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Nurturing Aspirations and Potential Theory ofExcellence (NAP Theory) maintains that excellence isthe most essential standard by which to promote thesuccessful career development of African Americanboys. It is a conceptual benchmark that is overarchingand transcendent, consistent across domains (e.g.,academic, social, career) and settings (e.g., school,home, work). Excellence is the quality or state of beingoutstanding and is the opposite of mediocrity. Appliedto NAP Theory, outstanding quality or meriteddistinction is effort based and not ability based.

Though excellence is the sole criterion in thiscareer development theory, it is individually calibrated;however, excellence is not compromised under anycircumstances (e.g., deficient educational background,inadequate parenting, impoverished community), elsethe essence of the theory is violated (Perry, Steele, &Hilliard, 2003). NAP Theory holds that all AfricanAmerican boys are capable of excellence. Furthermore,excellence as a career development mechanism ispractical and enduring, and appreciates over the lifespan.

As the fundamental guiding principle in thesuccessful career development of African Americanboys, NAP Theory specifically defines excellence as astate of (a) awareness of one’s potential and (b)performance perseverance at the highest level of one’sability, in all areas necessary to achieve one’s dreams,regardless of circumstances. An African American boynurtured with excellence as just described has thisattitude: “I know that I am talented. My talent and myperseverance toward excellence will allow me toaccomplish my dreams.”

The central premise of NAP Theory is that allAfrican American boys have potential, which is theinitial form of excellence. Potential is defined as thepromise of excellence within each African Americanboy. The origin of potential can be abstractly identifiedas spiritual and ancestral and is evidenced in the legacyof African Americans. African Americans, throughutilization of their potential, overcame slavery and legalsegregation, although racism and discrimination still

exist, to establish a relative place of equity in Americansociety (Franklin & Moss, 2002). Such potential forexcellence is conceptualized by NAP Theory to besocially transmitted from one generation of AfricanAmericans to the next. Whether or not this explainsthe genesis of potential or if the actual potentialtransmission process works in the way described, totake such a positive perspective gives the AfricanAmerican boy and those who work with him a usefuland accurate social and historical foundation fromwhich he can grow and develop.

This definition of potential, which is suggestedto be a part of all African American boys, warrantsconsideration of other abstract concepts such asintelligence and aptitude, as well as more concreterealities such as disabilities (e.g., learning, physical).Notwithstanding these relevant issues and concerns, thebasic concept of potential remains in tact.Consequently, African American boys have at least tworelative sources or dimensions for their potential: (a)spiritual and/or ancestral potential and (b) characteristicpotential that is uniquely theirs given their individuality(e.g., genetic, biological).

Aspirations are essential to career developmentand success of African American boys (Chung, Baskin,& Case, 1999; Gottfredson, 1996). To achieveexcellence, potential has to be shaped, directed, andguided into an intentional, purposeful, and relativelystructured force: aspiration. Aspiration is defined inNAP Theory as the career vision the African Americanboy has for himself. His vision can be essentiallynonexistent, singular, or multifaceted and is likelyreflective of his developmental stage, career-relatedguidance, and life experiences (Super, 1994). AfricanAmerican boys have varying degrees of exposure andaccess to diverse occupations, occupationalinformation, and career role models. These experiences,or lack thereof, govern the ability of the AfricanAmerican boy to envision his own career path andlifestyle and moderate his career aspirations(Gottfredson, 1996; Vondracek & Kirchner, 1974).

Article 20

Nurturing Aspirations and Potential Theory of Excellence:Career Development of African American Boys

Marc A. Grimmett

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There are at least three general ways thataspirations can develop. First, aspirations can be innateor interest and ability based, meaning they originate,derive, or develop in the absence of relative nurturance.Second, aspirations can have an experiential origin,meaning they developed from specific expectations,encouragement, education, and/or experiences thatsparked certain interests and goals. Further, aspirationsmay develop through some combination of innateinterests, abilities, and skills with career-relatedguidance and experiences.

A nurturing environment prepares and equipsAfrican American boys for career success.Alternatively, the absence of nurturance (neglect) setsthe stage for suboptimal career development andnegative outcomes. Four essential factors must bepresent to nurture the career development of AfricanAmerican boys: (a) expectations, (b) encouragement,(c) education, and (d) experiences.

The career development of the African Americanboy begins with the expectation that he is capable ofexcellence. Such an expectation initially comes fromhis social environment (e.g., parents, teachers, peers,significant adults). Expectations serve as goal templatesfor the African American boy before he is able to creategoals for himself. For expectations to result inthe greatest motivation, effort, performance,and satisfaction, they must be (a) specific, (b)developmentally challenging, and (c) assisted (i.e., helpis provided to meet expectations or to achieve goals)(House & Baetz, 1979; Locke, 1970).

The African American boy then internalizes thepositive expectations of his environment to create arealistic career vision for himself. As a result the AfricanAmerican boy believes in his own potential forexcellence, expects to be successful, and adopts asuccess identity.

An African American boy who perceives eitherlow or negative expectations for his success is likelynot to perform at the level of his capabilities and haveunderdeveloped potential. He may also be unaware ofhis potential and evaluate his abilities negatively. Ifthe negative expectations of his environment areinternalized, his performance is likely to demonstratewhat he has accepted, either consciously orunconsciously, is expected of him. Internalized negativeexpectations are evidenced in at least two ways: (a)the presence of nonexistent, limited, or stereotypicalaspirations and (b) the ability to only envision asubstandard lifestyle that may include poverty, crime,and/or unemployment.

Excellence and career success requirecommitment, hard work, determination, andperseverance. It is therefore essential that the

expectation of success be reinforced and supplementedby the encouragement of significant individuals in theAfrican American boy’s life. Parents, teachers, peers,and adults who encourage African American boysdemonstrate their care and instill hope about presentand future endeavors.

Encouragement conveys a sincere desire that theAfrican American boy is successful and providessustaining motivation during difficult challenges. It ismore than simply saying, “I want you to be successful,”though important and helpful; rather, it is consistentlydemonstrating this message in words that are congruentwith behavior (i.e., actions). Encouragement is an activerelational process through which an African Americanboy learns that he is important, his life matters, and heis expected to use his potential to become excellent andsuccessful.

Additionally, encouragers of the African Americanboy are also his role models and his guides to a worldbeyond his current developmental landscape and socialreality. Their behavior toward him ultimately influenceshis behaviors toward others, thereby creating afoundational reciprocal system of encouragement.

The lack or absence of encouragement isconsistent with low expectations. It is difficult toencourage an African American boy if expectations forhim are low or nonexistent. A paradoxical problem iscreated by low expectations and the lack of activeencouragement for African American boys. Theparadox is that low expectations and minimalencouragement are still a form of expectations andencouragement, albeit suboptimal, that can influencethe career development of African American boys.These types of expectations and encouragement createnegative energy in the environment of the AfricanAmerican boy that is more likely to lead to negativecareer outcomes (e.g., school dropout, incarceration,poverty).

Expectations and encouragement are the initiatorsfor the process of excellence and career developmentwhich must be complemented by a quality education.Education provides infinitely adaptable personalresources that propel the career development process.For African American boys an education can also buffersome of the effects of racism through access toinformation, role models, and learning experiences thatcan help him develop efficacy in dealing with prejudice,discrimination, and racism. Such ability is ultimatelyparamount to his survival, achievement, and success ina career.

The quality and level of education are stronglycorrelated with career success, level of income, andother quality of life factors (Sharf, 2003). Anappreciation for the value and utility of education also

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continues to benefit self-motivated learners over thelife span because they are able to think critically aboutsituations, evaluate alternatives, adapt to circumstances,and make decisions in their best interests.

Low expectations and minimal encouragementalso serve as an impediment in the educational context.Poor quality education and underperformance in schoolhas far reaching consequences and can potentially limitcareer alternatives (Gottfredson, 1996). Anotherlimitation created by neglect in the area of education isthat the connection between education and the lifestyledesired by the African American boy is not made.

It is crucial that African American boys have adevelopmentally appropriate understanding of therelationship between their present educational situationand their future career situation and lifestyle.Perspective in this regard would help to make schooland its related work more relevant, meaningful, andimportant to African American boys. As a result AfricanAmerican boys will become empowered learners vestedin the fulfillment of their potential and in theaccomplishment of their dreams.

High expectations, positive encouragement, anda quality education are most fortified with concretecareer-related experiences. Material experiences arenecessary to give African American boys an opportunityto identify with a career. They help him to developvision (i.e., for his life) and perspective (i.e.,developmental expansion). What he aspires to becomeis again ultimately governed by his exposure. Thisexposure should be thoughtful, intentional, purposeful,and developmentally appropriate.

An African American boy may find it difficult toconnect his present activities (e.g., school) to his futureposition in life (e.g., career) and have a limitedperspective of time (Super, 1994). Because of hisdevelopmental stage, he is better able to learn aboutcareers through direct experiences with job sites (e.g.,visiting an office) and interaction with employees (e.g.,demonstrations, question and answer sessions).

If African American boys are intentionallyexposed to diverse careers, given the opportunity toengage in supervised visits to job sites, and encouragedto ask questions and to explore, then their career worldwill expand, as will their interests and curiosity.Structured intentional exposure creates a perspectivethat is otherwise unattainable without the assistance ofcaring adults and has significant future implications.For example, how can an African American boyconsider what is taking place in other parts of the worldif no one has ever shown him that other parts of theworld truly exist? What is the probability that SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations will be on his list ofaspirations?

The absence of career related experiences in anenvironment of neglect serves to limit the aspirationsof African American boys, consequently leaving theirpotential undeveloped. Without intentionally structuredcareer related opportunities, what African Americanboys learn about various careers is likely to be correlatedto their social environment including what they areexposed to through media (e.g., television, radio,Internet, video games, magazines). Such informationis, by nature of the format and absence of a processcomponent (i.e., an opportunity for discussion with theproducer), limited and likely to be incomplete.Consequently, children develop a career base, structure,or template that is insufficient and difficult to buildupon. Then it is not surprising, given the dearth ofcareer-related exploratory opportunities, when someAfrican American boys limit their aspirations toprofessional athletics and entertainment.

References

Chung, Y. B., Baskin, M. L., & Case, A. B. (1999).Career development of Black males: Case studies.Journal of Career Development, 25(3), 161–171.

Franklin, J. H., & Moss, A. A., Jr. (2002). From slaveryto freedom: A history of African Americans (8th ed.).New York: Knopf.

Gottfredson, L. S. (1996). Gottfredson’s theory ofcircumscription and compromise. In D. Brown, L.Brooks, & Associates (Eds.), Career choice anddevelopment (3rd ed., pp. 179–232), San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

House, R. J., & Baetz, M. L. (1979). Leadership: Someempirical generalizations and new researchdirections. In B. M. Straw (Ed.), Research inorganizational behavior (pp. 341–423). Greenwich,CT: JAI Press.

Locke, E. A. (1970). Studies of the relationshipbetween satisfaction, goal setting, and performance.Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,5, 135–158.

Perry, T., Steele, C., & Hilliard A., III. (2003). Young,gifted, and Black: Promoting high achievementamong African American students. Boston: BeaconPress.

Sharf, R. S. (2003). Applying career developmenttheory to counseling (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.

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Super, D. E. (1994). A life-span, life-space perspectiveon convergence. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent(Eds.), Convergence in career development theories(pp. 63–74). Palo Alto, CA: ConsultingPsychologists Press.

Vondracek, S. J., & Kirchner, E. P. (1974). Vocationaldevelopment in early childhood: An examination ofyoung children’s expressions of vocationalaspirations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 5, 251–260.