SPECIAL ISSUE ON THE PYRAMIDES OF THE LOUVRE PARIS

N°04/09

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“The solid is for the dead, but the transparent is for the living” – I.M. Pei

“The solid is for the dead, but the transparent is for the living” – I.M. Pei

ALL PHOTOS AND gRAPHICS:

roger norheim collections

TExT:

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LOCATION:

the louvre museum, paris, france 2008 & 2009

w w w . V I S U E L L E M A g A z I N E . C O M

©2009 All rights reserved. roger norheim collections. the photos in this presentAtion cAn not be used without written permisson

The Musée du Louvre or officially the Grand Louvre — in English, the Louvre Museum or Great Louvre, or simply the Louvre — is the larg-est national museum of France, the most visited museum in the world, and a historic monument. It is a central landmark of Paris, located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement (neighbourhood). Nearly 35,000 objects from prehistory to the 19th century are exhibited over an area of 60,600 square metres (652,300 square feet).

LOUVRE

The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace (Palais du Louvre) which began as a fortress built in the late 12th century under Philip II. Remnants of the fortress are still visible. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace. In 1672, Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his house-hold, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including, from 1692, a collection of antique sculpture. In 1692, the building was occupied by the Aca-démie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculp-ture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years. During the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Lou-vre should be used as a museum, to display the nation’s masterpieces.

The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being confiscated church and royal property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The size of the collection increased under Napoleon when the museum was re-named the Musée Napoléon. After his defeat at Waterloo, many works seized by Napoleon’s armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the muse-um gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and gifts since the Third Republic, except during the two World Wars. As of 2008, the collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; and Prints and Drawings.

HISTORYThe Louvre Palace (Palais du Louvre) which houses the museum was begun as a fortress by Philip II in the 12th century, with remnants of this building still visible in the crypt. It is not known if this was the first building on that spot, but it is possible that Philip modified an exist-ing tower. The etymology of the name Louvre is also uncertain: it may refer to the structure’s status as the largest in late 12th century Paris (from the French L’Œuvre, masterpiece), its lo-cation in a forest (from the French rouvre, oak), or, according to Larousse, a wolf-hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire: lupara).

The Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th cen-tury, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis I renovated the site in French Renaissance style. Francis ac-quired what would become the nucleus of the Louvre’s holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed; however, the move per-mitted the Louvre to be used as a residence for artists.

By the mid-18th century there were an in-creasing number of proposals to create a pub-lic gallery with Lafont Saint-Yenne publishing,

in 1747, a call for the royal collection’s display. In 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned the display of some of the royal collection in the Louvre. A hall was opened for public viewing on Wednesdays and Saturdays and contained Andrea del Sarto’s Charity and works by Ra-phael. Under Louis XVI, the royal museum idea became policy. The comte d’Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie—which contained maps—into the “French Museum”. Many proposals were offered for the Louvre’s renovation into a museum, however none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained in-complete until the French Revolution.

FRENCH REVOLUTIONDuring the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be, “a place for bringing together mon-uments of all the sciences and arts”. On 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and

the royal collection in the Louvre became na-tional property. Because of fear of vandalism or theft, on 19 August, the National Assembly pronounced the museum’s preparation as ur-gent. In October, a committee to “preserve the national memory” began assembling the col-lection for display.

OPENINgAntonio Canova’s Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss was commissioned in 1787, and the first version was donated to the Louvre after the reign of Napoleon I in 1824.

The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of the monarchy’s demise. The public was given free access on three days per week, which was “perceived as a major ac-complishment and was generally appreciated”. The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art. Three quarters were derived from the royal collections, the remainder from confiscated émigrés and Church property (bi-ens nationaux). To expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated 100,000 livres per year. In 1794, France’s revolution-ary armies began bringing pieces from across Europe, such as Laocoön and His Sons and the Apollo Belvedere, to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a “sign of popular sover-eignty”.

The early days were hectic; artists lived in residence, and the unlabelled paintings hung “frame to frame from floor to ceiling”. The building itself closed in May 1796 because of structural deficiencies. It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns.

RESTORATION AND SECOND EM-PIREDuring the Restoration (1814–30), Louis XVIII and Charles X between them added 135 pieces at a cost of 720,000 francs. This was less than the amount given for rehabilitation of Versailles, and the Louvre suffered relative to the rest of Paris. After the creation of the French Second Republic in 1848, the new government allocated two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of the Galerie d’Apollon, the Salon Carré, and the Grande Galerie. On 2 December 1851, Presi-dent Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte staged a coup d’état, ushering in the Second French Empire. Between 1852 and 1870, the French economy grew; the museum added 20,000 new pieces to

its collections, and the Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galerie were remodelled under ar-chitects Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel.

THIRD REPUbLIC AND wORLD wARSDuring the French Third Republic the Louvre acquired new pieces mainly via donations and gifts. The Société des Amis du Louvre donated the Pietà of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, and in 1863 an expedition uncovered the sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea. This piece, though heavily damaged, has been prominently displayed since 1884. More than 7,000 works arrived after the acquisition of the Campana, Durand, Salt, and Drovetti collections. The 389 item Collection Lacaze, included Rembrandts, such as Bathsheba at Her Bath.

Museum expansion slowed after World War I, and the collection did not acquire many sig-nificant new works; exceptions were Georges de La Tour’s Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond de Rothschild’s (1845–1934) 1935 donation of 4,000 engravings, 3,000 drawings, and 500 il-lustrated books. During World War II the mu-seum removed most of the art and hid valuable pieces. On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck convoys began to leave Paris. By 28 December, the museum was cleared of most works, except those that were too heavy and “unimportant paintings [that] were left in the basement”. In early 1945, after the liberation of France, art began returning to the Louvre.

21ST CENTURYThe Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than 60,600 square metres (652,000 sq ft) dedi-cated to the permanent collection. The Lou-vre exhibits sculptures, objets d’art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds. It is the world’s most visited museum, averaging 15,000 visitors per day, 65 percent of whom are tour-ists. In popular culture, the Louvre was a point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book. The museum earned $2.5 million by allowing filming in its galleries.

ADMINISTRATIONThe Louvre is owned by the French govern-ment; however, since the nineties it has be-come more independent. Since 2003, the museum has been required to generate funds for projects. By 2006, government funds had

dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent. In 2008, the French government provided $180 million of the Louvre’s yearly $350 million budget; the remainder came from private contributions and ticket sales.

The Louvre employs a staff of 2,000 led by Director Henri Loyrette, who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communica-tions. Under Loyrette, who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and bor-row more works than before. In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which enabled it to borrow more foreign works. From 2006 to 2009, the Louvre will lend artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, and will receive a $6.9 mil-lion payment to be used for renovations. In ad-dition, the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi generated further income for the museum. Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that “20% of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions”. He has more administrative independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily, as op-posed to 80 percent previously. He oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisi-tion budget to $36 million from $4.5 million.

gRAND LOUVRE AND THE PYRAMIDSThe Louvre Palace is an almost rectangular structure, composed of the square Cour Car-rée and two wings which wrap the Cour Na-poléon to the north and south. In the heart of the complex is the Louvre Pyramid, above the visitor’s center. The museum is divided into three wings: the Sully Wing to the east, which contains the Cour Carrée and the oldest parts of the Louvre; the Richelieu Wing to the north; and the Denon Wing, which borders the Seine to the south.

In 1983, French President François Mitterrand proposed the Grand Louvre plan to renovate the building and relocate the Finance Minis-try, allowing displays throughout the building. Architect I. M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a glass pyramid for the central courtyard. The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15 October 1988. The second phase of the Grand Louvre plan, La Pyramide Inversée (The Inverted Pyramid), was completed in 1993. As of 2002, attendance had doubled since completion.

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COLLECTIONSThe Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments.

EgYPTIAN ANTIqUITIESThe department, comprising over 50,000 piec-es, includes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4,000 BCE to the 4th century CE. The collection, among the world’s larg-est, overviews Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom, the New King-dom, Coptic art, and the Roman, Ptolemaic, and Byzantine periods. The department’s ori-gins lie in the royal collection, but it was aug-mented by Napoleon’s 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant, the future director of the Louvre. After Jean-François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone, Charles X de-creed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created. Champollion advised the purchase of three collections, the Durand, Salt and Drovetti; these additions added 7,000 works. Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mariette, after excavations at Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological finds includ-ing The Seated Scribe.

Guarded by the Large Sphinx (c. 2000 BCE), the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms. Holdings include art, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, games, musi-cal instruments, and weapons. Pieces from the ancient period include the Gebel-el Arak knife from 3400 BCE, The Seated Scribe, and the Head of King Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, “known for its gold work and statues”, moved from realism to idealization; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer. The New King-dom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep,

but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth.

NEAR EASTERN ANTIqUITIESNear Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and “first settlements”, before the arrival of Islam. The department is divided into three geographic areas: the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Iran. The collection’s development cor-responds to archaeological work such as Paul-Émile Botta’s 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II’s palace. These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian muse-um, the precursor to today’s department.

The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash’s Stele of the Vul-tures from 2,450 BCE and the stele erected by Naram-Suen, King of Akkad, to celebrate a vic-tory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains. The 2.25-metre (7.38 ft) Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901, displays Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man could plead their ignorance. The Iranian portion contains work from the archaic period, like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I.

gREEk, ETRUSCAN, AND ROMANThe Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century CE. The collection spans from the Cycladic pe-

riod to the decline of the Roman Empire. This department is one of the museum’s oldest; it began with appropriated royal art, some of which was acquired under Francis I. Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the Venus de Milo. Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napole-onic Wars, but these pieces were returned after Napoleon I’s fall in 1815. In the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection, bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the Bibliothèque na-tionale.

The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Aux-erre, from 640 BCE; and the cylindrical Hera of Samos, circa 570–560 BCE. After the 4th century BCE, focus on the human form in-creased, exemplified by the Borghese Gladia-tor. The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era, including The Winged Victory of Samothrace (190 BCE) and the Venus de Milo, symbolic of classical art. In the galleries paralleling the Seine, much of the museum’s Roman sculpture is displayed. The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre; ex-amples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus; among the bronzes is the Greek Apollo of Piombino. ISLAMIC ARTThe Islamic art collection, the museum’s new-est, spans “thirteen centuries and three con-tinents”. These exhibits, comprising ceramics, glass, metalware, wood, ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than 5,000 works

and 1,000 shards. Originally part of the decora-tive arts department, the holdings became sep-arate in 2003. Among the works are the Pyx-ide d’al-Mughira, a 10th century CE ivory box from Andalusia; the Baptistery of Saint-Louis, an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14 century Mamluk period; and the 10th century Shroud of Josse from Iran. The collection con-tains three pages of the Shahnameh, an epic book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase.

SCULPTUREThe sculpture department comprises work created before 1850 that does not belong in the Etruscan, Greek, and Roman department. The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted ma-terial since its time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for Michelangelo’s Dying Slave and Re-bellious Slave. Initially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles. It remained small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given con-trol of the department. Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga door, respectively. The collection was part of the Department of An-tiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 un-der Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider representation of French works. In 1986, all works from after 1850 were relocated to the new Musée d’Orsay. The Grand Louvre project separated the department into two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu wing, and foreign works in the Denon wing.

The collection’s overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th century Daniel in the Lions’ Den and the 12th century Virgin of Auvergne. In the 16th cen-tury, Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in Jean Goujon’s bas-reliefs, and Germain Pi-lon’s Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th centuries are rep-resented by Étienne Maurice Falconet’s Wom-an Bathing and Amour menaçant and François Anguier’s obelisks. Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova’s Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss (1787).

DECORATIVE ARTSThe Objets d’art collection spans from the Middle Ages to the mid-19th century. The de-partment began as a subset of the sculpture department, based on royal property and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saint-Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs that held the Coronation Sword of the Kings of France. Among the budding collection’s most prized works were pietre dure vases and bronzes. The Durand collection’s 1825 acqui-sition added “ceramics, enamels, and stained glass”, and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil. The onset of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded the de-partment with 1,500 middle-age and faïence works. In 1862, the Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas, mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries.The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing’s first floor and in the Apollo Gallery,

named by the painter Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme. The medieval collection contains the corona-tion crown of Louis XIV, Charles V’s sceptre, and the 12th century porphyry vase. The Re-naissance art holdings include Giambologna’s bronze Nessus and Deianira and the tapestry Maximillian’s Hunt. From later periods, high-lights include Madame de Pompadour’s Sèvres vase collection and Napoleon III’s apartments.

PAINTINgThe painting collection has more than 6,000 works from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collec-tion’s display. Nearly two-thirds are by French artists, and more than 1,200 are Northern Eu-ropean. The Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIV’s col-lections, others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon era, and some were bought. The collection began with Francis, who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo, and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court. After the French Revolu-tion, the Royal Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre. When the d’Orsay train station was converted into the Musée d’Orsay in 1986, the collection was split, and pieces completed after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum. French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu wing and Cour Car-rée; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon wing. Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pieta of Enguerrand Quarton; Jean

Fouquet’s King Jean le Bon, the oldest inde-pendent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era; Hyacinthe Rigaud’s Louis XIV; Jacques-Louis David’s The Coro-nation of Napoleon; and Eugène Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People. Northern Euro-pean works include Johannes Vermeer’s The Lacemaker and The Astronomer; Caspar Da-vid Friedrich’s Tree of Crows; Rembrandt’s The Supper at Emmaus, Bathsheba at Her Bath, and The Slaughtered Ox.

The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the Renaissance collection. The works include Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini’s Cal-varys, which reflect realism and detail “meant to depict the significant events of a greater spiritual world”. The High Renaissance collec-tion includes Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, Virgin and Child with St. Anne, St. John the Baptist, and Madonna of the Rocks. Caravag-gio is represented by The Fortune Teller and Death of the Virgin. From 16th century Venice, the Louvre displays Titian’s Le Concert Cham-petre, The Entombment and The Crowning with Thorns.

PRINTS AND DRAwINgSThe prints and drawings department encom-passes works on paper. The origins of the col-lection were the 8,600 works in the Royal Col-lection (Cabinet du Roi), which were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci’s collec-tion in 1806, and donations. The department

opened on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces dis-played in the Galerie d’Apollon. The collection is organized into three sections: the core Cabi-net du Roi, 14,000 royal copper printing-plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books. The holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper medium, only a portion are displayed at one time.

CONTROVERSIESThe Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized during World War II by the Nazis and under Napo-leon I. After Nazi occupation, more than 60,000 articles were returned to France. Nearly 2,000 objects that did not have clear ownership and were claimed by Israelis and Jews were retained by French museums, including the Louvre. In 1997, Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission, headed by Jean Mattéoli, to investigate the matter and “according to the government[,] the Louvre continues to hold 678 pieces of [claimed] art-work.” Napoleon’s campaigns acquired Italian and Northern European pieces and antiquities were taken during excavations, particularly in Egypt and the Near East. The Louvre ad-ministration has argued in favor of retaining these items despite requests by source nations for their return. The museum participates in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO’s Com-mittee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin.

In October 2009 it was announced McDonalds will be opening up a restaurant in the muse-ums shopping mall. This has been met with much controversy.

LOCATION AND ACCESSA map of the Louvre in the 1er arrondisse-ment of Paris. Metro lines serving the area are shown, with stations colored red. Note that the RER is not shown. Landmarks are in black.

The museum lies in the centre of Paris on the Right Bank. The neighborhood, known as the 1st arrondissement, is home to the destroyed Palais des Tuileries. The adjacent Tuileries Gar-dens, created in 1564 by Catherine de Medici, was designed in 1664 by André Le Nôtre. The gardens house the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, a contemporary art museum that was used to store Jewish cultural property from 1940 to 1944. Parallel to the Jeu de Paume is the Orangerie, home to the famous Waterlilly paintings by Monet.

The Louvre is slightly askew of the axe histo-rique (Historic Axis), a roughly eight-kilometre (five-mile) architectural line bisecting the city. It begins on the east in the Louvre courtyard and runs west along the Champs-Élysées. In 1871, the burning of the Tuileries Palace by the Paris Commune revealed that the Louvre was slightly askew of the Axe despite past ap-pearances to the contrary. The Louvre can be reached by the Palais Royal – Musée du Louvre Métro or the Louvre-Rivoli stations.

Of Napoleon I,

a northern wing paralleling the

Grande Galerie was begun, and the collection

grew through successful military campaigns. Following the Egyptian

campaign of 1798–1801, Napoléon appointed the museum’s first director, Domi-

nique Vivant Denon. In tribute, the museum was renamed the “Musée Napoléon” in 1803, and Span-

ish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works were acquired as spoils. After the French defeat at Waterloo, the former owners

sought their return. The Louvre’s administrators were loath to com-ply and hid many works in their private collections. In response, foreign

states sent emissaries to London to seek help, and many pieces were returned, even some that had been restored by the Louvre.

napoleon

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P YRA

MIDEFACELIFT

It has been claimed by some that the glass panes in the Louvre Pyra-mid number exactly 666, “the number of the beast”, often associated with Satan. Various historical enthusiasts have speculated at the pur-pose of this factoid.

DESIgN AND CONSTRUCTIONCommissioned by then French president François Mitterrand in 1984, it was designed by the architect I. M. Pei, who is responsible

for the design of the Miho Museum in Japan among others. The structure, which was constructed entirely with glass segments, reaches a height of 20.6 meters (about 70 feet); its square base has sides of 35 meters (115 ft). It consists of 603 rhombus-

shaped and 70 triangular glass segments.

The pyramid and the underground lobby underneath it were created because of a series of problems with the Louvre’s original main entrance, which could no longer handle an enormous number of visitors on an ev-

eryday basis. Visitors entering through the pyramid descend into the spacious lobby then re-ascend into the main Louvre buildings. Several other museums have duplicated this concept, most notably the

Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago. The construction work on the pyramid base and underground lobby was carried out by Dumez.

CONTROVERSYThe construction of the pyramid triggered considerable controversy because many

people felt that the futuristic edifice looked quite out of place in front of the Louvre Museum with its classical architecture. Certain detractors ascribed a

“Pharaonic complex” to Mitterrand. Others came to appreciate the juxta-posing of contrasting architectural styles as a successful merger of the

old and the new, the classical and the ultra-modern.

The main pyramid is actually only the largest of several glass pyramids that were constructed near the museum,

including the downward-pointing La Pyramide In-versée that functions as a skylight in an under-

ground mall in front of the museum.

During the design phase, there was a proposal that the design include a

spire on the pyramid to sim-plify window washing. This

proposal was elimi-nated because of

objections from

URbAN LEgEND

OF 666 PANESIt has been claimed by

some that the glass panes in the Louvre Pyramid num-

ber exactly 666, “the number of the beast”, often associated with Satan. Vari-

ous historical enthusiasts have speculated at the purpose of this factoid. For instance, Domin-

ique Stezepfandt’s book François Mitterrand, Grand Architecte de l’Univers declares that “the pyramid is

dedicated to a power described as the Beast in the Book of Revelation (...) The entire structure is based on the number 6.”

The story of the 666 panes originated in the 1980s, when the official bro-chure published during construction did indeed cite this number (even twice,

though a few pages earlier the total number of panes was given as 672 instead). The number 666 was also mentioned in various newspapers. The Louvre museum however

states that the finished pyramid contains 673 glass panes (603 rhombi and 70 triangles). A higher figure was obtained by David A. Shugarts, who reports that the pyramid contains

689 pieces of glass. Shugarts obtained the figure from the offices of I.M. Pei. Various attempts to actually count the panes in the pyramid have produced slightly discrepant results, but there are

definitely more than 666. A quick calculation based on 18 units per edge with two tiers removed in the center at the entrance easily confirms the 673 number.

The myth resurfaced in 2003, when Dan Brown incorporated it in his best-selling novel The Da Vinci Code. Here the protagonist reflects that “this pyramid, at President Mitterrand’s explicit demand, had been constructed of exactly

666 panes of glass - a bizarre request that had always been a hot topic among conspiracy buffs who claimed 666 was the number of Satan”. However, David A. Shugarts reports that according to a spokeswoman of the offices of I.M. Pei, the French

President never specified the number of panes to be used in the pyramid. Noting how the 666 rumor circulated in some French newspapers in the mid-1980s, she commented: “If you only found those old articles and didn’t do any deeper fact checking, and were

extremely credulous, you might believe the 666 story”.

UNDER COVER

LA PYRAMIDE

La Pyramide Inversée (The Inverted Pyramid) is a skylight constructed in an underground shopping mall in front of the Louvre Museum in France. It may be thought of as a smaller sibling of the more famous Louvre Pyramid proper, yet turned upside down: its upturned base is easily overlooked from outside.

INVERSéE

DESIgNThe pyramid marks the intersection of two main walkways and orients visitors towards the museum entrance. Tensioned against a

30-ton, 13.3-meter square steel caisson frame, the inverted pyramidal shape in laminated glass points downward towards the floor. The tip of the pyramid is suspended 1.4 meters (a little more than 4.5 feet) above floor level. Individual glass panes in the

pyramid, 30 mm thick, are connected by stainless-steel crosses 381 mm in length. After dark, the structure is illuminated by a frieze of spotlights.

Directly below the tip of the downwards-pointing glass pyramid, a small stone pyramid (about one meter/three feet high) is stationed on the floor, as if mirroring the larger structure above: The tips of the two pyramids

almost touch.

La Pyramide Inversée was designed by architects Pei, Cobb, Freed and Partners, and installed as part of the Phase II government renovation of the Louvre Museum. It was completed in 1993.

In 1995, it was a finalist in the Benedictus Awards, described by the jury as “a remarkable anti-structure … a symbolic use of technology … a piece of sculpture. It was meant as

an object but it is an object to transmit light.”

IN THE DA VINCI CODEThe Inverted Pyramid figures prominently on the concluding pages of

Dan Brown’s international bestseller The Da Vinci Code. The pro-tagonist of his novel, Robert Langdon, reads esoteric symbolism

into the two pyramids: The Inverted Pyramid is perceived as a Chalice, a feminine symbol, whereas the stone pyramid

below is interpreted as a Blade, a masculine symbol: the whole structure could thus express the union

of the genders. Moreover, Brown’s protagonist concludes that the tiny stone pyramid is ac-

tually only the apex of a larger pyramid (possibly the same size as the invert-

ed pyramid above), embedded in the floor as a secret chamber.

This chamber is said to enclose the body of

Mary Magdalene.

EARLY LIFE AND EDUCATIONPei was born in Canton (pinyin: Guangzhou), China on April 26, 1917, to a prominent family from Suzhou. His father, a banker, was later the director of the Bank of China and the governor of the Central Bank of China. His family later moved to Shanghai, but resided in his native city Suzhou, a city near Shanghai. The family’s residence, Lion Grove Garden, is a renowned classical garden in Suzhou, now part of the World Heritage Site listed Classical Gardens of Suzhou. The garden is famed for its collection of Tai Lake stones, the aesthetically rich shapes of which are naturally carved by the waters of the lake. Pei loved how the buildings and the nature were combined, and especially liked the way light and shadow mixed.

His first education was at St. Paul’s College, Hong Kong (primary school), and then at Saint John’s University, Shanghai (high school) before mov-ing to the United States to study architecture at the age of 18 at the Uni-versity of Pennsylvania. He received a Bachelor of Architecture degree from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1940. He is a 1940 recipi-ent of the Alpha Rho Chi Medal, the MIT Traveling Fellowship, and the AIA Gold Medal. He then studied at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Shortly after his studies there, he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee in Princeton, New Jersey.

In 1944, he returned to Harvard, studying under Walter Gropius, who was previously associated with the Bauhaus. He received a Master’s de-gree in Architecture in 1946. He was a member of the Harvard faculty subsequently attaining the rank of assistant professor. He received the Wheelwright Traveling Fellowship in 1951 and became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1954.

CAREERIn 1948, William Zeckendorf hired Pei to work at the real estate develop-ment corporation Webb and Knapp in a newly created post, Director of Architecture. While at Webb and Knapp, Pei worked on many large-scale architectural and planning projects across the country and designed his buildings mostly in the manner of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.

Pei founded his own architectural firm in 1955, which was originally known as I. M. Pei and Associates and, later, I. M. Pei & Partners until 1989 when it became known as Pei Cobb Freed & Partners recognizing James Ingo Freed and Henry N. Cobb.

HONORSI.M. Pei is a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects and a Cor-porate Member of the Royal Institute of British Architects. He has also been elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Nation-al Academy of Design, and the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. In 1975 he was elected to the American Academy, which is restricted to a lifetime membership of fifty members. In 1978, he be-came Chancellor of the American Academy, the first architect to hold that position. He served until 1980. Mr. Pei was inducted a ”Membre de l’Institut de France” in 1984, and decorated by the French government as a Commandeur in the ”Ordre des Arts et des Lettres” in 1985. On July 4, 1986, he was one of twelve naturalized American citizens to receive the Medal of Liberty from President Ronald Reagan. Two years later French president François Mitterrand inducted I. M. Pei as a Chevalier in the Légion d’Honneur. In November 1993 he was raised to Officier. Also in 1993, he was elected an Honorary Academician of the Royal Academy of Arts in London. In 1997 the Académie d’Architecture de France elected him Foreign Member.[4] IM Pei has been named as the recipient of the 2010 RIBA Royal Gold Medal. IM Pei will be presented with the Royal Gold Medal on February 11, 2010 (to be confirmed) at a ceremony at the Royal Institute of British Architects in London, when the 2010 RIBA International and Honorary Fellowships will also be presented.

FAMILY AND LATER LIFEIn 1990, Pei retired from his firm but still maintains an office there. He has 4 children, 2 of them architects. Two of his sons, Chien Chung (Didi) Pei and Li Chung (Sandi) Pei, after leaving their father’s firm, estab-lished their own practice, Pei Partnership Architects in 1992. I. M. Pei still participates in design work with both Pei Cobb Freed and Partners and Pei Partnership Architects.

M. PEIIeoh Ming Pei (貝聿銘) (born April 26, 1917), commonly known by his initials I. M. Pei, is a Pritzker Prize-winning Chinese-born American architect, known as the last master of high modernist architecture.

LEAFlines

IEOH MINg PEIPERSONAL INFORMATION

Name: Ieoh Ming PeiNationality: American

Birth date: April 26, 1917 (1917-04-26) (age 92)Birth place: Guangzhou (Canton), China

wORkPractice name: Pei Cobb Freed & Partners

SIgNIFICANT bUILDINgS

Louvre PyramidBank of China Tower

Javits Convention CenterEast Building, National Gallery of Art

Museum of Islamic Art, DohaAwards and prizes: AIA Gold Medal

Presidential Medal of FreedomPritzker Prize

TUILERIESgarden

When the large empty space between the northern and southern wings of the Louvre now familiar to modern visitors was revealed in 1883, for the first time the Louvre courtyard opened into an unbroken Axe historique.

The Tuileries Garden (French Jardin des Tuileries) is surrounded by the Louvre (to the east), the Seine (to the south), the Place de la Concorde (to the west) and the Rue de Rivoli (to the north). Further to the north lies the Place Vendôme.

The Tuileries Garden (French Jardin des Tuileries) is surrounded by the Louvre (to the east), the Seine (to the south), the Place de la Concorde (to the west) and the Rue de Rivoli (to the north). Further to the north lies the Place Vendôme.

The straight line which runs through the Place de la Concorde and the Arc de Triomphe to La Défense was originally centred on the façade of the Tuileries, a similar line leading across the entrance court of the Louvre. As the two façades were placed at slightly differing angles, this has resulted in a slight ‘kink’ on the site of the palace a feature ultimately dictated by the curved course of the River Seine.

The straight line which runs through the Place de la Concorde and the Arc de Triomphe to La Défense was originally centred on the façade of the Tuileries, a similar line leading across the entrance court of the Louvre. As the two façades were placed at slightly differing angles, this has resulted in a slight ‘kink’ on the site of the palace a feature ultimately dictated by the curved course of the River Seine.

The Tuileries Garden covers about 63 acres (25 hectares) and still closely follows a design laid out by landscape architect Andre Le Notre in 1664. His spacious formal garden plan drew out the perspective from the reflecting

pools one to the other in an unbroken vista along a central axis from the west façade, which has been extended as the Axe historique.

The Tuileries Garden covers about 63 acres (25 hectares) and still closely follows a design laid out by landscape architect Andre Le Notre in 1664. His spacious formal garden plan drew out the perspective from the reflecting

pools one to the other in an unbroken vista along a central axis from the west façade, which has been extended as the Axe historique.

THE CAROUSEL gHOSTS

THE CAROUSEL gHOSTS

“The solid is for the dead,

but the transparent is for the living” – I.M. Pei

“The solid is for the dead,

but the transparent is for the living” – I.M. Pei