Chapter 5

Chapter 8Vicarious Learning1Vicarious LearningObservational learningChange in behaviour due to the experience of observing a modelAnecdotal evidenceCats open cupboards, latchesDog open gates2Early Work on Vicarious LearningThorndikePuzzle boxExperienced model, nave learnerAnimals dont learn by observationMany animals need to observe successes and failures3Not so simpleSome behaviours may LOOK like observational learning, but arentContagious BehaviourSocial FacilitationLocal/Stimulus EnhancementAffordancesMimicking/Imitation4Contagious BehaviourSpecies-typical behaviour is released when others perform the behaviourTest performance with model absent

ExampleYou may eat when youre already full if you are with others who are eatingSame with animals5Social Facilitation or InterferencePerformance is changed based on the mere presence of othersGet better at easy, well-trained tasksGet worse at difficult tasksBefore/After tests, baseline, control group

ExamplePerforming better at competitions, shows, tournamentsSlacking off at workZanjonc cockroaches in easy & difficult mazes6Local or Stimulus EnhancementAttraction to objects which others are using, then learn about object on ownAttraction to locations where others have beenNot learning from others, just attract attention to objectTwo-Action Tests

ExampleA chimp is attracted to a stick that another has discarded. The attraction allows for learning experiences with the stick.7AffordancesActions of the model show the observer about the way the environment operatesModel is not strictly necessaryTwo-Action with same affordance

ExampleAn observer watches a model push open a door and learns that the door swings outwardsModel not necessary, a string pulling the door open could result in same conclusion8Mimickry or ImitationCopy-catting; reproduction of observed behaviourDoesnt necessarily show learning!Outcome

ExampleDick & Anne get to take a treat from one of two bowlsOne bowl contains good candy, one has yucky candyDick reaches into the green bowl and gets the bad candyIf Anne reaches into the green bowl, she has imitated but not learned!9Human Infants & ImitationAt what age can humans imitate?Metzolff & Moore (1977)12 to 21 day old infantsFacial gestures: tongue protrusion, mouth open, lip protrusion10ExperimentExperimenter: 90 sec passive face (baseline)Infant shown gesture four timesImitation-test periodVideo taped and scored by blind judgesSupports imitation11

12Results5025% of tongue-out responsebaselinetongue-out mouth openExperimenters Gesture10 5% of mouth open responsebaselinetongue-out mouth openExperimenters Gesture13 Infant ResearchReplication difficultTongue protrusion elicited by other meansInfants attention: general arousal?Evolutionary advantageObserving and copying behaviour of parents, siblings, etc. may bring more attentionIs it vicarious learning?14Generalized ImitationDont see the outcome of the models behaviour, but the observer imitates anywayPrior experience with vicarious learningWe learn that imitating others behaviour may provide reinforcementWe generalize from one condition to another

15Baer & Sherman (1964)Children observe puppetMouthingHead noddingSpeaking nonsenseLever pressesImitation of first 3 behaviours reinforcedAll 4 behaviours imitatedStop reinforcementAll 4 behaviours decrease (extinguish)16Vicarious Classical ConditioningDebate as to whether or not classical conditioning can be learned vicariouslyDoes an observers behaviour change due to the observation of the models behaviour?Is the observer being directly classically conditioned when observing the model?17Haner & Whitney (1960)Model has finger on shock-device; observer watchesModel removes finger when light is onRecord GSR of observerShock = USModels behaviour = URLight = CSIncreased GSR = CR of anxiety18Bernal & Berger (1976)Observer watched video of eyeblink conditioning of modelTone paired with airpuffRecorded observers tendency to blinkObservers acquire eyeblink CR to tone19But...In this study, could be higher-order classical conditioningSeeing someone blink might be a CS for blinking yourselfPreviously see people blink, if you blink you avoid aversive USTone could be CS2 to previously learned CS120Venn & Short (1973)Baseline measureWatch videoBoy shows fear or liking of Mickey Mouse toy over Donald Duck toy Key pressing for M&MsResponses on Key (%)75

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25BeforeObservingModelAfterObservingModelMickey Mouse

Donald DuckModel Shows Fear toMickey Mouse Toy21Observation of ConditioningNo observation of CS-US pairingi.e. toy never paired with USChange in observers behaviour due to toy paired with reaction of model (fear or liking)basic classical conditioningnot necessarily vicarious learningSimilar to prejudice where US was positive/negative wordsUS = positive/negative reaction of model22Vicarious Operant ConditioningSome evidence that operant conditioning can be acquired through vicarious learningImportant to distinguish from stimulus enhancementObserve models reinforcement or punishment23Levy, McClinton, Rabinowitz & Wolkin (1974)Children observed model look at paired pictures, indicating preferencesModel received approval, disapproval, or neutral consequencesObservers subsequent preferences were for the pictures that the models received approval for selecting24Dorrance & Zentall (2001)Japanese quailModels trained to peck or step on treadlehttp://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/zentall/default.htmTwo-action method controls for stimulus/local enhancementTreadle always gets pressed down, so affordances are the same

25MethodsObservers watched one model either peck at or step on treadleLater tested in absence of modelNot contagious behaviour or social facilitation26Variables affecting Vicarious Learning27Characteristics of the ModelAuthorityDominanceSimilaritySincerityAttractivenessVenus Effect28Characteristics of the LearnerUncertaintySexAge29Characteristics of the SituationTask uncertaintyTask difficultyPresentation of model30Theories31Banduras StudiesBobo the Clown experimentsChildren as observersWatched various models demonstrating behavioursConsequences of models behaviourAvailability of reward32

Model

Observers33Banduras Social Cognitive TheoryAttentional processesRetentional processesMotor reproductive processesIncentive and motivational processes34Miller-Dollard Reinforcement TheoryVicarious learning as a variant of operant conditioningObservers behaviour changes due to consequences of observers behaviourThree steps:1. Learner observes behaviour of model2. Learner copies response3. Learner receives reinforcement35Possible ProblemsAbsence of modelLatent learningDelays in behaviour commonLack of reinforcementGeneralized imitation36ComparisonBanduras theoryInnate processes, learning, and cognitionFuture expectationsReinforcement theoryBehavioural; operant conditioningPast experiences37Applications38ForagingBirds opening milk containers, pecking through creamersStimulus enhancement?Foraging locationsLocal enhancement?39Television ViolenceNational Television Violence Study (1998)8000 hours of programming7 days/week, 6AM-11PM for 3 years60% of programs contained violenceLess than 4% contained anti-violence messageBy age 12, average child has seen 8,000 murders and over 100,000 other acts of violence on TV40Bandura et al (1963)5 minute video of Rocky & JohnnyJohnny plays with toysRocky asks to share, but Johnny says noRocky beats Johnny upRocky plays with toysRocky puts all the toys in a sack and takes them homeWatched how often children played aggressively (hit Bobo doll)One little girl asked for a sack41In real lifeCausal or CorrelationalCorrelation does not show causation3rd factor?42Developing PhobiasVicarious acquisitionPrevalence in humans?43Treatment of PhobiasFloodingSystematic desensitizationRelaxation and shaping44Modeling TreatmentsModelingUsed with the very youngSometimes more rapidMay be better at generalizationThree types of phobia reduction modeling1. Graduated modeling2. Symbolic modeling3. Participant modeling45