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Transcript of Verbal Interactions
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VERBAL INTERACTIONS
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Social interaction. Verbal
interaction
Interaction= an action/a process that occurs when
two (or more) things/phenomena influence eachother/one another
Etymologically - interactioninvolves mutual
meetings
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These meetings are based on a system of rules
that allow individuals- to signal their presence
- to manage turns to speak
- to develop or end the interaction
* Interest in interaction is largely based on conversationalanalysis research from the mid 70s.
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The issue of interaction gives rise to the term"individual"(person) (Goffman, 1973:19) because
it represents the meeting place of the individual withthe Other/others.
Interaction significance, as well as its forms, depend
on the statusand roleassumed by each individual(these elements determine the manner in whichothers are perceived and treated).
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The process of role taking is at the basis of thesocialization process of the individual who occupies a"place" and "requires" explicitly or implicitly thathis/her dialogue partner occupy a symmetrical orcomplementary role, because only thus they canperform an exchange.
In interaction, individuals tend to coordinate theirefforts.
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Interactionalso means a complex game of mutualexpectations in which subjects constitute theiridentity.
Its functions are:
- the construction of social identity and social reality
- the building of social relationships
- meaning construction
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The interlocutors
- are transmitters of information
- engage in an activity based on joint efforts meant toachieve verbal and behavioral cooperation.
*Any type of behaviour becomes the messagethat must be decoded according to internaland external factors of the communicationsituation.
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The activity of each individual is conceived,organized and carried out according to the presence
and the activity of the Other (called "you"i.e. asocially integrated individual) who must not andcannot be missing, because he/she is the one whoensures the dialogicnature of communication.
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Thus, the speaker always takes into account thepresence of the other ("... any speech is addressed")
(Jacques, 1979:152). This leads to what can becalled "the challenge of the Other" that is,his/her commitment to the joint, permanentadjustment to the situation, relationships,
identification and clarification of meaning. The thematic interaction between the two ensures
the continuity of the dialogue.
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Bange (1992:211) - through reciprocity(ofimages, expectations and motivation), the "Other" isacknowledged as an effective and active interlocutorand, according to a principle of risk-taking(underpinning any type of activity), he/she will bedrawn into an exchange of information, into a
dynamic and complex situational awareness of theissue, partner, self-knowledge and self-defining inrelation to those around him/her.
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Each speaker
- is seeking to understand the other one
- expresses his/her degree of understanding
- interprets his/her partner`s activity
- demonstrates understanding explicitly or implicitly.
* In order to do this, he/she resorts to a widerange of semiotic codes (the verbal, nonverbaland paraverbal ones).
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Any social interaction is characterized by severaldistinct features, among which
the desire of "meeting the Other" within a commonterritory, with the aim of sharing information aboutthe self and about the world in general
the desire to establish a connection/relationship
with each other, based on respect for mutual goals
* An ongoing action can be adjusted (or not) by the
verbal activity, that becomes a verbal interaction.
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Verbal interactions = a set of interactions in whichparticipants have the opportunity to become
enunciators." (Vion, 1992:132) the verbal interaction is only a
subcategory/particular aspect of the socialinteraction
the term suggests the mutual determination andexplicit or implicit consent, an action exercised bythe speaker/locutor on the receiver/interlocutor, andthe other way round.
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Kerbrat-Orecchioni stresses that
"all verbal interactions can be considered as a seriesof events that make up a" text "produced in adetermined context (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 1992:29)"
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participants have defined
interactional goals (even if they often showdivergent interests)
voluntary or involuntary signs of mutualrecognition
desire for cooperation and negotiation
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negotiation of meanings
negotiation of interactional positions negotiation of the distance between
them during interaction.
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The verbal or nonverbal feedback of the receiver
1. reveals his/her level of understanding oragreement, assesses, stimulates the exchange,
2. offers reward (encourages conversation partner) orpenalty (discourages further exchange or certaincommunicative movements, behaviours/attitudes).
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Goodman (1992) - communication is a vehicle forinteraction.
The social interaction represents a permanentfeature of all societies. It presupposes
- a common territory
- desire of sharing information
- a sort of equilibrium between accomplishment of
personal needs and the other`s needs
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According to Andr - Larochebouvy(1984:12) all the terms belonging to theverbal exchange paradigm can be included inthe generic term of interaction.
It refers to the meeting between two /moreindividuals, as well as the mutual recognitioncues they exchange; interaction is thus adynamic process.
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Analysing a social interaction means taking
into consideration some important aspects,such as:
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the speaker`s adjustment to his partner and
his level of understanding the participants` reciprocal activity of
evaluation
the use of discursive strategies
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the use of both verbal and nonverbal cues
the existence of both consensus and conflictin interaction
the fact that consensus can be sometimesdissimulated in order that communication be
possible
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According to McQuail (1999), we have to make thedistinction between social interaction, in general,
and communicative interaction, as a particularaspect of the first.
The social interaction = a framework and support for
the verbal interaction;it offers the individual thepossibility of handling the diverse semiotic systemswith a certain intentionality, in various contexts.
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Interaction can be of several types:
- made up of gestures only- made up of gestures and words
- made up of words only
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The fact that communication is a circular
process makes it possible that each message(individual`s action /behaviour) act as astimulus upon the receiver and makes himreact; his answer becomes a new stimulus
for the speaker.
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Any individual playing the role of the speaker
(locutor) or receiver (interlocutor), sets intomotion various activities/actions; he becomesproducer and, at the same time, interpreterof the exchanged messages.
This means that each individual influencesthe others he comes into contact with and, inhis turn, is influenced by them.
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The interaction
- is based on the joint activity of the individuals (thatis co-ordination of actions);
- it cannot be reduced to the action one individualexercises upon the other one;
- it is a mutual agreement
* This co-ordination/co-operation allows theindividuals to play their social roles and setinto motion images, through their behaviour.
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During the interaction, participants occupycertain positions; their reciprocalpositioning is to be noticed (Bonta, 2004 b: 20 )atthe level of
- the locutor`s self-involvement activity
- the tone the locutor uses- the individual`s attitude and whole behaviour
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- degree of taking into account theinterlocutor`s words
- the nature of the listening cues
- the use of positioning markers
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Typology of verbal interactions
In Andr-Larochebouvy`s conception, interactionmay be: with two participants, with more
participants, non-reciprocal or mutual. For the lasttwo types she provides the following classification(Andr-Larochebouvy : 14):
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Non-reciprocal
a) exclusively nonverbal (revolver shot)b) gestural and verbal (order, speech, worship
service that is not followed by a response orreaction)
c) only verbal (recorded speech, or phoneorders that receive no answer)
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Mutual
a) exclusively nonverbal (exchange of blinking/gestures)
b) gestural and verbal (dialogue, interview, meeting;conversation: highly or partially ritualized greetings
c) only verbal (telephone conversation)
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According to Robert Vion (1992), a typology ofinteractions must have in view several criteria:
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symmetry vs. asymmetry
1. symmetrical interaction- individuals tend to adopt similar behaviour
- differences of any kind are minimized
-
individuals show respect, and empathy witheach other
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2. asymmetrical interaction
- individuals tend to maximize the differencesbetween them (or to create differences);they are situated on two different positions(one is on a high position and the other one
is on a low position- the types of behaviour are different, but
adapted to each other)
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cooperation vs. competition
- there are interactions based on
1. cooperation(e.g. the conversation)
2. competition(e.g. the dispute, the interview),
though all interactions are characterized by anequilibrium between the two
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the nature of results/ends
- some linguists consider that almost all interactionshave specific ends;
- conversation is the only interaction that ischaracterized by an internal end, its function beingthat of affirmation and confirmation of social
relationships between/among individuals;
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the formal vs. informal character
The formal/informal character of the exchange is givenby
- the number of participants
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the nature of the interactive framework- the manner of opening/ending the exchange
- the nature of the listening cues
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Elements of interactions
a) the context
Armengaud (1993:60-62) distinguishes:1) factualcontextincluding the interlocutors`
identity, the physical setting, the time and place ofthe communication
2) situational/pragmatic that stresses the factthat the situation is admitted socially, having asense to all the members belonging to the samecommunity
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3) interactional contextmakes referenceto the chaining of the speech acts in adiscursive sequence
4)pre-suppositionalcontextincluding theinterlocutors` beliefs, intentions and
expectations
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b)participants /interlocutors
According to Andr-Larochebouvy (1984:93),
participants are of four types:
by rightthe participant to interaction to whomone can address even though he does not want to
(the members of the family and the peoplebelonging to the immediate environment)
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legitimate - a work colleague, a friend, arelative to whom one can address if the firstone wants to
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authorizedthe one we address to in a certainsituation in which the social status or the roles are
very well defined
unlikely /improbablethe unknown participant,who, due to the situation, may remain as such.
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Participants to interaction have got a triple perspective:
1. self-knowledgethrough
the analysis of their own actions and states indifferent moments of interaction and in differentsituations
the image offered by the others and made knownthrough their feedback
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2. self-disclosure
of the somatic self (their physical appearanceand physical condition)
of their image (wishes, interests, attitudes,qualities, drawbacks)
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3. negotiation-of-self(a process through whichparticipants answer to the images about
themselves and about the others).
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Goffman distinguishes an important categoryamong receivers: the recipient/receiverby rightconsidered by the speakeras themain partner in interaction (a recognitionmarked by terms of address and other
indices of nonverbal proxemics: body postureand positioning, gaze direction, etc.)
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He goes further and distinguishes between
a) the direct recipient(privileged)b) indirect(unprivileged)whose presence
is identified in the conversation with threeand more than three participants
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The novelty brought by Goffman is the audience =those individuals participating in the conversation,
without interfering; they are mere spectators(bystanders). The speaker is (or not) aware by theirpresence. He distinguishes between two categoriesof bystanders.
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The first category he includes the so-called
overhearers/en surplus"-people we notice
whenever we are in a public place (theater,restaurant, store)
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In the second category Goffman includesthe so-called "eavesdroppers/pieurs";they are individuals who have theopportunity to capture a conversation inwhich the message is not addressed to them
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They are "witnesses" to the respectiveinteraction, analysed by Andr-Larochebouvy.
Corroborating her conclusions with ours, we
can say that:
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- witnesses may belong to various categories:
they are interlocutors "by right" or "legitimate"(parents who speak in the presence of their children,two friends talking at a party in the presence ofothers)
"authorized" interlocutors (a shop-assistant in astore who witnesses a conversation betweenmembers of families who are shopping);
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- witnesses to a dyadic conversations, by their merepresence, can bring changes of various types:
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a) at the level of the the subject underdiscussion:
- review of key issues- avoidance of proper names of third parties which
are discussed
- avoiding too personal questions or even
abandoning the subject, if it could endanger insome way or another one of speakers`s face
- approaching a subject with a more neutralcharacter
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b) at the level of the behavioral attitudes(in the case of an argument between twospeakers, interspersed with gestures andaccompanied by characteristic para- verbalelements: high tone, increased speech rate -
which also might discredit those involved inthe conversational exchange);
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c) at the level of discourse type (comparethe conversation between two physicians in aprivate situation, and between the samespeakers, in the presence of their patients).
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witnesses who belong to the category of unlikelyones, have a small influence upon the speech and
even the topic, as long as they remainunknown/unnoticed by the participants, but they canintervene, interrupting the flow of conversation;
- witnesses to a triadic interaction play the same rolesas those of a dyadic one.
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At the level of the participants we can talkabout several aspects:
1) their positioning
can explain the dynamics of the relationshipscreated between participants
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- can be noticed easily, due to a large displayof elements such as the verbal and nonverbalactivity of implication and self-implicationinto interaction:
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2) modalities ofentering and leaving the game(affectionately, politely, neutrally or aggressively);
3) modalities of managingthe strategic steps ininteraction (this means resort to strategies andtechniques of argumentation, negotiation,persuasion, managing conflict, detecting lies, ironyor manipulation etc.) (Bonta, 2004 a);
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4) modalities of transmitting information andestablishing relationships(all along the interaction
participants observe unwritten rules and take partinto different types of rituals; these are meant toestablish relationships between them and, at thesame time, they help the structural organization of
the discursive activity);5) control over the discursive activity and over silence.
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Interactionist theories
Psychological and psychiatric approaches
The psychological and psychiatric School in Palo Alto
(main representatives, Watzlawick, Beavin andJackson) = a therapeutic approach that transfers tocasual communication the results of the studies onmarital relationships dysfunction and the problems of
schizophrenic children. Research has led to theconclusion that these dysfunctions are due to therelational system in which individuals act.
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Individuals engaged in interactions achieve(through their behaviour) an exchange ofenergy and information both betweenthemselves and between themselves and theenvironment.
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They are constantly engaged in an activitybased on a tacit understanding, on a verbalagreement for cooperation through whichthey manage to discover themselves/to getself-knowledge and to establish the position
towards others, recognized as activespeakers.
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They established the axioms of communication
it is impossible not to communicate;
communication is inevitable (not only our wordscommunicate; it is also our appearance, posture,clothes, hair style, gestures, the way we talk, wewalk, or even our silence that conveys informationabout us/our feelings, attitudes);
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communication is to be noticed at twolevels: informational and relational(during our communication we do nottransmit only information; we also establishdifferent types of relationships, that can help
us interpret the first level)
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the informational componentis conveyedin a digital way, while the relational one, inan analogical way;
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communication has an irreversiblecharacter; once the message transmitted, it
cannot be taken back and it has effects uponthe other person- it influences us in one wayor another, even if we are aware about thisor not; we can sweeten it a little if
necessary, we can re-formulate some of itsparts, modify it, but its effect cannot beeliminated completely;
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communication is a permanent processof adjustment and negotiationbetween/among individuals; they adjust theirverbal or nonverbal behaviour to each otherand at the same time, have the possibility of
negotiating:
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the positions they occupy
the relationships established
the self-images
meanings
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Adjustment depends on
how well individuals involved in thecommunication process know each other
their sex
their age
the cultural belonging
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communication establishes symmetrical orcomplementary transactionsbetween
participants symmetrical transactions- the answers are similar
to the stimuli,
complementary transactions - the answers and the
stimuli are of different types
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communication is a continuous process,based on a permanent conditioning
between/among the messages transmitted
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Conditioning manifests itself at two levels:
between/among messages belonging to oneindividual during the interactional history(Goffman)
between/among messages belonging to thetwo participants to communication
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Ethnosociological ApproachesIn sociology, interactionism is a theoretical perspective
according to which human interaction is at the basisof such social processes as cooperation,negotiationor conflict.
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1.The Ethnography ofcommunication/of speaking- (Dell
Hymes and Gumperz)
- offers a valuable set of techniques that allowsfor research that links linguistic forms to
cultural practices and gives rise to threeimportant issues:
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the communicative competence
code variation
the entire corpus of rules that support thefunctioning of interaction in society
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Ethnography of communication manifestsinterest in the sociolinguistics of
interpersonal relationships, which allows for
a dynamic analysis of verbal exchanges
the mechanisms that govern them
the interaction rituals
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Dell Hymes offered us the SpeakingModel
Settings
physical circumstances time place the psychological frame in which the speech event is
performed
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Participants the speaker
the listener/audience/message addressee
other participants to the communicative event
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Ends both goals
outcomes of the communicative event
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Acts
the content of the message
the speech acts involved: requests,commands, complaints, greetings, etc.)
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Key
the tone or manner of uttering a speech act:seriously, playfully, etc.
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Instrumentalities
the channel of communication
the codes
the forms
the styles of speech
the language varieties
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Norms
rules that guide the interaction and theinterpretation of messages
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Genres
the type of activity in which participants areinvolved: conversation, discussion, debate,interview etc.
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Developing the concept of communicativecompetence, Dell Hymes insists on
all the activities the individual carries out whenhe/she is involved in a verbal exchange
the manner in which he/she masters the techniquesthat enable him/her to achieve a successful
communication with those around.
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Dell Hymes understands thatcommunicative competenceis not only
based on the knowledge of grammar, butalso on the knowledge of appropriate socialconventions. These may explain what is said,how it said to whom and in what context(s).
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In other words, Dell Hymes insists on theappropriateness of language use in a
certain social contextthat ensuresinteraction between/among participants.
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He also stresses the role of the contextin whichcommunication takes place and explores how
language is used in the context.
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Two approaches are set into motion:
etic - refers to an external observation(the observer explores the communicativeactivity/the speech events used by
participants to interaction)
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emic is based on internal observation (takes intoaccount the way in which participants make sense of
and understand these events and interactions assuch).
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Ethnographers insist on the value of the emicapproach as it is the key to the observer`s
understanding of why certain speech events getsignificance among the individuals belonging to acertain community.
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for him, the context
1. is not something given in advance
2. it is something that defines itself in thecourse of the interaction (the idea will betaken up by Goffman)
3. it is based on inferential practices in linewith the conventions that speakers share(or not).
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He is also interested in code variations,which he differentiates according to two
factors:1. the situation (situational code-
switching)
2. the individual - who is apt to choose thecode (conversational code-switching).
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2. Ethnomethodology
representatives: Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson
is a sociological perspective founded by theAmerican sociologist H. Garfinkel in the early '60s(Studies in Ethnomethodology,1967)
its starting point is the symbolic interactionism
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- it tries to explain how individuals in the interactionprocess can build the illusion of the social order,
mutually agreed upon, even if they do notunderstand each other and have different views in agiven stage of interaction, within a limited period oftime
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- It differs from other sociological schools of thoughtdue to the perspective through which it looked upon
and interpreted the social order
* if, for example, functionalism and the symbolicinteractionism consider that social life is essentially
put in order, for ethnomethodology, the social orderis an illusion
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individuals manage to produce meaning through acomplex psychological process;
the order is produced in the mind of individuals (thesocial actors) who are forced to order and organizeinto a coherent system the set of impressions andexperiences with which they are confronted in
everyday life
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each individual communicates these opinions toothers and at the same time, he receives information
from them; this thing becomes possible only in theprocess of interaction
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Therefore, ethnomethodologists are interested in
- "the often unanalyzed rules that guide the structure
of our interactions with others." (Goodman,1992:133)
- the processesthat individuals have at theirdisposal and through which they construct reality
and society as a whole, because social reality is theirown creation/product and the social order exists onlywhen individuals agree upon it.
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In interaction, each utterance is an activityof aparticular type of the locutor, who expects the
interlocutor to decode the conveyed message and tocooperate, voluntarily, in the process of meaning
construction.
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Cooperationand reciprocityare, therefore, twoconditions for the development of this process.
Cooperative activity appears as a process ofnegotiation: "Negotiating means agreeing on howthe activity will be done and on its significance. Anyactivity that must be coordinated must benegotiated. (Bange: 1992:29)
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Ethnomethodology gives great importance toretrospective interpretation(the individual's pastbehaviour re-interpreted and re-evaluated, takinginto account the parameters of the present moment)
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Present experience is given a new dimension, andthe events that were previously ignored due to theirminor significance stand at the basis ofinterpretation
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3. Symbolic interactionism
(1920-1930) = an American sociological school of
thought focused on determining the role thatcommunication plays in building and maintainingsociety.
The concept was coined by Herbert Blumer, former
Mead`s student
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Blumer believed that
human beings and their activities can be better
understood if put into relation with the environmentin which they live
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there exists a dynamic interaction between humanbeings and their environment: human beings act
towards things around them, taking into account themeanings that these things display
meaning is, therefore, a direct result of individual
interaction with everyone around him.
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According to symbolic interactionists, communicationis at the basis of society development and
maintenance
It is through communication that the individualbecomes a member of it
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Communication occurs through the creation ofsignificant symbols following a process of
interpretation that individuals resort to, permanently.
The key concepts with which this school of thoughtoperates are: interaction, symbols,
interpretationand self-concept
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The interaction = a fundamental processof social life of all human activities; it
determines individual`s behaviour andbecomes the only place within whichmeaning is produced.
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The social interaction turns the individual intoan active agent of his own development. It is
produced by means of symbols,i.e."created in an arbitrary way (through words,gestures, objects, visual images) that acquiremeaning through socialconsensus."(Goodman, 1992:55)
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The individual becomes a keen observer of thesurrounding world, interprets it and then makes
decisions The individual selects, checks, assesses and re-
evaluates meanings and even transforms/changethem, if necessary
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The concept of Self(Mead, 1934) is the key conceptof the interactionist theories. Using this concept,interactionists focus on the problem of identity andon the subjective aspects of social life.
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At the same time, he places his conversationpartner in a role corresponding to that taken by
himself.
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The Self = an interplay between
1. me(the bearer of social order, values and norms,of the others` attitudes, and who has control overthe ego, leading to our own behaviour) and
2. I(the bearer of new and creative elements,specific to the individual as a unique person). It
thus appears and grows continuously as a directresult of social experience.
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The individual becomes an active subject ofhis own development while the selfbecomes
a social product
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This draws the conclusion that the symbolicinteractionism focuses on how the self develops and
how social order is created constantly.
The idea that society consists of organized andstructured interaction of individuals made symbolic
interactionism study face-to-face interactions.
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4. Dramaturgy/dramaturgical perspective
represented by Goffman - (La mise en scene la vie
quotidienne,1973, Les Rites d'interaction,1974, Thepresentation of Self in Everyday Life, 1959)
stems from symbolic interactionism
Goffman is particularly concerned with everyday life
interactions
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For Goffman, the interaction= a place of mutualpositioning, of construction and development of
social self from a double perspective: as image andas actor. This allows the individual to claim a certainidentity, but at the same time, to assign an identityto the conversation partner.
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Goffman`s conception, according to which everydayinteraction can be interpreted in terms of a theatrical
perspective (as a show/performance in front ofothers and shaped by the latter) allows for the useof domain-specific concepts, such as: stage, actor,role, figuration/face-work.
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The concepts of dramaturgy, role andperformance hint at the individual`s
communicative behaviour.
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Goffman attaches particular importance to theconcepts of
stage(the social frame of interaction)
appearance -capable of providinginformation on the status of the actor
(formal/ informal)
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props- including clothes, or various otherobjects belonging to the actor (house, car,
etc.) and providing evidence on the socialstatus, gender, age or job
manner(the actor`s own behaviour).
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According to Goffman (1973:35) the individualperforms the role,which becomes the basic unit ofthe socializing process.
the role must be performed in a convincing manner.
roles are performed according to rituals.
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Goffman - the interaction functions according torules and develops through a series of exchanges
that are synonymous to ritual units.
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In interaction, the individual manifests his "patternof conduct" (a complex set of verbal and nonverbalacts through which he expresses views regarding his
own person, the situation and the other participants)and develops his/her identity/persona. [1]
[1] Greek = "the mask we wear"- a term that reflects our conception of self: whatwe try to sustain about ourselves, the self that we believe we have, the selfthat we project and which the others perceive.
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The image the individual displays becomes his/herface,(a whole set of elements which he/shevalues builds toward those with whom they come in
the interaction), which tends continually to defend it,since " face "is always an" object "of threateningacts of conversation.
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In order to defend, the individual resorts to"figuration"/face-work.
Face-work is the one which explains variouslinguistic phenomena, such as the use ofpreliminaries, justifications, excuses, implied,entailments, speech acts.
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Social actors establish relationships that areimportant for conducting an exchange.
Any communicative behaviour generates meaningswithin the already created meanings.
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Goffman enriches the aim of socialinteraction analysis with the concept of
sensitivity. This is done by a concern toanalyze an important element of socialinteraction, namely the presentation ofself.
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5. Social exchange theory its origins are in economics and behavioral
psychology this theory is based on the idea that the interaction
can be understood as a social exchange, the actionsof individuals being motivated by benefits and costs.
Its framework was established by George Hamans(Social Behaviour,1961).
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During episodic encounters and lastingrelationships, individuals motivate their
actions through their preferences
the short-term or long-term goals they
establish for their interactions the many ways they can accomplish them
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The benefits they can get during or after theinteraction (they receive identity,
appreciation, affection, mutualagreement) enhance their actions, whilethey avoid or are acting prudently whenthese actions might involve high costs
(waste of time and energy,loss/damage brought to personalimage).
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They expect, generally speaking, that the benefitsthey could get should roughly be equal to the costs
at stake. Obtaining approval/agreement in the social
interaction is, metaphorically speaking, what moneyis in the economic exchange.
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Interactions go on when participants recognize thepossibility of obtaining a benefit; whenever the cost
appears to be higher than the benefit, individualstend to "flee the stage" of interaction.
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A sustained social relationship implies a balance ofprofits and costs.
Exchange relations are also relations of power. Inchoosing their behaviour, individuals resort toreasoning based precisely on the assessment ofcosts and benefits involved.
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Interaction, from A to Z
interactionist approaches a term that refers to the symbolic interactionism and
the trends derived from it. the basic idea they start from is that individuals have
an active role in producing the social order, helpingto define the situation they are involved in and theinteraction depends on the relationship betweenthem
interactionist approaches are concerned with"discourse updated in concrete situations ofcommunication" (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 1996:16)
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adjustment/interactional accommodation
is a basic feature of language manifested in oral
communication. it refers to the permanent concern of the
participants` positioning (according to predictiveand interpretative reasoning), with a clearly defined
strategic objective. it is an adjustment to circumstances, by choosing
the best strategy for action in a certain situation..
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This is the type of activity that can beidentified at level of
communication/interaction openingsequences, of turn-taking, of choice oftopics, the style used and of linguistic andnonlinguistic behaviours.
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The entire activity of this type aims at setting thecommunication framework, accomplishment of
individual goals, establishing, developing andmaintaining interpersonal relationships, eliminatingconfusion in decoding, as well as at agreeing onmeanings
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Interactional completeness the principle that explains "global agreement that is
meant to close discussion. (Baylon, Mignot,
2000:215)" the principle obliges participants to interaction to
satisfy the conversational rituals in order to reachthe end of the negotiation.
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it is performed when the current speaker reachesthe transition relevance place and his manner of
action is somewhat predictable for his interlocutor,due to various types of skills that the latterpossesses.
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Interactional competence
a set of skills available to participants in interaction
and which help them to cope with differentsituations in interaction; interactional competence
a set of abilities that participants to conversationhave and that help them face interactional
situations conversational competence includes both a
sociolinguistic competence and a strategic one.
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it is viewed as
a) the ability to understandthe social context in whichcommunication takes place, after having taken intoconsideration the social status and the role of theinterlocutor, his attitude, the shared information,the communicative purpose and the degree offormality.
b) the ability to handlea set of verbal or nonverbalstrategies in order to initiate, maintain, finish andredirect the conversation in different circumstances.
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Interactional constraintsthoseconstraints that, along with the structuraland chaining ones, explain the change incircumstances for the entire conversationalstructure;
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interactional game
any conversation becomes an interactional game, at
the level of which certain other important games areidentified:
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the game of the participants
takes place simultaneously or alternatively;
- each of the participants to the social interactionbecomes a player who, during the development ofthe interaction gets the quality of a strategic playeras he/she proves the abilities of putting into practicethe language resources, of anticipating reception of
his/her messages and of building a discourseadapted to partner and situation
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the game of the code(s)once in the social interaction, the individual tries to
make himself/herself understood by the other(s)- this is why he/she resorts to a large display of signs
(verbal, nonverabal and paraverbal) endowed withsignificance
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Interactional history
a term described by Goffman as a set of interactions
to which the individual took part or assisted, andwhich give an account of the interlocutors` strategiccompetence, during the interaction.
- according to Fr. Jacques, the interactional historyrepresents a set of presuppositions that are aconsequence of the previous conversations.
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Interaction management
- refers to the ability to control the communicator
demonstrates interaction "to the satisfaction ofpartners;
- makes reference to the ability the speaker proves inorder to control the interaction to partners`satisfaction.
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- we have in view the management of self images/ofimpressions and of the strategies that operate at
the level of participants(encoding, decoding,interpretative, turn-taking, active listening,politeness strategies, conflict solving and face-workstrategies)
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the level of form(opening, maintaining and closinginteraction/conversation strategies) and at the levelof content (introduction of topics, correlation oftopics, argumentative strategies and persuasivestrategies).
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Interactional negotiations
- explicit or implicit set of activities conducted amongthe participants in interaction, aiming to clarify theirpositions, behaviors and meanings
- can be run in a peaceful manner or conflict,depending on the status and role of participants, thepower / their authority and individual objectives
pursued-
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- they can be performed in a cooperative or conflictualmanner, according to the participants` role, their
power/authority, as well as the objectives they havein mind
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Rules / rules of interaction- rules that guideinteractions characterized, supporting their operationin a given society
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Rituals of interaction- as opposed to communityrituals, they are repetitive behaviors, habits andpatterns linked with habits and socio-culturalmodels.
They were much analysed by Goffman [6], who talksabout access,confirmationand remedial rituals.
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The access rituals
include greetings and farewells;
their more or less elaborate character depends onthe frequency individuals see each other and on the
relationship between them.
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The rituals of confirmation
are meant to support and help the development ofthe social relationships
they include greetings, congratulations, complimentsor thanks
the fact that such rituals are meant to prove respectand appreciation for the other, makes them be also
identified in invitations, apologies and evenavoidance (understood in the sense of not disturbingthe other one or causing him any harm)
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The remedial rituals
appear any time an incident may spoil a relationship;
their role is that of diminishing the offensive result ofthe incident
they take the form of apologies.
DISCLOSURE OF SELF IN INTERACTION
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Webster`s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary ofthe English Language [1] - the SELFis a person orthing referred to with respect; a person`s nature,character
[1] Webster`s Encyclopedic Unbridged Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage, New revisited Edition (1994), Dilithium Press Ltd
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in philosophy, it sends to the ego, that whichknows, remembers, desires, suffers, as contrasted tothat known, remembered.
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1. Freud`s id, ego, superego
the term ego sends us to the theory developed by
Freud, who operates with concepts such as: id, egoand superego.
Freud identified the three levels of thehuman mind:
the conscious levelincludes anything that isthought, perceived or understood;
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the pre-conscious levelincludes the thoughtsand memories which can be easily recalled andbrought back to the conscious level;
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the unconscious levelthe place where allindividual past experience (wishes, urges, memories,thoughts) can be found
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Freud - the human mind is in a permanent conflictwith itself, a thing that gives birth to anxiety andunhappiness.
His investigation into these internal conflicts madehim draw the conclusion that the mind can bedivided into three internal conflicting tendencies: theid; the ego and the superego.
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Their interaction results into a permanent flow,movement of items from one level to another.
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The id
the most primitive motivational force
governed by the pleasure principle hisdemands should be satisfied at once, no
matter the circumstances or the effects
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Theego is ruled by the reality principle;
it mediates the relationship between the idand thereality around, very often suppressing the id`sdemands until the appropriate moment
often uses defence mechanisms meant to help its
activity and, at the same time, meant to ensure theindividual`s stability and sanity
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Once the ego is shaped, the individual becomes a
SELF(the individual becomes aware of values, of
needs and his actions).
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The superego tells the ego what is right or wrong, moral,
acceptable, or realistic
it represents the individual`s steps towards theideal, towards achieving the perfect goals required
by society.
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Whenever the individual does something wrong,unacceptable, the superego resorts to self-criticism
whenever the individual does something good, whichdeserves appreciation, the superego experiencespride and self-satisfaction
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2. W. James`s perspective on the Self
The American psychologist, William James[1],identified two main aspects of the SELF:
the SELFas a knower, (called theIor thepureego) it is the active source of behaviour, theactivity of consciousness, that can be directedtowards everything, including oneself
[1] apud Schellenberg, J.A. (1993): Exploring Social Behaviour.Investigations in Social Psychology,Allyn & Bacon, Massachussetts, p.18
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the SELFas known (called theme,or theempirical ego) it is the passive object ofbehaviour; it becomes active because we can noticewhat the individual may say about himself, as wellas the way he says it; it can be divided into:
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a) the material me(the body, clothes or otherpossessions);
b) the social me(the reflected appraisals of the othersaround; it is based on an inborn tendency of getting
ourselves noticed favourably by those around);
c) the spiritual me(our reflections on our own
psychological processes).
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Thus, the SELF becomes the result of
me(the bearer of the social order, of values and
norms; it ensures control over the I, determining ourown behaviour) and
the I(carrier of the elements proper to the uniqueindividual).
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3. Cooley`s looking-glass Self
Charles Cooley[1] introduced the metaphor of thelooking glass SELF.
the SELF represents a creative reconstruction of themeanings of our own actions, using the perspectivesoffered by the others around us
Its main characteristic = being social (as it emerges
through the interaction with the others)[1] ibidem, pp. 20-21
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As we see our face, figure and dress in the glassand are interested in them because they are ours,and pleased or otherwise with them according as
they do or do not answer to what we should likethem to be; so in imagination we perceive insomebody else`s mind some thought of ourappearance, manners, aims, deeds, character,friends and so on and are variously affected by it.
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4. Mead`s theory The concept of SELF = the key concept of
interactionism. According to Mead, theIand themeare
alternating phases of every action that involves theSELF.
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TheIcan be seen whenever we actspontaneously, while themeis the society withinourselves.
He found in the individual (the me), the self who isthe product of socialization;
the I is the producer of the social and one of theactors of the process of socialization
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6) R.Vion`s conception
Starting from Mead`s conception, R. Vion[1]distinguishes between
the subject`s social face, the self, - the imagethat proves the way in which the others aroundshow us how well we perform the roles in society;
[1] Vion, R. (1992): La communication verbale. Analyse des interactions,Hachette, Paris
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the subject as an actor(the I), able to modifythe situational/contextual data;
the personality the way of integrating thedifferent elementary selves that constitute the me
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The social SELF
develops only during the social experience, as adirect consequence of the fact that any individualhas the possibility, desire and duty that, throughspeech, to observe his own actions from the others`perspective; he has the possibility of taking over therole of The Other, permanently reflecting upon his
own person/SELF from the other one`s perspective
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the concept is not an inborn one
it is developed only through social interaction ineveryday life
it develops as a function of three sets ofvariables[1]:
[1] Barker, L. (1987): Communications,4th ed, Prentice-Hall, Inc, New Jersey
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our past experience(whose main role is to shapethe way we feel about ourselves and about theothers)
the reference groupwith which we identify
the rolesthat we play in our lives
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The SELFdevelops through a series of stages :
processes of biological development and adjustment,
role-taking in different social situations reflection upon the personal development
reactions and reflection upon the others` actions
and judgements
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The self-imageand the self-esteemmake up theentire SELF(the SELF-CONCEPT), which we try topresent/disclose in different situations and different
relationships with those around us
It is continuously shaped by ourselves, and theothers around us (family, friends, fellows, strangers).
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My SELF
represents in fact just who I am
it is my personality, my individual identity, displayedin everyday life (based on different socialinteractions)
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The concepts of face and territory
The concept of Self is to be identified in
Goffman`s conception about interaction. Goffman(La mise en scne de la vie quotidienne(1973) ; Lesrites d`interaction(1974) operates with the concepts
of FACEand TERRITORY.
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FACE = the range of positive images (we refer tothe self-image) which the individual tends to build upabout himself/herself toward the others or toward
himself/herself
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In any social interaction there is the risk that theindividual(s)lose their face(s)as these aretargets of severalattacks(mockery, irony,
orders, complaints etc.)
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Each individual tries to protect his face (out of astrong desire of face-want), as he does not wantto lose it
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That is why he resorts to different techniques andstrategies that may help him preserve both his faceand the face of his communication partner.
These strategies help him convince, persuade,change the other`s behaviour, without hurting thelatter`s feelings, for example, or without himselfappearing as an authoritarian or rude person.
This complex strategic activity is called by Goffmanfacework.
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As for the TERRITORY, Goffman identifies:
bodily territory(the individual`s body);
the individual`s possessions(everything theindividual has and calls My: Myhouse/car/wife);
the spatial territory(individual`s place; that
space in which he moves and acts);
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the temporal territory(the period of time inwhich the individual talks uninterruptedly)
the info stock territory(individual`s secrets,hidden thoughts, actions or feelings).
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Presentation/Disclosure of SELF
Each given interaction forces individuals
disclose (willingly or unwillingly) their SELF,or part of it. The SELF becomes a range offeatures that characterize individuals in thatgiven situation/interaction.
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The presentation/disclosure of SELF = a goodstrategy for sharing information with the peoplearound; includes the direct (explicit) or indirect
(implicit) display of:
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the material SELF: physical traits (face and bodyfeatures); physical conditions (health, skills) andpossessions;
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the personal SELF: image of self (the way inwhich individuals see themselves) and self-esteem(the value attached to all the constituent elements
of the self-image). The personal self includes: feelings, emotions,
desires, tastes, interests, aptitudes, qualities,drawbacks, moral and ethical values, ideology,beliefs, as well as relationships with the others.
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family and social SELF: the self in interaction withthe members of family and with other people ingeneral;
the impersonal SELF: the range of characteristicsthat are similar to those of other persons.
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There are various reasons for disclosure:
to come to know ourselves better;
to initiate, develop or maintain relationships withthe others; generally speaking, to facilitaterelationships (it is important that disclosure shouldbe reciprocal; reciprocity increases intimacy);
to clarify ideas (disclosure shows the exact attitudeof the person towards opinions already expressed,as well as the degree of involvement);
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to change the image others have of us (it is thecase in which we are not satisfied with that image);
to stir the others disclose, too (the idea is thatdisclosure requires and triggers reciprocity);
to make us feel better by bringing feelings into theopen, where, generally speaking, they are handledmore successfully
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Presentation/disclosure variesaccording to a set ofparameters:
the context of communication
the number of participants to the verbal interaction, the type of relationships with the other(s)
the objectives individuals have in mind when theycommunicate (certain objectives require more
disclosure than others)
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trust (the trust individuals have in their ideas andabilities, as well as the degree of trust they have inthe others around)
the degree of self-esteem easiness with which individuals communicate withthe others in a variety of contexts
the importance given to the feedback received as aresult of disclosure
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the appropriate time (physical, psychological) fordisclosure
degree of awareness of how sharing works indifferent situations and in front of different persons
the topic of discussion (very intimate problems aredifficult to disclose)
age and sex (it is known that girls are very close totheir mothers, for example, and disclosure isinfluenced by the relationship between them)
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Steve Duck[1]
whenever people wish to disclose themselves, theystrategically prepare for the manipulation of the
context, so that the listener`s answers becomerather predictable
[1] Duck, S. (2000): Relaiile interpersonale. A gndi, a simi, a interaciona, Polirom, Iai, p. 175.
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the best way to reach a disclosure of private feelingsand thoughts (topics) is by first feeling thesituation, by mentioning the topic jokingly, in order
to capture the listener`s general reaction. If it is afavourable one, then disclosure may go on; if not,risks should not be taken.
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Although the presentation of SELF varies accordingto these factors, some aspects of the self arerepeated in many situations and relationships. At the
same time, the self-concept is a dynamic one. Thismeans, in fact, lots of aspects to be considered:
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the individual`s self is continually shaped by thosearound, with whom he comes into contact (ideas,feelings, attitudes develop/change permanently; he
compares his SELF and the others` SELVES) the self-image may change, according to individual`s
behaviour and those who see and judge it
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as the self-image changes, it depends on theindividual if it changes to the better, or not;
the self-respect also changes, according to successor failure in the personal or social life, and accordingto the feedback received from the others; anychange of the self-respect brings about a change ofthe self-image
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Stewart[1] considers that we can talk about differenttypes of SELF that are disclosed whenever twopeople are in social interaction:
MY MErepresents the view I have of myself; theway in which I see myself. It can be verbally ornonverbally disclosed:
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Examples
I`ll do everything you say= I am obedient; I
want to preserve the relationship with the other onethe way it is;= I consider the other
person being on a higher position than me, and I actaccordingly.
[1] Stewart, J.(1988):Together Communicating Interpersonally, Random House, New York, pp.104-106
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Do what I say!= I see myself asauthority/power, the one who knows what to do orwhat to say; I willingly or unwillingly place the otherone on a lower position, of the one who has toobserve rules or orders, so that relationship could bethe same.
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I`ll tell you my secret= I see myself as aperson who shows trust in the partner ofcommunication, maybe as a person who might needa piece of advice.
Dear Mary,(the beginning of a letter) = Idefine myself as close to the person I am writing to.
Dear Sir,(the beginning of an official letter)= I define myself as distant from the person I amwriting to.
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MY YOUrepresents the view I have of the otherperson; this can also be verbally or nonverballydisclosed:
Examples:
Good morning, madam/Mrs. Brown/ Mr.White!= I consider the other person as deservingrespect
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standing very close to someone, allowing the otherone to touch us, confessing to him = I consider theother one as being trustworthy
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turning the back or the head, interrupting the otherone very frequently while he/she is speaking = Iconsider the other`s speech not important;
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giving orders to the other one, mocking at him,answering him ironically or sarcastically = I considerhim/her a person who does not deserve respect.
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MY YOUR MErepresents the view of the way theother person sees me; this can be noticed if takinginto consideration both verbal and nonverbal
markers:
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Examples:
avoiding eye-contact with me, avoiding to come tooclose to me, avoiding to have an open discussion
(avoids confession) = the person he does notconsider me interesting, deserving attention ortrustworthy;
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if the other person interrupts me or seems to be
impatient while I am speaking = I am not saying
interesting, relevant things and that he considers me
boring or even dull.
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According to Mark Knapp, the appropriate andeffective disclosure ranges on a continuum or slidingscale between less open- less personal to more
open- more personal. A good instrument that improves awareness of
SELF and disclosure is the Johari Window (calledafter the names of Joseph Luft and Harrington
Ingham):
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OPEN
includes the aspects known by the Self and by theothers, too
it includes the things we are aware of and at thesame time we are willing to disclose and share withthe others (our name, sex, age, appearance, evenfeelings and ideas)
the more we open/enlarge this window pane, themore effective communication becomes;
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BLIND includes the aspects the other people know about
us but we are not aware of/or ignore(attitudes/behaviour in different situations,behavioural habits, skills or personalqualities/drawbacks)
we can find out more things about us if, and only if,the discussion partner wants to disclose them to us;our learning them can make us happy or, on the
contrary, we can become angry (if we learn aboutunpleasant things) and even deny them
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HIDDEN
includes the aspects we know about ourselves(secrets, feelings, hopes) but we do not want the
others know about them
this square of the window enlarges only if we arewilling to share some of these aspects
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UNKNOWN
includes the aspects that neither we nor the othersare aware of (for example, a different type of
behaviour disclosed only in a certain situation, ordifferent feelings brought in the open in a specialsituation).
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The concept of SELF is closely connected to theconcept of role.In everyday social life we all playdifferent roles, within certain boundaries imposed by
the role expectations.
INTERACTIONAL CODES
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The verbal code
The information within the message is encoded andtransmitted through words that can be analysed atthree distinct levels: phonetic, lexical and morpho-syntactic. Words have forms and meanings. Theircomplete meaning should include both the
denotations and connotations they have.
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Kerbrat-Orecchioni[1] considers that the verbal codehas three main properties :
reflexivity(the sender of the message is its
receiver at the same time); symmetry(the verbal message asks for an
answer, generally; it implies the fact that the answershould be offered by using the same code);
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transitivity(if a sender X transmits someinformation to a receiver Y, the latter has thepossibility of transmitting it to Z, without making the
proof of the validity of information).
[1] Kerbrat-Orecchioni, C (1990): Les interactions verbales, vol. I,
Armand Colin Paris
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Generally speaking, questions ensure fluency tocommunication. They can be of several types:
exploration over the situation or topic of
communication: What do you know about?; Doyou know ?; Haven`t you heard about?;Haven`t you found out/learned that?
analysis
identification: Which are the reasons/proofs?
comparison: What do you think about?
classification/evaluation: Which is the best?
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synthesis
planning: What are you going to do first?
demonstration: How do you prove that?
re-organization: What else could you say about?
evaluation:
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a) interpretation: How do you consider that?
b) justification: Why have you got so late?
c) criticism: Why didn`t you like?
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a) self-criticism: Do you know what mistake youmade?
b) hypothetical: What could happen if.?
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Participants to the created interaction producevarious speech acts. According to Searle [1] theycould be of several types:
a) assertives(assert something; draw a conclusion,evaluate, represent, report a state of facts; they areof the type: assertion, information);
b) directives (help the locutor determine theinterlocutor to do something; they are of the type:request, demand, order, question, a piece of advice,
recommendation);
[1] Searle, J. (1971): Les actes de langage, Herman, Paris
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c) promisives(constrain the locutor to do something infuture; they are of the type: offer, oath, promise);
d) expressives(contribute to the expression of mentalstates of the locutor; are represented by excuses,thanks, congratulations, confessions);
e) declarativesare of the type of declarationorcondemnation.
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The negotiationthat develops between theparticipants to any social interaction is revealed bysome processes that can be identified during thecommunication activity:
repetitions (show the individual`s sensitiveness); re-formulations of statements, questions, promises,
etc. ; corrections (stress the oral character of
communication ; show the individual`s spontaneity); overlaps (indicate wrong turn-taking or rush from
the part of the one who produces them);
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hesitations (show that the individual cannot choosethe correct linguistic form or he delays the message,as a strategy he uses that respective moment);
pauses (voluntarily or involuntarily made); silence (especially for strategic reasons);
interruptions (express impatience, lack of interest,lack of respect or rush in expressing thoughts);
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elliptical sentences (as a mark of individual`semotions);
use of implicit utterances (combined with explicit
ones, the latter category easier to decode andunderstand);
parenthetical constructions (interrupt for seconds thecommunication flux, being an expression of sheer
sensitiveness)
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The nonverbal code
The nonverbal system has the capacity of becomingitself a code of semiotic communication. Throughgestures, movements, mimics, posture, individualsexpress and communicate lots of things.
The nonverbal code system has as its maincharacteristics:
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analogy (it is continuous, forming a range);
iconicity (the nonverbal signs resemble the thingsthat are symbolized);
universal meaning ;
simultaneous transmission (several nonverbalmessages can be sent at once;
spontaneity.
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Kineticsrepresents the activity of the body (bodylanguage). It was studied for the first time byBirdwhistell R. (Kinesics in Context, 1970).
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According to Birdwhistell, gestureshave a doublefunction:
a) they are grammatical markers (they are like verbal
elements that belong to specific grammar classes;b) they are markers for pronouns or for verbs, for
example) and accent markers (strictly connectedwith the intonation used).
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At the same time, gestures
have a social value (are markers of the social statusand the role the individual plays);
they express feelings, show belonging to a group,give force to the act and help development ofrelationships
they also express psychological values (joy, pain) or
moral values (it is good/bad)
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Ekman and Friesen[1] analyse:
emblemsmovements that have a precise meaningand are functionally equivalent to words; generally,
they are learned through imitation and usedthroughout one`s life: (the index finger to the lips,for silence or the same finger to the temple, forsuicide);
[1] apud Rovena-Frumuani, D. (1999): Semiotic, societate, cultur,
Institutul European, Iai, pp.188-189
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illustratorsmovements that depict verbalmessages; they are used together with words andallow the receiver to understand the verbal message
in a better and easier way, as they add emphasis,depict spatial relationships, or point to objects (thegesture of pointing to somebody while shouting hisname; the gesture made to show the size or shapeof an object, while talking about it)
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adaptorsmovements that originally were used toexpress physical needs and have been adapted toserve other needs, too (facilitate release of bodily
tension) regulators movements used to ensure control/
coordinate interaction between people (representedby nods - for consent, raised eyebrows- forexpressing doubt, uncertainty)
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affect displaysmovements that express emotions;they are a sort of presentation of feelings andemotions, having transcultural identic meaning; they
involve facial expressions, trembling hands, angrystares
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We suggest a typology ofbodily expressions(using Goffman`s terminology)[1], considering it fitfor analysing gestures, mimics and bodily attitudes.
We are trying to expand the area of investigation(more than Goffman did), mentioning that theproblem cannot be treated without taking intoconsideration the paraverbal communication, too.So, we identify:
[1] Goffman, E. (1973): La mise en scne de la vie quotidienne, vol.II, Les Editions deMinuit, Paris, pp.132-135
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a) bodily expressions meant to initiatecontact/interaction
of orientation (positioning towards the other one,
through the position of the head, the direction ofthe look and through minimizing distance);
of recognition (the waving hand; the smile; thehug; handshaking).
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b) bodi ly expression s m eant to i l lustrate the
contact/ interact ion
gestures meant to express precaution [1](show the
interlocutor that the locutor`s intention may bewrongly interpreted in that specific situation);
discursive bodily expressions (underline the
verbal context):
[1] Goffman, E.(1973): op.cit., pp.133-134
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act independently from the verbal context (the Vsign indicating victory)
amplify/accentuate the spoken words (gestures
such as shrugs, nods or blinks) illustrate, clarify or repeat the significance of the
verbal expression (all the ideographs, kinetographsor deictic gestures as they appear in Ekman`s
terminology), the smile, the volume of voice, as wellas the accent
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contradict the verbal expression (the intonation thatenhances an ironical answer; avoidance of the eyecontact or nervous movement of arms and legs,
although desire for cooperation was verbally madeclear a little bit before)
modify the verbal expression (smiling while turningdown somebody`s invitation)
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substitute the verbal expression (the situation inwhich the locutor does not find his words or delaysanswering a question; it is also the case of gestures
that substitute words in conditions of noise or whenspeaking or hearing is impossible or rather difficult)
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c) strategic bodily expressions(clearly show thatthe individual is trying to adapt his entire nonverbalbehaviour to that of the interlocutor`s; they also
show his desire of cooperation or lack of interest intheir activity):
maximizing distance (half-closed eyes; stepsforewards; shaking of the head that shows
disagreement)
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Eye contacthas a very important role in initiating/establishing interaction and in maintainingcommunication.
avoidance of eye contact can be a sign of formality,nervousness, lack of respect, but also, a sign ofshyness or slyness
eye contact is increased when interlocutors knoweach other very well, when the relationship between
them is a symmetrical one, or when the topic is ofcommon interest
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The whole face and its expressionscan tell a lotabout individuals and their problems during
communication, but generally, cultural rules andsocietal pressures often inhibit spontaneous facialexpressions.[1]Ekman P. and W.V. Friesen studiedfacial nonverbal communication and reached
interesting conclusions.[1] Barker, L. (1987):Communications, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc.,New Jersey, p. 71
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First of all, these expressions are extremely complex;despite their complexity, they can be easily decodedby those belonging to the same culture. Then, theyconsidered that face can be divided into three areas(eye-brows and forehead; eyes-nose; mouth-chin-jaws) and each of them conveys multiple emotions,which, in their turn, can be congruent or incongruentwith the emotions expressed by another area.. So,
while the forehead and eyes may show anger, themouth can show sadness.
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Personal appearanceusually determines people`sfirst impression about the others. Fortunately, peoplehave the possibility of manipulating their physical
appearance (especially the colour and size of thehair, the colour and the quality of clothes) so thatthey could be perceived as attractive and interesting,
rather than unattractive and uninteresting.
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Touchingalso plays a definite role in interpersonalcommunication. It indicates positive feelings (peoplegreet, offer help, express affection) or negative
feelings (touch becomes a sign of anger,nervousness, envy or irritation). Generally,individuals touch more easily and more often thosepeople they like, appreciate or feel close to.
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Proxemicsrepresents the study of how individualsorganize and manage the distance existingbetween/among them in the everyday social
interactions. The spatial relationship establishedbetween the individual and the people or the objectsaround him communicates a lot. Proxemics isconnected to culture and social rules.
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Hall established four spatial zones of interpersonalcommunication:
a) intimate distance(contact to 18 inches) it is the distance that can be identified between two
intimate friends, close pairs, parents and children; it is the distance of lovemaking, caressing, hugging,
kissing, protecting, but also of fighting communication through words is not always
necessary, or the only possibility; touch, smells andbody temperature communicate feelings andattitudes.
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If someone unwanted or strangers enter this zone,the reaction is immediate and can take differentforms: steps backwards, use of other nonverbal
strategies to maximize distance (avoiding eyecontact, turning the back; folding arms), or eventhreats
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b) personal distance(11/2-4 feet)
this is the distance that is preferred by people ininterpersonal communication (in everyday social
interactions: dialogues, conversations) people have the possibility of greeting each other,
shaking hands and talking
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c) social distance(4 to 12 feet)
In contrast with the personal distance, this type ispreferred by people attending social gatherings,
people meeting for the first time or thoseconducting business
it is especially the distance of formal relationships,of the people occupying a high or a low position,given by the social roles played
eye contact becomes a key word for such type ofinterpersonal distance
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d) public distance(12 to 25 feet)
generally speaking, this is the distance of theconcert, the conference, or public speeches
an important role is given to gestures and voice(its pitch, rate, rhythm)
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The paraverbal code
Voice belongs to the category of paraverbal cues(belonging to paralinguistics). It has got some
important dimensions: rate(how fast or slow onespeaks); pitch(how high or low one speaks on amusical scale); rhythm(use of pauses that createrhythm in speech); tone(how sad/happy/ amused/excited/angry the voice sounds); volume(how loud
or soft one speaks) and quality(refers to the textureof the voice: husky, melodious, creaky).
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The way in which all these are manipulated by theindividual makes communication effective, as theyexpress feelings, help attitude change and facilitate
communication
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Silence.An effective communication depends to alarge extent- on silence, because, as manyresearchers have proved, it can speak more thanwords.
In fact we can identify several types of silence, eachof them having its own significance andconsequences. The most detailed classification wasoffered by Myers, G. & Myers T. M[1]:
[1] Myers, G.&Myers, T.M.(1990): Les bases de communication humaine,Chenelire/mcgraw-Hill, Montral
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the silence of the person who is angry, frustratedand nervous;
the silence of the person who is fascinated by thethings around him;
the silence brought about by boredom; it is anegative re-evaluation of the situation/of what ishappening; can imply an attitude of superiority thatwill offence the others;
the silence brought about by the fact that the
person does not know what else to say ; the silence that appears whenever one thinks about
what he is going to say;
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the silence that signals the fact that the person didnot understand what he was told (the silenceinduced by confusion);
the silence signifying moments of reflection,respect, contemplation;
the silence called dogmatic signifies that thespeaker has nothing else to add to what has already
been said;
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the silence of those in love, who do not needwords to make themselves understood;
the silence induced by pain; the silence of stubbornness; of the person
who resorts to a very-well thought strategy;
Relationships in interaction
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Kerbrat-Orecchioni, C. considers that relationshipsca