Verb for Bank Exams (Study Notes).pdfSubject-Verb Agreement Rules: It is important to take into...

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English for Bank Exams (Study Notes)

Verb Verb: A Verb is a word that is used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forms the

main part of the predicate of a sentence. The verb is the main word in a sentence. No

sentence can be completed without a verb.

For Example: Ram plays the Piano.

Here, ‘plays’ is an action Verb. An action of playing is being performed by Ram.

KINDS OF VERBS:

1. Finite verbs

2. Non-finite verbs

3. Transitive verbs

4. Intransitive verbs

1. Finite Verbs: A finite verb is a form of a verb that

(a) shows agreement with a subject and

(b) is marked for tense.


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Also, Finite verbs are sometimes called main verbs or tensed verbs. These verbs have the

past or the present form.

For Example:

Paul runs to work every day.

We walked a lot together

2. Non-finite verbs: Non-Finite verb forms do not show tense, person or number. They

cannot be the main verb of a clause or sentence. They do not indicate any tense, mood or

gender.

Non-finite verbs take three different forms:

(a) Infinite (b) Gerund (c) Participle

(a) Infinite verbs: An infinitive is also known as the base form, and is often introduced by a

main verb and the word "to," before the main verb.

Example-

He likes to read.

He wanted to swim in the Pond.

(b) Gerund verbs: A gerund is formed by adding -ing to a verb. If functions as a noun.

Example -

Smoking is injurious to Health.

Leaving home can be very traumatic

Important Note: We use 'V₁+ing' after 'to' With the following verbs/ adjectives/ phrases

Example- Verb + used to, accustomed to, averse to, with a view to, addicted to, devoted to,

in addition to, look forward to, object to, owing to, given to, taken to, prone to.


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Example –

I am looking forward to meeting you.

In other words, after all the prepositions (including 'to’), if a verb comes, the verb has to be

in 'V₁+ing'

(c) Participle Verb: A participle verb is usually formed by adding -ing or -ed to a verb.

Participles are verbs that act as adjectives in the sentence. Present participles end in "-ing".

Past participles usually end in "-ed", but there are many irregular past participles that end in

"-en".

Example -

Can you help me fix the leaning column of blocks?

She has learned the Lesson.

3. Transitive Verb: Transitive Verbs are the Verbs that require an object after it.

Example: She loves animals.

Here, ‘animals’ is the object for the verb ‘loves’.

4. Intransitive Verb: An intransitive verb is one that does not take a direct object. In other

words, it is not done to someone or something. It only involves the subject.

Example: The baby was crying.

In the above sentence ‘crying’ is an intransitive Verb.

NOUNS

Nouns refer to persons, animals, places, things, ideas, or events, etc. Nouns encompass

most of the words of a language.

Noun can be a/an -


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Person – a name for a person: - Max, Julie, Catherine, Michel, Bob, etc.

Animal – a name for an animal: - dog, cat, cow, kangaroo, etc.

Place – a name for a place: - London, Australia, Canada, Mumbai, etc.

Thing – a name for a thing: - bat, ball, chair, door, house, computer, etc.

Idea – A name for an idea: - devotion, superstition, happiness, excitement, etc.

Nouns have two forms, the Singular and Plural. The singular form is used to refer to one

person or thing. The plural form is used for referring to more than one person or thing.

These types of nouns are called countable noun or uncountable nouns. Let us now look into

examples of common uncountable nouns: – absence, food, wind, behaviour, beauty, death,

truth, fear, nature, justice, safety, depression, peace, finance, power, intelligence, youth,

capacity, health, pride, welfare, confidence, strength, mercy, duty, nature, labour, silence,

time, love, energy, staff, death, joy, help, etc.

When a singular form of a countable noun is used as a subject, it takes Singular verb. When

the plural form of a countable noun is used as a subject, it takes Plural verb. For instance;

Example: A boy is singing in the park.

Example: Some boys are singing in the park.

Proper Noun:

A proper noun is a name which refers only to a single person, place, or thing and there is no

common name for it. In written English, a proper noun always begins with capital letters.

Example: Melbourne (it refers to only one particular city), Steve (refers to a particular

person)

Common Noun:

A common noun is a name for something which is common for many things, person, or

places. It encompasses a particular type of things, person, or places.

Example: Country (it can refer to any country, nothing in particular), city (it can refer to any

city like Melbourne, Mumbai, Toronto, etc. but nothing in particular).

So, a common noun is a word that indicates a person, place, thing, etc. in general and a

proper noun is a specific one of those.

Abstract Noun:

An abstract noun is a word for something that cannot be seen but is there. It has no physical

existence. Generally, it refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions.


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Example: Truth, lies, happiness, sorrow, time, friendship, humor, patriotism, etc.

Concrete Noun:

A concrete noun is the exact opposite of abstract noun. It refers to the things we see and

have physical existence.

Example: Chair, table, bat, ball, water, money, sugar, etc.

Countable Noun:

The nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. Countable nouns can take an

article: a, an, the.

Uncountable Noun:

The nouns that cannot be counted are called uncountable nouns.

Example: Water, sugar, oil, salt, etc. (you cannot say “1 water, 2 water, 3 water” because

water is not countable) (you can say 1 chair, 2 chairs, 3 chairs – so chairs are countable)

Abstract nouns and proper nouns are always uncountable nouns, but common nouns and

concrete nouns can be both count and uncountable nouns.

Collective Noun:

A collective noun is a word for a group of things, people, or animals, etc.

Example: family, team, jury, cattle, etc.

Collective nouns can be both plural and singular. However, Americans prefer to use

collective nouns as singular, but both of the uses are correct in other parts of the world.

Compound Noun:

Sometimes two or three nouns appear together, or even with other parts of speech, and

create idiomatic compound nouns. Idiomatic means that those nouns behave as a unit and,

to a lesser or greater degree, amount to more than the sum of their parts.

Example: six-pack, five-year-old, and son-in-law, snowball, mailbox, etc.

Functions of Nouns


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Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object of a verb; as an object

of a preposition; and as an adverb or adjective in sentences. Nouns can also show

possession.

Subject: The company is doing great. Roses are the flowers of love.

Direct object: I finally bought a new mobile.

Indirect object: Max gave Carol another chocolate.

Object of preposition: Roses are the flowers of love.

Adverb: The train leaves today.

Adjective: The office building faces the mall.

Possession: The lion’s cage is dangerous. My brother’s daughter is adorable.

Conjunction

Definition: A conjunction is a word which connects phrases, words, clauses or sentences to

make a complex sentence and also brings about relationship between the elements which

are thus joined. There are three different kinds of conjunctions--coordinating,

subordinating, and correlative.

1. Coordinating conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions are the words that connect

individual words, phrases, and independent clauses of equal rank or importance.

and, or, but, so, nor, for, yet, also, either….or, neither…nor, etc are some of the

Coordinating Conjunctions.

Further Coordinating conjunction can be divided into four parts:

(i) Adversative: To indicate contrast between two statements.

Examples: still, but, only, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless, etc

Example Sentences:

It was very hot, still I have not switched on fan.


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He hates me, yet I love her.

(ii) Cumulative or Copulative conjunctions: To add one statement or fact to another.

Examples: both….and, not only….but also, as well as, too, also, moreover etc

Example Sentences:

The principle as well as the director has accepted to conduct the examination next week.

Shanky is both smart and brave.

(iii) Disjunctive or Alternative conjunctions: To indicate choices between two statements.

Examples: neither…nor, either….or, else, neither, nor, otherwise, etc

Example Sentences:

Amar will be either in the room or on the roof.

He is good neither at games nor at studies.

(iv) Illative: To express inference in the sentence.

Examples: for, so, yet, hence etc

Example Sentences:

I know you must be tired, so i will let you rest.

Rekha is honest and amiable, hence Raj is revered.

2. Correlative Conjunctions: In this, a pair of conjunctions must be used together. You have

to use both of them in different places in a sentence to make them work.

Rule: When conjunctions are used as correlatives, each of the correlated words should be

placed immediately before the words to be connected.

Examples: Either—or, Neither—nor, Both—and, Though—yet, Whether—or, Not only—but

also


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Example Sentences:

She visited not only Kolkata but also Jaipur.

Deepak can do either technical support or development.

3. Subordinating Conjunctions: Used to join a clause to another in order to get full meaning.

It joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause.

Main Clause + Subordinate Clause

Subordinate Clause + Main Clause

Subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence as it does not provide complete

meaning. It is generally depends on main clause. A main clause contains a subject and a

verb. A main clause can stands alone as a sentence as it can provide you complete meaning.

Examples: In order that, on condition that, even if, so that, provided that, as though, as well

as, as if, etc.

Example Sentences:

She had died before the doctor arrived.

Although it is raining, it is too hot today.

We played cricket while pitch was little wet

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

In order to excel or master the English section of any bank exam, it is important to have a

thorough knowledge of all the rules of subject-verb agreement. While doing sentence

improvement or error detection questions, it is always required for us to check whether the

subject and verb are in agreement with each other or not.

What is Subject-Verb Agreement?


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Subject verb agreement simply means the subject and verb must agree in number. This

means both need to be singular or both need to be plural.

Let’s take an example to understand this concept.

Example 1: Raman is playing with a ball.

In this case, the subject of the sentence is ‘Raman’ and the verb used is singular in nature, ‘is

playing’.

Example 2: The dogs are playing with their ball.

In this case, the subject of the sentence is ‘dogs’ and the verb used is plural in nature, ‘are

playing’.

Subject-Verb Agreement Rules:

It is important to take into account the subject-verb agreement while doing sentence

correction. Following are the basic rules to do so:

RULE 1: When two subjects are joined by ‘and’, the verb is plural.

For example: Me and my friend are going to Maldives for Christmas.

RULE 2: When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person or thing, the verb

is singular.

For example: The captain and the coach of the team has been sacked.

In case these were two different individuals, two articles need to be used: The captain and

the coach of the team have been sacked.

RULE 3: Indefinite pronouns (everyone, each one, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody

etc.) are always singular.

For example: Everyone deserves love.

For example: Someone must have stolen your favourite necklace.

We do not use 'are' in this sentence.

This rule does not apply to: few, many, several, all, some and both.

RULE 4: When the percentage or a part of something has a plural meaning, then the plural

verb is used.

For example: 30 out of every 100 children are malnutrishioned.


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RULE 5: When the subjects, joined by ‘either or’ or ‘neither nor’ are for different persons,

the verb will agree in person and number with the noun nearest to it.

For example: Neither you nor your friends know how to behave.

For example: Either of the books is fine for GATE preparation.

Always remember that, when either and neither are used as pronouns, they are treated as

singular and always take the singular verb.

RULE 6: If connectives/appositives like- along with, together with, as well as, accompanied

by etc. are used to combine two subjects, the verb agrees with the subject mentioned first.

For example: Mr. Ashok, accompanied by his wife Rita and his mother, was admitted in the

hospital.

RULE 7: A number of/ the number of

‘A number of (some countable noun)’ is always plural. ‘The number of (some countable

noun)’ is always singular.

For example: A number of students are going to the amusement park for a picnic.

For example: The number of immigrants in US has increased by nearly 40% from 2011-2016.

RULE 8: The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement or time.

For example: Five gallons of oil was required to get the engine running.

RULE 9: When any of ‘few, many, several, both, all, some’ is used with a countable noun, the

verb is plural.

For example: Some apples are required for making the pie.

RULE 10: When any of ‘few, many, several, both, all, some’ is used with an uncountable

noun, the verb is singular.

For example: Some water has evaporated.


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Conditional Sentences

Definition:

These sentences comprise two parts – the main clause and the conditional clause or the ‘if

clause’.

They are used to denote that the action in the main clause can only take place if a certain

condition (conditional clause) is fulfilled.

Some examples (the part in BOLD indicates the conditional clause or the if clause) –

I would give you a chocolate if you got good marks in your exams.

When a dog barks nearby her, Sakshi gets scared.

Unless Anmol helps Nitesh, he will not be able to complete his work in time.

The following words/phrases are used to denote an ‘if-clause’ –

If; unless; as soon as; provided; no sooner; until; when; in case; but for; so long as; etc.

Some basic rules –

1. If the ‘if clause’ is in present tense –

If + Simple present, Simple future

Example – If Harish gets a wicket on this ball, our team will win the match.

2. If the ‘if clause’ is in simple past tense –

If + Simple past, subject + would + V1

Example – If I had money, I would buy you those shoes.


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3. If the ‘if clause’ is in past perfect tense –

If + past perfect, subject + would + have + V3

Example – If you had told me about this earlier, I would have helped you.

These sentences can also be expressed/written according to the following structure without

any altering to their meanings –

Had + subject +V3 + Object, Subject + would + have + V3

Example – Had you told me about this earlier, I would have helped you.

Some important points to remember –

> If a probability is expressed in a sentence, ‘may/might’ are used instead of ‘will’. (Same for

the sentences about permissions)

Examples –

If it rains, I may not go to office today.

If you have finished your home work, you may go out to play.

> If the sentence is related to suggestions, ‘should/must’ will be used instead of ‘will’.

Examples –

If you don’t know her, you must not go out with her.

If you want to score good marks, you should study daily.


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Conjunctions

Definition:

Conjunction is basically a word or a group of words that connects two or more

words/phrase/sentences etc.

Some examples of conjunctions used in sentences –

Payal is violent as well as unreasonable.

Anmol is too lazy to win this race.

Cracking an exam is nothing but a test of one’s problem solving capabilities.

Nitesh has no other aim than to succeed in this task.

Some important points to remember –

> Conjunctions join two desirable or two undesirable adjectives BUT, it never joins one

desirable and one undesirable adjective.

For e.g. –

Harish is both intelligent and dumb. (Incorrect)

Umesh is not only dishonest but also noble. (Incorrect)

> Some wrong pairs of conjunctions are –

Though....and; both...as well as; between...to; no other...but; If...or;

e.g. –

Though he worked hard, but he could not complete the task. (Incorrect)

Though he worked hard, yet he could not complete the task. (Correct)

Narayan is both smart as well as hard working. (Incorrect)

Narayan is both smart and hard working. (Correct)


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Swati asked Sakshi if she was coming to the party or not. (Incorrect)

Swati asked Sakshi whether she was coming to the party or not.(Correct)

Swati asked Sakshi if she was coming to the party. (Correct)

> A lot of times a conjunction is used at wrong places. In a sentence it must always be used

at the correct place.

e.g. –

He cheated not only his friends but also his parents. (Incorrect)

Not only he cheated his friends but also his parents. (Correct)

> A sentence NEVER begin with ‘till’.

> ‘Until/Unless’ is NEVER followed by ‘not’.

e.g. –

Until the Governor does not arrive, the program will not start. (Incorrect)

Until the Governor arrives, the program will not start. (Correct)

Unless the government will not make a strict law, robberies will keep on

happening.(Incorrect)

Unless the government makes a strict law, robberies will keep on happening.(Correct)

> Also, WILL/SHOULD/WOULD are NOT used after ‘Until/Unless’.

e.g. –

Unless you will not come, I will not cut my birthday cake. (Incorrect)

Unless you come, I will not cut my birthday cake. (Correct)

> If the sentence is affirmative, then ‘doubt...if/whether’ or ‘doubtful...if/whether’ are used.

e.g. –

I doubt if/whether Payal would help Sheetal.

I am doubtful if/whether Payal would help Sheetal.


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> If the sentence is negative/interrogative, then ‘doubt...that’ or ‘doubtful...that’ is used.

e.g. –

I have no doubt if/whether Nitesh will cheat him. (Incorrect)

I have no doubt that Nitesh will cheat him. (Correct)

Some important and common conjunctions –

And; as well as; either....or; neither...nor; scarcely....when; No sooner...than; Hardly...when;

Both....and; too...to; Lest...should; such....that; even if;

Subject & Verb Agreement

Description –

In any given sentence the selection of the (form of the) verb completely depends on the

subject of the statement.

So, it is very important that we select (know) the subject (its person – 1st/2nd/3rd as well as

its number i.e., singular or plural) very clearly. If the subject and the verb are not in

agreement, then there is a grammatical error.

An example of subject-verb disagreement:

Harish or Umesh were present at the wedding. (Incorrect)

Harish or Umesh was present at the wedding. (Correct)

It is I who is the smartest person in this group. (Incorrect)

It is I who am the smartest person in this group. (Correct)

Some points to remember:

> Usage of ‘and’ –


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1) If two subjects are joined by ‘and’ then PLURAL VERB (helping verb) will be used.

E.g. – Swati and Sakshi sit beside eachother. (not ‘sits’)

2) If two or more nouns/adjectives are joined by ‘and’ but only a person/idea/thing is being

is discussed – SINGULAR VERB will be used.

E.g. – Slow and steady wins the race.

My friend, philosopher and guide has come.

Rajma & Chawal is my favourite dish. (here the subject is ‘dish’ and not Rajma & Chawal)

3) If two uncountable nouns are joined by ‘and’, and if two different subjects are being

discussed, PLURAL VERB will be used.

E.g. – Poverty and misery come together.

> If an article is placed only before the first subject it means the person or the thing to which

the two nouns refer to, is the same. Hence, SINGULAR VERB shall be used in such cases.

E.g. – A Black and white gown was bought by her.

JL Nehru was a great orator and a great human being. (Incorrect);

JL Nehru was a great orator and human being. (Correct)

> BUT, if an article is used before every subject, it refers to different people/things and

hence, PLURAL VERB will be used.

E.g. – The Director and the Producer have arrived.

> Collective nouns always take SINGULAR VERB.

E.g. – A herd of cows is grazing the field.

> If the subjects are joined by the following, then the verb will agree with the FIRST subject.

–

Alongwith, and not, in addition to, but, besides, except, like, unlike, no less than, nothing

but, rather than, together with, accompanied by.

E.g. – Payal as well as her parents is coming.

My brother, unlike my cousins is very cooperative.


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> If the two subjects are joined by the following, then the verb will agree with the NEAREST

subject. –

Neither...nor, either...or, but...also, none..but, nor, or.

E.g. – Neither Ram nor his parents have come.

Has Ram or his cousins come? (Here the nearest subject is ‘Ram’ – singular. Hence ‘has’ will

be used)

Nouns & Pronouns

Definition: Noun: These are the words which are the names of some particular things or collection of things such as living organisms (including humans), objects, places, actions, qualities, etc. Ex – Raghav is the new Chairman of the National Bank. (Underlined words represent nouns) Pronoun: These are the words which are used in place of nouns (to refer to a noun) in a sentence, when a particular noun has already been mentioned or is about to be mentioned. Ex – Raghav is the new Chairman of the National Bank. He is most suited for the job. (Underlined word represent pronoun); Here ‘he’ refers to ‘Raghav’. Some basic rules/points to remember: Nouns - > Following common nouns are ALWAYS in plural form and do not have singular forms: Scissors; trousers; pants; shorts; spectacles; goggles; binoculars; sunglasses; amends; archives; congratulations; fireworks; outskirts; Shambles; Braces; Embers; Athletics; Belongings; Proceedings; Surroundings; Tongs; Vegetables; Valuables; etc


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> Following nouns are Singular in form but Plural in meaning, i.e. they look to be singular but are plural, and hence take plural verb:

Cattle; Cavalry; Infantry; Poultry; Police; People; Children; Peasantry; Gentry, etc. > Collective nouns are ALWAYS singular:

Example- A herd of cows is grazing the field.

The committee took the decision unanimously. > The Following nouns are same in Singular as well as Plural forms: Sheep; Deer; Series; Species; Fish; Crew; Aircraft; Counsel; Team; Jury, etc.

> The following are uncountable nouns and hence will take singular verb with them(A/An/many/few/number of and plural forms are NEVER used with these) – Poetry; furniture; advice; information; baggage; stationery; business; crockery; News; Percentage; Pottery; Work(literary work); Cost; Equipment; Postage; Hair; Scenery; Dirt; Dust; Fuel; Traffic; Music; Evidence; Wastage; Jewellery; Electricity; Money; Mischief; Luggage; Knowledge; Crockery; etc.

Example –

I have some equipments that I needed for the project. (Incorrect)

I have some equipment that I needed for the project. (Correct)

> Plural form is used after one of the; each of the; either of the; neither of the; some of

the; many of the, etc.

Pronouns –

> ONLY subjective pronouns - He, She, It, You, They; We and I are used in place of

the subject in a sentence. Usage of objective pronouns like myself, himself, me, him,

her, them etc as the subject is grammatically incorrect.

For example –

Hello, Myself Nitesh Kaushal. (Incorrect)

Hello, I am Nitesh Kaushal (Correct)

> Reflexive Pronouns – Myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, Yourselves,

themselves; ourselves.

> Usage of Reflexive pronouns – A reflexive pronoun is used ONLY when the object

and the subject of a sentence are the same thing.


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For example:

You (sub.) can talk to Neha (obj.) or myself (obj.). (Incorrect)

You can talk to Neha or me. (Correct)

Rohit saw me in the mirror. (Correct) Here, ‘Rohit’ and ‘me’ are different people. ‘Me’

refers to the speaker.

Rohit saw himself in the mirror. (Correct) Here, ‘Rohit’ and ‘himself’ refer to the same

person.

Payal made herself fruit juice. (Correct – because the subject and object are same)

Payal made myself fruit juice. (Incorrect – because the subject and object are different

persons, hence reflexive pronoun can’t be used)

Hence, --> Payal made me fruit juice. (Correct)

> Possessive Pronouns – These reflect possession of something by some. These

include: My, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, their, theirs, its, our, ours

Usage – This is my pen. OR This pen is mine. (Both Correct)

> If a pronoun is used before a gerund (V1+ing), then it HAS TO BE a possessive

pronoun.

For example:

Sakshi said, she did not have any problem with him using her laptop. (Incorrect)

Sakshi said she did not have any problem with his using her laptop. (Correct)

> Usage of relative pronouns: - Relative Pronoun Used for Used as

Who People Subject

Which Things/animals Subject/Object

Whom People Object

Whose People/Things In place of possessive

pronouns; subject as well as object.

That People/Things Subject/Object

Prepositions


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Definition:

The word (or words – e.g. – ‘in front of’) that connects nouns or noun equivalents to other words in a particular sentence are known as prepositions. Noun equivalents include – pronouns, gerunds (V1 + ing), phrases, adverbs etc. Hence, a preposition is simply a word which indicates the relationships between the noun/pronouns with other words used in a sentence. Important Rules: > Prepositions mostly tell us where a particular thing is, or where something has happened in relation to other things. They indicate location, direction, time, space, purpose, contrast etc. >Mostly the preposition is placed before the noun or the pronoun, but using a preposition at the end of a sentence is not a grammatical error. For e.g. Mr. Moody is someone with whose opinions I cannot agree. CORRECT Also, Mr. Moody is someone whose opinions I cannot agree with. CORRECT > A preposition may also be used at the start of a sentence if the sentence is an interrogative sentence. e.g. – In which car did the Minister arrive at the Republic day parade? > Verbs that are used immediately after prepositions are generally in the gerund form. e.g. He insisted on staying with his parents. They left without paying the bill. > Some more examples of prepositions taking gerunds after them – You better refrain from hurting my daughter. She is addicted to gambling. His team has been hell bent upon participating in the tournament. Kedar Jadhav seems to have the knack of picking up crucial wickets. That is no pretext for delaying the process. He is not capable of running that fast. > If prepositions are placed immediately after some non-transitive verbs, they become transitive, i.e. then they require a direct object after them. Examples of such verbs are – Listen to, laugh at, looked at/upon, depend on/upon, prevail on/upon etc. Some Common Mistakes: > Between Vs Among: Between is used only when the sentence involves just two people/objects.


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Whereas, among is used for sentences involving more than two people/objects. > Beside Vs Besides: Beside means ‘by the side of something/someone’, while besides means ‘in addition to’ e.g. – Rahul is standing beside Ramita. Rahul loves Aishwaraya besides Ramita. > In Vs Into: In indicates the motion/rest inside of something. i.e., it is used in sentences referring to a situation where someone is already inside something. For e.g. – He is enjoying a stroll in the garden. On the other hand, into indicates the movement towards the inside of something. For e.g. – The Dog jumped into the pool. > In Vs Within Vs By Vs On ( in their usage in the context of time): In EITHER refers to a time period in the future (1), OR it simply means before the end of a time-limit (2). E.g – (1) ‘I will go to America in the month of January’. (2) ‘He reached the station just in time (of the departure of the train.’ i.e. before the time of departure.)’ Within means before the end of a particular time-limit. (But no concrete time is indicated) E.g. – ‘I will return from the USA within a month’ By (in terms of time) means ‘before’. For e.g. – ‘I will resign by the end of the month.’ On is used to specify the exact time. For e.g. – ‘He reached the station on time (of the departure of the train.)’ i.e. exactly on the time of departure. > On Vs Upon: On is used for things at rest whereas upon is used for speaking of things in motion. e.g – He sat on the chair. The dog jumped upon the cat. > The preposition ‘like’ means ‘similar to’ or ‘similarly to’. It must be followed by the object of the preposition, i.e., noun/pronoun/noun-phrase and never by the subject + verb/helping verb. This is one of the most common mistakes.


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For ex – You look just like your brother. CORRECT You look just like your brother does. INCORRECT (‘does’ is a helping verb here) Similarly, - You look like you’re angry. INCORRECT (‘are’ is a helping verb here) So, in such cases, replace ‘like’ with words/phrases like – the way, as, as if, as though etc. For ex – You look just as your brother does. CORRECT You look just the way your brother does. CORRECT You look as if you’re angry. You look as though you’re angry. To be remembered:

Preposition Used with

In

Years Decades Months

Seasons Period of the day (morning/evening etc) After a certain period of time. E.g. - In 24

hours from now; The game is going to start just in a few seconds

(bigger) Location e.g. – I live in Delhi.

to (Apart from other common usages of

‘to’) to tell the time. E.g. – ‘15 minutes to eight’. (7:45)

On Dates

week days special days (birthdays/anniversary etc)

At

Night Weekend

An exact time (smaller) Location e.g. – I live at Mukherjee

Nagar in Delhi.


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Verb A Verb is a word that tells or asserts something about a person or thing. It tells about the

person or thing in the state of (a) doing, (b) being or (c) being acted up on. Thus a verb is a

doing or being word.

Kinds of verbs :

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A Transitive verb is a verb that denotes an action which passes over from the doer or agent

to an object, Transitive means passing over. For example,

India won the World Cup.

An Intransitive verb is a verb that denotes an action which does not pass over to an object,

or that expresses a state of an object, or that expresses a state of being. Intransitive means

not passing over. For example,

The sun shines brightly.

Rule: When an intransitive verb is used in a causative sense, it becomes transitive.

1. He sat in a chair.

2. He sat me on chair.

Rule: Verbs like, fall, lie, rise and sit are made transitive by a slight change in their spellings.

The transitive is the causative of the corresponding intransitive verb.

Incorrect: The poachers were caught yesterday when they fell trees illegally.

Correct : The poachers were caught yesterday when they felled trees illegally.

Verbs of Incomplete Predication

The intransitive verb which requires something to make the sense complete is called a verb

of incomplete predication.

For example be, become, seem, grow, taste, appear.

That which is required to make the sense (of these verbs) complete is known as the

complement of the verb or the completion of the predicate.


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For example,

The family appears.

Rule: When the subjective complement is a noun (or a pronoun), it is in the same case as the

subject, that is, in the nominative case.

For example

The lawyer called the witness a liar.

Rule: When the objective complement is a noun it is in the objective case in agreement with

the object.

Subject-Verb Agreement :

Language has its base in logic and harmony. The subject and the verb are the essential parts

of a sentence. It is imperative that the verb agree with the subject in number and person.

Rule: Two or more singular subjects connected by and usually take a verb in the plural.

Incorrect: Computer and telecommunication has metamorphosed information technology.

Correct: Computer and telecommunication have metamorphosed information technology.

Rule: If two singular nouns refer to the same person or thing, the verb must be singular.

Incorrect : The poet and critic have been honoured.

Correct : The poet and critic has been honoured.

Rule: If two subjects together express one idea, the verb is in the singular.

Incorrect: Bread and butter are essential for one's life.

Correct: Bread and butter is essential for one's life.

Rule: If the singular subjects are preceded by each or every, the verb is usually singular.

Incorrect: Every man and woman in a family are responsible for the upbringing of a child.

Correct: Every man and woman in a family is responsible for the upbringing of a child.


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Rule : Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, either ... or, neither... nor take a

verb in the singular.

Incorrect: Either Manoj or Madhukar have the key to this problem.

Correct: Either Manoj or Madhukar has the key to this problem.

Rule: When the subjects, joined by or or nor are of different numbers, the verb must be

plural, and the plural subject must be placed next to the verb.

Incorrect : Neither Rekha nor her friends was present at the party.

Correct : Neither Rekha nor her friends were present at the party.

Rule: When the subjects, joined by or or nor are of different persons, the verb agrees in

person with the one nearest to it.

Incorrect : Either she or I pays the fees.

Correct : Either she or I pay the fees.

Error of Proximity: The verb is made to agree in number with a noun near it instead of with

its proper subject. This is wrong and should be avoided.

Incorrect : The behaviour of the students were not proper.

Correct: The behaviour of the students was not proper.

Rule: Words joined to a singular subject by with, as well as, etc. are parenthetical. The verb

should therefore be put in the singular.

Incorrect: The guru as well as his disciples are committed to celibacy.

Correct: The guru as well as his disciples is committed to celibacy.

Rule: Either, neither, each, everyone, many a must be followed by a singular verb.

Incorrect: Many a man have resigned in crisis.

Correct: Many a man has resigned in crisis.


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Rule: When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount considered as a whole,

the verb is generally singular.

Incorrect: Five hours are too short a time to judge one's character.

Correct: Five hours is too short a time to judge one's character.

The Infinitive

Usually a verb is limited by the number and person of its subject.

For example,

He plays cricket.

They play cricket.

A verb, which is not limited by person and number as a verb that has a subject, is called the

verb infinite or the infinitive. Infinitives are of two kinds.

(1) Simple Infinitive and

(2) Gerundial or Qualifying Infinitive.

(1) Simple Infinitive - when the infinitive is used like a noun.

(i) as the subject of a verb. To name is to give an identity.

(ii) as the object of a verb. I have decided to leave the place.

(iii) as the complement of a verb. Her hobby is to dance.

(iv) as the object of a preposition. He is about to go.

(v) as the complement of the object. She heard her weep.

(2) Gerundial or Qualifying Infinitive-when the infinitive is used for the following purposes:

(i) to qualify a verb. He slept to refresh himself.

(ii) to qualify an adjective. Tea is easy to prepare.

(iii) to qualify a noun. He has a point to make.

(iv) to qualify a sentence. To be very frank, I hate your smile.


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Rule: The infinitive is used without to after verbs like help, watch, bid, dare, hear, let, make,

need and see.

Incorrect : I bid him to quit the organisation.

Correct : I bid him quit the organisation.

Rule: If, however, the structure is do + dare or do + need, the infinitive is used with to.

Incorrect: You do not need worry about us.

Correct: You do not need to worry about us.

Rule: The following verbs are followed by the infinitive.

Agree, arrange, attempt, care, cease, consent, decide, determine, endeavour, fall, forget,

hesitate, hope,learn, manage, neglect, prepare, promise, propose, refuse, regret,

remember, seem, swear, undertake.

Incorrect: I agree for helping you out in trouble.

Correct: I agree to help you out in trouble.

Rule: Prepositions but and except take the infinitive without to.

Incorrect: There is no alternative but to help him out.

Correct : There is no alternative but help him out.

Rule: Expressions would rather, would sooner, rather than, sooner than, had better are

followed by infinitive without to.

Incorrect : I would rather to go for batting.

Correct : I would rather go for batting.

Participle

(1) Present Participle

(2) Past Participle

(3) Perfect Participle

Rule: Present participle is used when all the parts of a sentence have the same subject;


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Incorrect: Opened the drawer, he took out his gun.

Correct: Opening the drawer, he took out his gun.

Rule: When a sentence has two different subjects, avoid using present participle. Instead a

clause should be used in such instances.

Incorrect: While going to school, a dog jumped at me.

Correct: While I was going to school, a dog jumped at me.

Rule: Some past participles are used only as adjectives and qualify a noun. They can be used

as past participles with changed spellings. For example, shrunken, drunken, sunken, graven,

molten.

Incorrect: He and his brother have drunken wine last night.

Correct: He and his brother have drunk wine last night.

Rule: Perfect participle is used when one activity is completely over. Having worked hard, he

felt tired.

Auxiliary Verb

Auxiliary literally means giving help, So an auxiliary verb is one that helps the main verb

form in tenses, moods, voices etc. The following verbs are auxiliaries: is, are, am, was, were,

be, can, could, dare, do, does, did, have, has, had, may, might, must, need, ought, shall,

should, will, would, used to.

1. May implies permission, doubt or possibility.

Ex. May I come in? (permission)

It may rain tonight. (possibility)

2. Might is the past form of “may” and it implies more doubt than “may”.

Ex. If the clouds are salted, the rains might come.

3. Can is used to express ability.

Ex. He can do the work.


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4. Could is the past form of can but it does not necessarily represent past time. Often it

implies a more uncertain condition.

Ex. He could refuse, but she never does.

5. Should expresses the idea that something must be done or is important.

Should and ought to have similar meanings, but ought is followed by “to” “Ought to” has a

more objective force and is used when we are talking about laws, duties and regulations.

Ex. We ought to see her tomorrow.

6. Must is used to give strong advice or orders.

Ex. He really must stop drinking.

7. Do is used to make question and negative forms of ordinary verbs.

Ex. Do you know him?

I don’t like swimming.

“Do” is always used in question-tags.

Ex. You know painting, do you?

Quiz based on above concepts:

Directions: In the following questions, some of the sentences have errors and some have

none. Find out which part of the sentence has an error. If there is no mistake, the answer is

‘No error’.

1. Many a student (a)/ are frustrated (b)/ because of unemployment. (c)/ No error (d)

2. It is true (a)/ that the poor is unable (b)/ to get nourishing food even today. (c)/ No error

(d)


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3. People have a right to criticise (a)/ but at the same time each of them (b)/ have to

remember his duty also. (c)/ No error (d)

4. The child (a)/ picked up a burned paper (b)/ from the street. (c)/ No error (d)

5. Never did this exhibition of contempt and anger ceased (a)/ so long as British rule

remained (b)/ a live thing in India. (c)/ No error (d)

6. The teacher was angry (a)/ when he found that (b)/ you are not there. (c)/ No error (d)

7. I would like you to (a)/ complete this assignment (b) before you will leave for Mumbai.

(c)/ No error (d)

8. Ordinarily, when in difficulty (a)/ Ruchi prefers keeping her counsel (b)/ than running

about taking advice. (c)/ No error (d)

9. One of the drawbacks (a)/ of modern education are (b)/ that it does not encourage

original thinking. (c)/ No error (d)

10. I enquired of him (a)/ why he is so negligent (b)/ in his studies. (c)/ No error (d)

Answers:

1. b; Replace ‘are’ with ‘is’

‘Many a’ takes singular subject and singular verb.

2. b; Replace ‘is’ with ‘are’

Here, ‘poor’ stands for ‘poor people’.

3. c; Replace ‘have’ with ‘has’

4. b; Replace ‘burned’ with ‘burnt’

5. a; Replace ‘ceased’ with ‘cease’

6. c; Replace ‘are’ with ‘were’

7. c; Remove ‘will’

8. c; Replace “than” with “to”

9. b; Replace ‘are’ with ‘is’

10. b; Replace ‘is’ with ‘was’


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Adverb:

An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or an adverb. For

example

Rama runs quickly.

Govinda reads quite clearly.

Kinds of Adverb

(a) According to meaning

1) Adverbs of Time : They are the adverbs which tell us when an action takes place. For

example,

I shall meet you tomorrow.

Rule : Time adverbs cannot be used in the present perfect, instead the past indefinite is

used for them.

Incorrect : I have seen a 3D movie last night.

Correct : I saw a 3D movie last night.

2) Adverbs of Place : They are the adverbs which tell us where an action takes place. For

example,

He left his bag there.

3) Adverbs of Manner : They are the adverbs which tell us how an action takes place or in

what manner. For example, Gautam Buddha left his family stealthily.

4) Adverbs of Frequency : They are the adverbs which tell us how often an action takes

place. For example, The Delhi Police is always with you .

5) Adverbs of Degree or Quantity : They are the adverbs which tell us how much or in what

degree or to what extent. For example,

I have pleaded enough and now I give up.


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Rule : The adverb “so” as an adverb of degree must not be used absolutely.

Incorrect : He is so rich.

Correct : He is very rich.

Rule : That “should not be used instead of ” so “as an adverb”.

Incorrect : He went only that far.

Correct : He went only so far.

Rule : The adverb “too” should not be used instead of “very” or “much” and vice versa.

Incorrect : She is too intelligent.

Correct : she is very intelligent.

Rule : Much is used with past participles used as adjectives not with present participles.

Incorrect : The match became much interesting.

Correct : The match became very interesting.

Rule : Adverb of degree comes just before the adjective it qualifies.

Incorrect : He too is weak to run.

Correct : He is too weak to run.

They are so honest that they cannot tell a lie.

6) Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation : They are the adverbs which tell us whether an

action is done or not. For example,

He has not left the place.

7) Adverbs of Reason : They are the adverbs which tell us why an action takes place. For

example,

She therefore decided to be a rich woman.


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(b) According to use

1) Simple Adverb : It only modifies some words (verb, adjective or an adverb). All the above

examples belong to this category.

2) Interrogative Adverb : It not only modifies some words but also introduces a question. For

example, How did you come here?

3) Relative Adverb : It not only modifies some words but also refers back to some

antecedent. For example,

How can I forget the day when happiness was

showered on me from all sides?

Forms of adverb :

Rule : Adjective should not be used for adverb.

Incorrect: The moon shone bright in the sky.

Correct: The moon shone brightly in the sky.

Rule : Some adverbs have two forms, the form ending in-ly and the form which is the same

as adjective. For example, loud, quick, high, hard, near, late, pretty.

Incorrect: He fought hardly for the No. 1 spot.

Correct: He fought hard for the No. 1 spot.

Similarly, Incorrect: It would hard rain today.

Correct : It would hardly rain today.

Comparison of adverbs :

Rule : If the adverb is of one syllable, the comparative is formed by adding-er and the

superlative by addingest to the positive.

Incorrect : The hare ran more fast than the dog.


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Correct : The hare ran faster than the dog.

Rule : Adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative by adding more and the superlative by

adding most.

Incorrect : The petrol price hike issue has been debated hotlier than the urea scam.

Correct : The petrol price hike issue has been debated more hotly than the urea scam.

Position of adverbs :

Rule : Adverbs of manner, place and time are generally placed after the verb or after the

object if there is one.

Incorrect: He wrote last year a book.

Correct: He wrote a book last year.

Rule : When there are two or more adverbs after a verb (and its object), the normal order is;

adverb of manner, adverb of place, adverb of time.

Incorrect: I read the proof yesterday meticulously at home.

Correct: I read the proof meticulously at home yesterday.

Rule : Adverbs of frequency and most of the adverbs of quantity are

i) normally put between the subject and the verb if the verb consists of only one word;

ii) put after the first word if there is more than one word in the verb;

iii) put after the verb if the verb is am/are/is/was/were;

Some more rules :

Rule : Two negatives should not be used in the same sentence unless we wish to make an

affirmation.

Incorrect: she did not despise none of her lovers.

Correct: She did not despise any of her lovers.


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Rule : Ever should not be used for never.

Incorrect: She seldom or ever has sweet talks with her son.

Correct: She seldom or never has sweet talks with her son.

Rule : Else should be followed by but.

Incorrect: It is nothing else than fatigue.

Correct: It is nothing else but fatigue.

Rule : Never should not be used for not.

Incorrect: She met her friend after a long time and her friend never recognised her.

Correct: She met her friend after a long time and her friend did not recognise her.

Exercise :

Directions: Find out the error in each of the following sentences, if any. If there is no error,

the answer is ‘d’.

1. She behaved in a cowardly manner (a)/ before the headmaster (b)/ and hesitated to do

the work. (c)/ No error (d)

2. The girl refused (a)/ not to (b)/ return the articles. (c)/ No error (d)

3. The real important thing (a)/ of our life is our livelihood (b)/ which discriminates us from

animals. (c)/ No error (d)

4. She is too much beautiful (a)/ so most of the boys (b)/ run after her and want to influence

her. (c)/ No error (d)

5. The taxi driver who had come (a)/ to receive us at (b)/ the airport was speaking fluently

French. (c)/ No error (d)

6. The observers feel that (a)/ the stronger team has to face defeat (b)/ because the players

don’t play whole hearted. (c)/ No error (d)

7. Although he is usually (a)/ rude with everyone, (b)/ he behaved nice with all of us today.

(c)/ No error (d)

8. He ran so fastly (a)/ that he reached first and (b)/ realised that he had (c)/ not earned

anything substantial. (d)/ No error (e)


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9. In spite of toiling (a)/ very hardly he (b)/ realised that he had not earned anything

substantial. (c)/ No error (d)

10. We were very much (a)/ carefully in our approach (b)/ and hence we would complete

the complicated task. (c) No error (d)

Answers..

1. d; No error

2. b; Omit the word “not”

3. a; Replace “real” with “really”

4. a; Replace “too much” with “very”

5. c; Replace “fluently French” with “French fluently”

6. c; Replace “whole-hearted” with “whole-heartedly”

7. c; Replace “nice” with “nicely”

8. a; Replace “fastly” with “fast”

9. b; Replace “hardly” with “hard”

10. b; Replace “carefully” with “careful”

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