Review of Biochemistry and Enzymes

What do you need to know?1. Macromolecules:

Identify the 4 key organic macromolecules found in living organisms2. Carbohydrates

What is a carbohydrate? Where do carbohydrates come from? What is the primary function of carbohydrates in living organisms? Subunits? Naming?

Three Catagories of Carbohydrates ( roots – mono, di, poly, saccharide)( Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides)

Monosaccharides - Name 3: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose- Identify differences in structure between glucose and fructose- Term: Reducing Sugar

Disaccharides:- Name 3: Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose- Show how disaccharides form & Structure : Dehydration synthesis- Show how disaccharides break down: Enzyme activated hydrolysis- Glycosidic Bond

Polysaccharides:- Name 3: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen ( Which are plant and animal forms)- Formation & Structure: Dehydration synthesis / Break Down: Hydrolysis

Carbohydrate Indicator Tests:- Benedicts Test- Iodine Test

3. Lipids What is a lipid? Where do lipids come from? What is the primary function of

lipids in living organisms? Subunits Four Catagories of Lipids ( Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Waxes, Steriods) Triglycerides

- Function & Structure- Composition ( 1 glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids) – Dehydration Synthesis- Ester Bond- Plant vs. Animal Fats

Phospholipids- Function & Structure- Composition ( 1glycerol + 2 Fatty Acids + Phosphate) – Dehydration

Synthesis Waxes

- Function Steroids

- Function- LDL ( Bad Cholesterol) vs. HDL ( Good Cholesterol)

Lipid Indicator Tests:- Sudan IV- Translucence Test

4. Proteins

What is a protein? Where do proteins come from? What are functions of proteins in living organisms? Subunits?

3 size catagories ( dipeptide, polypeptide, protein) Many functional catagories ( Enzymes, Antibodies, Pigments, Albumins,

Hormones, Clotting Factors, Transport Proteins etc. ) Functions of different kinds of proteins Structure of amino acids ( Essential and Non- Essential) Composition : Dehydration synthesis of a dipeptide, peptide bonds Deamination, Denaturation, Coagulation Protein Test

- Biuret Test5. Nucleic Acids

What is a nucleic acid ? Where do nucleic acids come from? What are functions of nucleic acids in living organisms? Subunits?

2 Catagories ( DNA and RNA) DNA

- Composition / Structure ( Deoxyribose + Phosphate + Nitrogen Base)- Types of Nitrogen Bases : Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine- Function of DNA

RNA- Composition/ Structure ( Ribose+ Phosphate + Nitrogen Base)- Types of Nitrogen Bases: Adenine, Uracil , Cytosine, Guanine- Function of RNA

6. Vitamins and Minerals Vitamins

- Name the Vitamins: ( A, B1,B2, B3, B6,B12, C,D,E,K)- Importance of Vitamins in the body

Minerals- Name Key Minerals (Sodium, Potassium, Phosphorus, Iodine, Zinc,

Calcium)- Importance of Minerals

7. Enzymes Are types of Proteins. “ase” endings, Function of enzymes, Catalyst Catabolic vs. Anabolic Reactions Activation Energy & how enzymes reduce it. Structure of Enzyme: Regulatory Site, Active Site Reactions With Enzymes: Substrates, Enzyme-Substrate Complex Influence of Temperature, pH, Enzyme concentration, Substrate concentration,

Product concentration, competitive Inhibitor and non competitive inhibitor concentrations on Enzyme reaction rate.

Practice QuestionsA) Carbohydrates: Fill in the following chart regarding carbohydratesQuestions Answers1. Identify the 3 basic catagories of Carbohydrates Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides2. Give 3 examples of Monosaccharides Glucose, fructose, galactose3.Give 3 examples of Disaccharides ( and identify what monosaccharides they are made up of)

Sucrose ( glucose + fructose) , maltose ( glucose + glucose) , lactose ( glucose + galactose)

4.Give 3 examples of Polysaccharides Starch, cellulose, glycogen5. What is a reducing sugar? A chain sugar that can be further reduced into ring

form ( all monosaccharides are)6. What is a polymer? What is a carbohydrate example of a polymer?

A chain of repeating subunitsStarch, cellulose or glycogen are repeating units of glucose

7. What is an isomer? Give a carbohydrate example of isomers.

Molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures. Eg. Glucose, Fructose and Galactose

8. What reaction allows for the formation of disaccharides and polysaccharides?

Dehydration synthesis

9. What bond is formed when a disaccharide or polysaccharide is formed?

Glycosidic

10. What is released during the reaction in Q# 8 water11. What reaction allows for the breakdown of carbohydrates?

hydrolysis

12. What must be added to allow reaction in Q#11 to proceed.

Water ( and often an enzyme)

13. Why is cellulose hard to break down? Because hydrogen bonds link the chains together14. Identify which of the examples in Q#4 is

from plants and which is from animals.

Glycogen = animalsStarch & Cellulose= plants

15. What tests can be done for:a) Reducing Sugarsb) Starches

a) Benedict’s Testb) Iodine Test

16.Draw the following diagrams Glucose in Chain Form

Fructose in Chain Form Glucose in Ring Form Fructose in Ring Form

17 Draw the dehydration synthesis of Sucrose

B) Lipids:1. Fill in the following chart regarding lipids:Questions Answers1. What are the 4 catagories of Lipids Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Waxes, Steroids2. Identify 4 functions of lipids in your body - Energy Storage Form

-buoyancy in some organisms- Transports vitamin’s A,D,E,K- Makes up sex hormones- Insulation layer-cushions delicate organs-component of cell membranes

3. What are Triglycerides made of ? 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol4.Give 3 differences between a plant and animal triglyceride.

P A-f.a’s with double bonds -f.a’s with single bonds- less than full amount of -has maximum hydrogen Hydrogen (unsaturated) ( saturated)- oils - fats-liquid at room temp. – solid at room temp.

5 What reaction allows for the formation of Triglycerides?

Dehydration Synthesis

6. What is the name of the bond that forms to connect the component parts of a lipid together.

Ester bond

7. What is released in the reaction identified in Q#5

3 water molecules

8. What does Amphipathic mean? Different feeling ( molecules with different properties on each side)

9. What component parts make up a phospholipid? 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids , 1 phosphate10. How is a phospholipid amphipathic? Lipid head ( phosphate) = hydrophilic

Lipid Tails (fatty acids) = hydrophobic11. What is released in the formation of a phospholipid?

2 water molecules

12. Are waxes polar or non-polar? How do you know?

They are non-polar. They are not soluble in water which is polar ( like dissolves like rule)

13. What component parts make up a steroid? 4 interlocking carbon rings + R ( carbon chain)14. Name 3 Steroids Estrogen, testosterone, cholesterol ( HDL, LDL)15. What are the two different types of cholesterol? Which is good? Bad?

HDL ( high density lipoprotein)= goodLDL (low density lipoprotein ) = bad

16. What tests can be done to identify lipids? Sudan IV & Translucence test

17.Draw the dehydration synthesis of a plant triglyceride 1 Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids (at least one is unsaturated) Plant Triglyceride

18. Draw a phospholipid. Identify the parts . Indicate which end is polar / non-polar

C. ProteinsFill in the following chart:Questions Answers1. Identify 9 categories of proteins -Antibodies - Pigments

-Enzymes -contractile proteins-Hormones -transport proteins-Clotting Proteins - glycoproteins-Structural Proteins

2. What element is found in proteins but not in carbohydrates or lipids?

N ( nitrogen)

3. What monomer makes up proteins? Amino acids4. What is the difference between a polypeptide and a protein?

Polypeptide = 3-300 amino acidsProtein = more than 300 amino acids

5. a)How many different amino acids exist? b)How many are essential?

a) 20 amino acidsb) 8 essential

6. What does “essential” mean? Body cannot manufacture, must be taken in through the diet

7. a) What is a conjugated protein? b) What is the attachment group called?

a) proteins with a side chain of some other moleculeb) prosthetic group

8. What reaction allows for the formation of Proteins?

Dehydration synthesis

(Polar)

(Non-Polar)

9. What is the name of the bond that holds together amino acids within a protein?

Peptide bond

10.What is the difference between denaturation and coagulation?

Denaturation= temporary change in protein shapeCoagulation = permanent change in protein shape

11.a) What is meant by deamination? b) What byproduct is made? c) What is this byproduct converted into?

a) To take amino acids off of a proteinb) Byproduct= Ammonia (very toxic)c) secondary byproduct= Urea ( less toxic)

12. What test can be done to identify proteins? Biuret Test13. a) Name the 3 protein shapes

b)identify the types of bonds holding each shape together.

a) Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quatrinaryb) None , H-bonds, H bonds + Disulfide

Bonds, H-bonds+ Disulfide Bonds+Polar attractions

14. Draw an amino acid, Label the parts

15. Draw the following structures of a protein: Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

D) Nucleic AcidsFill in the following chart:Questions Answers

1. Identify the 2 basic categories of Nucleic Acids? DNA and RNA2. What monomer makes up a nucleic acid? nucleotides

3. What are the 3 basic parts of a nucleotide? Pentose sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen containing base

4. List 2 ways that DNA nucleotides are different from RNA nucleotides

DNA RNA-deoxyribose sugar - ribose sugar- thymine N-base - Uracil N-base

5. a) What 4 nitrogen bases can be found in DNA? b) Which bases bond which each other c) What 4 nitrogen bases can be found in RNA?

a) Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanineb) Adenine with Thymine , Cytosine with Guaninec)Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine

6. a)What is the function of DNA? b)What is the function of RNA?

a) Blue print for hereditary info ( protein construction) in body.b) Carries out the DNA message

7. Name 3 different types of RNA mRNA( messenger) , tRNA ( transfer) , rRNA ( ribosomal)

8.Draw a nucleotide and label the parts

9. Draw and label the parts of a DNA and an RNA moleculeDNA RNA

E. EnzymesQuestion Answer1. What type of organic molecule are enzymes? Proteins2. The term that is given to the job that enzymes do ( ie: speeds up reactions) is…?

Catalyst

3. Enzymes are often named with what ending? ‘ase’4. What is the generalized term for a reaction that a) builds? b) breaks down?

a) anabolicb) catabolic

5. Enzymes are said to lower the _____________ Energy involved in initiating reactions.

Activation Energy

6. Enzymes have 2 important sites, name the site: a) where molecules attach to be worked on? b) where a molecule attaches to activate/deactivate an enzyme?

a) Active Siteb) Allosteric ( Regulatory) Site

7.What is the name of molecules that enzymes work on?

Substrate(s)

8. What occurs to the enzyme active site after product release?

It denatures

9.Name the molecules that re-alter the enzyme active site.

Coenzymes or Cofactors

10. What is a biochemical pathway? A series of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes

11. What is meant by: a) negative feedback b) positive feedback

a) a process ‘correcting’ and bringing back to normal ( homeostasis)b) a process ‘magnifying’ a circumstance bringing it away from homeostasis.

12. The productivity of an enzyme is determined by the # of substrates / min/enzyme. This is called the ----------?

Turnover number

13.Identify 7 Factors that influence enzyme productivity

1. Temperature2. pH3. Substrate Concentration

4. Enzyme Concentration5. Product Concentration6. Competitive /Non Competitive Inhibitor Concentration7. Coenzyme / Cofactor Concentration

14. The optimal temperature for human enzymes is? 37 Degrees15. The optimal pH for human blood enzymes is? 7.416. If the temperature or pH fluctuate beyond these optimal levels what happens to the enzyme?

Enzymes begin to denature. There are less enzymes that are able to take on new substrates thus the reaction rate decreases.

17. How do the following affect enzyme activity: a) substrate concentration? b) enzyme concentration? c) end product concentration? d) competitive inhibitor concentration? e) coenzyme / cofactor concentration?

a) As substrates increase so does the reaction rateb) As enzymes increase so does the reaction ratec) As end products increase, this slows down the reaction rate.d)As competitive inhibitors increase this reduces the number of enzymes active to do reactions ( slows reaction rate)e) As coenzymes and cofactors increase so does the reaction rate.

18. What is allosteric activity? When a molecule attaches to the allosteric site to regulate (start/stop) enzyme activity

19. Describe Feedback inhibition When a product of a reaction attaches to an enzyme’s allosteric site to cause the enzyme to become inactivated.

20 Describe Precursor activity When a substrate of a reaction attaches to an enzymes allosteric site to cause the enzyme to become activated

21. Identify from Q#19 and 20 which is an example of negative feedback and which is an example of positive feedback.

Both are examples of negative feedback –correctinga)Feedback Inhibition- when there are too many products, enzymes are shut down to prevent build up of more.b)Precursor Activity- when there are too many substrates, enzymes are activated to use them up to form products in the body so they don’t build up.

22.a) What is the difference between an allosteric inhibitor and an allosteric activator? b) Which is involved in Q#19? Q#20?

a) Allosteric Inhibitor- binds to the allosteric site and shuts down the enzyme.b) Allosteric Activator- binds to the allosteric site and turns the enzyme on.

23. a) What is the difference between a competitive inhibitor and a non-competitive inhibitor? b) How are these two similar?

a) Competitive Inhibitors ( Non-Substrates) have the same geometry as a substrate and binds permanently or semi-perminently to the ACTIVE SITEb) Non-Competitive Inhibitors- bind somewhere other than the active site, but alters protein shape so that substrates cannot attach.

24. Give an example of how enzymes are used in biotechnology.

a)Fruit Juices: Pectinase / Cellulase addes to break down cell walls to release plant juicesb) Detergents: Proteases, Amylases, Lipases, Cellulases. Break down protein, starch and lipid stains. The cellulose breaks down cellulose stray fibers to make clothes feel soft.c)Baby Food: Proteases to break down long chain proteins for babies.

26 Draw a catabolic enzyme reaction

25. Draw an example of allosteric activity with feedback inhibition

II.Application Style Questions 1. In what form is a carbohydrate stored in mammals? In flowering plants?Ans: mammals are animals, the storage form in animals is glycogen In all plants( including flowering plants), the storage form is starch2. In what form is a carbohydrate transported in mammals?Ans : Transportation form is glucose in all animals ( including mammals) As this is the form that is found in our blood streams3. What are the products of true-fat hydrolysis?Ans: True fats are triglycerides, Hydrolysis is to break down Products : 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol4. Why is fat a rich store of energy?Ans: Because of the many hydrogen bonds present. These are difficult to break but when they do it releases a lot of energy5. State 2 ways that a phospholipid is different from a triglyceride?Ans : Phospholipid Triglyceride - 2 fatty acids - 3 fatty acids - phosphate group - no phosphate group - amphipathic molecule - not amphipathic - used in cell membranes - Used for energy storage in the body6. Explain why glucose is soluble in water?Ans : glucose is a polar molecule. Using the rule “like dissolves like” polar molecules dissolve in other polar molecules like water.7. Which of the following is NOT formed by a condensation reaction: a. the primary structure of a polypeptide c. the disaccharide sucrose b. the secondary structure of a polypeptide d. a fat e. DNAAns : B 8. Which of the following is not a carbohydrate a. lactose b. cellulose c. starch d. glycogen e. cholesterolAns: E9. Which of the following is a covalent bond? a. a disulfide bond b. the bond that holds a secondary protein together c. an ester bond d. the polar attractions holding a quaternary protein togetherAns: C10. Which of the following has atoms of an element other than carbon, oxygen or hydrogen? a. fat b. an amino acid c. glucose d. lipids in the cell membrane e. both d and bAns: E11. A compound with the chemical formula C5H11COOH would be classified as a(n): a. amino acid b. fatty acid c. nucleic acid d. carbohydrateAns: B