Virtual Public Sphere
-
Upload
laplanduni -
Category
Documents
-
view
234 -
download
0
Transcript of Virtual Public Sphere
1 | P a g e
Is Facebook an emerging virtual public sphere? Understanding, confusions and contest among ‘Religious’ and ‘Liberals’ in Pakistan through the lens of Facebook.
2 | P a g e
Summary
This study examines the Facebook role as an emerging virtual public sphere of Pakistan. A
sphere in which, contest and deliberations of ideas occur among two very segments of the
population; religious and liberals, to take over the public opinion, using various issues and topics
of public concern. They pole apart at opposite extremes but still their coexistence and pursuit of
consensus is achievable through a rational, critical discussion in an autonomous public sphere. It
is important to note, a large population of moderate-Muslims reside between these extremes. The
current study contribute in two folds: first it present an argument in favor of Facebook as an
emerging virtual public sphere, and second expose the contestation of ideas among socio-
religious segmented population of Pakistan and Facebook significance to understand it. The
polarization and segmentation of Pakistani public has historical importance and it is rooted in the
ideology of Pakistan.
After the proliferation of Internet and social media, the magnitude and visibility of these
contests have extended to the lives of the masses. Exposing to and involving them in these
contemporary debates. Involvement of ordinary public is redefining the quality of discourse and
changing the boundaries of this virtual public sphere. I attempt to analyze the degree of
participation and impact of this debate on ordinary public. At the same time, try to examine, how
public participation affect above mentioned two segments in public sphere? Both folds are
intertwined with each other and their mutual connectivity support to pave the ground for this
study. Using Facebook as an object and lens for this study not only expands and increase the
richness of the study but also offers a methodological approach to grasp firsthand knowledge on
other contemporary issues of Pakistan’s public sphere.
New millennium brought several challenges for the country. Despite various internal and
external issues, first time Pakistan’s public witnessed blessings of; free electronic media,
Increasing urbanization, and most importantly, involvement of vast public in the consumption of
global information through Internet. The low-cost digital devices, ease of web 2.0 and seamless
access has allowed the rise of internet and social media use in private and public life of public.
Internet contributes to the public awareness on common issues and intensifies free debate and
discussion, helping in the creation of an emerging public sphere. The Internet has been proven as
3 | P a g e
an open and flexible space that makes possible direct contact of public around the world, creating
new forms of community in which social conflicts, opportunities and most concern are
discussed. The recent online discussion on Facebook among two segments of population on the
contemporary political-Islamic issues; dealing with local Taliban, blasphemy law, authority and
role of religion in politics, demonstrates the significance and importance of the virtual public
sphere. The impact and penetration of this virtual sphere in life-world and system-world is self
evident; amplification of public voice, participation of women, students in politics and public
opinion reshaping are some of many. The dominance of orthodox religious clergy in public
space, inadequacy of political sphere to engage public in a critical rationale debate and
commercialize composition of the electronic media exemplify the weakness of the Pakistan’s
public sphere and public discourse in it.
Considering these factors in mind, my claim about virtual public sphere is more relevant
and justified. Only online environment is best place to examine an autonomous public sphere,
which offers an open space, transgressing from the religious and political authoritarian
boundaries. A space which offers ordinary public to express condemnation and approval of right
and wrong, display solidarity and differences, celebrate similarities, remember and reinforce
shared history and values. It includes and facilitates marginalized public for rational, democratic
and sometime agonistic discussion to form an opinion on contemporary issues. In spite of the
fact that; this virtual public sphere is a locus of rational debate on the common good, but at the
same time, these rationales create confusion and contest among participants on the basis of their
socio-religious background, information, ideas and doctrines.
Key words:
Virtual, Sphere, Polarization, Segmentation, Islam, Pakistan, Facebook, Religion, Liberal,
Private, Public, Contest, Consensus
4 | P a g e
Glossary
Jihad Effort, Holy war
Tajdeed Reforms
The Laaltain Light (Facebook Page)
Ghaddar Traitor (Facebook Page)
Mughal India Indian region under the rule of Mughal emperors
Ulema Religious Islamic Scholars
5 | P a g e
Content list
1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………….6
1.1. Background……………………………………………………………………....9
1.3. Aim of the Study….……………………………………………………………..11
1.4. Interweaving Two Folds…………………………………………………………16
2. Historical and Theoretical Point of Departure…………………………….……19
2.1. Theoretical Framework….………………………………………………….…….21 2.3. Functions and Characteristics of the Public Sphere……………………...……….24
2.4. The Public Sphere From Bourgeois Coffee House to Virtual Café……………...
2.4. Pakistan’s Public Sphere………………………………………………………...
2.5. Political Islam vs Popular Islam………………………………………………...
2.6. Enlightenment, Modernity, Secularism and Post Secularism..…………………...
3. LiteratureReview……………………………………………………………….
3.1. Previous Research on Internet and Public Sphere……………………………….
3.2. Previous Research on Pakistani Public Sphere…………………………………..
4. Framing Facebook as Virtual Public Sphere……………………………………
4.1. Optimistic vs Pessimistic views………………………………………………..
6 | P a g e
Introduction
The aim of this study is to examine the segmentation of the Pakistan’s public sphere from
the perspective of the “common good” debate on two Facebook pages The Laaltain and Roshni. I
am trying to investigate virtual public sphere within the domain of politics and religion from the
angle of contest and confrontation of ideas. However, my special emphasis is being placed on the
analysis of socio-religious segmentation and polarization of the participants in Pakistan’s public
sphere. As studied by Ali B, Z 2012) “The public sphere in Pakistan has been faced with a
virulent socio-religious polarization-- two segments of the population, one apparently 'radical'
and 'religious' and the other presumably 'liberal' and 'secular'. Such rivalry has created
contentious divisions along numerous, cross-cutting cleavages in which 'religion' has again and
again proven to be the primary fault line”.
I am trying to use Facebook as an object and lens of this study to understand polarization
and concerning debate in virtual public sphere among religious and liberals of Pakistan. At the
same time, utilizing Facebook as an instrument for this study, Facebook has great potential for
recruiting participants and primary data gathering. Facebook makes it easy for ordinary users,
experts and for developers to create simple questionnaires, surveys, and applications (see
http://developers.facebook.com). Over the years many researchers have taken advantage of this
resource. Facebook has received considerable attention in a variety of research areas. Wilson, R,
Gosling, and Graham, L (2012) identify research on Facebook emanate from a large range of
fields; descriptive analysis of users, motivations for using Facebook, identity presentation, the
role of Facebook in social interactions, and privacy and information disclosure. Number of
problems and Uncertainties still exists about the efficient use of Facebook in social research;
fluid nature of content and users, overly self portrayal (Zywica & Danowski, 2008),
inappropriate content posting (Karl, Peluchette, & Schlaegel, 2010a, 2010b), research ethics
(Solberg, 2010). Facebook constitutes a new domain for social research, so it is understandable
that methods and protocols for research have yet to be developed.
7 | P a g e
Chapter 1 is about general introduction including, research questions and research
objectives. The introduction chapter also highlights the background, current and historical
importance of this study. Chapter 2 and 3 sketch the theoretical and historical grounds from
previous studies and theories respectively on “Understanding Pakistani Public Sphere” and
“Framing of Facebook as Public Sphere”. The next two chapters deal with research
methodology, data gathering, results, discussion and last but not the least conclusion. I started
my pre-study analysis of two Facebook fan pages about six month ago. Initially, I identified four
Facebook fan pages and 6 open groups, specifically discussing religious-political issues. The
number of active users, quantity and quality of posts and comments, force me to limit my study
only for two Facebook fan pages; The Laaltain and Roshni. Now, for recruiting participants of
the study and data gathering, I created my new Facebook page, so I don’t want to put my
influence on the participants of the study with my personal detail and personality.
Since its independence in 1947 from the British colonial system, Pakistan has been facing
various ideological and contemporary challenges; along with lack of democracy and religious
extremism (Haqqani, and Haider, 2010; Abbas, 2005). The ongoing debate over the issues of
blasphemy law, interpretation of religious issues like, ‘Jihad’ and ‘Tajdeed’ and religion role in
politics have been highlighting the polarization of the Pakistan’s public, political and media
spheres. The pertaining discussion and debate on Facebook regarding above issues brings forth
the possible role of Facebook as an emerging virtual public sphere of Pakistan. That offers and
facilitates virtual space beyond imagination to think, criticize and discuss on the collective
interests and issues of common good. It attributes a surprising amount of agency and superlative
autonomy, which unshackles an individual from conventional pressures and at the same time
liberate mass public from restrictions imposed by the religious elite and authoritarian regime in a
physical space.
8 | P a g e
Statement of the problem:
Public sphere is a virtual or physical space, where contestation, rejection and acceptance
of ideas occur by ordinary public on the basis of their rationality and critical reasoning; which is
important to understand obligations and rights of an individual and for the society to realize
common concerns and common good. This study examines the Facebook role as an emerging
virtual public sphere of Pakistan. A sphere in which, contest and deliberations of ideas occur
among two very segments of the population: religious and liberals. In spite of the fact that; this
virtual public sphere is a locus of rational debate on the common good, but at the same time,
these rationales create confusion and contest among participants on the basis of their socio-
religious background, information, ideas and doctrines.
Research Questions:
How and if, Facebook is playing a role as an emerging virtual public sphere of Pakistan?
Is it providing and facilitating alternative space (Virtual Cafe) for rationale debate and discussion
to form public opinion? Is virtual public sphere emancipating public from traditional boundaries?
How Facebook amplifying and extending contest and deliberations of ideas to the ordinary
public, and how it create confusion, conflict and consensus?
The impact of the debate on larger public and degree of participation by them, how public
participation affects political and media spheres?
Research Objectives:
The objectives of this study are:
To understand the current and historical confrontation and contestation of liberal and radicals
in Pakistani public sphere.
To examine possible role of Facebook as it is providing and facilitating alternative space
(Virtual Cafe) for rationale debate and discussion to form public opinion.
To identify the level of participation from marginalized citizens like Students, women and
rural community.
9 | P a g e
Impact and influence of Virtual Public Sphere on National Public, Political and Media
Spheres.
To predict at least some future trends of Pakistani Public Sphere.
Significance and Limitations of the Study:
This study will identify the role of the Facebook as an emerging public sphere of
Pakistan. This study would be significant to understand the current and historical contestation of
ideas among socio-religious segmented population of Pakistan. Through this research one can
understand root causes of current political and socio-religious crisis in the country. This study
will help wider readers to know how a moderate-Muslim or common man perceives and
distinguishes between religious and liberals. I am trying to find and answer questions of socio-
religious differences among public and its affect on Pakistani public sphere. There is still plenty
of work which can be included under the heading of public sphere. Limitation of resources and
time never permit me to extend this study in real demographics of Pakistan to asses’ current state
of public sphere and participation of larger public in it. Despite this problem, however, Facebook
discussion on public issues offers a reflection of current social and political processes in the
country.
First of all, a digital medium such as “The Facebook” its contents and users are subject to
rapid change. New users enter and leave, new content, stories and interests develop and abolish
quickly. Therefore, studying and analyzing such fluid environment is much difficult then real
world. A second problem is that studying the public sphere within Facebook environment makes
it hard to define the research geographical boundaries. Likewise, problem of language, echoing
and participant’s authenticity, fake accounts as in a study by Pew research center (2013) noticed
single user has multiple Facebook accounts with fake identities and profiles. Therefore, this
research will focus only on two Facebook pages and on users who actively participate in
discussion.
http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/05/21/teens-social-media-and-privacy/
10 | P a g e
Background:
The idea of this study is to take diversity of Pakistani public as a departure point. What
Qadeer, M. A (2012) noted as difference among population in regard of life style, linguistic,
ethnic and cultural orientation. I am further extending his argument that these differences create
diversity of socio-religious classes and thinking. Roy, O (1996) defines this as “the birth of new
social classes, and the advent of contemporary ideologies”. In an optimistic thinking, these
diversities built rich and beautiful mosaic of the population but from the other perspective, these
diversities create agonistic confrontation among socio-religiously divided classes. As Ramadan,
T. (2008)) explains when you don't know how to manage diversity it ends with division and it
creates problems.
For now, I conceptualize Pakistani public sphere[s] as consisting of multiple variations
and counter public spheres involving several issues. Habermas (1992) defines in his later work
on the public sphere “A different picture emerges if from the very beginning one admits the
coexistence of competing public spheres and takes account of the dynamics of those processes of
communication-- That are excluded from the dominant public sphere”. However, Pakistani
public is more homocentric on the religion hence religion is overlapped on all spheres of life and
system-world. Religion is always the central and most important topic which governs the debate
and discussion in public sphere.
Religion has an overarching influence on all discourses in the public sphere. I am not
designating this virtual public sphere as a “Muslim public sphere” in a sense, as Dale F.
Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson (2003) identified, but there scholarly work has provided stand
point to understand about notion of an emerging public sphere. “Situated outside formal state
control, this-- public sphere exists at the intersections of religious, political and social life.
Facilitated by the proliferation of media in the modern world, the Muslim public can challenge
or limit the state and conventional religious authorities and contribute to the creation of a civil
society”.
The official religion of Islamic Republic of Pakistan is Islam. About 97 percent of
population is Muslim. More than half of the population lives in rural areas with higher poverty
percentage. Islam provided the basis for creation of an independent country to the scattered
11 | P a g e
Muslims in British-India. According to “Two nation theory” Muslims and Hindus are two
different nations who have had their own culture, traditions, customs, language and life style
different from each other. John L. Esposito (2001) explains, Pakistan movement leaders
endorsed the Islamic nationalism call for separate Muslim homeland. “Islamic nationalism was
supposed to unite-- Muslims in a county that was in fact-a composite of diverse linguistic, ethnic
and regional cultural identities / communities and whose two wings (West and East Pakistan)
were separated by more than a thousand miles of Indian Territory. Pakistan's Muslim nationalism
was rooted in an appeal to a common Muslim heritage and call for a Muslim homeland, its
meaning the relationship of Islam to the state) has been as diverse as its population”. Islam
might prove as combining force in the case of the creation of Pakistan but after the secession of
East Pakistan as an independent country Bangladesh proved this ideology false. (see Ali T 2012;
Coakley, 2003; Bhargava R, 2005).
The ‘embededness’ and embodiment of Islam in public life, political space, at town
square, rallies, public gatherings and on the national, local and now in social media landscape
make it more visible. Islam influences every sphere of private and public life. According to
Gellner E (1991) modern industrial and scientific society erodes religious beliefs-- the political
and psychological impact of religion has diminished. Islam-- is a very striking and total
exception to this.-- the hold of Islam over its' believers is as strong, and in some ways stronger,
now than it was hundred years ago.
The rise of Internet and ease of web 2.0 blurs the boundaries between private and public.
Similarly, In case of Facebook, formerly launched by college students, for internal
communication now have more then billion users around the globe. As mentioned in its mission
statement “Facebook’s mission is to give people the power to share and make the world more
open and connected. People-- discover what’s going on in the world, and to share and express
what matters to them.” The involvement of vast population of the globe emerged the Facebook
into an arena of debate and contest for seeking common good. The concept of public sphere is
being extended and penetrated deep in our personal and private life since emergence of social
media. Social media sites are not more considered as personal social networks but providing and
facilitating, platforms to communicate, promote campaigns and coordinate actions. As Lance
Bennett (2012) discuss about digitally mediated public issues “They share stories about their
12 | P a g e
activities by posting videos on YouTube and photos on Flickr or on NGO websites. They move
together or apart on and off line, sometimes reaching consensus on common issues, and
sometimes debating the best issue frame or political strategy”.
Aim of the Study:
This study aims to address and analyze at least two major issues concerning Pakistani
public sphere; Firstly, How to define historical and current status of Pakistani public sphere. This
question covers my discussion (secondary data, literature and previous studies) from theoretical
framework of public sphere to framing Facebook as an emerging public sphere of Pakistan.
Secondly, identification of polarize and segmented public opinion and public. This part led the
discussion to the main objective of the research (primary data, quantitative and qualitative) and it
includes topics from the field of political Islam, modernity, secularism and post secularism. To
answers these questions and other relevant problems. My aim is to conduct this study by using
Facebook as an object and an instrument of research. This study combines various theories and
approaches of sociology and communication studies. For information gathering, this research use
both quantitative and qualitative methods.
In the beginning of the introduction; I mentioned, Pakistan is being facing and trying to
coup with the problem of religious extremism and lack of democracy, which contradict with the
core idea of functional public sphere. In Pakistan’s political history, there are only some
junctures where public opinion has truly altered the political landscape; one of them is former
chief justice of Pakistan restoration through nonviolent campaign and civic activism. According
to Ahmed, Z. and Stephan, M. 2010) “Poor governance, fear of regime repression and terrorist
violence are barriers to effective civic activism inside Pakistan. Yet-- a massive grassroots
campaign led by lawyers-- whose insistence on the rule of law and embrace of nonviolent
struggle captured the hearts and minds of millions of Pakistanis, helped transform the country's
political landscape in unexpected ways-- the lawyers' movement highlights the steadily growing
strength of Pakistani civil society have a potential to influence democratic change in the
country”. Political consciousness of civil society is being growing in the country but Pakistan’s
public sphere was never been considered as functional and influential in regard of participation
13 | P a g e
and equality among public. What N Fraser (1990) called in her post bourgeois public sphere
work “weak and strong public spheres”.
The lack of public participation in “common good” debate is due to several reasons; one
of them is, prohibiting freedom of speech and expression in larger public, imposed by
authoritarian rulers and by their eternal ally “religious elite” that not only reassures but extends
this to subjugate the freedom of thinking. Talisse R 2011) more specifically talks about “liberty
of consciousness” in his study on faith and democracy. The religious elite alliance with military
has transformed Pakistan from possible democratic social state to security state. It is the irony of
today’s Pakistan. The same religious elite and clergies are biggest stack holders now in the
politics of country that never supported the idea of Pakistan, perhaps they consider entire Indian
region as Muslim heritage. Ghazali 1996) defines “Pakistan struggle leadership came almost
entirely from the Western-educated Muslim professionals. The Ulema remained, by and large,
hostile to the idea of a Muslim national state”. In spite of above mentioned Pakistani perspective,
historically the rapport among religious scholars/jurists and government never had been
considered as accommodating. Early scholars of Islam went through all sorts of persecution and
torture. Issah H. Tikumah (2008) argues one will hardly find anyone of the pioneer Islamic
scholars who did not face public torture and ignominy, prison or exile.
Here, I would add and explain Nigel Crook (2010) notion of knowledge channeling
“elites seek to control and channel knowledge, but also manipulate the ability of people to reason
and critique”. On one side, weak and paralyzed civilian governments, frequent interventions
from military and civil establishment in politics resulting week democratic institutions, feudalism
and inequality in political process created an environment where, freedom of expression and
speech has been excluded from the public sphere. Further, Niazi Z (1994) examines the effects of
governmental coercion on the press, including the self-censorship most newspapers had to resort
to, in order to survive. State control electronic media, long life prisons and torture to labor union
leaders, opinion makers, politicians, public intellectuals, journalists and poets had created
almost suffocating degree of restriction for citizens to explicitly participate in public sphere. On
the other side, domination of religious elite and clergy in public space and in politics (Islamism).
Radical religious imprints on socio-cultural public life, symbolizing religion as universal solution
to all contemporary issues abandon the process of critical-thinking and reasoning from larger
14 | P a g e
public. As study by Dietrich Jung 2011) “The Muslim religion is represented as a holistic unity
of social, political, cultural and economic institutions. Islam, according to their reading, is more
than just a religion; Islam is a comprehensive, unique and unifying way of life”.
Above mentioned issues are prime reason for the week public sphere and its lack of
influence on the public and as well on the authority in Pakistan. Taking above mentioned
problems in mind, I argue that Although Facebook, is in its infancy in Pakistan but still capable
of, and facilitates virtual space beyond imagination to think, criticize and discuss on the issues of
the common good. It attributes a surprising amount of agency far superlative, which unshackles
an individual from conventional family and peer pressure and at the same time liberate mass
public from restrictions imposed by religious elite and authoritarian regime in a physical space.
The enquiry about Facebook role as virtual public sphere is one of the basic goal of this
study. It is important to consider and compare the optimistic and pessimistic views about Internet
role in the context of the public sphere. Firstly, on the question of Internet particularly: Facebook
as public sphere. Secondly, question about its definition and placing in or outside the public
sphere As T Oblak 2003) observes “These ideas could be broadly divided into two parts on the
one side there are arguments that the new electronic public Sphere is merely a supplement to the
conventional public sphere (Buchstein 1997; Hague and Loader 1999; Wilhelm 2000). While on
the other hand it was argued that this was a radically new and different version of the public
sphere Roster and Knapp 1997).”
I start with a short overview of discussions with pessimistic views about role of ICT and
Internet in political public life. Dean, J (2002, 2003) claims in his study on democracy under the
conditions of ‘Technoculture’, “the notion of the public sphere is not only inapplicable to the
Internet, but also and more importantly, it damages the practices of democracy under conditions
of contemporary technoculture—an extension of capitalism”. Dean further questioned about
Internet present drift from its earlier days rhetoric of free information, universal access and
virtual democracy but also he support the Manuel Castells’ theory of capitalism in the networked
society. He refers it as “communicative capitalism”. For early day Internet promises, the rapid
growth of internet around the world and mass participation of public is an evidence of internet
promise of universal access. After growth of mobile Internet devices and emergence of Web 2.0
Internet has proved to deliver more than of what was anticipated in early days of the Internet.
15 | P a g e
I am in partial agreement with Dean on Castells’ capitalism of network theory. Internet is
driving the profitability for corporate companies, Facebook and other social media outlets are
generating billions of dollars in advertising revenue. According to Christian Fuchs (2014) they
are part of the 1%. So why the 99% should trust them and trust that these companies will deal
with their data in a responsible manner? Recent Edward Snowden’s revelation of the PRISM
surveillance system shows the dangers of the surveillance and vigilance. As in this case, National
Security Agency (NSA) was accessing information on a total of between 18,000 and 19,000 user
accounts in collaboration with Facebook1. Christian Fuchs (2014) mentions corporate and state
control of social media as, feudalization and colonization of electronic public spheres. Block of
Internet services, censuring and filtering of content and law suits against cyber activists are some
of many.
The second question is about its definition and placing in or outside the public sphere. It
is crucial to know and define characteristics and functions of public sphere. The ideal Habermas’
public sphere and its continuous transformation must be taken into consideration. Once, the
characteristics and function of Ideal public sphere are defined than I try to compare and contrast
with what I am arguing about Facebook as virtual sphere. I open my argument with the seamless
horizontal access character of the Internet among “life world” or public, one of the most
important characteristic of effective public sphere. Internet provides opportunity and fulfills the
demand of horizontal function of the public sphere to communicate and interact not only to
national but transnational public. B. Connery (1997) argues on the basis of analog and digital
media characteristics that digital networks would transcend both the limitations and the ‘anti-
democratic’ implications of analogue technologies. He further adds “the arrival of unlimited
bandwidth in which the roles of sender and receiver blur, in which we would be able to
communicate with unprecedented freedom along both horizontal and vertical axes (citizen-to-
citizen and citizen-to-institution).
On one hand vertical characteristics of the public sphere challenge the absolutism of the
authority to confine its powers within provided limit. On the other hand, horizontal
characteristics facilitating space for contest of ideas among the public. In Habermas’ terms, one
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/14/facebook-government-data- requests_n_3445174.html
16 | P a g e
can say that Facebook has a potential to be a public sphere and life-world of communicative
action. Public push and pull each other to form an opinion on common good for the society.
According to Salvatore & Le Vine (2005) public sphere is a site of contests among and within
public, authorities and institutions, to define obligations and rights of each entity within well
defined limits.
Interweaving Two Folds
Before proceeding deeper in the study, I feel it is necessary to discuss my selection of the
topic and preference to Facebook as an object and lens to study Pakistan’s public sphere
regarding religious and liberal divide. What is the mutual relation of the above two folds? I open
my argument by quoting Porta and Caiani (2010) concept of emerging European public sphere
“contestation is a crucial precondition for the emergence of public sphere rather than an
indication of its absence. Figure-1 explains how ideas float from one layer of the virtual public
sphere to another and from contest to consensus.
Fig-1: Emerging Virtual Public Sphere concept
First, my selection of the topic is not accidental. I am member of an extended family,
living far from my home country, friends and family, but always have feeling of “connectedness”
with them by Internet specially Facebook and Skype. These sites provide facility to communicate
and share information and media as well. It is worth mention here, on my Facebook page where I
suppose to see my families’ and friends’ personal updates, post messages and share life events,
consensus
contestation
of ideas
acceptance/rejection
on the rationality of ideas
17 | P a g e
pictures, and videos. However beside that, they share news stories and information from popular
sites about common issues concerning general public. The social use of Facebook among large
population of Pakistan is from appealing for blood donations and advertising for lost child to
protesting drone attacks, these are the cyber equivalents of traditional handouts, wall chocking
and public protests. Facebook is now a predominant medium for mobilization around political
and social issues in the country.
Second, Giving preference to Facebook over other Internet genre for example, blogs,
video sharing, and other social media sites to study public sphere is not random. Here, I argue
about my selection in briefly but later in a separate chapter. Where, I discuss in detail about
framing Facebook as virtual public sphere. The level of social media penetration in personal and
public life is enormous. Facebook use is currently ubiquitous in the country among young adults,
who consider Facebook a default mode of communication. In terms of the number of active
users, social networking sites have tremendous influence. Facebook alone has 1.1 billion (as of
July 2014) active users globally. In Asia, it is fast becoming one of the region’s leading social
networks. Currently it has 59.6 million users in the region. In Pakistan, there are 29,128,970
Internet users as of December, 2013, 15.3% penetration, per ITU and 10,084,880 Facebook
subscribers on Dec 2013, with 4.2% penetration among total Pakistani population.
People who formerly considered as illiterate in sense of computer handling and use now
can operate computer and use Facebook very easily, thanks to GUI and web 2.0 ease of use.
Facebook came up as a multipurpose tool, having characteristics of all internet genre.
Commenting, picture video sharing, gaming, virtual life, and more made Facebook converge
junction of entertainment, education, and information on contemporary issues. Facebook poses
an attraction for common man to professionals.
Now let me turn to the other fold of the study, regarding religious and liberal divide.
Environment of the Internet for religion and for religious is not new. The relationship of media
and religion is historical, and complex in nature but worth to understand, on one hand from
centuries, religion is using the media to communicate and propagate, its doctrine, ideology and
message, to now living in a world where (Michael Ryan and Les Switzer, 2011) religion is
http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia.htm#pk
18 | P a g e
represented and communicated, experienced and understood through the media-- According to
Campbell H (2012) Internet never changed the religion but the way we see religion. She further
examines about religious identities and shifting of religious authority as a concept from religious
clerics and scholars to an individual.
Huff, E Toby (2010) analyzes the historical perspectives of resistance by Muslims for new
technologies “In the case of Islam, from historical point of view Muslims have tradition of
opposing new technologies-- prevented the use of the printing press, both in Ottoman lands and
in Mughal India”. But in case of Internet 2013) states “Internet is contributing to Muslims what
printing press did to Christianity in sixteen century”. Esposito, John L, 2010) states “As in
Christianity, change in Islam is not limited to debates in theology and law but also involves
struggles in politics and society, and at times violence and terror. Most of us have forgotten that
Christianity struggled mightily over many centuries to bring about change”.
I am not opposing notion of “reciprocal effect of religiosity on Internet use” (Greg G.
Armfield and R. Lance Holbert (2007) but New methods of communication have formed and
utilized by Muslims around the world, for Islamic knowledge sharing and expression in the age
of digital media what Sunier T (2010) noted traditional forms of religious knowledge and
conveyance no longer match young people’s life and Jon W. Anderson 2003) addresses this as
Pious middle classes are extending patterns of religious expression, seeking, and piety into new
channel. Muslims feel, more than ever, the need to reflect on the religion and its education on
contemporary issues and reconcile with their experience. The traditional knowledge and
interpretation of Islamic text is insufficient to reach and guide believers. New technology
provides opportunity to access diverse set of knowledge at local and at global level. Annelies
Moors (2006) described this as bypassing of traditional religious authorities by highly educated
and literate Muslim individuals who can access and read central Islamic text by themselves.
Prior research by Ali B, Z 2012) has indicated that, these two contesting segments and
their views are largely irrelevant to ordinary people and for lived Islam (popular Islam) which is
very personalized, localized and contextualized phenomenon for individual believers. It is far
different from and is neither representative by religious nor liberals. I claim, after the blend of
19 | P a g e
private and public due to proliferation of Internet and social media, the magnitude and visibility
of these contests have extended directly into the lives of the masses. Exposing and involving
them in these contemporary debates. Involvement of ordinary public is redefining the qualities
and boundaries of this virtual public sphere. Dale F. Eickelman and Jon W. Anderson (2003)
explain it as a new sense of public is emerging throughout the Muslim-Majority states and
Muslim communities elsewhere. It is shaped by increasingly open contests over the authoritative
use of the symbolic language of Islam. New and Increasingly accessible modes of
communication have made these contests increasingly global, even local disputes take
transnational dimensions. These Increasingly open and accessible forms of communication play
a 'significant role in fragmenting and contesting politics and religious authority.
Historical and Theoretical Point of Departure:
Theoretically my point of departure is taken from Habermas’ “The Structural
Transformation of the Public Sphere (1989). In which, he typically idealized the public sphere
with Western democracies of postmodern society and culture. Habermas theory is still a good
reference for most scholarly work approaching the issue of public sphere. However, I am not
using this classical model as a template for this study and at the same time the multi nature of
this study requires numerous theories across the multidisciplinary fields. Simultaneously, these
theories have strong ties with public sphere theory. As J Gerhards, and D Rucht (2002) describe
more generally about link between theories of the public sphere and democratic theory.
Accountability and responsiveness in the decision-making process is the core of the democratic
theory; theories of the public sphere focus on the role of public discussion and debate in
facilitating or hindering this process.
This study contextualizes, Facebook role to facilitate larger public for debate and
discussion on common good, by the help of the public sphere concept. Fuchs (2008, 2014c)
elaborates The public sphere is just one way of achieving this aim, there are other social theory
concepts (such as ideology, capitalism, power, democracy, participation, control, surveillance)
that need to be used together with the notion of the public sphere in a theory of the Internet and
society.
20 | P a g e
The ever transforming and dynamic nature of public sphere always insist to redefine its
meaning as Alan McKee 2005), explains “The public sphere is not, of course, a sphere. It’s a
metaphorical term that is used to describe the virtual space where people can interact”. The
growth and developments of democracy and new communication technologies provides enough
space to re-define meanings of the public sphere and employ it with contemporary democracy
and culture. The public sphere challenges the absolutism and alters the structure of power. Public
equipped with rights and know their responsibilities. As (Thompson 1995) defines “[T]he
transformation of the public sphere has to be examined in terms of the wider context of macro-
structural transition processes. Thus, the history of the public sphere should not be treated as a
free-floating development divorced from wider social processes; rather, it should be conceived
of as integral to these processes”.
On-hand problem of concern is about compatibility of public sphere theory for this study.
The phenomena of engaging and idealizing public sphere only with western democracy and
culture, and its detachment from war and conflicts are noted by various scholars. As Z Gambetta
2004) observes, “From a Habermas’s point of view, war and conflicts are the diametrical
opposites of the process of deliberation that constitutes the ideal public sphere”. However, my
argument is different from this, contest and confrontation of ideas among public is essential to
produce multiple solutions and methods on the basis of rational debate and critical reasoning.
These solutions and methods are guide larger public for struggle against absolutism and
traditional authority. As Eley 2002) defines in the absence of secularism, "The emergence of
a bourgeois public was never defined solely by the struggle against absolutism and traditional
authority, but addressed the problem of popular containment as well. The public sphere was
always constituted by conflict”.
Although, my argument is in favor of its western centric nature but it is not unique only
to the western context. Eickelman D and Salvatore A (2010) discuss about later Islamic societies
had witnessed the role of public engagement and participation in “common good” debate and it
fluctuated by course of history. The concept and history of public sphere outside western
democracy and culture is also well studied by Charles Taylor (1993), Calhoun C (1992) and
Eisenstadt S (2002). They re-affirmed its traditional characterization and at the same time they
21 | P a g e
also examine, from various angles, its comparability with long-term developments traceable in
other civilizations like India and china.
Theoretical Frame Work
In this chapter first, I will try to discuss the basic theory and concept of public sphere, its
ever evolving and transforming definition throughout the history in the context of expansion and
development of democracy, social political milieu, public participation and advancement of
technologies, particularly in media and communication. Habermas (1989: 60) explains it with
reference to British public sphere development in early eighteen century with the development of
press and its ability to confront with crown and state. A short overview is presented here and
then in later part a brief discussion on the relation of public sphere, media, religion, modernity,
secularism and conflict will be presented in theoretical way. The work of following authors is at
the centre of my study; Jurgan Habermas, Charles Taylor, Casanova Jose, Abdolkarim Saroush
and Talal Asad, to explain both the theoretical and the philosophical dimensions of the public
sphere and role of socio-religiously divided actors in it.
It is self evident that advancement of communication technologies has been altered the
horizon of the public sphere. Its functions and qualities contract and expand accordingly. The
ever transforming nature of the public sphere provides pliable approach to employ it in
multidisciplinary studies. Scholar from diverse fields of studies conceptualized public sphere
within their study and context. Public sphere as a concept has its own popular, philosophical and
academic meanings. Floating from popular every day description as Furedi (2004) describes,
“information availability to the public: we say that it’s in the public sphere” to pure philosophical
links with enlightenment as quoted by Clemens (2005:374) “at the core of the philosophical
legacy of the enlightenment lies a vision of rational individuals governing themselves through
collective deliberation. By means of critical discourse, self-interested or private individuals
reflect on common concerns and discover the nature of the public good, justice, and truth”.
22 | P a g e
I am choosing meaning of public sphere between popular and pure academic definition as
the nature and scope of my study rely on the analysis of the Internet discourse. For the Purposes
of this study I adopted the definition of the public sphere put forward by Asad T (1993). He
defines that “The public sphere is not an empty space for carrying out the debates. It is
constituted by the sensibilities memories and aspirations, fears and hopes of speakers and
listeners. Also and by the manner in which they exist and are made to exist.
Studying public sphere within digital and boundless virtual environment of Internet offers
entirely new meanings of the concept and makes its characteristics and meanings more fluid and
vibrant rather than rigid. According to Alan McKee (2005) the concept of the ‘public sphere’ is a
metaphor that we use to think about the way that information and ideas circulate in large
societies.
Jürgen Habermas, An influential philosopher, sociologists and public intellectual.
Habermas had long association with school of critical theory. Habermas's (1992a) conception of
the public sphere promotes a rational theory of democracy. Specifically, Habermas (1973) is
concerned with the legitimating, or "generalized willingness to 'comply'. His more than fifty
years scholarly work explores connections between public sphere, democracy, reason, modernity
and post secularism. He coined the concept of public sphere. He traced its roots in eighteenth-
century (post printing) Europe’s tea, coffee houses and saloons. Where, economically strong but
politically marginalized citizens (bourgeois; lawyers, scholars, doctors, pastors, teachers,
manufacturers, merchants) take part in conversation regarding the common good of society. His
book was first published in 1962 and translated in English in 1989 “The Transformation of the
Public Sphere”.
An adequate amount of supportive and critical scholarly work has been presented after
English translation of the book. The major criticism contributed by feminist writers on the
exclusion of the women from bourgeois model of the public sphere. The nature and scale of my
study never permit me to include these topics. According to the classical definition “Public
sphere is a realm of our social life in which such a thing as public opinion can be formed [and
distributed]”. Habermas idealized (over simplified) public sphere as autonomous, free from
government and from other system-world institutions’ intervention with open access to all
23 | P a g e
members of the society who form public opinion and act as public when they deal with matters
of general interest.
The structural transformation of the public sphere can be considered as a manifestation of
the historically contingent nature of social order. Both the rise and the potential demise of the
public sphere indicate that the transformative potential of public realms of intersubjectivity
cannot be separated from the developmental nature of society. Put differently, the transformation
of the public sphere has to be examined in terms of the wider context of macro- structural
transition processes. Thus, the history of the public sphere should not be treated as a free-floating
development divorced from wider social processes; rather, it should be conceived of as integral
to these processes (see Thompson 1995: 71). Questions remain, however, as to what the main
features of the structural transformation of the public sphere are and why they are sociologically
significant. It is important to understand the relationship of media and Public sphere, as public
opinion shapes and distributed by media.They are tightly interconnected and have very nature of
both consensus and contestation at the same time.Then, try to see the link between public sphere
and religion and in later part try to examine, how public sphere has evolved in Pakistan?
Functions and Characteristics of the Public Sphere:
24 | P a g e
Bibliography Ali, B. Z. (2012). Contested Representations, Conflicted Identities: The Contestation of Religion
in Pakistan's Public Sphere (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University).
B. Connery, ‘IMHO: authority and egalitarian rhetoric in the virtual coffeehouse’, in D. Porter
(ed.), Internet Culture (London: Routledge, 1997).
Ernest Gellner: (Jan., 1991), International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-),
Vol. 67, No. 1pp. 1-6
Gambetti, Z. (2004). The conflictual (trans) formation of the public sphere in urban space: the
case of Diyarbakir. European University Institute.
Habermas, J. (1989). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, trans. T. Burger and F.
Lawrence.
McKee, A. (2005). The public sphere: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Oblak, T. (2002). Dialogue and representation: Communication in the electronic public sphere.
JAVNOST-LJUBLJANA-, 9(2), 7-22.
Papacharissi, Z. (2002). The virtual sphere, The internet as a public sphere. New media &
society, 4(1), 9-27.
Qadeer, M. A. (2012). Pakistan. Routledge.
Ramadan, T. (2008). Radical reform: Islamic ethics and liberation. Oxford University Press,
USA
Roy, O. (1996). The failure of political Islam. Harvard University Press.
Rober Talisse, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cR6C1fqlJII
Thompson, J. B. (1995). The media and modernity: a social history of the media. Cambridge:
Polity, 235-265.
Ahmed, Z. S., & Stephan, M. J. (2010). Fighting for the rule of law: civil resistance and the
lawyers' movement in Pakistan. Democratization, 17(3), 492-513.