change is a neutral process; it may be "progress" or "decline"depending on the perspective of the observer. It should be noted thatsome societies change at a more rapid tate than do other societies, andthat some institutions within a society change at a more rapid ratethan do other institutions in the same society. It has been suggestedthat the accumulation of social and cultural phenomena is importantin this respect because it tends to accelerate tile rate of change' The

2u


fact that change occurs unevenly among and within societies meansthat it is necessary to look not only for the external causes that channelchanges in one direction rather than another but also to examine theinherent flexibility of the social structure being changed. The studentof social change should recognize that any theory of change is callingattention to important sources of social change rather than an ex-planation of the single cause of change. There is probably no onefactor or consistent set of factors that is responsible for all social changein all societies.' Nor could one factor, operating by itself, be consideredas the sole cause of any one single change. (This idea is further ex-panded in a paper concerning the concept of multiple causation.)

Contact between cultures or the interaction of new ideas or materialgoods within a culture often result's in a modification of knowledge,attitudes and skills of the people. The development of modern meansof communication and transportation have made possible a widerdistribution of cultural items and ideas. Innovation, as means ofmeeting the challenge of social, economic, and political problemsshould be understood as an important factor in social change.

Dignity of ManThe largest religions, and their accompanying philosophies, have

developed a belief in the preciousness of human life. Hindus andBuddists so revered human life as to refuse for centuries to takeanother life. For fear that a human soul has by transmigration enteredan animal, the Hindus even avoid crushing an insect.

In the western world the Hebrews front 500 B.C. developed a newrespect for human life in the expansion of the idea of a soul. TheJudaicChristian respect for the individual life was then carried on intoIslam. On the basis of this background it could be expected that mostmen would respect the. dignity of all other men. In practice this is notthe case. Non-violence. prohibition of killing, and respect for life is

not the same as regard for the individual as a personality. Bothdemocratic and totalitarian forms of goverminnt profess to exist forthe benefit of their citizens. Too often, however, the state which issupposed to be the servant of the people is treated as if it were moreimportant than its individual citizen. .

Students should become aware of the importance of the dignity ofevery other individual. Instead of just thinking of "society," and doingthings for the "good of social," the young citizen should be strivingto work and cooperate with fellow individual. Dignity is defined inour dictionaries as worth or limit. Human dignity shoold imply toevery citizen the worth of all individuals. This is W01111 which exists


because the individual exists, and not because of his achievements.In many parts of the world today there are highly intelligent peoplewho ran neither read nor write, and whose ethics or social backgroundis such as to deny them a job, access to courts, or sufficient food forsurvival. In such circumstances worth cannot be judged by accom-Wishments or social position.

This concept includes a knowledge of these social and political in-struments men have developed to preserve and enhance human dignity,especially in the western world since the Age of Enlightenment. . . .

EmpathyThe Dictionary of Social Sciences defines empathy as the ability to

understand others through being able to call out in one's self responsesidentical I it)) or similar to the responses of others through one's ownexperience and behavior. It is a basic function in society in relationto sharing the attitudes and behavior of others. Less accurately, butmore col)rfully, empathy has been referred to as "putting one's self inthe other man's shoes."

Important in the above definition is the phrase through one's ownexpilience and behavior. The extent to which one may understand theattitude or behavior of another depends on the experience and thebreadth of I:nosvlec:ge one has of the culaire and individual problemsof the person he is attempting to understand. It is nit possible, forexample, for an American to understand why a Congolese or a Viet-namese responds as he does to current crises without first knowing agreat deal about tribal customs. Buddhism, underdeveloped agrariansociety, tropical climatic conditions and the history of the people andthe area tit occupy.

By employing empathy in the face of conflict, we arc helping demo-cratic p,o%ernments to function more efficiently. Conflicts betweenlabor and management, between school districts, or between nationshave a better chance of being tesolsed when both patties practiceempathy. However, no one can to-eh empathy; no one can teachstudents how to put themselves in other's shoes. Instead, we shouldteach the concept cf empathy, as a value, with the hope that studentswho accept this as a Value may try to put it into practice....

Historical Method and Point of 'ViewIfistoty is a process, t continuing development involving constant

change. It is impossible to understand the world in which we live if weassume history to be a static body of information neatly compiled forall time between the CON cis of a textbook.


To teach an understanding of history, it is good practice to make thestudent act as an historian and, thereby, to require that he explain aperiod or an event as part of history. Even as a temporary shorttermhistorian, the student should appreciate the need for interpretation.This in turn will reveal the problems of interpretation. Every citizenwho seeks an explanation for any event should be made to understandhe has a point of view.

The historian is an observer who stands amid the process much asan angler standing mid-stream while casting about him for his catch.This observer must realize events are flowing by him, and that hisparticular place in time and space (his community, profession, church,school, etc.) are coloring and molding his thinking through moralpressure, stereotypes, and other current influences. Therefore, theobserver has a point of view in time and space. All previous observershave received past events from other points in time and space, andtheir interpretations of events have been passed on to the currentobserver colored and molded by the influence of other time-spaceoordiAates.

A good historian or a competent citizen should recognize that allevidence passed on to him is an interpretation by an earlier observer,and that he is himself re-interpreting an interpretation, limited andprejudiced as he is by his own position in time and space.

A student understanding these problems of a continually changingprocess can be taught something of selectivity of facts. He can learnrespect for all evidence, and the need to doubt all evidence withoutbecoming a skeptic or cynic. This is necessary evaluation of evidence.Furthermore, the student can become aware of the need for continualre-evaluation of past evidence, noting the certitude of one generationoften is labelled fallacious by the next. A healthy respect for chronologywill develop better understanding of the relationships of cause andeffect, and furnish an essential tool in the development of the historicalmethod.

It is important for all students to learn the "historical method" ofrecognizing and dealing with evidence, epistemology, th..cs, hypothesis,point of view, selection of facts, evaluation of facts, interpretation,chronology, and causal relationships. Just as the social sciences haveinherited the scientific method from the physical sciences, they havefound all information in their own field is subk.ct to the abovefactors, aria that all social sciences to some degree employ the historicalmethod....


CausationThe relationship of cause and effect has occupied philosophers

throughout the ages. In modern philosophy we find Francis Bacondiscussing this concept in his Novum Organum in 1620, BaruchSpinoza (1632-1677), referred to as the most important philosopher ofthe Renaissance, carried his mathematical approach to ethics (draftedin terms of definitions, axioms, and postulates), throughout his discussion of causation.

These philosophers, and their predecessors and successors, wereconcerned with causation as a part of their search for an explanationof knowledge. Today, as in the past, only a handful of individuals areconsciously inquiring as to the nature of knowledge. Just as mostpersons accept air for breathing, stop signs for highways, and themarket economy as part of everyday living without further question,so they fail to show curiosity with regard to knowledge.

In the teaching of the concept of causation we aim to develop amethod of thinking as well as an understanding of causes and effectsaround us. Causation, as an aspect of method, should be integratedwith the substance of several disciplines.

Students should realize first, causes and ellects are rational; second,cause and effect haut the character of multiplicity. In the first instance,this means that operation of cause and effect can be understood bymen if only they know enough about the factors involved in the causalchain. The second instance (subconcept) means that a single act maybring about (cause) several effects which seemingly become moreisolated as the series of effects expands.. .

FOOTNOTESIlicrstcdt Rubut. The Sorin/ Order, An introduction to Sociology, p. 104.

tuck and Warren, Sociology: An Introduction, p 8 (Italics inserted by theauthors of this rcpui I.)

Ili/ton L. Barton. Contempornty Sociology, p. 606.*Arnold NI. Rose. Sociology: The Study of Human Relations, p. 935.

3i

EDWIN FENTONJOHN M. GOOD

MITCHELL P. LICHTENBERG*

Selected Social StudiesConcepts

Tie staff (of the Social Studies CurriculumCenter at CarnegieNfellon University) has identified six types of con-cepts involved in the social studies. We have called the first typeuniversal concepts: culture, society, or civilization. These three termsare teally synonyms. They are not particularly useful tools for studentsbecause they encompass too much. None of the three guides the searchfor data because each includes everything about man at a particulartime and place. Yet a student should ktiow that all men live in aculture and he should be able to analyze that culture scientifically.

The necessity to divide universal concepts like culture, society, orcivilization for purposes of analysis suggests a second group of con-cepts. For want of a better ton), we have called thun macro-conceptsfour of which ate particularly important: economic system, govern-ment, social suutture, and region. They parallel four academic dis-ciplines: economics, political science., sociology-anthropology, and geog-raphy. A culture, society., or civilization can be studied by examiningeach of these subdivisions using the tools which specialists in eachdiscipline base developed. But these macro- concepts suffer from thesame deficiency as the universal concepts: they do not guide the searchfor data because each one includes too much.

Macro concepts can be subdivided by types. For example, we canClassify political systems as traditional, totalitarian, democratic, authoritarian, parliamentary and so forth. Economic systems. social struc-

Ilom Edwin Ftwon et ea, A High School Social Putties Cur7ittilurn for AbteSonirrifi: final iZtporl of UWE Ptnierl NS Oil and ii-292. Pitisbuigh: SocialStudies Cunisulum Ccricr. CaTncgic..Mellon Uniersit). 1969. pp. 25-32. Rci,rintcd%jib permission.

21

Selected Social Studies Concepts 25

tures, and geographic regions can be classified in a similar fashion.Although these subdivisions are useful for comparative purposes, theyare still too broad to provide effective guides through data.

Our third category, analytical concepts, does guide the search fordata effectively. An analytical concept is one which is useful for theanalysis of a culture at any time or place. Ar alytical concepts guidethe search for data because they tell the student what to look for aJhe reads. We have identified the following analytical concepts as auseful starting place for students to learn to develop hypothese:, aboutcultures. These concepts are:

%fainly fromPolitical Science

LeadershipDecision makingInstitutionsIdeologyCitizenship

rsfair.ly fromEconomics

Values and goalsScarcity and choresResourcesPriceDistributionProductionEconomic grois-th

Mainly fromSociology andAnthropology

RoleStatusNormsSocial ClassGroupsGroup interactionCulture change

We do not contend that our list is the only useful on Anothergroup of investigators might turn up with another list of nineteen ortwenty -five or fifty concepts which is equally useful. There is no singlestructure to die social studies. Each person brings his own structurehis own "body of imposed concepticns" to any investigation. Ratherthan claim to have discovrAed "the" structure of the social studies, seeare prepared to make a more limited argument: the list of conceptswe (each students to learn and to use is likely to lead to hypotheseswhich both social scientists and students Nvo d agtce are useful for theinvestigation of societies past and present. Beyond this claim we donot wish to go at this stage of our research.

Each of these analytical concepts in ,lies questions. Take leadershipas an example. Nfodein politic:11 scientists know that leaders playa pat ticularly sital tole in a,ly political system. They want to knowa number of questions about a society's political leadership. Who arethe leaders? 'What ate their anidnites? !lo do they gain and maintainsupport? lime can a citinn get access to them? Once the student knows

Vote that we hate not inchtrlcd analytical comtpts horn grogiaph) tinder thema.ocomtpt u ginh. ocr cuiticuaum stftsst this 712I of social scittice,1,410\ bllellISC 310 1,1 on our staff si.is a sufhtitnil stilled grogtaph... Thismuis,ion, tcc Ixh(sc, is a sh.cr..ming of our C11111(1.1111,11, We 11.1(., hm,tscr. ttnia-tistl hltnrifi.1 anattital conctpts coming from pogiaphy. "Zhu all artat

art,IT awKi.ilion, and anal inttiattion.


a concept like leadership and has learned analytical questions asso-ciated with it, he is prepared to embark on a searclt through data witha powerful conceptual scheme in mind. If he knows the concepts wehave identified and the battery of analytical questions associated withthem, be is still better prepated. Most of all, if he has learned to askquestions a process which we teach almost daily he will havedeveloped the habit of thinking hypothetically. This habit is the mostimportant of all. More than anything else it distinguishes the inde-pendent, creative thinker from the hack who simply compiles dataoutside of a disciplined conceptual scheme.

The full list of analytical questions associated with concepts mayclarify the scheme we have developed. Some analytical questions arethemselves interrogative statements of sub-concepts. (What technologyis employed in production? How is gross national product related toconsumption, investment, and government expenditures?) Withoutseeing our list of primary analytical questions, a scholar cannot knowwhether or not we have overlooked basic aspects of a discipline. Thequestions associated with each of the . . concepts which follow(are) ... .

Decision staking The process by which a political system deter-mines for what purposes governmental power will be exercised.a. What are the formal rules for snaking decisions? The informal

rules?b. In what leaders and institutiors does decision-making power reside?c. What factors influence decision-making? How does ideology influ-

ence it? The personal attributes of leaders? Institutions? The desiresof citizens?

d. flow does information flow to the decision makers? What influencedoes it have?

e. 11AV are decisions carried into c Ifect? What sanctions are used toenforce decisions?

Citizenship - The right, of individuals to influence how societalpower will be used, their obligations to submit to governmental power,aml the process by which they accomplish these functions.a. flow does a citizen influence how public power is used? Does he

have a role in the decision-making process? How does he obtainaccess to decision-makers? What influence does be have over them?

b. How does a citizen get information about govet 'smolt?

1 his is a r(pirstniaiise sdection of the concepts tIcsciihtd in this rtport. Fora full description of the complue list of concepts, see pp. 2'02 of this Dport.

33

Selected Social Studies Concepts 27

c. How does government affect the life of the citizen? How does itrestrict his freedom? How does it enlarge his freedom?

Resources The supply of raw materials, capital, and human skillsavailable to a society.a. That natural resources are available?b. What human resources are available?c. What capital resources are available?d. How are the three types of resources combined to produce goods?

Production The process through which goods and services are madeor supplied.a. In what ratio are three types of resources combined to produce

goods?b. That economic institutions influence production?c. What technology is employed in production?d. What is the nature of the entrepreneurial function?

Role The functions and activities society expects individuals withspecific characteristics to perform.a. How are roles assigned by society?b. What .foes society expect of individuals who have certain roles?c. That different roles is a particular individual expected to fulfill?d. How can an individual prepare himself for a particular role? Arc

some roles closed off to certain individuals?

Social Class A large group of people who share many things incommon and who are classified by other members of the communityas belonging together.a. What are the classes of a given community? What criteria are used

to place people in a class?b. Can someone earn membership in a given social class, or must a

person be born into it? How open are (lasses to people born outsidethem?

c. How are classes arranged in the social stunt-e? What roles areassigned to the upper cla,,c,? TL ; riddle classes? The lower?

Culture Ching The process by which a culture adjusts to newcircumstances or a new environment.a. Ilas a new invention promoted culture change? If so, in what way?b. I fas diffusion from an outside source produced change? If so, how?

What was the agent of diffusion?c. Ilan a change in one area of a culture (technology) produced a


condition demanding change in another area (family structure)?Has there been a lag between the first change and tile second?

In addition to universal concepts, macro-concepts, and analyticalconcepts implying questions, we have also itledtified a number ofprocedural concepts having to do with the way in whidt social scien-tists and historians inquire. The most important procedural conceptsare as follows:

Social Studies quetion A question which can be answered by the useof a method of inquiry for social studies. "Did Christ live?" is such aquestion. "Was Christ divine?" is not.Hypothesis A tentative explanation for an event posed as a part ofthe inquiry process.

Fact A statement about a person, event, etc., which meets the testsfor historical credibility.Data Any information about past or present society.Evidence Data which has a bearing on a hypothesis under investiga-tion,Frame of reference (also bias or point of view) The way in ichicha person's entire life experience has conditioned him to look upon theworld.

u"

PART II

Why Teach Concepts?

The present information explosion represcats a new phenomenon in mankind's history. Never before havestudents had so much information to learn and so many ways to learnit. The variety and types of personal and vicarious experiences students may undergo have greatly increased due largely to rapid tech-nological advances. The result of all this is that students are literallybombarded by a dramatic and oserwhelming amount of experiencesand information.

Memorizing all this information und experience is not only futilebecause so much of it becomes obsolete within a short time, but it isalso impossible. Students need to be able to make sense of this informa-tion rather than become storage bins for it. Yet, unless we can findefficient, coherent means to organize the burgeoning amounts ofinformation from so many soirees, the task oi; making it mean some-thing becomes impossible.

This is where concepts enter the teacherlearning picture. Conceptsorganize or order experience and information. Teaching students toinvent concepts to order experience, to discard that which divertslearning and build that which clarifies and explains experience, seemsto he a crucial objective of social studies instruction today.

The selections in Part Two of this volume suggest a rationale forteaching concepts in social studies. In the first selection Paul Brandweinasserts that concepts structure the random experience of the learner.1,:uslenre Metcalf argues that concepts are neither true nor false butdynamic representations of our decisions to classify information inparticular categories. An Illinois Department of Public Insuuctionreputt describes four ways that concepts assist the learner. In a finalselection, Jerome S. Bruner suggests what learners gain by categorizingex per iences.

Since concepts are useful tools for learning, they should be primaryobjectives of teaching. The ideas presented here may well provide asound basis for concept-teaching in social studies.

1G

3t

PAUL F. BRANDWEIN*

Concept as Ordering

Can children examine all behavior, all en-vironments, all human objects, all human events, all experience? Toask the questiun is to deny the possibility. Paul Todd, reviewingproposals for the revision of the social studies,' quotes 'he estimatethat "every minute, 2,000 pages of books, newspapers or reports arepublished somewhere in the world enough to fill a thousand feetof bookshelves every day." He adds that imbedded in this mass is"a hard core of new knowledge sufficiently large to confound even themost devoted scholars." Yes, and sufficiently large to confound eventhe most deNoted scholar-teacher and to crush the child.

If we cannot turn to topics of subject matter (commonly called"content") or to "facts" p se as a reassuring way of building astructure for the curriculum, perhaps we can turn to the child'sexperience. We find at first to our dismay, and then to our reassurmice that the child's experience is greatly randomized, and that aschool proposes, if anything, to reduce the randont encounter andreplace it with a non-random encounter that fosters a meaningfulexperience. Why? Simply because time for life, for learning, is limited.In fact, to base a curriculum on the random experience is to give upinstruction, for instruction implies structure. Instruction depends onnonrandomized experience; that is, it depends on a structurepressed in the purpose and design of the school. The school is con-cerned with itrNtructed learning, with learning experiences that atecarefully selected and sequenced in a curriculum.

A curriculum based on a conceptual structure in a sense catalyzes ...the nerd to reduce random encounter by selected, planned and tbrfore rornandorn experience in search of meaning, tii need to embracethe sullen's:: of schooling, whether graded or nongraded.

rota 7-07i aid A Dic( pine of RNon5ible Corona by Paul F. Brandwcaitettpytight © 190 by itaicoutt Brace JotanoN 01, Inc. All tights 'mutt!. Reitrint.1bl permission of the publisher.

30

Concept as Ordering 31

Concepts have stability. New nations may develop as new data,"but the concept of "nation" remains. Within a child's schooling in thepast generation, Africa exploded into nationhood. It can be arguedthat the "old facts" about Africa that were taught the child are nolonger tenable, and no longer can serve the child, but the concept ofnationhood was, and is, tenable and still serves the child in hisattempts to unde-stand his culture and to live successfully in it.Postulate a child entering the first grade and being subjected for thenext twelve years to a "fact"-oriented, topic centered course of socialstudies. At the curl cut rate of generation of knowledge, perhaps littlethat he learned will be "true" as "fact" at the time of his leavingschool. His "school life" would, in a sense, have been "wasted." Postu-late another child, one taking part in a curriculum based on concepts.. . . Twelve years later, the data will have changed. China may nolonger be Communist, or may be fascist; the satellite states of Russiamay all be democratic, or part of Russia may be so inclined; theUnited States may have fifty-four states, the Constitution yet anotheramendment; the wheat, corn, rice, and oat crops may be even larger; anew technology may be burgeoning and we may no longer be inter-ested in "outer space" but in "inner space." Nevertheless, "nation,""scarcity'," "man," "interaction," "norms," "values," "family," "inter.dependence," "community'," "ensirotiment," "time," "rules," "law,""role" will be conceptually his, with a host of viable subject mailerto feed them. lie can use these concepts to explain the new nations,the new cycles, the new behavior he meets.

Concepts in the social sciences are maps of the social universe,They remain relevant to life and living; hence they are stable inteblectual currency. ...

One clay, children at the first level in a class in the inner city of alarge city were asked what they had seen on their way to school. It wasduring a lesson on the nature of their immediate environment afamiliar and comfortable lesson. The list included: boys, buses, trees,birds, houses, girls, cars, dogs, stoics. The responses Isere interestingfrom the cognitive aspect. Note that at first the children did not, ingeneral, say "a bros. n-haired, blue eyed boy" (characteristics gleanedfrom hither questioning) or "a brown, speckled bird" 01 "a smallwhile (log with black ears and a black tail." They obsetsed, they s id,"a bo)," a bird," "a dog.''

Clearly, when we obscl vc a familiar object or event and we areasked for a first description, we usually do not catalogue its specialidentifying eliamiclistic.. It seems as if ow [espouse ptedic rtes that,we quickly catalogue and categoric( what we perceive into a ''thought

c".u'


system," a ready-made set of concepts (boy, bird, dog, bus) . We havedeveloped, as it were, habitual tracks of association. We make, it seems,a relatively consistent response to a consistent set of stimuli. The baseof conceptformation is consistent response coming from experience(priz.r response) in the setting of our environment.

. A concept (a thought system, a habitual track of association)categorizes; it is part of a mental filing system for quickly sortingexperiences. At this count, there are some three billion people onearth, each of them different; there are some trillions of permutationsof their facial characteristic's. But we limit the number and embracethem all into the concept "man." Further 'motions and directives willbreak clown these concepts into "kinds" and/or "varieties." But ourfirst filing is under "man," or "mankind" or "people." The same istrue for the dress of man and -,roman. Take color of dress alone. Thereare perhaps seven milhott permutations of color; each is a stimulus towhich we may respond. But we develop conceptual orderings, if onlyto be able to deal with the overload of stimuli in the environment; Nve

place man's dress into one or a few orderings. Thus we economize onthe mental energies required for developing consistent response, byreducing the amount of learning required to doelop the consistentresponse. We order the environment by developing habitual tracks ofassociation, or concepts.

A concept is a mental construct, isolating from experience thecommon attributes that identify objects and events. A concept ismental content apart from sensation and image as such. Thus theconcept "teacher," once formed, is apart from specific relation to theimage of "Mr. Howard" or "Mrs. Aldicott," but categorizes a host ofteachers. A concept is flexible; it is host to an incredible variety of facts(Wing it, The concept -candy" exists in the mind, and candies in allforms clocolate creams, fudge, rusk candy, bars, drops, and the

exist in the experience, which formed the taw material of theconcept. A new object in metal foil, resembling a chocolate bar, andgotten perhaps in a candy store is easily categorized as candy, not asa rock, a bird, or a boy. Its «minion ant ibutes, its consistent stimuli

shape. odor) form a con±istent response cards. A conceptattained coerces thought and perhaps action.

Possession of a concept cases horning. Possession of ,t concept almostautomatically applies past experience to "present" events, or objects,or "problems." Too often, howcv,1-, a concept has been developed outof invalid" experience, out of a "random" experience, and it rallieswith the -stigmata- of the invalid experience a stereotype of humanbehavior. A concept can be "wrong."

39

Concept as Ordering 33

FOOTNOTEThe Social Studies and the Social Sciences, American Council of Learned

Societies and the National Council for the Social Studies, Harcourt, Brace & World,

New York, 1962.

40

41

LAWRENCE E. METCALF*

Is a Concept Ever Right?

Discussion of . . . concepts may deteriorateinto an argument over the correct meaning of a concept. Even thetextual materials teachers assign to students may use an expressionsuch as "true democracy." Foolish argument over what a conceptreally and truly means arises from what 1. A. Richards has called theproper ?Henning superstition. Many of us believe that for every wordthere is one and only one correct meaning. Instead of agreeing thatterms are differently defined and making an effort to find out whata term means when used in a discussion by someone we engage in afruitless effort to show that it ought to have this rather than someother meaning.

Concepts do not reveal the nature of reality, not even our mostdescriptive concepts. Instead they represent our classification of stim-ulus inputs. The fact that we classify stimuli into certain categoriesrather than others does not mean that conventional categories aremore true than any other set of categories we might invent. In fact,the process of concept formation often results in new categories whichgain acceptance over more traditional ones.

A major insight that teachers must communicate to their studentsis that concepts are neither true nor false. If we try to prove the truthof a concept, we confuse students at two points, the nature of conceptsand the nature of plc of.

It is true that scientists kite a (rim-ion by which thit decide thatone conceptual system is betcr than another. It is the criterion ofpredictive benefits. Confronted with a choice Igirsi.en two stems theywill choose the one that enables them to juidict the most with thegreatest accuracy. Scientists like to tlas. fy events, processes, and objectsfor the purpose of increasing human control of the environment. If a

}Tom 1,,auunce NI(tralf,"Tuchiriir Fo,niuic Con«pts in the Social studies"in The Councilor, StarcA, 1960. rip. SO

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at

Is a Concept Ever Right? 35

given conceptual system will not explain what another system canexplain, it 'viii be rejected for the new system. But science does notask what is reality really like but rather how are we doing in ourattempt to predict, explain, and control events.

In the social studies students diverge greatly in their values, pur-poses, background, and perspective with the result that they are proneto argue over the meaning of concepts when they ought to be con-cerned with the problem of definition. We should appraise definitionsnot as to their truth or falsity but as to their clarity, definiteness,consistency, conve itionality, inclusiveness, and theoretical power. Bytheoretical power we mean the number of possible relationships be-tween it and other concepts which is an indirect measure of its powerto predict and explain.


The Functions of Conceptsin History*

Concepts serve the learner in a number ofways. They may be used as intellectual tools in perception, generaliza-tion, prediction, and evaluation. It is to their function in these fourcategories that we now turn our attention.

Concepts help us focus our attention on specific things in experience.That is, concepts help us to be selective in looking at experience byenabling us to single out objects and events in terms of the presenceof certain specifiable features or characteristics. For example, the con-cept state helps us to recognize certain situaions in history by identify-ing the presence of a politically organized body of people, occupyinga definite territory, and living under a government which possessesboth internal and external sovereignty. In effect, we impose patternson some of the discrete items of a situation and thus make parts ofthe situation meaningful to us. However, it should be noted that someparts of situations pass unnoticed; tilt) lie below the threshold ofawareness. Either we do not possess the conceptual tools to disetitninate sonic aspects or situations, or we are not immediately concernedwith them. But even though we do not impose meaning on all aspectsof a situation, concepts do provide us with necessary tools, for wecould not focus our attention on anything specific in experience unlesswe employed them. 'I hey provide us with the knowledge of what tolook for in experience. It is in this sense that comepts frame experienceor (Brett perception.

Concepts are employed as the variables or constants in out gen-eralizations. Concepts arc necessary in the formulation and subsequent

From Fad P. FIVTICI, ed, linelopirig Concepts .1 Study in the Teaching ofnisfory, "I tic Curriculum Research Scrim Bulloin No. G-Tsvo Illinois DtpditIntr.( of Public Insttuction, (9:4( pp 4 6.

.1.16

Functions of Concepts in History 37

testing of generalizations. Consider the following generalization. "lfwar occurs, then inflation will follow." The two concepts of impor-tance in this generalization arc war and inflation. Notice the rolethese concepts play in the generalization. Each concept points out aset of conditions that can Ire observed. The words of the statement,particularly the words with logical functions like "if" and "then,"assert that there is a connection between the two sets of conditions.Given the first set of conditions, a war, and it will be followed empiri-cally by a -Lemul set of conditions, an inflation, It is the use ofconcepts to point out objects, events, or relationships, that makes theformulation of such statements of connection possible. In addition,without the formulation of statements of connection between concepts,we would not be able to make, communicate, or test generalizations.It is in this sense that they are fundamental to generalizing.

Concepts are used to deal with the realm of the possible. By "thepossible" we mean events or situations which may in time be realized.We have indicated earlier how concepts help us to establish meaningin experience. They enable us to single out objects and events in termsof specifiable characteristics. Concepts enable us to deal with the realistof the possible in much the same way. By using symbols or terms wecan project states-of.affairs and plan how to go about achieving them.Consider such concepts as universal public medicine (or analogouslyuniver,a1 pub fir education) , free interaction among social groups :oldan economy of abundance.

The characteristics referred to by these concepts cannot be observedin immediate experience, but nonetheless such concepts have meaning.They arc meaningful because we can specify the characteristics ofexperience which they arc used to refer to. For example, the char-acteristics dun Iloiversal public medicine is used to refer to includepayments for medical set vices for all who need them and the provisionof such medical services under public policy.

\forcover, in being able to specify such possible or potential states -of-affairs. we are in a better position to consider means of achievingthem. For example, leasing made more specific what we meat, bytin i'er-rat public r+irdicine, we are now in a better position to censiderpossible sources of lc% came, possible basic medical services that allshould have when they need them, and possible policies for govetningthe pros ision of midi SCI Sires. It is in this fashion that concepts areused to deal with the realm of the possible; that is, with prediction.

Concepts are used to cualunte persons, objects, or crynts. Thus farwe have talked mainly about the use of concepts to describe, pointout, or refer to objects and events or relations among them. But when

4


we begin talking about the evaluative use of concepts we are con-cerned with more than just describing things. We are concerned withjudging something as good or bad, desirable or undesirable, cont.mendable or not commendable. Consequently, when IC2 use conceptsto evaluate things, we are not necessarily describing anything. Instead,we are stating our opinion of something. For example, suppose we saythat Woodrow Wilson was a great American. Suppose, further, thatour purpose in saying he was a great American is to praise him andto get others to accept his principles. In this context we would not bedescribing Woodrow Wilson, but we would be rating him. If someonewere to ask us, "Why do you say that Woodrow Wilson was a GreatAmerican?" we would then present reasons for so evaluating him. Wemight say that Wilson showed a basic understanding of America'spersistent international and domestic problems and proposed far.reaching programs to deal with these problems. During his presidency,he formulated the basic ideas underlying the League of Nations andthe Clayton AntiTrust Act. In staling our reasons, we would bepresenting by implication our criteria or rules for calling someone agreat American. And in this context the use of the term "great"consists of praising or commending someone because he has displayedan understanding of fundamental international and domestic problemsand has proposed farreaching programs to deal with the problems.It is in this fashion that we use concepts for evaluative purposes.

Throughout this analysis, concepts have been viewed from a logicalstandpoint. We have examined some of the characteristics of conceptsand have used illustrations from history to show how these characteristics may be employed most fruitfully by the history teacher....

4

JEROME c. BRUNER*

The Role of Conceptsin Learning

Wbegin with what seems a paradox. Theworld of experience of any normal man is composed of a tremendousarray of discriminably different objects, events, people, impressions.There are estimated to be more than 7 million discriminable colorsalone, and in the course of a week or two we come in contact with afair proportion of them. No two people we see have an identical ap-pearance and even objects that we judge to be the same object overa period of time change appearance from moment to moment withalterations in light or in the position of the viewer. All of these differ-ences we are capable of seeing. for human beings have an exquisitecapacity for making distinctions.

But were we to utilize fully our capacity for registering the differ-ences in things and to respond to each event encountered as unique,we would soon be met %%helmet! by the complexity of our environment.Consider only the *linguistic task of acquiring a vocabulary fully ade-quate to cope with the world of color differences! The resolution ofthis seeming paradox the existence of discrimination capacitieswhich, if fully used, would make us slaves to the particular isachieved by man's capacity to categorize. To categorize is to renderdiscriminably different things equivalent, to group the objects andevents and people around us into classes, and to respond to them interms of their class membership rather than their uniqueness. Ourrefined discriminative activity is reserved only for those segments ofthe environment with which we are specially concerned. For the rest,we respond by rather crude forms of categotial placement. In placeof a color lexicon of 7 million items, people in our society get along

from Jerome S. Bruner cr al., A Study of Thinking. New York: John WileyAC Sots, Inc ,19:r6. pp. 1.4,10, 12.1S. Reprinted with permission.

20 II

40 CONCEPTS IN TIIE SOCIAL STUDIES

with a dozen or so commonly used color names. It suffices to note thatthe book on the desk has a "blue" cover. if the task calls for finer dis-crimination, we may narrow the category and note that it is in theclass of things called "medium blue." It is rare indeed that ss'e areever called upon to place the book in a category of colors comprisingonly the unique hue-brightnesssaturation combination it presents.

The process of categorizing involves, if you will, an act of invention.This hodgepodge of objects is comprised in the category "chairs," thatassortment of diverse numbers is all grouped together as "powers of2," these structures are "houses" but those others are "garages." Whatis unique about categories of this kind is that once they are masteredthey can be used without further learning. We need not learn de 710V0that the stimulus configuration before us is another house. If wehave learned ':e class "house" as a concept, new exemplars can readilybe recognized. The category becomes a tool for further use. The learn-ing and utilization of categories represents one of the most elementaryand general forms of cognition by %Odell man adjusts to his environ-ment....

Language, Culture, and Categorizing'I he categories in terms of which man sorts out and responds to the

world around him reflect deeply the culture into which he is born.The language, the way of life, the religion and science of a people:all of these mold the y in which a man experiences the events outof which his own history is fashioned. In this sense, his personal historycomes to reflect tile traditions and thoughtways of his culture, for theevents that make it up are filtered through the categorial systems hehas

By categorizing as equivalent distriminably different events, theorganism Feeble-es the complexity' of its environment. It is reasonablyclear "how" this is accomplished. It involves the abstraction and useof defining plop° ties in terms of which gioupings can be made andmuch will be said of these things later.

A scwod achiescnient has also been mentioned: categorizing is diemenus by which the 'objects of the world nbout us nee identified. 'I heart of identifying some thing or some event is an act of "plating" itin a class. Identification implies that sic are able to say either Thereis thingumbob again" or "There is another thingumbob." Whilethese identifications may vary in the richness of their elaboration,they are never absent. A certain sound may Ix heard simply as thatsound which comes from outdoors late at night:. Or it may ix heardas "those porcupines chewing on that ohl tree stump." When an event

47

Role of Concepts in Learning 41

cannot be thus categorized and identified, we experience terror it theface of the uncanny. And indeed, "the uncanny" is itself a category,even if only a residual one.

A third achievement, a consequence of the first, is that the estab-lishment of a category based on a set of defining attributes reduces thenecessity of constant learning. For the abstraction of defining proper-ties makes possible future acts of categorizing without benefit offurther learning. We do not have to be taught de novo at each encounter that the object before us is or is not a tree. If it exhibits theappropriate deli g properties, it "is" a tree. Learning by rote thata miscellany of objects all gc by the nonsense name MIX has noextrapolative value to new members of the class.

A fourth achievement inherent in the act of categorizing is thedirection it provides for instrumental activity. To know by virtueof discriminable defining attributes and without need for fartherdirect test that a man is "hottest" or that a substance is "poison" isto know in advance about appropriate and inappropriate actions tobe taken. Such direction is eveo provided when we come up againstan object or event which we cannot place with finality. To the degreethe new object has discriminable properties and these properties havebeen found in the past to be relevant to certain categories, we canmake a start on the problem by a procedure of "categorial bracketing."The object appears to be animate; what does it do if it is poked? Itstands on two legs like a man; dot.. it speak? Mach of problem solvinginvolves such repeated regrouping of an object until a pragmaticallyappropriate grouping has been found. In short, such successive categorizing is a principal loin] of instrumental activity.

A fifth achievement of categorizing is the opportunity it permitsfor ordering and relating classes of events. For we operate, as notedbefore, with category systemsclasses of events that are related toeach other in various kinds of superordinate systems. We map andgive meaning to our world by 'elating classes of events rather than byrelating individual events. "Matches," the child learns, will "cause" aset of events called "fines." The meaning of each class of things placedin quotation marks matches, causes, and files is given by the ins.bddedness of each class in stub relationship maps. The moment anobject is [timed in a category, we have opened up a whole vista ofpossibilities fur "going be5ond" the category by virtue of the super.ordinate and casual relationships linking this category to oth;rs....

4

PART III

How Can ConceptsBe Taught?

Although there has been considerable studyand discussion about the nature of concepts and their role in learning,there has been somewhat less attention to effective ways of teachingconcepts in the social studies classroom. Of course, reports of numer-oils, sometimes elaborate, psychological studies and experiments sug-gest how we conceptualize and how various aspects of this processoperate. Vet, there is all too little translation of the implications ofthis research into actual teaching techniques and strategies, especiallyin terms meaningful to classroom teachers. We need much more re-search and discussion before any precise way to help students learnselected concepts can be clearly delimited. Nevertheless, what studyand research is available does, indeed, offer some valuable hints forthose co.werned about teaching concepts.

There is one point on which many studies of concept developmentto date seem to agree concepts cannot be taught. Concepts cannot begiven by one person to another at any level higher than that of simplerecognition. Teachers can identify a concept for students and expectthem to know it on the cognitive level of recall. But teachers cannotexpect students to internalize it, to understand all its various inter-related facets and ramifications, by simply labeling it.

Rather, concept teaching means something other than passing oninformation about a particular concept. It means helping learnersinvent develop their own mental images of a particular concept.The word "help" is the key. Teaching concepts. properly understood,means facilitating student conceptualization. It involves neither pureexposition on the part of the teacher nor pure eiscovery on the partof the student.

For conceptualization the process whereby concepts are formedis something only learners can do. It cannot be done for or tothem. Concep,s are inventions, not discoveries. They do not exist "out

43


there" just waiting to be found out by someone. Nor can they becomethe intellectual property of a !earner by slaw), memorizing whatsomeone else thinks they are. Concepts must evolve in the minds ofthe students themselves. Conceptteaching thus requires the teacherto guide and facilitate this process.

There arc a number of techniques teachers can use to facilitateconcept development by students. In general, these involve a judiciousintermixture of exposition and inquiry. Students need to work withexamples of whatever it is they arc conceptualizing about, and theseexamples must include positive and negati..e illustrations of theessential facets of the concept. That is, some examples must containthese facets and thus illustrate their significance while other examples,by not containing these facets, must underscore their relationship tothe concept being developed. Deductive as well as inductive learningmust be employed that is, students must seek out features thatshould exist given a definite description of a concept and also generateor induce other features as they study further examples of the concept.A strategy embodying all these techniques is essentially an inquiryteaching strategy.

The following selections illustrate rations aspects of concept teach-ing. Bertha Davis' comments, excerpted from a presentation made atYale in 1966, describe briefly a rationale that ordergirds conceptteaching in social studies. Gertrude Whipple describes briefly howconcepts arc built from experience. Some theoretical aspects of conceptteaching arc then described. Rohm Cairoll reports (conditions neces-sary for concept formation and teaching concepts. A suggested strategyfor teaching concepts k piescnted in the selection by Robert Gagne.

Selections illustrative of concept-teaching in the social studies class-room follow. Zoe A. Thralls describes in general terms how twospecific geographic concepts might be developed in the classroom. Anexcerpt by Barry K. Beyer then illustrates a specific strategy fordeveloping a concept by leading the leader through the process itself.A report on how an actual class engaged in developing a historicalconcept then follows. In conclusion, Verna Fancett's selection notessome crucial points that must be tonembered in any effort to help5tticlents concerti:dire.

Concept teaching facilitating student conceptualizing is noteasy. Nor is there any specific tried and true, single tight way to do it.'there is much vse do not yet know about concept development andhow to guide it. 'let we do have here some insights into some tech.niques that seem to work well in the social studies dassroont. Con-sideration of these techniques can be most useful in planning lessonsdesigned to 'teach" concepts.

5G

BERTHA H. DAVIS*

Conceptual Teachingin the Social Studies

Conceptual teaching . .. is teaching controlledby conceptual aims, a definition that does not define until one definesconceptual aims. But before we define conceptual aims, we must con-sider the significance of that key word, "controlled." Conceptual teach-ing is controlled by conceptual aims,

...Much of the bad teaching of social studies stems from the by-product fallacy, which consists of two premises and a conclusion.Premise One goes like this: Social studies is charged with responsibilityfor developing concerned citiiens and for giving these citi/ens thebackground and skills that they need zo think ciitically about andcope constructively with social issues. These arc among the jobs ofsocial studies education; every course of study or curl iculuni revisionproject sass so at the beginning of the book. Premise Two: Teachingsocial studies means taking students through prescribed social studiescourses. Students cover the content listed on the pages that follow thelist of aims and objectives. Conclusion: If students are taken throughthose pages of course content, the objectives stated at the beginning ofthe course are bound to result as a by-product of coveting the course.They won't be. Objectives cannot be achieved a. a by-pioduct. Theycannot be achieved in a course unless every class session is controlledas to its materials and actinides by a specific conceptual aim.

So we're back again to the qnest;on what arc conceptual, helm'valid, aims? To put it another way what are the only reasons fordealing with a given body of content? What ate the only reasons forusing a given method? Note the clear implications of these questions.Content is not its own excuse for being taught; it must be used for a

Ftettha 11. Oath, New Approchhes to the Teaching cf Social Slochec: .4 Reportof the Ilricr,th Fee Conference on the Teething of Serial 31ndirt ,41.r.i1 11 atd16,1966. N'cw fair... Yale tni%c rsicy Office of Teacher Training. 196G. pp. 49-31,

45


purpose. There is no method that is self-justifying; it must be usedfor a purpose, Whatever content or method one uses in the socialstudies classroom must be deliberately and consciously controlled byone of these aims: to develop or reinforce an interpretive understand-ing; to develop or reinforce a generalization; to deepen insight intoa concept; to develop or reinforce an attitude or value; to teach orapply a skill of inquiry. These are conceptual aims.

Simply for the sake of insuring that we are talking the same Ianguage let Inc give you very briefly the meanings which I attach tothese terms. I use the term "interpretive understanding" to mean adeclarative statement which seeks to organize a body of content in ameaningful way. An understanding has specific referents of timeand/or place. On the other hand, a generalization in iny vocabulary isa declarative statement that has wide applicability to many times andplaces. I use the term concept to mean a word or phrase about which,without specific referents, one has a set of ideas. Social studies educa-tion is concerned with helping pupils develop increasingly sophisti-cated meanings for a whole host of concepts democracy, climate,culture, power, conflict, and the like. By skills of inquiry, I meanall those learned was of asking and answering social science questions.

The phrase "conceptual teaching." therefore, is just a shorthandway to describe social studies teaching controlled by the kind of aimshere enumerated and defined. It is an apt phrase for the Brunerianclimate of our day, although its bask gospel of teaching for meaningand the power to see meaning is at least as old as Socrates....

(If a) lesson based on questions and answers . . . requires mereregurgitation of text or other printed content, it is no more "teaching"than (a) monologue. It is lesson-hearing, babysitting, or whateverterm of denigration you choose to apply. It is a waste of taxpayers'money because a teaching machine or programmed text can coverground just as efficiently. if no program has been written for thecontent to be covered, any adult who can keep one paragraph aheadof the pupils and keep them from climbing the walls, can linar thelesson perfectly well. The janitor conies to mind.

On the other hand, if the questions ate focused on a conceptualaim, if the teacher has planned her approach to the lesson, her ques-tions, and her teaching materials in tel of an interpretive under.standing. a generalization, ?n attitnde or value then the questionand answer lesson becomes an art form. . . A truly conceptuallyoriented .. lesson is particularly useful for the inductive developmentof understandings and generalizations. Indeed, for this purpose, I

Conceptual Teaching 47

would say it is the equal of any other method, not excepting inde-pendent study or discovery.

Whether such a lesson is based on one textbook or on a variety ofmaterials is irrelevant. The point is that in R the teacher plans totrsc content use content not hear it for the achievement of aconceptual aim. Take some examples: The subject is Athenian andSpartan education and the teacher uses that content to develop byquestioning the generalization that a society uses its educational sys-tent to perpetuate its values; the subject is the power of the Presidentand that content is used to develop insight into the concept of presi-dential power; the subject is the industrial development of the UnitedStates in the preCivil War period (or the post-Civil War period) andthe content is used to develop the concepts of social overhead, take-off, industrial maturity; the subject is the causes of the Spanish -American War the conceptual aim is concerned with the role ofpublic opinion in the formulation of foreign policy; the content isJackson and the Bank the aim is concerned with the problem ofmonopoly power; the content is the provision of the Bill of Rightsand the aim focuses on the persistent problem of achieving balancebetween individual liberties and social controls; the content is thereforms of the ,Jacksonian period and the teacher tries to developan attitude of respett for those who devote a lifetime to concern forthe welfare of others; the subject is political parties under NVasItiogtonand the conceptual aim focuses on the generalization that in ademocrat y a system of political patties is essential for the resolutionof con flit t. The subject is the Progressive 1110 and the teacheruses the content to test the generalization that "Constinitional democ-racy is a highly aristocratic form of government, depending for itssuccess on the self-selettion of a natural aristocracy to provide a leavento the civic lump." Each of these pieces of content, obviously, couldbe used for other purposes. The significant point is that in each les-son content was used for a valid conceptual purpose, not merelyregingitated....

Sonic of you may remember the delightful story that PresidentButterfield of Wesleyan University tells of his Deerfield Academytraining. Ile malls as clucial to his educational expel ient c the occa-sion when the headmaster's wile, a gifted teacher, said to him: "Victor,when ate you going to stop ttying to rementher and start trying tothink." 'this is the heart of the matter to get pupils to think. Con-

Editvis' emphasis.


tent doesn't guarantee thinking; only content controlled by purposecan do that. And method doesn't guarantee thinking; only methodcontrolled by purpose can do that. 3ecause the philosophy of con-ceptual teaching makes central and controlling the kinds of purposesthat require pupils' thinking, I recommend it to you as a philosophyto govern your day by day teaching, and as a guide through the shoalsof contemporary innovation.

54

GERTRUDE WHIPPLE*

How Concepts Are Built

Concepts develop from concrete to abstractas the learner draws from his experiences a general idea apart fromthe particulars he has noted. No one can give the learner a concept.Ile must build it out of his own experiences. The process is a gradualone that usually takes place over a period of years, as the child hasexperiences that contribute to growth in meaning. Let us consider theconcept of a mountain. In the preschool or primary years the childlearns that mountains rise far into the sky, that some are covered withsnow all year round, that certain activities are carried on in mountains,and that there arc mountain peaks and mountain ranges, In highergrades, under good instruction, this concept is steadily enriched. Thechild learns that the height of a mountain is measured from sea level,that, as one climbs a high mountain, the vegetation changes, that sonicmountains on the ocean floor have been lifted above the sea by move-ments of the earth's crust, and that over very long periods of timerivers gradually wear then] down again almost to sea level. He comesto understand the histm ical significance of mountains, mountainpasses. ;ind mountain peoples. Also, as he studies various mountainousregions, he notes diffetences in the mountains of the world, for ex-ample, the Rocki,s with their vide valleys and sharply peaked sum.:nits, and the Central Andes with narrow, deep valleys and wideexpanses of gentle slopes at high elevation. Of course, not all childrenwill leach the highest degree of meaningfulness for this or anyother concept.

Building up the child's background of experience is of tremendousimportance. For example, if it is desired to teach the meaning of corn

c

From Celt; udc %Ft ipplc, "Geography in the Fkm(ntary Social Studies Program:Concepts, cincwicatieus, anti Skills to be lk %eloped,- in Preston E, James, cd ,

Firtetsisis is Gropsth). Washington: National Council fur the SocialStudies (29th. Yearbook), 19:0. pp. 115.114.

49


s?svation, many opportunities may be provided the child to see theeffects of both failure and success in the practice of conservation. Inthe case of the city child, the front yard of the school may offer lessonsin plant and soil conservation; lie may observe places where trees,shrubs, and flowers have been neglected, and other places where theyhave been well maintained. The rural child, on the other hand, maybe encouraged to observe the use of creeks for sewers, and the harmdone by the burning over of grassland and weedland; he may also seecontour plowing and other desirable practices. In a brief survey. almostevery community will show a number of practices that need to becorrected, and others that have had beneficial effects.

Persons who have experienced lack of conservation, perhaps in arundown farm, forest, business, residential neighborhood, factory, ormine and have been successful in correcting the condition, may bebrought in to tell the class what problems they faced and what stepsthey took to overcome these problems.

Thus, a real comprehension of the meaning of conservation resultsfrom a series of varied experiences. If those provided are too few andtoo abbreviated, the child will not realize how destruction of resourcesmakes it difficult for all concerned.

Concept formation is distinctly different from mere fact learning.A child may report facts accurately after reading a textbook and yethave no grasp of the concepts implied....

5G

JOHN B. CARROLL*

The Formation of Concepts

One necessaty condition for the formationof a concept is that the individual must have a series of experiencesthat are in one or more respects similar.... Experiences that embodythis concept are "positive instances" of it; experiences that do notembody it may be called "negative instances." A further necessarycondition for the [cm mation of a concept is that the series of experi-ences embodying the concept must be preceded, interspersed, or fol-lowed by other experiences that constitute negative instances of theconcept. As the complexity of the concepts increases . . . there is agreater necessity for an appropriate sequencing of positive and nega-tive instances in order to insure adequate learning of the concept.'At least this is true Ndlell Mc.. concept has to be formed from /1011.verbal experiences only. . . . But concept learning from verbal ex-planation, as will be noted below, mist, as it were, put the learnerthrough a ries of vicarious experiences of positive and negativeinstances. For example, in telling a child what a lion is one mustindicate the range of positive and negative instances the range ofvariations that could be found in real lions and the critical respectsin which other animals tigers, leopards, etc. differ from lions....

It would be relatively rare to find a concept taught in school bythe procedure of showing a student a series of positive and negativeinstances, labeled as such, and asking in to induce the nature of theconcept with no further aid. Such instances could be found, of course;perhaps they would exemplify a pure "discovery method," and per-haps there should be more use of this method than is the case. The factis that a pure discovery method is seldom used, because it is rather slowand inefficient. EN ell if a teaching procedure incorporates "discovery"elements, it is likely to be combined with deductive elements. The

Cairn% John 13..,"Words. Meanings and Concepts," fianhard Educational Roving.,IS1, 191.19:,, 202. Cop) right '© 1969 by President and Fellows of Ilarsard College.

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Jo

52 CONCEPTS tN TUE SOCIAL STUDI FS

Concept to be taught is described verbally perhaps by a rule ordefinition and the student is expected to attain the concept bylearning to make correct identification of positive and negative in-stances. For example, he is told what an "indirect object" is and thenis given practice in identifying the indirect objects (positive instances)among other words (negative instances). Many simple concepts canbe taught by a wholly deductive procedure. For most students, thedictionary definition of hall will be a sufficient stimulus for attainmentof the concept. On the other hand, it is well known that ptnclydeductive, verbal procedures are frequently insufficient to help learnersattain concepts. ..

...Not every concept is learned solely in a formalised, prearrangedschool setting. The school Clirfronment is in many ways continuouswith the out-of-school environment; concepts are learned partly inschool, partly out of school. . . . A child Icau-ns the concept "dog" notby having the concept described to him Eva by learning to restricthis usage of the word dog to instances -,egarded as positive by thespeech community.. In this process dine arc many false responses --either false positives (calling a non-dor, a dog) or false negatives (be-lieving a dog to be a non-instance) , before an appropriate suit's ofreirforcements produces correct concept attainment. Similar phe-ncmena occur with concepts in the school curriculum. A child whohas been told that his cotts:m visiting him (ruin Peoria ate "tourists"may not !Tali's: that tourists do not need to be relatives, and whenhe is told that the Cetmans who have settled in his town ate "immi-grants," he III y believe that all foreigners visiting his town are101111 igra 015 ....

What is actually going on in most scl ool !cat ning of concerts is aprocess that combines in some way deductive and inductive features.Descriptions and definitions provide the dedudive elements of theprocess. The sevetal parts of a description or definition specify theant Runes ... (of) the concept. The order in which these specificationsare arranged in the description and presented to the st Latent may havesomething to do with the ease of concept attainment, particularly inthe ca -,e of complex concepts with many attributes and complex interrelationships Ns yet we have no welt untied generalisationsabout the order in which tile (titer ial attributes for a concept shouldbe presented.

At the same time inductive procedures entail the cii:n?, of positiveand negative instances of the concept. We knots. from concept attain-ment research that !cawing is facilitated mote by positive than bynegative inclances. ... But in real.irfe concept /earning, tic? nmnber

Formation of Concepts 53

of dimensions that may possibly be relevant is less limited; the func-tion of positive instances is as much to show which dimensions arerelevant as it is to show what values of them are critical. NVe mayspeculate that the real value of what we arc calling inductive pro-cedures m concept learning is to afford the learner an opportunity totest his understanding of and memory for the elements of verbaldescriptions and definitions. This testing may even involve the con-struction and testing of alternative hypotheses.

... To an adult, the differentiation between the concepts designatedby tourist and in migrant looks almost trivally simple. Aside from diesheer mentor-, problem in learning and differentiating the words them-selves, what are the sources of confusion for the child? In specific cases,a tourist mid an immigrant might have many common characteristics:both mighi be from a foreign country, of mt least from some distanceaway from the local community; laoth might be of obviously non-nativeculture because of dress. complexion, speech, and behavior; both mightbe doing what would appear to be "sight-seeing," though possibly fordifferent purposes. The diffetences between a ((mist and an immigrantmight not be very apparent, being primarily differences of motivation.Indeed, :1 tourist might become an immigrant overnight, just by de-ciding to be one.

...There is a sense in which the concept attainment experimentalliteratute is telesatit to the problem in learning the meaningsof the words tolnio and Motrigtatit. If the child is presented withsatious instances of peol>le who are either t .lists or immigrants,properly labeler; as such, but with 110 fill (tier explanition, it will bethe child's task to fignic out what antibutes or characteristics arcrelevant to the dilfetentiation of these concepts. This migitt occureither in school or outside of school. Most likely the instances of tourists and immigrants will be relatively sporadic over time, and dieinstances may not vary in such a way as to show what ant Mutes arcti lily relevant. For example, all the tomists may be obviously Americanwhet eas all the immigrants may nc obviously Mexican, let us say.1 he tourists may all he melt- dressed, the inunigtants poorly dressed,and so on. If the natural environment is like a grand concept-forma-tion expctirtutn, it may take the rhild a long time to attain theconcepts tourist and immigrant; indeed, the ens itonmem may notbe as informative as the usual experimenter, since the child may notalways be informed, or reliably infotmed, as to the rottertness of hisguesses. No wonder a child might form the concept that a tourist isany well-diessed person alto chives a station-wagon with an out-of-state license plate!


The purpose of teaching is to short-cut this capricious process ofconcept attainment within the natural environment. Through theuse of language, there should be relatively little difficulty in explainingto a child that an immigrant is one who moves from one country orregion to another in order to change his permanent residence, whilea tourist is one who travels around for pleasure without changing hispermanent residence. One can use simple enAanations like: "He'sgoing to stay here, have his home here .. ." or "He's just travelingaround for the furs of it while he's on vacotion, and someday he'llget back home." There should be no difficulty, at any rate, if the childhas already mastered certain prerequisite concepts. Among these pre-requisite concepts would be: the concept of Ironic or permanent resi-dence and all that it implies; the concept of the division of worldterritory into different countries and those in turn into regions; andthe concept of traveling for pleasure or curiosity. It is very likely thatthe child who is having trouble understanding the concept of touristvs. the concept of immigrant has not got dearly in mind these pre-requisite notions that constitute, its fact, the criterial attribous uponwhich the distinction hangs.

Alternatistly, a child might be having trouble because he has notdispensed with irrelevant aspce..s of these concepts; he might thinkthat a tourist has to be always an American, where,,s an iminivantinsist be a foreigner, because he has sects ,Interican tourists andforeign immigrants. no American immigrants nor foreign tourists. Theingenious teacher will think of the possible misunderstandings thatcould arise through the influenee of is relevant attributes of touristsand imm igr n ts.

...Concepts can be taught. Ore procedure cars be called induc.dye: it consists of presenting an individual with an appropriate s.riesof j)asitive and negative instances of a comept, labeler! as such, andallowing bins to infer the nature of the concept by noticing (constant)features or attributes. This is the procedure followed its the usualconcept formation expesiment: although our present knowledge allowsits to specify social necosaly conditions for the lot mation of a con-cept, we still do not know what conditions are sollicien1.

Another ployechire for concept teaching may be called deductive,and it tends to be the favored procedure its school 'causing (and, infact, itt all expository prose). It is the technique of ?resenting (Oncells by ses hal definition or description. This technique has rcecit.celrelatively little attention in p-,,tchological o.pointcrlation, but itseems to parallel huhu the concept attainment in the scnke that xerbaldescriptions are pecifications of criterial attributes that can enable

136

Pomo lion of Concepts 55

the individual to shortcut the process of hypothesis, discovery, andtestng that typically occurs in the inductive concept-attainment pro.ceckre. Nevertheless, it is not known how relevant our knowledge ofcritical factors in inductive concept formation is for the guidance ofdeductive teaching procedures.

... The efficient learning of concepts in school probably invokesboth inductive and deductive procedures. An analysis of typical con-cepts of the sort taught in school shows that they do indeed followthe models studied in psychological experimentation, but that they aremore likely to involve complex relationships among prerequisite con-cepts. The difficulties that learners have in attaining a concept arelikely to be due to their inadequate mastery of prerequisite conceptsand to errors made by the teacher in presenting in proper sequence theinformation intrinsic to the definition of the concept....

FOOTNOTE

'Eatl B. Hunt, Conreld Learnirrg: An Infoonintion Procesibig Problem (1NcwYotk: Wilcy, 1962).

ROBERT M. GAGNE*

Guidance in Concept Discovery

It is of sonic importance to note that a learningsituation can readily be set up to require human beings to discoverconcepts with almost no guidance. Goldstein and Weber (1965) ar-ranged a learning .situation in which learners of high school age wereasked to make a choice on successive exposures of two nonsense figures.Confirmation of correct responses was provided in such a way that inone group of learners "position" was the correct choice (i.e., the oneon the right), and in another group, a particular appeatance wascorrect. The subjects were asked simply to indicate choices, and mini-mal vccbal directions woe provided. The positional concept turnedout to be much more 11;11-Knit for these human subjects to discoverthan was the app earaine concept. But in either case, it took a relalively large number of trials before the clismvety was actually made.

If one examines these kinds of situations dispassionately, they leadnaturally to the following conclusion: Discosery without guidancemakes the learning of concepts a terribly slow process. It is quite evi-dent that adult human beings do not typ;cilly learn concepts by thismethod. If one wants an adult to learn to choose the one on the righthe says, "on the right," and the concept is attained in it single trial.If (ere wants efficient behavior in a let ersal problem by Set enlcar-oldhe sa)s "opposite,- and the concept is available for use at once. Exam-ples from sr hoof learning situations ate not different in principle.The student does not start to leant chat a cuff is by discover ing thatthis is its name; he is lobd what it is. The child does not begin theprikess of dismver ing what a circle is by searching for a drawn circle:he is told \chat it is. That is to say, when the (labels) lime been

I tom Roixtt SF, (;agitc. "1a,tctirsaF t4 atning and if c ('ol«pr of 1)icon i"in Ian S. Shirinhul atiC Evan R. Mi,iar, 4,15, I toriitrz. ,4 frilirnt

( hicago: Rand NI(Nall) Cn,rparn,,, 19(,4i. pp. 112

(1) 511

Guidance in Concept Discovery 57

preciously learned, as verbal responses or some other kind, it is con-siderably easier to arouse their recall by means of some verbal instruc-tion than it is to expect them to be discovered....

It is true that there must be a difference between the use of a previ-ously learned concept by an adult in a new situation, on the oneham:, and the absolutely brandnew learning of concept by a youngchild, on the other. Perhaps the latter is not and cannot be donesimply by transferring a previously learned verbal label, acting as amediator, to :1 novel situation, The young child must have to respondto a certain number of instanc-:s of a given clx,s before he is ableto respond conceptually to any member of the class; and in addition,he nest have differentiated negative from positive instances....

As a hypothesis concerning how a child might learn a concept, thefollowing is offered :

(a) Show the child one instance of the concept (e.g., edge, as theedge of a piece of paper) , :Ind say, This is an edge.

(b) Show him another instance, such as the edge of a swimmingpool, and say, This is an edge.

(c) Show hilt a negative instance, such as the side or to of aclinder, and say, This is not an edge.

(d) Show him still another object, such as a cup, and pointingappropriately, say, This is edge, and, This is not an edge.

(e) As a test, give the child a hex and say, Show me the edge... More examples, both negativ.: and positive, might be needed

for some chilchc n than for others. A teacher might prefer to use aquestioning fount of statement in most cases, rather than the declarative form hit it is most important to note that this is a highlyguided procedure, which requires communication through languagefor its success. There may be an internal process of tiscovei y in theattainment of the concept, but the external le:lining situation is onewhich uses extensive guidance.

6 u

6tJ

ZOE A. THRALLS*

Development of Concepts

the acquisition of concepts in any field is

gradual and cumulative because a concept is a complex affair. A (sta.dent) may recognite the word "climate," but may not have much of aconcept of "climate." Thus the teaching of concepts requires bothtime and skill on the part of the teacher skill in introducing theconcept and time filled with numerous appropriate pupil experiencesreputed to the concept. A concept must have meaning and usabilitybefore it becomes a part of the learner's thinking. The teacher cannotgive meaning la the learner. He can act only as a guide as the learnergradually constructs concepts out of his own expc:iences.

...The teacher mu,t keep in mind constantly that the process oflearning is gradual and cumulative. He cannot expect complete under-standing at the time the concept is introduced. The growth in under.standing of a concept proceeds step by step in ascending levels ofdifficulty. This expansion of a concept, or growth in understandingmay be illustrated with some examples. Une example, the river,is fairly simple; the second concept, latitude, is more dip cAdt andcomplex.

The term river 111C3115 "a large natural flowing body of water." Thelearner first becomes acquainted with a specific riser either throughactual experience or vicariously through reading and pictures. lielearns that it is a large flowing body of water. It has banks, a channel,and slow or fast current. Ile may note that man uses the river asa highway.

Next, he has experiences with other risers and notes their partUrular characteristics. Sonic flow rapidly, others slowly. Sonic have deltas

From 7oc A 1 hra114, I hc Imporia it: of Dot loping Ccogt.t phic Conc. Ns"in the Jotonnt cf Gregatloy, 59.2$0 22 kScptcml,cr 19450) .

58

Development of Concepts 59

at their mouths, others do not. Some have low fairly level land fortheir banks; others flow between high rocky walls, He begins todiscriminate between rivers and other large bodies of water. At thisstage he is increasing his general informat.on about rivers. His con-cept of livers gradually gains in clarity, specificity, and abstractness,By this time, he recognizes that although rivers differ, they havecommon characteristics. Ile has gained the basic meaning of theterm, river. He can now use the term with real understanding.

He is ready to acquire a more comprehensive understanding ofrivers and to classify rivers in various categories. Ile also begins tounderstand how man's activities may be affected by different riversand how man may rise them. Ile now has a rich and meaningfulconcept as a part of a system of ideas.

Latitude is a much more difficult concept to acquire. It is anabstract idea to start with and also is dependent upon a backgroundof experience with such concepts as sphere and direction. Latitude is ameans of measuring distances by degrees north or south of the equa-tor. (Learners) can memorize that definition, but it will have nomeaning to them and they will not be able to rise it unless the con-cept is deseloped step by step under the teacher's guidance, Further-more, a coitain intellectnal maturity is necessary.

First of all, the learner must recognize the difficulty of locatingplaces on a sphere such as the until. How can that be done? Inattempting to sore that problem the necessity of latitude or somemeans of location and measurement becomes evident.

By questions, the teacher helps the learner to recall the equatorand its meaning and the poles. These tel the (le-linos) shouldhave become acquainted with in the fourth trade, The teacher guidesthem in recalling how they used such general tetras as "hail -way tothe North Pole," or "near the Equator." Now a more exact methodof measurement is needed. The teacher introduces and explains lati-tude and degtees of latitude. In his explanation, he compares thelines of latitude to east-west streets aid degrees to the numbers onthe houses which help us locate a friend in a city. Some learners arebothered by the fact that the lines of latitude tun east-west, yet theymeasine distance north-south. if this point comes up, the teacher maymark off on the blackboard a series of lines one foot apatt rip fromthe chalk tray. Then the learner will see that these parallel lines helpone to find the distance up from the chalk tray, although the linesrun the opposite direction. Exercises that requireWire the learner to findon the globe and on maps cities at cations latitudes north and southof the Equator should follow this explanation.

60 CONCEPTS IN TUE SOCIAL. STUDIES

The next step is to guide the learner in icealling from his fourthgrade experiences the significance of location at different distancesnorth and south of the equator in tL inis of length of day, sun posi-tion, and climatic conditions. Then, in the fifth glade, the (learner)learns how latitude is related to the frost free season, tile crops raisedin northern and southein United States, the length and severity ofwinter, and other every day items. Tunis, in recalling his !mullgrade !earnings and adding new information, he begins to see thesignificance of latitude in man's life on earth.

Learning and application activities should fallow discussion. Thepurpose o' these activities is to make the concept clearer and ino7cexact. The activities should require the leather to locate a numberof places boll noun and south of the equator by latitude. Then heshould be ao/e to tell approximately (I) the sun ,vsition dotingthe summer and during the winter at t11.1 plate; the length ofdaylight in the winter and in the suninici; (3) the probable lengthof the hostfice season, and (1) the possible crops if there is sufficientrainfall. Of c0111,, other factors affect .lie cro raised in any area,but latitude is always one vital factor.

Now that is as far into the concept of attitudes Mich fifth grade(student) is able to go, and some may not b dirk to reach thatlevel. Not all (students) can be expected to attain the same level ofunderstanding. In the sixth and seventh glades, the learner may beable to take Anther steps forward under the teacher's guidance.

Thus, the building of concepts...is a gradual and cumulativeprocess. Ii 'cally never ends, but the teacher can be hilly satisfiedwhen the child is able to use the concept to attack new po 11,s, l'orinstance, if the (leather) can use the concept of latitude in attackingsuch questions as these:

Over how many degrees of latinid,' ,kres Chile extend? Is it in thenorth or south latitude? 11'113t d f great extent of latitude (17° S.to 55°S.) suggest concerning climatic conditions in (:hile? In whatmonths of the year would crops be It 3 tves'.ed in Ccntrat Chi 1C? Whatpossible (lops might be raised in Central Chile?

Gradually the tit titer's) concept of latitude is extended and henotes (main factors which odify th Itt ts of latitude, such asterrain, location el a west or east coast or ill the interim of a con-tinent. Ile also gains new concepts and modifies or extends the con-cepts of latitude and climate. /le limy be aide to develop some simplegeneralintions itch as, -The climate of a region is influenced to alarge extent by its latitude"; in Ow middle latitude lands have fourseasons, and the weather talks with the season."

GU

BARRY K. BEYER*

Teaching Conceptsin the Classroom

Concepts cannot be given or told to anyoneal least not be;ond the level of simple lesognition, art)way. We mustdevelop out (Inn ()Inept of something if it is to become a useful partof our cognitive hinny. . . "'codling concepts . . . really meanspultirg students into leaming expericnecs that will facilitate theirown comeptu;diiiation about a given concept.

Con«vtiaNcing is a /eriolit process. It consists basically of twosteps. II requites us fits' to into' nallic a tudimentoly slinclure of acon«ist, a kind of skeletal menial image imomplete and iniflesliedout in tones of all its mote itibtle dimensions and inteitelationshipsbut still possessing at least sonic basic elements. '117ell, 1111111 use

this (oiticpt to ;waive new cs 'sells:me or data in order to deselopnew insights and meaning, lit so doing we btoaden the initial conceptby adding dimensions that (dome apparent dining this expelien«'.IfeIping students «uneptsiolice thus tequiies us to guide them ineng.iging in these Iwo operations innoducing a concept and thenlucsadenin; or refining it

Introluting Conrepts Concepts iii i he iiiIrc.xluced in any of sev,eral ways. One apploodi is to tell the student., our innate of a givencopula to outliti it for !hem and then 'Jesuitic it giving auithisnatise csainpfe or two. Or WC might ins:sent ;1 wroi Cut as imaginedand "I'laii"1 by a sill i"I scientist. Fill" "Y, vtog the muslin!s someone isc's Ill si4in of the (owrcpt to be 511,died. ('sing this apHoodi familialitc students withthe btoad minims of o winept, but the) %sill not 111.11cistond or know

how 11,1rt 1,,f \f,,hr ,1 N'11, 11 forhailts F. Nit 11111Itr'lin( 1!+;1.. Rl pink,'

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611

62 CONCEPTS IN THE SOCIAL STUDILS

this concept as a result. Internalizing a concept :naking it part ofone's own mental library requires student use of the concept toanalyze new 4nd different bodies of content in subsequent lessons.

A much more useful approach to introducing students to a conceptand to conceptualizing is to involve the students in learning activitiesthat require them to invent their own conceptual images about aparticular thing. This requires us essentially to engage the students in:

I. Brainstorming2. Grouping or classifying3. Identifying interrelationships4. Synthesizing

Brainstorming is exactly what it implies listing of all the Val iousimplications of a word or phrase or its synonyms or implications orassociated terms. Its purpose is to get into view all the !rossible aspectsof some particular idea n object. This is the first stet) trying tobecome are of all the s:Aiotts terms or behaviors associated with aparticular concept. It may be done by merely deciding to -Thinkof all the things that are wsociated with X," withatit any specificpreparation. Or stch an activity might well follow some experiencethat contains ratair elements generally associated with the concept.

Once these associated terms or features have been listed for all tosee, the: most be categorizzd. All those terms with similar featuresshould be placed in a single group and the group labeled withwhatever (elm describes the common element.

Then the groups must be examined in order co determine whichones might have any relationships to each other. Some will appearto be elements of major significance while others may be related toone of these elements.

Once these relationships have been estabtislitd, the groups may bearranged mentally or visually as in a diagram so as to make theserelationships readily apparent. This operation is really a synthesizingof all the data. 1he result is a concept a mental image of what-ever it is sve have been wen king with.

Suppose for example we wish to &Idol) a concept of landscape.First, it is necessary to brainstorm about it. What do we think ofwhen w,^ think of landscape? Perhaps the following terms come tomind ri oat

roads billboards:co swings valleys

owers shrubs rivershills schools parks

VU

Teaching Concepts in the Classroom 63

erosion telephone poles gravel pitstall grass flatlands factories

There could, of course, be many more items. But let us work withthese. Are any of tl:ese similar? Do any have something in commonwith any other? Perhaps these (cold be grouped as frIlows:

A Bhomes hiltsvitools valleysroads erosiontelephone poles flatlandspacks treesswings flowersbillboards shrubsgravel pits tall grassfactories rivers

hems in group A are man-made. The others are nature-made. Yet,chser inspection suggests that there groups might even be furthersubdivided into:

C I)homes roads swingsschools billboards parksfactories gravel pits

telephone poles

trees hill. erosionBowers va' isshrubs flatlandstall grass livers

Categories C, 1), and E contain differ cnt classes of manmade things.Group C consists of shnctures that house people or property. 1) ofsumo' es that service people, E of recreational structures. The retraining groups have been drawn from the nature-made categoryF consists of things that grow on the ground, C of surface feat In es andII of one sway the sun face features evolved.

Now what arc the relationships between these groups? Perhapsthe image that emerges is ,ormhing like this:

70

64 CONCEPTS IN THE SOCIAL SIUDIE

This cli,%rant is a representation of a mental image of landscaltc. Ofcourse, it is obviously' incomplete in terms of how a geographermight conceptlialin it. Ile might, for instance, :cid a dimension of"origins" to the clement of sinkce features and perhaps a dimensionof "cau,cs" (meaning the kind of soil, temperature, and rainfall con.(Iihutini; to the glowth of the vegetation) to that of vegetation,Certainly the concept will be altered in time as it is used to analystrt wide satiety of landscapes.

It is neither always possible nor even desir;:ble, nowever, to limethe introduction of a concept solely on the past expoience or knowledge of the students. In many instances students lack exp7encesor information that enable them to brainstorm profitably abort ecr-tain kinds of concepts, especially the more abstract concepts such asderisionmaking, imperialism or Jpa fiat intelartion. In,,tead, studentsmay brainstorm in response to a stimulus or 7ring experience de-signed by the teacher to provide them with examples of the conceptbeing introduced.

Instead of basing students brainstorm off the top of their headsabout the elements of landicapr, fur example, 1 teacher might presentthe class first with a large painting of a landscape or a photographor dr atsin 4- of r, landscape or social paintings or pictines of dif.ferent two of landscapes. The students can examine these examples

.St I rid John I tay.r Matt In his article '.Slated Uori«os ;:i the GolialdhicAn.itth (4. Rural 8,riot ldurnriu,. Ihtemlbct 1966 IT. 6,07 O.

Teackng Concepts in the Classroom 65

and identify a number of things they see. A list of what they observecan then be made and the introduction of the concept of landscapewill be ,cell un,ier way.

Pictures aren't t'us only media or resources that may be used, either.In introducing the concept of landscape, for instance, the teachermight provide each member of the class with a poem about a land-scape, or a shot t essay or even appropriate excerpts front an explorer'sdiary and then have the students list the kinds of things referredto as part c! the landscape in each source. Or, die entire class mightgo to the classroont windows and record the different things they seeoutside as part of the landscape. A wide variety of sources are aail-able for use in stimulating brainstorming about any particular con-cept. Whether a concept is introduced by the teacher himself bytelling what he thinks it is, or by students brainstorming out of theirown experience, or by the class analysis of some examples of the con-cept, it is important to remember that this is only the first step inconceptualizing. The next step and the crucial one is to broadenthe concept, and, hi the process to intemaiize tleas-i) it.

Broc.!'enipr a concept: The second major step in conceptualizingis using the concept in whatever form it is emerged horn the introdoctory stage to analyse new data. lit mans of guiding students todevelop their own concepts, this %leans simply providing them withoppoitunitics to wink with data that will not only reinforce thebasic elements of the concept but will also broaden the total conceptitself by adding new dimeosions. In so doing the basic elements of theconcept may be altered considerably as eN peCcmc with new data

.ses their modification, amalgamation or even outright elimina-tion. 1 he process of refining a concept is never-ending, for the morea concept is used the more useful it becomes and the more it is

then used.Broadening and refining concepts require the use of different

kinds of data. Initially students should work with data that rellect theessential elements of the concept as they have thus far been developed.l'hen data having odic,- elements commonly associated with theconcept may be introduced and analysed so that new dimensicns ofthe concept will CnICIge. Finally, data that is somewhat similar butwhich lacks the basic ingredients of the concept nay he examined --not to broaden the concept itself so much as to reinforce its essentialelements by contrasting them with different data.

It is quite possibic, for example, that initial clTotts to conceptualizewill neglect one or more din.cnsions of a concei4 which we or othersbelieve ate important. 'I herefore, students nmst be put in torch with

71

66 CONCEPTS THE SOCIAL STUDIES

new data, the analysis of which will lead them to at least consideradding this dimension to their image of the concept. If students failto include a category of "Lousing structures" in their initial image oflandscape, for Instance, and most experts believe this to be an impor-tant part of la7nIscape, then we must provide the students opportuni-ties to use ch.tr, in which housing structures ate very prominent suchas a photograph of a housing development perhaps. As a result ofthis experience Ole students should add a new dimension to theirconcept in order to provide a catc3ory to account for this type of data.

Having thus guided the students to invent their own concept oflandscape as described above, we can help them broaden and refineit by having them use this cos cept to explain a variety of new data.Tile concept of h,ndscape described above may certainly be enlargedas it is used to analyse the landscape of Brazil when studying thatcountry in world geography, the landscape of Boston in studying theeighth grade unit on the American Revolution and in studying someof the work of European painters in the European history course.This same concept may even be used to make sense out of a paintingperhaps by Remington, a film on Asia, a selection front The RedBadge of Courage, one's own front yard, the battle field at Gettysburgor even a photographs of astronauts on the moon. It could be used tomake meaningful any particular site for any event at any time or anyplace in history.

Knowledg" of concepts may be evaluated in a variety of ways, tooWhether or not a stockist has developed a well-defined concept oflandscape, for instance, may be determined by asking him to describeit orally or in writing or even by drawing a picture. Or, he might begiven dace or four pictures taken in a certain area of a tope,gtaphicmap or an aerial. photograph and be asked to describe the landscapehe sees. In any case, should his description include comments aboutthe major elements of landscape as dev-loped in ckss, then it wouldbe fair to assume he has begun to internalize this concept. If thereappears little recognition of these elements, however, then furtherinquiry into the nature of landscape may be in order.


Students Develop the ConceptImperialism*

T.imperialism has the advantage of being a key

concept for understanding the events that shaped American foreignpolicy doting the period, 1898-1901, and for understanding interna-tional relations tod ty. It is a concept for which there is no completedefinilion a soft of "accommodating term" coveting a number ofetents and genetalizations open to exception. Also it is a team abo,v,hich there will be differences of meaning heid by members ofa sli.ss.

...The following procedure was employed. Prior to class discus-sion of the me, g of imperialism, students were asked to write whatimperialism meant to them. A follow-tip discussion was conducted bythe teacher for the remainder of the period to formulate a class defini-tion for the group's use of the term. In a subsequent period studentswere asked to take their class definition of imperialism and (I) toapply it to the pelicd of the SpanishAmerican War, stating whereinthe definition as foimulated by the class was adequate and inade-quate; (2) to apply it to the , pericxl of American foreign policyin the Fiscni.ower Administration, stating wherein the definition wasadequate and inadequate; and (3) to state what the analysis madein (1) and (2) suggested to them about a concept such as

The procedure that developed with this particular class might besummarized as:I Selecting a key concept.

From Fred P. Bs' s, ed , Deit'oping Concep A Slurry n the Tearhing ofHistory, 1 he Cur 'Scutum Rcseateh Series, Bulletin No. G-T% o.fte, Illinois ikpattnun{ ( rubric !not oetion, 1958. pp. 10-25.

67 .


2. Involving students in a verbal expansion of the concept as a meansof reducing it to words that refer to action. (Getting an operationaldefinition.)

3. Involving students in selling rules or conditions for their tr .f or.

the concept.J. Applying the definition, with agreed-upon conditions, to several

(Eifel ent situations as a means of developing discrimination, accu-racy, and flexibility in using the concept....

The Operational Definition of Abstract Termsimpor t int factor in lie!pirg students develop competence in the

use of an absti act ter n, such as "imperialism," is to have them teduceit to words that refer to actions and helms iors which are part of unit-experience.

In the class refereed to above, each of the students stated in wiltingand most of them expressed orally in the discussion period thoseactions and behaviors on the part of nations that to them were signsof imperialism. Representative student responses ate cited below toillustrate "the verbal filling out" that students did in mitring themeaning of "imperialism" to behaviors and actions for which theyhad already developed lather accurate meanings.

I call a country imperialistic if it interferes in the affairs of anothercomury to gain benefit for itself. 1 his can be done by spreading propaganda or supporting some faction that will achieve the things that thecountry is trying to do or by using out-and-out force. If a country usesforce to gain complete control over another country as the Soviets havedone with their satellites, then that is imperialism. If a country has acolonisI empire that it forces to trade only with the mother lountry orimpose other restrictions upon, then that is imperialism. if a coon ryspreads its r-rural ideology to other countries and clines them to changetheir type of goscrnment to the fast country's type, then that is im-perialistic.

%When I think of a country being imperialistic / am usually not thinkingin a scry complimentary way of that nation because the word, 'imperial-ism,' has become one with a shady meaning. An imperialistic nation, tome, is one with goals to expand beyond its borders for the purpose ofbricking other areas and people of the world under its influence toestablish some sort of empire.

Imperialism has a negative meaning and I usually speak of it in referenceto a nation that forces its goscrnment, traditions, and laws on anothercountry.

tl

The Concept Imperialism 69

...This "verbal filling out suggests the importance of providingopportunity for all students to reduce abstract terms to a level asclose as possible to things and actions that come within theirexperience....

Distinguishing Between Conditionsfor Use of a Term and Causes of Events

Helping students to think through condition; for the use of anabstract term ci,n create pi oblems unless the tcher is alert to thecase with which the discussion can shift to causes of state -of- affairs.The abstraction taken from the running notes of . (las ,. discussionillustrates this point:

TEacitER: Can we conic to some agreement on the meaning of thisteirn, "imperialism?" What does it mean to yott?

Dox: It's one nati )n inset fering in the affairs of another nation.Maks: it's a strong ountry that wants prestige or land or control

of another country.EI.A1NI: Why, it's simply a country that's attempting to build an

empire.Impetialism means sonic liqd of influence on anothercountry, or people.

Bum': I'd call the SpanishAmerican War imperialistic eventhough it stas fought to free tl.e Cubans.

TESC.IER: If imperialism has a connotation of control or influence,why do you say the SpanishAmerican War was imperial.istic, although it was fought to free the Cubans fromSpanish rule?

Birrry: Cuba got its independence suppo.edly, but the PlattAmendment gave the United States control over Cuba forsonic time.

TEAMER: Are we in agreement, then, that imperialism exists ulunNation X attempts to influence or control Nation V?

SIEVE: ought to add to that by getting control or posses.sion of its natural resources.(The statement read: Imperialism exists when Nation Xattempts to influence Nation Y by getting control orpossession of its natural resources.)

Tr sent s: Are there other conditions that should be considered?

(Pause)

FACBER: Conditions that give rise to or promote imperialism?


Jim: Overpopulation. Countries have to find a place to sendsurplus population. Colonies make a good place.

JOE: When a country needs markets for surplus products.Industrial development ...

FRED: Underdeveloped areas of the world crc.,:e a vacuum thatinvites imperialism. Some nations usually big onesmove into the vacuum.

DON: A nation's security and welfare goals may cause it to fol-low an imperialistic policy.

The first seven student responses indicate that the students weredescribing actions of nations, and in so doing they were developingan operational definition of imperialism....

In the abstract given above, the reader will note that corvensus fora portion of the definition seems to have been reached at the pointwhere the group agnsed that, "imperialism exists when Nation Xattempts to influe,,ce or control Nation Y." At this point the teacherattempted to keep the discussio open for further consideration ofconditions for use of the term, but the discussion shifted suddenly tocauses of imperialism. The wording of the teacher's question is thekey to the sudden shift in the direction of the ana'ysis. By adding,"conditions that give rise to or promote imperialism" the teacherdirected student thinking away from conditions for use of the term toconditions that describe or tell how a state of imperialism conies intoexistence....

Conditions for the use of a term and conditions that describe ortell how what the tom stands for arc two quite different things. Theformer is an essential aspect of concept analysis whereas the latteris not. Il'hen the purpose of a discussion is to set the rules or condi-tions for use of an abstract term, the teacher needs to be wary of shift-ing thinking away from the development of an operational definitionto a discussion of causes. To shift inadvertently from one to the other,without helping the class to understand what is happening. is tocontribute to student misunderstanding of the concept and the condiLions for its use.

Refining and Searching for Better Concepts

Having formulated a definition for the use of a concept. studentsmay think that they have a complete definition that is adequate whenapplied to different situations. Providing experiences whereby supdents Icarus that operational definitions give only sufficient conditionsfor the use of a term is important to developing an understandingof concepts....


In the classroom analysis of the concept imperialism referred to inthis discussion, the teacher provided such an experience for the stu-dents by asking them to apply their definition of imperialism to theperiods of the Spanish-American War and to the current period ofAmerican foreign policy indicating wherein their definition was ade-quate and inadequate. They were also asked to state what theirapp/iration of the definition to these two periods suggested to themabout the concept.

The definition that developed in class discussions and that wasapplied to tie two different periods in the nation's foreign policyfol lows:

Imperialism exists when Nation X attempts to influence Nation I' bygetting control or possession of its natural resources or by making Nation

dependent on Nation X for manufactured or imported goods or bymaking Nation Y accept the political or religious treed of Nation X.

Excerpts are taken from students' papers to illustrate how theapplicution of a definition can serve the dual function of providingpractice in "testing.' a definition in several different situations and ofhelping students recognize the adequacy-inadequacy of theirdefinition,

Sample AAwn-ding .0 the definition, American policy at the lilac of the Spanish-American War was imperialistic because we inflicted our own system ofgosernment on the people of the territories gained as a result of theSpanish-American War. However, I don't believe it is this simple. Onefactor in a nation's actions, which is not included in the definition, isnenisation. We controlled these territories as we did for the benefit ofthe people. We intended from the first to prepare them to gosern them-aches and eventually they were freed. I am not sure that these twodifferences make our policy non imperialistic, but I think sonic provisionshould be made for them in the definition.

It seems to me that the only question in applying this definition to ourpresent foreign policy is whether the United States is trying to makeother nations accept our ideology the democratic way of life. In myopinion the use of persuasion cannot be considered imperialism, and Ithink this should be clear in our definition, i e., that imperialism existswhen nations ore made to accept tVcse ideas against their will. Thisrules out per-suasion. In other respects I think this definition is clearenough.

fr applying the definition to American foreign policy at thetime of the SpaniskAnterican War, the student in Sample A finds it

r

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72 CONCEPTS IN 7ttE SOCIAL STUDIES

adequate. But then she goes on to point out that since no provisionis made in the definition for a nation's motives and intentions, thedefinition is lacking in completeness. She raises the question cfwhether or nut it is quite accurate to use the terra "imperialism" todescribe the nation's policy at that time.

Since this point had not been raised when the class de.-eloped i sdefinition, it is of some interest to the teacher that several student;made somewhat similar observations in testing their definitions....

In applying the definition to the nation's current foreign policy,the student in Sample A raises the question of persuasion as an actionthat is or is not a condition of imperialism. }or her it represents anextension of the definition and one that seems to have broadened herunderstanding of the term.

The excerpts that follow are cited to illustrate Curlier the kindsof modifications that other members of the class regarded as necessaryin the use of the ucfinition.

Sample BI think the second part of the definition should be changed and restrictedso that imperialism is not the case if Nation V gets its materials frommore than one Nation X or if only one Nation X is involved, the costsare fair in terms of the value of goods received.

Sample CIP certain times a nation is forced to take the oftensise against im-perialism by indulging in it. I think in such an instance that we Canhardly be condemned for trying to keep the USSR out of the MiddleEast. There can be no absolute definition of 'imperialism,' It must berelative to what the s'orld situation insolses and what has (erne beforein the country. I would add as a condition to the definition 'if suchaction effects a change for the worse in the freedom and welfare of thepeople of Nation V'.

... In samples B (and) C. students suggest that ill older for thedefinition to be adequate :n toda)'s world, it needs to include rondilions describing a nation's action irl respect to trade and foreign aid.There appears to be some question in their minds as to whether ornot alliances, foreign aid, vnd trade.ins est men t des elopments amongnations today ale new actions of nations that arc signs of imperialismor of something else. Front the fact that tin «mcerns were expressed,it might be Icasonable to assume that students were making a tonscions effort (tititally to examine their definition and to identify atwhat points it was adequate and inadequate when applied to Risensituations._

The ploceInte of applying the definition to two clific tilt situationsseems to hose I101NCti students in a process of adding to and sub.


traccing from, as well as re.examining and te-interpreting conditionsfor the use of the term important activities in the critical searchhigfor better concepts.

Setting Limits for Use of Co.,cepts

Anodic.' kind of problem that developed in the discussions of themeaning of imperialists was that of agreeing on the liinits to set forthe use of the term. This is an aspect of concept analysis that can bc.useful in helping students understand the nature and function ofhistorical concepts.

Trvcatra: We've raised the question of determining at what point anation becomes imperialistic. It's like crossing a line. Upto a point it is and beyond a given point it isn't imperial-istic. There is the cutting edge in our use of this term?

DON: les something you have to creep up on. One you get onit you've kind of passed the point already. It's hard to tellbecause you can't look at all the events and see the effect.

FRFD: 1 don't think there is a cutting edge. The concept is justused to know relative standards thought of a countcy. Youcan only say that one country is more imperialistic thananother.There are so many into! s involved that it's almost impos-sible to specify a point at which a nation's activity becomesimperialistic. A cutting edge would be purely atbitraryand sery difficult to avec on. I think it would be moreuseful to tet up conditions for the use of the term, andthe more the country met them the more imperialistic itwould be.

Working with their definition and applying it to (fillet ent periodsin the nation's history helped to make students aware of the diffi-culty a group encounters in reaching agreement on any one point thatmight serve as a cutting edge for their use of the (elm, -imperialism."

...The difficulty of setting a cutting edge became apparent tothe class, and this was the time to help them understand that his-torical concepts, unlike concepts in &clout', ate "accommodatingturns" that coscr a gteat many (vents hat petting in different placesat different times. in history use do not spicily- that any single eventor set of csents roust be peseta if a state of affairs is to be termed";mperialism." To do so would be to destroy the utility ct the con-cept. !fence, impoialinn, like many concepts in history, has an cle-ment of vagueness that makes it difficult to "pin down." Helen issaying precisely that, M the abs:,actio from the nous Risen immecli 79

74 CONCEPTS IN THE SOCIAL S rtIDIEs

ately above, namely, "A cutting edge would be purely arbitrary andvery difficult to agree on."

Identifying and Using ConceptsThat Describe ?nd Rate

A fifth aspect of concept analysis important to the socia' studiesteacher is helping students to recognize and understand the descriptive arid rating functions performed by concepts. Words like "good"and "bad" are used to approve or disapprove; to give or deny valueto people and things. But few words are limited just to rating ordescribing. More often words &scribe and rate at the same time. Thereader will immediately think of a number of such terms in the socialstudies, e.g., "Americanism," "rugged individualism," "democracy,""revolution," "capitalism," "socialism," "communism," "liberalism,""conservatism," "radicalism." Each of thew terms describes or tells ussomething about the actions and operations of people or things, andin so doing the term is performing a descriptive function. But theseterms also perform a rating function: they commend or deprecate,praise or blame, approve or disapprove.

Let's take the term "imperialism" with which vv.e have been workingin this discussion of concept analysis. When the students in the UnitedStates history class develope; their operational definition, they weredescribing actions of nations, that is, influencing and controllinganother nation by (I) getting control of its natural resources; (2)tnaking it dependent for manufactured goods; (3) imposing its insti-tutions on another people. The term, in this sense, is used to describe.However, "imperialism" is one of those terms that may also be used toevaluate or rate, and this occurs when opinions get mixed in with thedescription. Two of the students' initial written statements on themeaning of imperialism illustrate this point.

Imperialism has a negalhe rieaning and I usually speak of it in referenceto a nazion that forces its governn ant, traditions, and laws on anothercountry.

111.

When I think of a country being imperialistic, I am usually tot thinkingin a very complimentary way of that nation because the word, 'imperial.ism,' has become one with a hady meani lg. An imperialistic nation, tome, Is one sviih goals to expand beyond its borders for the purpose ofbringing other areas and people of the world under its influence toestablish tome sort of empire.

In each of these two statements, "imperialism" is used to describeand rate. In the first statement it rates and descritxs at the samL

8C,


In the second statement the student rises the term to tell us how itstands %VW' hint, ald in the last sentence of the statement, "imperial-ism" serves a descriptive function.

Undoubtedly, these two students assumed they were describitigactions of nations, that is, telling what the term "imperialism" meantto them, when actually they had gone beyond this to state an opinionof imperialism. In both instances they used the term to tell howimperialism stood ,ith them. Although they' judged it had, it mightbe good or bad delynding on the criteria they used in arriving at theirjudgment. For example, one person might hold that nineteenth cen-tury imperialism, as cleteloped by western European nations in Asiaand Africa, was bad. his criterion for arriving at this judgment is thatall people, regardless of race or creed, have the right of self-determina-tion. Since, in his opinion, the actions of western nations did not!Imam up to his criterion, he rates imperialism bad. Another personmight approve nineteenth century imperialism, using as his criteriathe detelopmeat of natural resources, the modernisation of iddustryand transportation, and the education of the people of underdetel-ope(l areas of Asia and Africa

Disagreements of this kirk', can be resolved by deciding which isthe better set of criteria for rating imperialism or any other set ofconditions. To do this it is necessary to set up and reach agreement oniome criteria to determine which is the better set. If such criteria arelacking or it agreement cannot be reached on those supplied, theindividuals concerned will continue to rate imperialism differently.

h is important if students ate to develop skill in the use of conceptsin the social studies that they' understand the dual function manyconcepts serve. It is equally important that students know when theyand others are using terms to describe or to rate or to do both ofthese. They need also to be conscious of the criteria that are operatingwhen terms are used to approve or disapprose. They need, likewise,to recognise that when people disagree on criteria, they will rate thesame thing differently. ...

Attempting to determine what rules or criteria people he fortheir opinions should help students develtp some understanding ofthe impoitance of criteria as the key to determining whether or notany basis exists fo- reaching agreement. When abstract terms areused to evaluate or rate, and there is disay,teement about criteria,trouble is inevitable, be it in a classroom discussion or in an imerna-tionr', (eminence. Students who are able to act on these understandings are developing more efficient concepts and becoming mart effident thinkers.

VERNA S. FANCETT*

How Concepts Develop

Concept development begins in early infancyand normally continues thoughout life. Thus the child enters schoolwith a number of concepts in the plocess of development, and it is

well to remember that many concepts will continue to develop as aresult of experiences outside of school. In pointing out the preeminentrole of concepts in an individual's life Russell comments: "The aiult'sconcepts determine pretty well what he knows, what he believes, andthus in large part vdiat he does. "'

...Concepts develop in the classroom out of a stimulus providedby the teacher. The student looks at a picture, reads a passage from abook, listens to a speed', feels the surface of a raised relief map,or tastes strange food from a foreign land. The (impressions) grow-ing out of these sensory experiences ore the first step toward conceptdevelopment. The student describes to himself what he senses andhow he feels about it, moving back and forth between the sensoryexperience and his thoughts about it. The accuracy and emotionalcontent of his perceptions influence the extent of his progress indeveloping a concept. If he is expected to be content with remember.ing what has happened, little progress toward concept developmentwill be made. What he needs is time to think in order to solve theproblem of meaning by organizing his perceptions to see how they fitinto what he already knows his memories and mental images, orima. 'nation.

.say be that the student is confronted with a situation so uniquethat he has no past experiences to use as tools for transforming hisperceptions and feelings into a meaningful pmern. lie faces ideasthat are entirely. new. In this case his concept will be initiated on thebasis of the single experience, and will be described in his mind by the

From Perna S. tanc(1t el al, Social Science Concept in Ole C1451raCrl. S)1".t.cue: Scxiat Stuclics Curriculum Unicr, I968. pp. 21-21.

76

How Concepts Develop 77

perceptions and feelings gained at that moment. Or, he may have hadsome experience in the past which is related to this concept, but maybe only vaguely aware that something is familiar; he may be unableto decide why it is familiar, and therefore, be unable to use the mate-rials for fur the development of he concept. He is not able to establishthe necessary relationships with something he already knows If hedoes recognize si7nilarities between the resent and past experienceshe can begin to fit the parts together, to extend the base of his under-standing, in other words, to develop a concept.

Imagination plays a significant role at this time because no twoevents or ideas in human activity are likely to be identical. Imagininghow one event might be related to other events requires more creativesearch than simple recall of a concrete item. One might consider theprocess of thinking at this stage as a sorting through memories untilthe right item is located. All the while, memories and imagination ;irebeing influenced by emotions as the searcher describes to himself howhe feels about what is happening. If this does not take place conceptattainment is abandoned.

Having identified related inataials, the learner then abstracts therelevant elements and sets aside the irrelevant. Connections betweenthe relevant elements arc sought and tested, and adjustments are madeas relationship ate clarified. Gradually the pathways arc made be-tween items of knowledge which expand an original idea into a larger,more powerful whole. A more complex concept has been formed. Inthe future, under different circumstances, confronted with differentmaterials that stimulate his thinking, he will repeat the processes ofsensing, perceiving, recalling, imagining, abstracting, discriminating,relating, testing, generalizing. His concept will be adjusted and re-finned as understanding grows, The process may be repeated againand again or the concept may be retained, with little change, for longperiods of time... .

Experiences Do More-s'o Promote concept DevelopmentThan Repetition of the Same Experience

As has been emphasized, each individual builds his own concepts;no one can "give" a concept to anot1 r. A va:iety of experience, re-lated to the same general idea or concept, enables the learner torecognize the central idea imols,d. Such experiences should makelice of as many kinds of sensory experience as possible, in contrast to a

single stimulus, such as the teacher's voice. The effectiveness of varied

8


experiences form the basis of the multimedia approach to communi-cations.

If understanding of a concept rests upon the repetition cf a singleexperience there is considerable likelihood that the understanding willbe extremely narrow, and possibly even distorted. As truth is said tohave many (aces, so does a concept. Abundant experiences, all of whichfocus on the same general concept, should protect the learner fromstereotyped patterns of thought.

Concepts Develop From Vicarious Experiencesand From Noting Similarities and DifferencesAs Well As From Direct Experiences

As our social order becomes more complex the opportunities to formwhat Joyce has called "observed concepts" become fewer. Direct ex-periences may consist of verbal statements made either in person orby means of films, radio, or television. They also testa' from physicalactivities and from first-hand experience with objects in the environment.

However, since concepts are abstractions many of them grow outof inferences based upon comparisons and contrasts in what is per-ceived, what is remembered, and the mental images one retains. Bothinductive and deductive reasoning may be employed in developingconcepts, It is possible to provide a concrete demonstration in orderto allow the learner to reason inductively and develop his own ideaof the concept involved by moving from the known to the unknown.Other concepts may need to be developed deductively because theymay not be demonstrable or because the method of induction is tootime-consuming.

Concepts Are Acquired Chiefly Through The Medium Of Words

The importance of verbal learning has been pointed out by Brow.nell and Hendrickson: 'We deal with facts and relationships whicharc recorded, studied, learned, remembered, and used by means ofss-ords."2 There are other ways of learning in addition to wordsperceiving, motor activity, and feeling. But as the individual acquiresfacility in the use of language more awl more of his teaming dependsupon words.

This dependence on words sometimes leads the learner astray be-cause the term encountered means something quite different to thelearner than was intended by the author. Ernest Horn noted sonicthirty years ago that social concepts appealing most frequently in

8

How Concepts Develop 79

books and periodicals are poorly understood. His conclusion isstartling: "The more crucial and basic the concept, the more seriouslyinadequate, apparently, are the student's ideas about it."' ProfessorHorn reports numerous studies which indicate misconceptions arisingfrom the meanings of words. He comments that words which expressthe author's thought reasonably well are significant to the reader onlyin so far as they are related to his purposes and experiences.

Concepts Develop Slowly In A Child's Mind

Concepts appear to become more securely fixed in a child's mindwhen they are developed over a period of time, rather than in a singleconcentrated study. This is what jersill refers to as "seasoning" theopportunity a child has to have related experiences, recall past experiences, see connections, and test relationships in a continuum of situaLions as he matures.

The process may involve much 'learning and unlearning," evenrelearning, as he recognizes inconsistencies in his understanding andadjusts the pattern of thought to accommodate the new learning. Thuswhen a concept grows in a student's mind he Loth gains and loses, forin order to change his concept he must put aside some belief previouslyheld to be tree to accommodate something else he has come to accept.In the long process of maturing the student will experience many suchchanges related to his understanding of concepts... .

Concepts Develop At Different Rates For Each Person

The rate at which concepts develop will differ from person to per-son, depending on age, maturity, intelligence, personal characteristics,motivation, past expel iences, and as a result of this the extent ofconceptual understanding brought to the learning task also will differ.At the upper grade levels where students are usually expected to workwith many types of concepts, teachers find that some students requitemore time to under stand relationships of an economic nature thanthose that are political or social. To others, it may be concepts suchas causation, viewpoint, or objectisity that seem most difficult of allto change.

FOOT NOTESDas id 11. Russell, Children's Thirsting. (Boston: Ginn and Co., 197,6), p. 120.William A. Brow-n(11 and Gordon Ilcudrickson. 'Mow Children learn Informa

lion, Concepts and Generalizations,- Iretruitl and I, t,urtion, 40th Yearbook, PartI, :National Soeict) for the Stud) of Education. (Chicago: Uniscisit) rf Chicago

ss, 107,0j , p. 93.'Ernest llorn, Method! of instruction in the Soria Studies. (NcW York: (harks

Seribncrs Sons, p. 145.

8u

PART IV

What Are theImplications of

Concept- Teaching?

Successful coneepteaching in social studiesat all grade levelsrequires that both teachers and students behavesornoshat differently than they do in a traditional classroom setting.Concept teaching has important implications for teachers in how theyplan learning experiences, guide them to fruition and evaluate theresults. It also has implications for how students learn and what theydo in the classroom. And finally, concept teaching has numerous im-plications for a school's entire K.12 social studies curriculum andeducational proguar. Identifying some of these implications is thepurpose of this con !ruling section.

The beginning teachers referred to in the report of the study byAgnes Inn that follows were firstear teachers in a school system thathas a concept-oriented social studies curriculum, However, the kindsof problems and concerns with which these teachers had to cope asthey tried to "teach- concepts for die first time arc the same kinds ofproblems and concerns that face any teacher experienced or inexper kneed who tries to engage in concept teaching for the first time.Ihns. the points made here arc quire relevant to all educators initialeg concept teaching in social studies.

'I lie final selection is intended to do what we have been unable toft Id done elsewhere, to point up sonic of the fundamental implicationso' concepriteaching for social studies teachers and students. It is byit ) means definitive. There are certain!) many mote obvious and someiiirite subtle implications Ise !rase neglected to mention. 'I hose implications included. however, ate those es cisone engaged in conceptteaching in :'vial studies ought to he aware of, for unless these aredearly understood and dealt with in a positive fashion purposefulconcepteathing %sill most likely remain far from a reality in theclassrcxnn.

81 8U

8-

AGNES M. S. INN*

Beginning Teachers' Problemsin Developing Social StudiesConcepts

The task of providing a sequence of learningexperiences that leads to the conceptual objective is not an easy one....The chief difficulty encountered by ... teachers (has) to do withselecting and providing relevant learning experiences for pupils'Rd nit 7, specific learning activities to the attainment of specific con-cepts and genera7irations proved to be particularly bothersome. Thisdifficulty was noted repeatedly in the logs kept by the teachers and inthose kept by their supervisors. It was resealed again in their plans,expressed in private conferences, and observed during their teaching.These sample reactions from the teachers illustrate their concerns:1. Selecting sequential activities, each related to the main idea.2. Selecting the best activity to lead pupils to the main idea.3. Using a variety of activities: doing something besides discussion.4. Mainti,ining a balance of activities between readingtype and doing.

type and between smallgroup and large-group endeavors.5. Clarifying the purposes of activities for pupils.6. Conducting discussions without having pupils become restless.7. Formulating thought questions to guide pupils during discussion.8. Wording questions in a way pupils understand what is wanted.9. Relating fats and specifics to main ideas in discussions.An analysis of the expressed difficulty of these beginning teachers,namely, selecting suitable learning experiences for pupils, providesus with some valuable insights intu the complexities of guiding concept

From Agnes M. S. Inn, "Rcginning Trachme Problems in Developing SocialStudies Concepts." in SN-iat Education (Nov. 1466) , pp. 510511, 518.

82

Beginning Teachers' Problems 83

development. First. the teachers' own grasp of the particular conceptor generalization is critical. It is not simply a matter of possessingsufficient content background that supports and clarifies the concept;it is equally ;trerssaq to have a grasp of the dimensions of meaningor levels of abstraction of a particular concept.

In planning. the teacher must be able to analyze a concept intocomponent ekments and must also be able to arrange such elementson a continuum of difficulty. This is not possible unless he has somedepth of understanding of the concept himself. The teachers' limitaLions in this respect were observed in two ways. They had difficulty inanalyzing the conceptual objective in terms of levels of complexity.Teachers tended to perceive the "understanding of a concept" as an allor nothing affair rather than as developmental and continuous. Ob.nervation of their teaching revealed also that they often did not recog-nize the children's statement of the generalization because it was notcouched in the language of the teacher or expressed in the way hebelieved was correct. It was apparent that the teachers were not fullyaware of the dimensions of meaning or levels of abstraction of conceptsand generalizations and, therefore, encountered difficulty in guidingconcept development.

Second, dues that suggest appropriate learning activities are oftenoverlooked because teachers do not realize that a conceptual objectiveitself may suggest leads to suitable pupil experiences. For example,one of the conceptual objectives identified for a unit on Japan by asixth grade teacher was "The physical features of Japan influence theways of living in that country." This relationship can be more readilyunderstood if pupils have had some experience with its application tosituations with which they are presently familiar, This suggests thepossibility of a field study beginning with observation and identifica-tion of physical features found in the children's own environment andrelating these to occupations and other aspects of living. Using thisconcrete experience as a foundation, the class can now move intointensive map study and related research on how the people of Japan,or any other part of the world, are influenced of affected by the physi-cal features found there. Learning experiences fur this conceptualobjective could have been limited to reading about physical featuresand their effect on people's lives. But such an experience is a matureand advanced way of dealing with this idea. Freliminai y to an en-counter with it at this level of abstraction, the pupil should haveexperienced it in a more familiar and fundamental form and context,

Editor!' emphrsis.

8J


Third, the teachers' comments clearly suggest that their search rotlearning experiences that are varied, interesting, and meaningful wasoften done without sufficient concern for the conceptual objective tobe developed. They tended to scant learning experiences that wereexciting and different, but they rarely tied this search to the objective.The beginning teachers in the study made a conscientious effort toinclude learning experiences other than the conventional ones suchas reading books, viewing films and filmstrips, and discussion.

The desire to seek and use varied and interesting learning experi-ences is in itself commendable. But unless such experiences and activi-ties are directed to the attainment of specific objectives, additionaldifficulties will be er wintered. For example, a fourth grade teacheremployed roleplaying activities for each major concept in a series ofunits contrasting ways of living in various parts of the world. Thisteacher appeared not to sense the inappropriateness of this activity asa mutts cf extending pupils' understanding of certain concepts. Nordid pupils' responses suggest to her that the activity was notachio i-tg its intended put poie. It was evident that she was not sensi-tive to feedback from the pupils. Another teacher used drawings asthe chief method of having children express their grasp of the majoridea in their study. There was little apparent concern for the ap-propriateness of this "interesting" technique to the conceptual ohjectire under study. She was seemingly not alert to the children's difficultyin reducing complex ideas to pictorial representations. Time andagain teachers in the study found themselves in a pattern of seekinginteresting and varied learning experiences without examining themfor their applicability and appropriateness to the objective and tothe children.

Fourth, teachers' reliance on discussion throughout the developmentof a unit study needs to be re-esaluated. The enlightened use ofdiscussion is, of course, well established as a desirable learning activity.Nonetheless, when the discussion technique is indiscriminately em-ployed and pupil contributions naively accepted, the opportunities forlearning inaccurate conceptions and mistaken information are everpresent. Too often the purpose of a discussion was not clear either tothe pupils or the teacher. Consequently, the experience became arecitation by the more verbal ehildten or a ,Falog:te between a par.Ocular child and the teacher. Et equently tic .7acher asked questionsthat supylied chililren with answers or questions requiring one-wordanswers. In either case, there was little if any need for a discussion.Many teachers, apparently, do not realize that discussions are ofvarious types that the learning being sought at the particular time

Beginning Teachers' Problems 85

influences the type of discussion to employ. This study suggests un-mistakably that teachers need greater skill in framing questions thatstimulate discussion.

Observations of discussion periods Adiel c children were to drawconclusions, to generalize, or to demonstrate tUeir grasp of the objec-tive, revealed that this type of discussion was most difficult. Reachingfor the idea often consisted of the teacher presenting a series of leadingquestions to the pupils. As pupils responded to the questions, theteacher rejected those responses that did not answer the question.The procedure more closely resembled a trial and error tecitation thana discussion. In some cases, the development of the idea was limitedto recall of facts without the necessary relating of these details to oneanother in some recognizable pattern. In other cases, the discussionwas not supported by !earnings developed during the study; hencethere was not a common point of reference for both teacher and pupils.In many instances the chalkboard was not utilized to record points asthey were made by pupils; thus an important tool was overlooked forhelping children summarize and generalize. Discussion can be animportant technique for concept development, but this study indicatesthat it requires skillful handling by the teocher if it is to be so used.

This exploration of teachers' difficulties with learning experiencesthat lead to the development of concepts has many implications forthe teachers' role in guiding concept development. In a sense, theteacher is a programmer of insti uction because he has the task ofbreaking down or analyzing the ccuceptual objectives into "teachable-learnable chunks." lie also has to design learning experiences thatare appropriate to each objective and that are at the same time man-ageable by the children. 7 his is the individual teacher's task becauseit is he who makes the final decision regarding the actual study andits implementation. No curriculum document, course of study, orresource unit can replace this aspect of the teacher's planning. In thisrespect, the teacher's role in concept development is et ucial.

1001:C01Erhif pap( r is based on a stud) conducted in se. If( Ica clintcnial) salmis in

II. 'ail timing the 1961 65 school )eat: "An Int tstigation to Fplorc Wa)s ofHelping intern Teachers Anal)rc and Use Con«plual Objcii i5 es." (Unpublish,4doctoral dissertation, Unicisii) of California, PK tkci(y, 1966.)

BARRY K. BE.YERANTHONY N. PENNA*

Some Implicationsof Concept-Teaching

Taching concepts or, more accurately, help.ing students conceptualizeis not easy. It cannot be done well in thecontext of the traditional social studies teaching4earning situation, forconceptteachiug requires more on the part of the teacher than telling

and it involves more on the part of the student than mere listening,reading and reciting. If we expect students to think conceptually, weneed to understand the essential nature of conceptteaching and itsimplications for the teacher, student and curriculum alike.

Implications for Learning

Concepts are mental images. They are highly personal inventions.They glow ft om our own experiences. Because concepts are personaland because they arc manmade, there are naturally many ways toconceptualize about tl,e same thing. When several different conceptsor images of the same thing do exist, however, one is not the correctconcept and the others wiong. Concepts cannot be evaluated in termsof their "rightness" or "wrongness." Rather, the degree to which aconcept helps explain reality determines its utility and hence itsvalidity.

NN'hile it is true that no two concepts of the same thing need neces-sarily be alike that there is no single "right" way to conceptualizeabout anything. some conceptualizations may be much more accurateexplanations of reality than may other conceptualizations of the samething. That is, the experiences of some people may lead them todevelop more pi ecise and at the same time more universally applicableconcepts than might other people whose concepts evolve from dif-ferent, more restricted experience. For example, a concept of Infialintrrortion evolved by a person who has spent years studying the

CAmtight C) 19;0 Barut 13c)cr and Arithm) Pcnna, ClrucgicMclittnrnisrrsity. Pittsburgh, Pa. Arptintcti with permissien.

86

Implications of Concept-Teaching 87

distribution, arrangement and interaction of thins in space, is likelyto be much more precise and descriptive of reality titan is an imageof the same concept at ticulated by a ten-year old. A concept of resourceallocation developed by an experienced economist is likely to be moreuseful in explaining experience Clan is a concept about the samething made by this same temyear old. Helping students conceptualizeabout concepts such as spatial interaction, resource allocation andothers evolved by social science experts and having demonstratedanalytical or descriptive utility in making sense of expel knee is con-sidered by many to be an important objective of social studieseducation.

Concepts do not emerge full grown, however. They evolve. Theychange over tittle as experiences change_ The process by which conceptstake shape is referred to as conceptualizing, and this is something onlya conceptualizes a learner can do. It cannot be done to him offor him. Conceptualizing is not memorizing wIrst someone else thinksa specific concept is, nor is it tiling to guess wdat a teacher or scholaris thinking. Conceptualizing means examining and reflecting onsimilar experiences Ira order to identity their common elements andbuild an orderly image of client.

The implications f this for students are quite significant. Conccptualizing i bald work. It requires active, intellectual invo' -memby the learner_ For students accustomed. to memorizing iuct the

teacher or text presents and then regurgitating it on an exam forstudents accustomed to seeking and finding "right" answers forstudents accustomed to sitting and listening for students who ate"fact-otientcd." initial efforts at conceptualizing can thus be quitefrustrating and sonminics traumatic.

Effective conceptualization sequin-es a new set of attitudes towardlearning as well as a new set of learning beliaNiors. Shute conceptsevoke only gratlnalk,a conceptualizes must be willing to tolerateconsiderable ambiguity or uncertainty. He mint be willing to existand pcisist .i a situation that is somewhat open until the broadoutline of a useful conceptual structure begins to dewlap in his mind.Concepts don't pop up inctantaneously. Large experiential inputs as-erequired to generate, salidate and broaden concepts, and this takesconsiderable time. 1 hus patience, too, is a 'accessary requisite for«inceptoalizing. Students must be willing to wait while useful yonceps (copse as tiles cs -,mine and reexamine data in their efIcitts todeselop a conceptual grasp CM (NKr/CIRC.

Concepts do. nuked, else its handles on experience:. Insulting coilcepts is nothing moo- than inscnting inl.clitstual tools. 1 his FILKCSS

88 CONCEPTS IN TIM SOCIAL STUDIES

of invention is somewhat analogous to discovering something. It isas powerful in the intellectual sense as is the discovery that takes placein the clarification of a prulAns or in the verification of hypothesesor in the final synthesis of a line of inquiry. Conceptualizing is acreative att.

The ability' to organize experience conceptually' to conceptualizeis, in fact, as important as creating specific concepts. It is the ability

to conceptualize as well as knowledge of whatever concepts sve developthat provide its ;skit the intellectual power to make meaningful later,yet -mpredietable. experience. Thus, leatning now to conceptualizeenhances a student's potential for learning by providing hint with theskills need-A lc develop broader and perhaps even new conceptualstructures in the filmic and thereby to push outward the frontiersof his, and evert our, knowledge. Consequently this process is itselfa paella a And the ability to use this product is a vital objective ofc one ejtmeat hing.

Irnplications for Teaching

Social studies leachers may engage in at least three different typesof concepteaching, Sometittic's concept teaching merely requires help-ing students «mceptualire about (atticutate a concept of) whateverit is that minions them of sslutievet it is that develops motoraily from

given body of «awl I. At other limes, co/wept-teaching ntly meanhclpiti culdrnts icfinc, filout or pethaps broaden a simplistic orgenital image they already base of a concept that in its more exact.complex forms may be exit-Lindy useful in ordelio.4 expelienceFinally, concept-whiling may insolsc putting students into leasningsitu aions where they can come into mina( Witli dimensions or facetsof a euncept %Aid] (\pelts consider an extremely basic, useful andvalid organizer of lice, but which they the students mightnot otliciwise develop well on their 01511. Most people scent to havethis thin] asp(' of comepateaching in mind solicit they talk about"lc:Idling- concepts in the social stitches classroom.

Regar.lkss of which of the abuse tspcs of coruspateaciang onewish.% to cogage in howcscr, tittle ate :1 manlier of implicationswhich moo be recognized if such teaching is to be eifectise.

First am', fotemost, concept-teaching implies a new view of therole of fattoal tomcat its the classroom mid. indeed, in the (mitetout toultnia ;r1 foncepteaching content tutut be %tassel as a t,nit as an cn I in itself. 1 he content of a lesvm 1)611,1 be sislSCJ 1611-1113111 as a e as of !wiping 'Lamp. «oncephillite ,ibout a pain:Allotitha o- shim. ".1 he teal substance of the lesson and in t r't the lo,a<


cognitive objective must be a specific concept. Factual content servesonly to facilitate conceptualizing by providing positive and negativeexamples of the salient features and interrelation; among the featuresof the particular concept to be learned. As long as teachers see meirfirst job passing on content factual data concepts will not bepurposefuliy learned. A new view of content is needed for successfulconcept.teaching.

A second implication fur teaching stems from the nature of theconceptualizing process itself. Concepts evoke slowly, only after re-peated experience with examples. One cannot teach one concept oneclass period, consider it learmci, and teach another the next. It takesconsiderable time to introduce a concept :toil then much more experi-ence with it before it becomes a useful part of one's frame of reference.

Moreover. conceptualization is usually sequential. lids means thatmore complex concepts are usually built on simple concepts. Thus,knowledge of certain concepts, such as sac and situation are pre-requisite to developing a useful concepr of Mare. Knowledge ofscarcity, price, demand and supply may be prerequisite to developinga solid concept of mathet economy. And so on. How well one canconceptualize depends frequently on what concepts he alrady hasdeveloped and these, in turn, condition rime kinds and nature of con.ceps he will .ns cm in the haute.

Third, in plannin:2, for concept te,uhing a teacher should know whatconcepts the batter IPOSsCssro as well as the concepts Inc Will1110,1 ad) need to deselop intellectually in the future. 'I his means,too, that if a teacher is going to assist students to di:Idol) a conceptabout a particular phcnonunon imp"! lab im or irmilco,pc, for cxample, he, the teacher, must first articulate his own image of thisconcept or base considerable knowledge about how this concept hasbeen conceptualized b1 expo Is. Unless the teacher has a dear imageof the concept he wishes students to develop, he will be unable tocreate learning txpericmcs and select Earning materials that willcontain clues to some of the mote essential facets of time concept. .I heconceptualization that thus csolses lions the lessons may well be mostinaccurate and useless.

1 here are implications for lion One Kai-lies, too. Security in conccpttead ing may not always lie in knowing the at etc, the precise conceptual image that may evoke from the learning experience, butrather in knowing how to go about conceptualiiing in knowingwhat to do next. 1 Ire key to purposeful incept teaching is a thoroughknowledge of and skill at using a strategy of inquiry. Facilitatingcon«pt doelopmeni is wedded to inquiry teaching.

9

90 CO N;CEPTS IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES

Introducing a concept, whether it be by teacher pres.ntation of analready existing conceptual model or by student brainstorming of theirown hypothetical image corresponds directly to the hypothesis-forma.Lion stage of inquirytcaching. Broadening the dimensions, fleshingout the sk,..:etal facets and refining the relationships of the element.;of a concept by examining positive and negative exemplars corre-sponds to that stage of inquiry called bypothesisesting. And con-ceptual statements, attempts to describ. a concept, involve essentiallyskills of synthesis, drawing conclusions or generalizations. The mostproductive concept-teaching utilizes inquiry-teaching strategies, strate-gies in which the students engay in learning experiences whichrequire them to use all the skills, attitudes and knowledge associatedwith developing problems for .nvestigation, hypothesizing answers oralternative sohitions, testing their hypotheses and drawing conclusionsabout the valid+ty of their original hypotheses.

A fifth implication for teaching concepts has to do with evaluation.Evaluating concept-teaching is best accomplished when learners areasked to apply their concept to explain data that is new to them. Thus,if students have been conceptualizing about imperialism they mightbe asked to analyse and describe Russian involvement in easternEurope in 1969 or American involvement in Southeast Asia in thelate '60's. In either instance we would expect them to describe theseevents in terms of the salient features of the concept with which theyhave been dealing. Any inability to apply the concept to the newsituation could result from many things, but one significant reasonmight be student failute to internalize the concept. Consequently newexperiences with the concept will have to be undertaken.

A wide variety of techniques are available for evaluating the natureand degree of sophist;cation of concepts held by students. Objectivetest items can test for simple recall of basic elements of the conceptsor even fer application of them to new data. Essays or oral exam-provide oppoitunities to explain or interpret new data in the lightof selected ((mars. Translating and interpreting new data from oneform to anoiher such as from a map to a graph to a written paragrzph s- ref the same purpose. Creative activities, where studentsnr i,! coo something on their own such as plan a campaign to in-flrence a specific group, for example may well reveal their conceptof del ision making. Regardless of which techniques we use, however,the Icy to successlol evaluation of concept-teaching lies in putting thestudents in a situation where they lutist apply their percepti,n of tlconcept to !.re evaluated asainst new data.

' 90-


Finaliy, there are also implications for the kinds of instructionalmaterials used in teachiog concepts in the social studies classroom.Purposeful conceptualizing requires more than a textbook. The per-sonal experiences of the student play an important role as databanks and as perceptual screensin any conceptual learning. But so.too, do other media, There is in all conceptualizing an importantaffective dimension, a dimension of feeling or experiencing. It is

almost impo-sible to develop this dimension in a classroom settingwithout the use of audio and visual media, media which can help thestudent become involved in experiences about which he is trying toconceptualize. The use of nu is an essential tool of effectiveconcept teaching not in the sense of "show and tell" nor as merelysupplemental to a lesson, but the use or multi-media as an integralpart of the teaching-learning experience.

Any concept may be taught its 'coining facilitated at any gradelevel albeit perhaps not always in its most sophisticated form. Thisdoes rot mean that the teacher's task is to force his version of a specificconcept into the heads of his students, however. Rather, his task is tocreate learning experiences which help iris students articulate theirown versions of the concept. The student concept at first may not in-clude dimensions the teacher feels are basic. It may not even use thewords he rises to describe its essential elements. But given repeatedopportunities to work with content illustrative of this concept, thestudents may giachaily ficsh it our add new dimensions and changeothers. Eventually a rather complex structure of interrelationshipsand insights may begin to emerge, and the students will be well ontheir way to conceptualizing.

Implications for the Curriculum'I here arc a vast number of concepts that may be legitimate objec-

tives of social studies instruction. But teaching concepts consumestime voladously and time is relatively. shot t. Hence. teachers andcuiriodurn specialists must limit the number of concepts they attemptto teach in the classroom. What does this imply for the curriculum?

First, it is necessary to choose a limited number of concepts aslearning objectives. This means that some criteria for sdeding whichconcepts to teach must be denised. There arc many such possiblecriteria, but perhaps some of the following might be most useful insifting though all the concepts competing for inclusion in the socialstudies cturittilinn. A:Imitative answers to these questions may wellmean these concepts ought to be included in the ow iculum.

92 CONCEPTS IN TILE SOCIAL. STUDIES

I. Is the concept considered essential to an understanding of a par-ticuliir discipline or field?

2. Is the concept useful in making sense out of problems that are ofcontemporary concern or likely to be of major future concern?

3. Does the concept have meaning for the students?4. Is the concept likely to I.elp individuals make future experience

leaningful does it vi.e useful questions, the answer to whichwill help us understand experience?

5. Is it applicable to particular content that we feel we must use inthe classroom?

Answers to thes..! questions trill in many instances be hard to comeby. At times these answers will require considerable research by thecurriculum designer. At other times answers can only be arrived aton the basis of classroom experience in attempting to teach selectedconcepts to specific students. At times the answers will depend almostsolely on the philosophies and biases of those making the decisionsabout what to include and Avhat to ex( hide. And, at times the prefer-ences, expressed needs and interests of the students will influence someanswers. Nesertheless, these and similar questions must be asked iftee are to eliminate the trivial, iirelevant and useless from among thehost of concepts ve could teach. Using criteria such as implied heremay enable teathers to select for instruction those concepts that trulywill be most valuable to youth in explaining human (Aperient(' nowand in the frame.

A second implication is that a soda? studies cuiricriluni :mist bea caiefull) sum tuied setplente of learning experiences expressed interms of concepts to be learned rather than content to be cosercd.

his means a number of things. I he curriculum must be sequentialin that simple but basic concepts must be intiodined and somewhatinternaliml before more compltx ones can be introcluted. Ims con-cepts of link, nods, and flow arc prerequisite to an understanding Ofthe concept of spatial irtfriartion. Concepts of nation, loirrthricrit andexproitafion 311.1) eery UCH need to pieced( any attempt to COlIcCp-toalitc in a Inca 11111111 t,iy about it/I/41/.0/M, Elementary grades insocial studies might best be (looted to tunceptoalifing about thesepreictinisite. basic, tont lete concepts while later )cars Ilia) 1h? (1COtedto descloping more rophisticatol, complex, abstract concepts.

A concept-olio-tied (MI1(1,1111111 11 t1ct fe sccpit ntial also in the sensethat the concepts selected for instruction most be repeated or andoer again at dirt-item grade lescls. One (ontept cannot be taughtand picsnined to be Itarmri 'me da) nd another the next. ] lic) must,instead. be dealt li171 repe.will at initcasing lesels of complcAil.


This may mean topically organized courses courses organized on thebasis of the concept to be dealt with rather than the chronology ofthe content being, used as a vehicle of learning. Or, it may mean asort of spiral organization in which the same few basic concepts aredealt with each succeeding year but in terms of new data and atincreasingly more sophisticated levels.

A sequential concept curriculum structure implies, too, depthstudies of a rather limited amount of content rather than coverageof vast sweeps of data. Again, this means consideration of topical asopposed to other t.pcs of structures although there is no reason why,within a topical framework, content cannot be arranged in some otherorder such as chronological. 1Vhatever way it is organized, however, acurriculum desioed to teach concepts must horn the very first focuson concepts, not data. It must be thought of and designed in terms ofthe concepts to be taught, not the historical, geographical or othercontent to be studied. Only when this is done can conceptteachingsucceed.

Conclusion

Teaching concepts is not difficult once the nature of concepts andof conceptualizing are understood. But teaching concepts cannot beeasily done in the_ framework of the traditional social studies class-room or centiculum structure. Many things must change. Concept-teaching. above all else, invokes more than just talk about concepts.It means tea,hing for cena«.tual objectives in the classroom everyday. And this icquires emend planning and considerable reflectionon the part of the classroom teacher and curriculum builder, for oncept.teaching is different from traditional classroom teaching and itsimplementation does hate many implications for all concerned.

For Further Study

Numerous articles, books and parts of booksdeal with or attempt to deal with concepts and conceptteachingin social studies. Unfottunatety, the vast majority of these confuserather than clarify. However, we have identified several publicationswhich may be extremely useful to those interested in further studyabout concept-tcaching and learning. These titles are listed here.

We base arranged these references so that they proceed from themost general discussion about concepts in social studies (selection I)to more specific descriptions of concepts and concept teaching in theclassroom (selections 2 and 3) to analsises of selected psychologicalaspects of concept4leselopment, from both the teacher's and learner'spoints of skis. (selections 4 and 5). The final entry in our list, Bruner'sA Study of Thinking. is a rather sophisticated analysis of the cognitivebases of concept formation. .1 careful study of these selections, in theorder suggested hue, should not only increase one's knowledge aboutconcepts in social studies but also custom further thinking andteaching about concepts in the social studies classroom!

I. Irsing Mon ssctt, al., Concepts nod Stnitetroe In the Nei., Soria!Science Culico,ct. West Lafayette, Indiana: Social Science Etrcalion Consortium, 19 er,.

1 he first section of this conference report (pp. 11-19) focuses on conceptsin the social science curriculum specifically on concepts and thestructure of knowledge, organising a curriculum around concepts andthe relationships between concepts, process and salurs.

2. Lass:erne E. Metcalf and Maurice P. Ifunt, Trarhing, nigh SchoolSnout Studiet. New Yolk: limper f Row, Publishers, Secondedition.

This rcsisul social studies methods text is a d.-.ssie discussion of It itC(11% c

thought as a teaching method. Fag(' 63.103 rac &loud to how to Icacha concept. Techniques and approaches for teaching °Our conceptualobjectiscs are described on pp. 101.166.

rlI

For Further Study 95

S. Marlin L. Tanck, "Teaching Concepts, Generalizations and Con-structs" in Dorothy NfcClure Fraser, ed., Social Studies CurriculumDevelopment: Prospects and Problems (39th Yearbook of theNational Council for the Social Studies). Washington: NationalCouncil for the Social Studies, 1969, pp. 99.106, 115-125.

A brief description of concepts as a type of abstract knowledge with asuggested strategy for teaching concepts. This chapter also deals withother types of abstract knowledge not to be confused with concepts.

4. Asahel D. Woodruff, Basic Concepts of Teaching. San Francisco:Chandler Publishing Company, 1962.

A collection of brief reports of psychological and educational studiesand of the author's views on teaching and learning with pp. 77.154devoted to the processes of learning from experience and pp. 155-214discussing concept learning and development as well as planning forconcept-teaching.

5. Robert NI. Gagne, The Conditions of 1.r6;ning. New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965.

Five, Gagne describes the differences between multiple dis-tlimioation learning (the learner's ability to distinguish among peopleand objects) and concept learningthe learner's ability to categorizeas a class particular people and objects.

6. Jerome S. Bruner, Jacqueline J. Goodnow, George A. Austin,A Study of Thinking. New York: John 1Viley and Sons, Inc.. 1966.

This book presents its detail reports of the experiments and findingsabout conceptualising of the Cognition Project in the Laboratory ofSocial Relations at Hats ard Uniscrsity. Chapters One through Fourdiscuss the nature of concepts and cone pt attainment.

10 -

10

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS OF THENATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE SOCIAL STUDIES

1201 SIXTEENTH ST., N.W., WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036

Yearbooks

Fortieth Yearbook (1970), Focus on Geography: Key Concepts and TeachingStrategies, Phillip Bacon. ed, $5.50 (490. 15264); cloth $7.00 (490-15266),

Thirty-Ninth Yearbook (1969), Social Studies Curriculum Development: Prospectsand Problems, Dorothy McClu'e Fraser, ed. $4.50 (4:0-15240); cloth $5.50(490-15242).

Thirty-Eighth Yearbook (1968), international Dimensions in the Social Studies,James M. Becker and Howard D. Mehlinger, editors. $4.50; clothbound $5.50.

Thirty-Seventh Yearbook (1967) Ellerin( Thinking in the Social Studies, JeanFair and Fannie R. Shaftel, editors. $4.00; clothbound $5.00.

Thirty-Sixth Yearbook (1966), Political Science in the Social Studies, Donald H.Riddle and Robert E. Cleary, editors. $4.00; clothbound $5.00.

Thirty-Fifth Yearbook (19t.5). Evert:ration is .rociaf Studies, Harry D. Berg.editor. 54 ,./0; clothbound $5.00.

.hirty-Fourth Yearbook (1964), New Perspectives in Wor.d History, Shirley H.Engle, editor, $5.00; clothbound $6.00.

Thirty-Third Yearbook (1963), Skiff Dcrelopntcnt in Social Studies, HelenMcCracken Carpenter, editor. $4.00; clothbound $5.00.

Bulletins

Bulletin No. 44 (1970), Humanities mid the Soria, Soth'''. Thomas F. Pouelt, cd,53.50 (498-15246).

BzIletin No. 43 11969)..4 Guide to Human Rights Education. by Paul D. Hine;and Leslie Wood. $2.25.

Bulletin No. 42 (1969). American llitiory Ecoilitt For lligh Schools, Ralph A.and Afarian R. Brov. n, editors. $2.50.

Bulletin No. 41 (1968). World Citifizarion Roollist: Supplementary Reading forSecondary Schools, by the World CiNtlirarion Illooklist Committee of NCSS:Morris Gall and Arthur F. Sodcrlind. Co.Ch,,itmen. $3.50.

Bulletin No. 40 (1968), Teacher-Made Tett Pro,le in Anterieutt II isroly: EmphalitJunior High School, Dana Kurfman. editor. 82 00.

Bulletin No. 39 (1967 I. Proles tit ity and A ert,motion. J. I. Jehring, editor. $250,

Bulletin No, 38 (1966). Rradirre Guide irt Polith c and Get enonent. by Robertif. Connery, Richard H. 1 each, and J..kcpb 7i1,round II. 81.50.

Bulletin No. 37 (1965), 11re Study of Tothr,tritmitot: .4rt lndirtlite .4rrrodi(A Guide for Teachers). by If ov, ald I). NIchlinger. $200.

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