Vernacular architecture of north east india

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF NORTH-EAST INDIA

BY-

Mithilesh Mandal

Sonakshi Bhattacharjee

Suchetana Chakravarty

HISTORY

• Earliest settlers were Austro-Asiatic speakers,

followed by Tibeto-Burmese and lastly by Indo-

Aryans

• 100 BC writings of Chinese explorer, Zhang

Qian indicate an early trade route via Northeast

India

• Early historical period (most of first

millennium), Kamarupa straddled most of

present-day Northeast India

• Xuanzang, a travelling Chinese Buddhist monk,

described the people as "short in stature and

black-looking", whose speech differed a little

from mid-India and who were of simple but

violent disposition

• The north eastern states were established during

the British Raj of the 19th and early 20th

centuries, when they became relatively isolated

from traditional trading partners such

as Bhutan and Myanmar

• The Northeast region can

be physiographically categorised into

the Eastern Himalaya, the Patkai and

the Brahmaputra and the Barak valley

plains.

• Predominantly humid sub-tropical climate with

hot, humid summers, severe monsoons, and

mild winters.

• Indian sub-continent's last remaining rain

forests, which support diverse flora and fauna

and several crop species.

• The region's high rainfall, averaging around

10,000 millimetres (390 in) and above, creates

problems of ecosystem, high seismic activity,

and floods.

GEOGRAPHY

WHAT IS VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE-

Vernacular architecture is an architectural stylethat is designed based on local needs, availabilityof construction materials and reflecting local traditions.

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ARUNACHAL PRADESH

• Arunachal Pradesh , bio-geographically is

situated in the Eastern Himalayan province, the

richest biogeographical province of the

Himalayan zone. The entire territory forms a

complex hill system with varying elevations

ranging from 50m in the foot-hills and

gradually ascending to about 7000m, traversed

throughout by a number of rivers and rivulets.

• There are places of worship and piligrimage

such as Parasuramkund and 400 years old

Tawang Monastery, or the sites of archeological

excavations like Malinithan and Itanagar,

• Area: 83,743 km²

• Founded: 20 February 1987

• Population: 1.255 million (2012)

• Capitals: Guwahati (Judiciary), Itanagar

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

• The Adi tribe –

• Adi, meaning “hill man” or “man of hill”, is a large tribe

inhabiting the unspoiled valleys of the Brahmaputra River

during its course in South Tibet.

• The Adis show a remarkable sense of artistry and

proficiency in weaving.

• Kebang, meaning ‘village council’, is the important

political institution of the tribe, and works on a highly

developed system of democracy.

• The Adis too have dormitory systems for young males

and females.

• The religion of the Adi is centered on Donyi-Polo, the Sun-

Moon god, who is regarded as the eye of the world.

• The Adi are also noteworthy for their bridges, cane

suspension bridges are quite a showcase of native

ingenuity.

“The houses of the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh represent the traditional style of constructing the dwellings from the locally available materials and

the size of the houses depends on the family patterns of the tribes. Since the living conditions are very tough in this area, the houses of the tribes are

constructed to meet the challenge of nature.” - Posted on July 31, 2012 by Zephyretta


• Houses of the Adi tribe –

• size of the house depends on the family

• traditional houses are constructed with bamboos, woods,

canes, leaves

• house raised well above the grounds with the help of stilts.

• on theses stilts are tied wooden beams and thus the level

floor is made

• roof is made by dry paddy straws, dry Tokow leaves or

thatch grass

• no nail is used in their construction

• construct their houses either on the plain-level ground or

on the sloping ground.

• Adi house has no windows and there are two doors, one in

the front for male members and the other at the back for

women


• House of the Adi tribe

space between the

floor and the ground

is used for keeping

domestic animals

like cows, the pigs

and collection of dry

fire-woods


• Typical wooden house-These type of houses are

mostly rectangular in shapes with mostly three or four

rooms. The plans and sizes vary as per requirements

with linear planning, rooms opening into one another.

• Typical layout of a house consists of sora Ghar, Huwa

Ghar and Randhani Ghar. The Sora Ghar or the drawing

room is a public space for gathering, or meeting

relatives or visitors. This room also houses the 'Dhenki'

or the pounding machine. This room has a common

central fireplace called 'Jui Hali', over which hanging

platforms are kept for storing household items. The

Huwa Ghar or the bedroom is a partitioned space

depending on the number of married sons and family

members. The last room is the Randhoni Ghar or the

kitchen space, which serves as the dining area for the

family.


• The Nyishi tribe-

• Nyishi is the single largest tribe of the state.

• Basically belong to Paleo-Mongoloid stock and speak

the Tibeto-Burmese group of language.

• Nyishis evolved a joint family system, generally no

individual owns properties – both movable and

immovable.

• Nyishis are expert in handicrafts i.e. weaving, cane &

bamboo works, pottery, blacksmith, wood carving and

carpentry etc.

• Nyishis maintain a high degree of self-sufficiency in so

far as food is concerned

• Additional requirements such as cloth, utensil, salt etc.

are obtained through barter trade-evolved since and

immemorial, among themselves and from their

neighbours.

• The Mithun is treated sacred because in almost all

ceremonial rituals, sacrifice of Mithun is compulsory.


• Houses of Nyishi tribe-

• The indigenous house is constructed with Wooden &

Bamboo using (Thatch, Chinese Palm leaves, Cane

leaves and Jungle Banana Leaves) as roofing materials

whichever is locally available.

• The entire Joints are bind with cane ropes

• The Houses floor level is raised 2.50 Mtr from the

ground level and ceiling level is 2.50 Mtr from the floor

level.

• The plan consists of rear verandah, Common room with

fire place, bed room, Guest room, Front Verandah & side

verandah.

• The reinforcement nodes (diaphragms) prevent the

emerging longitudinal cracks from spreading over the

entire tube length.

• The kithcen cum fire place “emmi” -the base is

constructed with four bamboo support and on the

surface of the room 4 1 foot wooden blocks on a banana

leaf and then soil is applied upto the height of the

blocks, thus the stove can be laid for kitchen purpose.


Structural properties of

bamboo-

fibres run parallel to the

axis of the culm (stem) not

continuous along the

length, they bend towards

the inside of the nodes no

radial fibres exist the

more the fibres , gets more

difficult to fracture the

material


• Advantages

• The Nyishi typology is very flexible and

light structure thus resistant to earthquake

because of its light weight construction.

Also If damaged in case of devastating

earthquake rector scale there will be less

casualty or zero casualty because it will

not collapse like rigidly built brick

walling and heavy and rigid building.

• Disadvantages

• The longitivity of this type of house is 10

to 12 Years by replacing roofing materials

after every 3 to 5 years. The wooden

foundation used gets rut due to bacterial

action and there is danger of structure

collapsing. During very heavy rainfall the

roof starts leaking because of which the

local people have sorted out the modified

type of house construction.

ASSAM

• Assam is a state in northeastern India

known for its wildlife, archeological sites

and tea plantations. Assam comprises the

Brahmaputra Valley and the Barak Valley

along with the Karbi Anglong and Dima

Hasao districts with an area of 30,285

sqmi.

• Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam

silk

• The first oil well in Asia was drilled here.

• The state has conserved the one-horned

Indian rhinoceros from near extinction

• Area: 78,438 km²

• Capital: Dispur

• Population: 30.94 million (2012)

• Official river: Brahmaputra River

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF ASSAM

• The Vernacular style of Assam mainly

consists of three important

significances-

• Hip (or Gable) Roof

• Use of Bamboos as major building

materials

• Higher Plinth level


Construction Process-

• Walls are of timber frame work, inside those panels ikra

(A weed, called Ikra, which grows wildly in river plains and

adjoining lakes across the state of Assam, is extensively used

in the walls and roof of the house) used to fill.

• These ikras are cut in size of the panel and laid

vertically.

• The horizontal members usually bamboo.

• After putting the ikra it is left to dry for few days.

• Then it is plastered in both side with mud mortar.

• 3 layers of plaster are done alternatively after dying of

each coat.

• Finished coat is of liquid mix of mud and cow dung.

• The building are maximum of two storeys.

• Building is symmetrical on both side.

• 1st floor is connected with a timber stair case.

• Open spaces in front (chotal) and back side (bari) of the

house


STRUCTURAL DETAILS –

TECHNIQUES OF ASSAM


• Other types of traditional houses –

• Mud house

Mud is a mixture of water and some combination of soil, silt and clay. The typical plan dimensions of these buildings are: lengths

between 5 and 10 meters, and widths between 3 and 5meters. The building has 1 to 2 storey(s). The typical span of the

roofing/flooring system is 3-4 meters. Roughly, the ratio of the length and width of the house can be expressed as 3:2 or 2:1 The

typical storey height in such buildings is 1.6-2.5 meters.

• Chang house

This house on raised stilts is an age old structure originating in the Himalayan ranges. In North Eastern India the tribes living on

houses on stilts mainly live in hills amongst thick vegetation, forest and by the banks of rivers. Traditionally people of the Mishing

community of Assam live in houses on stilts; these houses and the flight of 5-7 stairs leading to these houses have religious and

social beliefs and practices attached to it. The house on stilts is a big hall with a central kitchen for a large joint family.

• Bamboo house

In bamboo housing system, for main structural member bamboo is used. The brick wall is used for modelling. And itis rigidly

connected with plinth as well as with bamboo. In this system the wall is made of bamboo strips and it is plastered with mud. The

houses are detailed out to combat the heavy monsoons. The roof of the house is built local grass and can last up to 10 years before

it is replaced again. The stilted part of the house is for protection against gentle floods.


Advantages

(a) Architectural aspects: good

plan shape, small openings,

good location of openings, and

small projections and

overhangs.

(b) Structural features: light mass of

walls and roofs, good wall-to-

wall connection (in case of

formal construction), good

quality and

strength of materials used.

(c) Flexible connections (bolting,

nails, grooves, etc) between

various wooden elements at

different levels.

Disadvantages

(a) The choice of wood as the basic construction material and thatch as

roofing material of the house draws high maintenance and is vulnerable

to fire. To a large extent the fire hazard to the house is mitigated, when

the kitchen is separated from the main house, but placed within the

courtyard of the house. But use of electricity in such houses leaves

possibilities of fire due to short-circuit during earthquake shaking. In

urban areas, the roof has long been converted to metal roofing hence

this hazard is non-existent for this type of houses except when Ikra reed

thatch is used as roof cover, the fire safety of the house remains a main

concern

(b) The mud-dung plaster on walls requires a lot of maintenance and

frequent application. During summers, it becomes brittle and then

comes out easily during rainy season.

(c) When built on hill slopes, unequal length of the vertical posts leads to

unsymmetrical shaking.

(d) When built on hill slopes susceptible to landslides and run-off, the

house can be unsafe.

(e) The thatch on the roof is vulnerable to suction under strong winds.

(f) When the wooden vertical posts are directly plugged into the ground

without any foundation, houses have sunk up to 300 mm.

NAGALAND

• One of India's most colourful states is Nagaland, located

on the eastern margin of the Himalayan range in Northeast

India. Nagaland is home to a range of colourful tribes,

such as Angamies, Tangsas, Chakesangs, and so on.

• Nagas are hill dwellers and their settlements are highly

inaccessible as they are located on hill slopes or the

highest possible points along a hill slope.

SETTLEMENT TYPE-

• Settlement pattern is largely a result of the custom of head

hunting, formerly prevalent throughout the Naga cultural realm.

• Climate was yet another factor which influenced Naga settlement

pattern.

• Abundant springs are infrequent above 1 500 m and water tends

to be scare.

NAGALAND

SEMA TRIBE –

• Almost all Sema villages existed in the hilly regions in Nagaland.

• The Sema village is usually built either on the summit of a hill or on

the shoulder of a spur

• Down, near the valley of the river Dayang, where the climate is hot, a

summit is usually chosen, but in the higher and colder regions, a

shoulder below the ridge of a range of hills is a common site for a

village.

• All the houses within the same village had the same style.

• This was to ensure that one would immediately be able to identify

which tribe a particular village belonged to from a safe distance.

• The Semas were head hunters. Captured enemy trespassers would

be beheaded and their heads hung up.

• LIFESTYLE -Life revolved around agriculture. The majority of each

day would be spent in the fields.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF NAGALAND

.The primary construction materials were:

TIMBER – for structural elements, like the

posts

BAMBOO – for walls and other structural

elements

THATCH – as the roofing material.

• The interior of the Sema house was ordinarily divided into four parts –

• The Akishekhoh or front room where the rice pounding tables were kept.

• The Abidelabo a narrow room between the Akishekhoh and the Amiphokiboh (hearth room)

where the

• unmarried girls of the household sleep.

• The AkuzuAbo where the head of the family (father) and his wife sleeps.

• The AzhiBo the liquor room where rice beer is stored in bamboo jugs.


THE AKISHEKHOH

This is where they keep the rice pounding tables. The Akishekhoh is an

apse like addition to the front of the house, semicircular in plan with the

eaves brought down to within 3 or 4 feet from the ground. Animals

dogs, pigs, chicken are also kept here. The unmarried boys of the

household sleep in here.

THE ABIDELABO

This is where the unmarried girls of the household sleep.Firewood

for the fireplace (Amiphokiboh) is also stored in this room.

THE AKÜZÜ ABO –

The head of the family the father , in this case chief of the village and his

wife or wives sleep here. Inside the Aküzü abo is the Amiphokiboh

(hearth room). The father’s bed is nearest to the fireplace and the wife’s

bed has a separate, smaller fireplace near her bed.

THE AMIPHOKIBOH ‘Ami’ fire, ‘Pho’ smoke,‘kiboh’ cover

At the four corners of the fireplace, are four bamboo posts which

support a bamboo shelf. This serves the double purpose of preventing

sparks to reach the roof and an excellent place to dry meat or keep

utensils. In common houses, guests may be entertained here as well.

Near the fireplace, a large window, almost the size of a door is made

the trash door.

THE AZHI BO Azhi’ liquor,‘Bo’ place or room

This room is located right at the back of the house. Rice beer is stored in

liquor vats in this room. At the back of the house is a backdoor which

usually leads to a small kitchen garden.


INATO’S HUT


• ORNAMENTATION

• The two bamboos forming the gable were

prolonged beyond the roof to form horns called the

tenhaku ki (snail

horns).

• These were sometimes decorated with bamboo

tassels and imitations of birds.

• The Semas did not decorate their houses like other

tribes or at least not as much.

• They usually adorned their houses with the heads of

game or Mithan heads which the owner slaughtered.

Sometimes, in the chief’s house, human heads were

also hung as trophies.


• REQUIREMENT vs RESPONSE

• These dwellings, located mainly in the hilly regions came

under the Cold and cloudy climatic category.

• The people then, relied mainly on their physical ability to

resist the cold.

• The houses did protect them from the cold winds that blew but

did little to retain heat within the house.

• Openings were kept to a minimum to retain as much heat

within the house as possible.

• The fireplace was situated in the living quarters which helped

in raising comfort levels within these spaces.

• The scale of the private spaces was also smaller which meant

that a smaller heat source was required to heat the

room.

• The sloped roofs worked beautifully in keeping the interiors

dry

• The steep slope of the roof ensured that no water could seep in

through the gaps between the thatch and enter the

house.

• The openness of the people did not require such a high

degree of privacy.

• As a result the overall design of the house was kept simple, yet

completely functional.

• It’s function not just extending to it’s activity space relation but

it’s social and climatic context


• EFFECT OF COLONIALIZATION-

• These houses existed during the 1915 to the 1920’s.British anthropologists first discovered these settlements.

• The exposure of tribal people to civilization subsequent to those initial visits resulted in the rapid disappearance of these traditional systems of

construction.

• After independence, such dwellings almost completely disappeared. The interest shown toward tradition extends only up to social and cultural

levels, leaving architecture in the back seat.

• The only “traditional” architecture considered important to retain, merely as objects of fascination, like those in museums, were the "Morungs".

• "Morungs" were essentially community built structures present in almost every village of different tribes in Nagaland.

• There used to be one such structure for boys and one for girls in each village.

• These buildings were used for community activities. The function of the Morung being the community centre of the village shifted to the Chief’s

hut.

• This in turn resulted in the Chief’s hut being the largest of structures in the whole village.

• The size of the chief’s hut emphasized his importance in the village society

MEGHALAYA

“Where bamboo exists – No

Worries!”. That’s what Garo people

say, and where traditional

architecture is

concerned, they take this saying

seriously.

Not only they built functional

structures from bamboo, mainly for

living and storage, but they also do

it beautifully. Garo traditional tribal

architecture is a magnicent example

of

vernacular architecture

• Garo village hosts a dance festival

where girls dance around boys

whom they wish to marry. All the

houses are ordered around a

courtyard where the dance is

performed, adjoining which is a

communal house (where the

villagers come to talk) and the

young boys’ dormitory that is

‘protected’ by a flowery enclosure.

• The occupation of this place is

mostly in livestock and poultry

management.

MEGHALAYA

• The buildings are mainly made up of

cane,bamboo,reed ,wood and mud.

• Mostly houses are build on stilts and the

lower space is used as storage and for

poultry.

• Sometimes separate poutry units are also

made.

• The roofs are sloped for the extreme

rainfall in this region.

• Tripura is a landlocked state in North East India, where the seven contiguous states –

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura –

are collectively known as the Seven Sister States.

Architectural characteristics• Architectural typologies have developed in the North East as factors of tradition , climate and

functionality .

• The materials used are locally available materials like bamboo, cane , cane leaves, mud, and

lime. Of late, bricks. stone chips, rock slabs, surkhi etc. are also being used. Sloping roofs are

a common architectural feature in all the architectural typologies because of high rainfall in

the North East .

• Construction of this type of house generally takes place in the dry season / winters. The

whole community participates in the construction of this type of house.

• These houses are generally rectangular in shape and are similar to bamboo Kutchha houses with linear planning and r

ooms opening into each other.

• The structure above is formed by horizontal members tied across the bamboo posts with jute ropes and using dowel a

nd tenon joints.

• The stilt height is typically 1.50 to 2.00 meters from the ground level.

• The space below the stilt is often used to store a canoe for emergency usage during floods .

• The stilted houses are typically designed to keep out the effects of heavy monsoon.

• The floor and walls inlays are mostly bamboo weaves, which allows the water of floods and heavy rains to pass rather t

han getting stored.

• The roofs of the houses are made by fixing bamboo trusses over the posts, over which local grass is laid.

• The roof height from the weaved floor is approximately 3.50 meters.

• A bamboo loft is fixed below the roof inside for secure storage of goods in case of floods.

• Bamboo being a bad conductor of heat keeps the interiors cool and adequate ventilation through the permeable floor

s and wall keeps the moisture content inside the houses low.

• Simple open-type field fences are made of longitudinal splits of

bamboo with interlacing horizontal and vertical members spaced well

apart.

• Combinations of whole bamboo, longitudinal halves, quarters and

splits of smaller dimensions are used.

• The interweaving of members eliminates the need for binding, thus

saving on labour and avoiding the use of any special binding material.

• After the binding, cane splits, lengths of wire or some locally available

fibre rope is utilized

House fences• The fences are of the closed type, with the boards woven closely

packed together without any gaps. The plain weave, the twill weave

and occasionally a decorative variation of the twill pattern are used.

These fences are usually extended above human height. The fence is

supported by whole bamboo posts

FIELD FENCES OF TRIPURA

Three types of house constructed in Tripura

1.The riang house

2.The mud house

3.Combination of mud and bamboo

materials

TYPOLOGIES OF HOUSES

• Riang tribals of Tripura build their houses with bamboo used

as the primary material for construction. In some cases, even

the thatched roof is made of bamboo leaves.

• These houses are typical hill dwellings, constructed on

bamboo slits to create a large horizontal platform, the floor of

the house.

• Bamboo posts are arranged on a square grid and inclined

whole bamboo members strengthen these.

• The plan of the Riang house is normally a long rectangle, with

a covered verandah in front and an open verandah at the

back. A large enclosed room is located between these

verandahs. A single roof covers the front verandah and the

• A single log, which is notched, forms the short ladder at the

front of the house.

THE RIANG HOUSE

DETAILS OF

RIANGHOUSE

SECTION SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF RIANG HOUSE

MUD HOUSE

MUD HOUSE

Mud and bamboo

used in house

CONCLUSION

• The architecture of Tripura relates to the socio-economic setup, the cultural identities and a

good climatic responsiveness.

• A good number of climate responsive design features are revealed during the study of the

housing forms including temperature control, enhancing natural ventilation, protection from

natural calamities such as flood , earthquakes etc.

• Certain features that lack in the traditional housing are mostly: fire proneness and termite

infestation due to usage of non treated bamboo and wood

• Lack of damp proofing and use of non stabilized soil for construction.

MANIPUR

CULTUREThe Meitis are the dominant tribe in Manipur but the State is also home to Nagas, Kukis and Rongmeis.

Hill tribes and tribes living in the plains usually follow the general pattern of house architecture prevalent in

the North East.Tribes that have settled, such as the Rongmeis, build houses according to their status.

Architectural characteristic A common man’s house is made using bamboo, cane, wood and thatch. A house may have a verandah as a

gathering place, sleeping quarters, a kitchen fireplace and outhouses for livestock.

Houses are usually rectangular in shape with the front part of the house comprising of the living room being

larger than the other sections.

Wooden planks are used as beds in the sleeping room which incorporates their vastu.

The bed in the bedroom is usually on the northern side. The fireplace is in the south-east corner. The

kitchen, however, has a fireplace right in the center of the room above which are racks to hang meat and fish

that dry over the fire. Sometimes the kitchen also doubles as a sleeping quarter. A storehouse outside the

house is used to store grains, usually built on a platform above the ground level.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF MANIPUR

MEITEI YUMJAO• This is a perfect dwelling unit of an ideal Meitei family,

few generations back. Few people of our generation

had the opportunity to live in it and enjoy the essence of

it and cherish the life style.

• The complete straw reinforced mud thick wall up to the

roof height, embedding the main load bearing post

bamboos with Pungjei in different heights as

reinforcement steel grass rod.

• The distribution of entire house into different kas –

Phamel ka, lukhumka, ,leimarelka, piba Ka, ningolka,

chakhumka, sanamahi laipham, Grain storage space

and Mangolka .

• It shows specific separate space for specific functions.

This reflects the respect, privacy and identity given to

each member of the family and their personal spaces.

This is the origin of our sincerity, honesty, character and

culture.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF MANIPUR

MEITEI YUMJAO

MIZORAM

• CLIMATE

Mizoram has a mild climate, being relatively cool in summer 20 to 29 °with winter temperatures ranging from 7 to

22 °C .The region is influenced by monsoon. The climate pattern is moist tropical to moist sub-tropical, with average

state rainfall 254 centimetres (100 in) per annum.

Culture• The Mizos are usually settled which means they have a well organized community and houses that reflect this

lifestyle.

• Hill tribes usually build houses on top of hills with the house of the tribal chief at the center.

• The bachelor’s quarter known as Zawlbuk is located close the chief’s house and serves as the center of

activity since the youth work, learn and are trained at these centers.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE OF MIZORAM

Architectural characteristic of Zawlbuk house• They use wood and bamboo to build tribal houses on sloping land.

• The houses have wooden supports and bamboo matting is affixed to the frames and to the floor.

• The rood may be made of split bamboo covered by thick thatch, leaves or straw. Some houses maybe built on stilts with a small ladder for access. Houses are rectangular in shape and the interior ispartitioned into rooms using bamboo screens or mats, with separate sections for married andunmarried members of the family. A raised fireplace is at one corner next to the front door.

Interior of

Zawlbuk

house

CONCLUSION• The architecture of North East India relates to the socio-economic setup, the cultural identities and a

good climatic responsiveness.

• A good number of climate responsive design features are revealed during the study of the housing

forms including temperature control, enhancing natural ventilation, protection from natural

calamities such as flood, earthquakes etc.

• However certain features that lack in the traditional housing are mostly: fire proneness and termite

infestation due to usage of non treated bamboo and wood; lack of damp proofing and use of non

stabilized soil for construction too pose problems like dampness of walls and washouts during

rainfall.

References –Archinomy. (2013, September 10). Retrieved September 10, 2013, from http://www.archinomy.com/casestudies/675/the-sema-naga-traditional-dwelling

Hemant Kaushik, K. R. (2009). Housing Report: Assam type House. World Housing encyclopedia .

Khan, A. A. (2009). Housing Report: Traditional Naga type House. World Housing encyclopedia .

Manoj Kumar Singh, S. M. (2011). Bioclimatism and Vernacular Architecture of North-East India.

(2013, September 10). Retrieved September 10, 2013, from Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_India

Robinson, William. (1841), 2011. A Descriptive Account of Assam. Guwahati : Bhabani print & Publication.

http://guyshachar.com/en/2016/garohillstraditionaltribalarchitecturemeghalayaindia/

THANK YOU.

Vernacular architecture of north east india

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