Venezuelan Geopolitics in the Caribbean: Venezuelan Geopolitics in the Caribbean: Islas Aves 350 mi. from Ven.,90 mi. from Islas Aves 350 mi. from Ven.,90 mi. from

DominicaDominica

La Geopolítica en el Caribe:La Geopolítica en el Caribe:Un Siglo de CambiosUn Siglo de Cambios

Presentación al Instituto de Estudios del CaribePresentación al Instituto de Estudios del Caribe

Universidad de Puerto RicoUniversidad de Puerto Rico

Anthony P. MaingotAnthony P. Maingot7 de octubre de 20107 de octubre de 2010

A Basic Definition of GeopoliticsA Basic Definition of Geopolitics

The relationship between a nation’s geography and The relationship between a nation’s geography and it’s projection on it’s neighbors and the international arena it’s projection on it’s neighbors and the international arena in terms of three elements of power:in terms of three elements of power:

1.1. Material wealth;Material wealth;

2.2. Capacity to project military force in the Capacity to project military force in the nation’s periphery nation’s periphery and beyond;and beyond;

3.3. The political will to intervene in world affairs, The political will to intervene in world affairs, either through either through projecting ideology, economic projecting ideology, economic capacity and/or soft power.capacity and/or soft power.

A Theoretical Point: PerceptionsA Theoretical Point: Perceptions

How these basic “facts” of geography and How these basic “facts” of geography and politics are interpreted will always vary with the politics are interpreted will always vary with the dominant political (i.e., power) theories of dominant political (i.e., power) theories of influentialinfluential “geopoliticians.” “geopoliticians.”

““The influence of geopolitical conditions The influence of geopolitical conditions upon human activities has depended…not merely upon human activities has depended…not merely on the realities as we now know them to be and to on the realities as we now know them to be and to have been, but in even greater degree on what have been, but in even greater degree on what men imagined in regard to them….Each century men imagined in regard to them….Each century has had its own geopolitical perspective.”has had its own geopolitical perspective.”

(Sir Halford MacKinder, (Sir Halford MacKinder, Democratic Ideals and RealityDemocratic Ideals and Reality (1942), pp. 28-30. See also the theories of Alfred Thayer Mahan (1942), pp. 28-30. See also the theories of Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1940) on role of sea power.(1840-1940) on role of sea power.

Another Theoretical Point: PerceptionsAnother Theoretical Point: Perceptions

““The fact that certain people live for example, on The fact that certain people live for example, on an island has in itself no effect on their history; what an island has in itself no effect on their history; what has an effect is the way they conceive that insular has an effect is the way they conceive that insular position; whether for example they regard the sea as a position; whether for example they regard the sea as a barrier or as a highway to traffic. Had it been otherwise, barrier or as a highway to traffic. Had it been otherwise, their insular position, being a constant fact [being the their insular position, being a constant fact [being the “geopolitical bedrock” of politics], would have produced “geopolitical bedrock” of politics], would have produced a constant effect on their historical life; whereas it will a constant effect on their historical life; whereas it will produce one effect if they have not mastered the art of produce one effect if they have not mastered the art of navigation, a different effect if they have mastered it navigation, a different effect if they have mastered it better than their neighbors, a third if they have better than their neighbors, a third if they have mastered it worse than their neighbors, and a fourth if mastered it worse than their neighbors, and a fourth if everyone uses aeroplanes.”everyone uses aeroplanes.”

““(R. G. Collingwood, (R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of HistoryThe Idea of History (1946), p. 200). (1946), p. 200).

A Geopolitical Reality of the Caribbean:A Geopolitical Reality of the Caribbean:HegemonyHegemony

A system where the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they A system where the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must.must.ThucydidesThucydides

I asked Tom if countries always apologized when they had done wrong, and he I asked Tom if countries always apologized when they had done wrong, and he says: “Yes, the little ones does.”says: “Yes, the little ones does.”Mark TwainMark TwainTom Sawyer AbroadTom Sawyer Abroad (1894) (1894)

““Great revolutions need great enemies.” – A deliberate strategy.Great revolutions need great enemies.” – A deliberate strategy.Ché GuevaraChé Guevara

Classical geopolitical dilemma of the weak: When to kiss the hand you cannot Classical geopolitical dilemma of the weak: When to kiss the hand you cannot bite?bite?

General metaphor expressing the rule of thumb in terms of small country General metaphor expressing the rule of thumb in terms of small country preferences of alliances: It is better to stick with the Devil you know than with preferences of alliances: It is better to stick with the Devil you know than with the Devil you do not know.the Devil you do not know.

Questions: (1) When and why do certain elites decide to challenge the “rule of Questions: (1) When and why do certain elites decide to challenge the “rule of thumb?” To challenge hegemonic dominance? (2) What does it take for elites thumb?” To challenge hegemonic dominance? (2) What does it take for elites to understand fundamental changes in hegemonic systems?to understand fundamental changes in hegemonic systems?

Geographical ImpedimentsGeographical Impediments

The Geopolitics of the Spanish Colonial The Geopolitics of the Spanish Colonial SystemSystem

Fundamental Geopolitical Debate:Fundamental Geopolitical Debate:Henry of Susa (The Ostiensian Doctrine) – Papal dominance in all Henry of Susa (The Ostiensian Doctrine) – Papal dominance in all

maters temporal and spiritual. Led to such dictates as “Papal Bulls” maters temporal and spiritual. Led to such dictates as “Papal Bulls” dividing the known world, viz. 1493 Inter Caetera, Treaty of dividing the known world, viz. 1493 Inter Caetera, Treaty of Tordesillas (1494).Tordesillas (1494).

Francisco de Vitoria (Lectures, 1539) – debated rights and wrongs of Francisco de Vitoria (Lectures, 1539) – debated rights and wrongs of war and conquest, questioned right of Pope or Monarch to exercise war and conquest, questioned right of Pope or Monarch to exercise jurisdiction over other princes, Christian or Infidel. Natural Law jurisdiction over other princes, Christian or Infidel. Natural Law governed relations between sovereign “gentes”– governed relations between sovereign “gentes”– jus gentiumjus gentium. . Founder of the study of International Law.Founder of the study of International Law.

Another important Dominican - Bartolomé de las CasasAnother important Dominican - Bartolomé de las Casas

Wealth of the New WorldWealth of the New World made this debate purely theoretical. made this debate purely theoretical. Usus Usus possedetis possedetis governed international relations. Major obstacles to governed international relations. Major obstacles to hegemony: (1) a major geographical difficulty: viz., the Atlantic wind hegemony: (1) a major geographical difficulty: viz., the Atlantic wind system; and (2) competition from the European maritime nations. system; and (2) competition from the European maritime nations. Geopolitics became a matter of fortified harbors and attempts at Geopolitics became a matter of fortified harbors and attempts at securing routes for the convoys.securing routes for the convoys.

Defending the Spanish Empire: Defending the Spanish Empire: Continuity in the Continuity in the

Geo-Strategy of ArchipelagosGeo-Strategy of Archipelagos““During the years when Hawkins was trading in the Caribbean, During the years when Hawkins was trading in the Caribbean,

Menéndez de Avilés – captain-general, governor of Cuba and Menéndez de Avilés – captain-general, governor of Cuba and adelantadoadelantado of Florida – was working out his reorganisation of the defence of the of Florida – was working out his reorganisation of the defence of the CarreraCarrera. His proposals included the provision of powerful escort for all . His proposals included the provision of powerful escort for all trans-Atlantic fleets; a permanent naval patrol of the waters between the trans-Atlantic fleets; a permanent naval patrol of the waters between the Azores and the Andalusian coast; the creation of Azores and the Andalusian coast; the creation of armadillasarmadillas – cruiser – cruiser squadrons – permanently based in the West Indies to seek out and attack squadrons – permanently based in the West Indies to seek out and attack corsairs upon their arrival in the area, and to patrol the main trade corsairs upon their arrival in the area, and to patrol the main trade routes all the year round; the fortification of all the principal harbours routes all the year round; the fortification of all the principal harbours and the provision of regular garrisons. The most important harbours and the provision of regular garrisons. The most important harbours were were Cartagena,Cartagena, guarding the eastern approach to the isthmus; guarding the eastern approach to the isthmus; Santo Santo DomingoDomingo, the administrative capital of the islands and a considerable , the administrative capital of the islands and a considerable city; city; Santiago de CubaSantiago de Cuba; ; San Juan del Puerto RicoSan Juan del Puerto Rico; and, strategically ; and, strategically most important of all, most important of all, Havana.Havana. Havana was to provide a safe place of Havana was to provide a safe place of assembly for homeward-bound convoys. To complete the defence and assembly for homeward-bound convoys. To complete the defence and control of the Florida channel, another fortified base was to be control of the Florida channel, another fortified base was to be constructed opposite Havana, on the coast of Florida.”constructed opposite Havana, on the coast of Florida.”

(J. H. Parry, (J. H. Parry, The Spanish Seaborne EmpireThe Spanish Seaborne Empire (1966), p. 254). (1966), p. 254).

The New Manifest Destiny:The New Manifest Destiny:An American View of “Inferior Races”An American View of “Inferior Races”

A Case of Conjuncture in HistoryA Case of Conjuncture in HistoryWhere Geography Helped PoliticsWhere Geography Helped Politics

The Churchill-Roosevelt DealThe Churchill-Roosevelt Deal

On September 2, 1940, as the Battle of Britain intensified, United On September 2, 1940, as the Battle of Britain intensified, United States Secretary of State Cordell Hull signaled agreement to the States Secretary of State Cordell Hull signaled agreement to the transfer of the warships to the Royal Navy. In exchange, the US transfer of the warships to the Royal Navy. In exchange, the US was granted land in various British possessions for the was granted land in various British possessions for the establishment of naval or air bases, in ninety-nine-year rent-free establishment of naval or air bases, in ninety-nine-year rent-free leases, on:leases, on:

Newfoundland (Newfoundland (today part of the Canadian Province of Newfoundland and today part of the Canadian Province of Newfoundland and

LabradorLabrador))Eastern side of the BahamasEastern side of the BahamasSouthern coast of JamaicaSouthern coast of JamaicaWestern coast of St. LuciaWestern coast of St. LuciaWest coast of Trinidad (West coast of Trinidad (Gulf of PariaGulf of Paria))AntiguaAntiguaBritish Guiana (British Guiana (present day Guyanapresent day Guyana) within fifty miles of ) within fifty miles of

Georgetown.Georgetown.The agreement also stipulated Britain’s acceptance of the US The agreement also stipulated Britain’s acceptance of the US proposal for air and naval bases rights in:proposal for air and naval bases rights in:

The Great Sound and Castle Harbour, BermudaThe Great Sound and Castle Harbour, Bermuda South and South and eastern coasts of Newfoundland.eastern coasts of Newfoundland.

The Post-Cold War PeriodThe Post-Cold War Period

Closed US BasesClosed US Bases1. 1. 19991999 – All bases in the Panama Canal. – All bases in the Panama Canal.

NoteNote: Howard Air Force Base: the largest in the Caribbean (4,000 acres).: Howard Air Force Base: the largest in the Caribbean (4,000 acres).2. 2. 20032003 – Vieques Naval Range – Vieques Naval Range3. 3. 20042004 – Roosevelt Roads Naval Station - The largest naval base in the – Roosevelt Roads Naval Station - The largest naval base in the

world. The Army, Marine and Special Forces bases transferred to Texas world. The Army, Marine and Special Forces bases transferred to Texas and Florida (Southern Command moved to Miami).and Florida (Southern Command moved to Miami).

4. 4. 20042004 – President Chavez prohibits all US activities in or over Venezuela. – President Chavez prohibits all US activities in or over Venezuela.5.5. 20092009 – Manta, Ecuador Air Base. – Manta, Ecuador Air Base.

Existing BasesExisting Bases – Soto Cano, Palmerola, Honduras; Guantanamo, Cuba. – Soto Cano, Palmerola, Honduras; Guantanamo, Cuba.Forward Location BasesForward Location Bases – (Cooperative Security Locations) Aruba, Curaçao – (Cooperative Security Locations) Aruba, CuraçaoCooperative ArrangementsCooperative Arrangements – –1. 1. ColombiaColombia (Air Force: Palanquero, Apiay; Naval: Barranquilla, (Air Force: Palanquero, Apiay; Naval: Barranquilla,

Cartagena, Bahia Malaga). Congressional limit on US troops: 1,400 men Cartagena, Bahia Malaga). Congressional limit on US troops: 1,400 men (mostly contractors). (mostly contractors).

2. 2. BrazilBrazil – Defense Cooperative Agreement (2010) establishing a Forward – Defense Cooperative Agreement (2010) establishing a Forward Location Base in Amazon.Location Base in Amazon.

Which Venezuelan leader wrote these Which Venezuelan leader wrote these words?words?

““Venezuela’s socio-political process cannot Venezuela’s socio-political process cannot be separated from what we find in all the be separated from what we find in all the other countries of Latin America. Our other countries of Latin America. Our America has “entered into revolution,” to America has “entered into revolution,” to use [Josuse [José Martí’s] words. From one é Martí’s] words. From one extreme of the continent to the other one extreme of the continent to the other one notes a swift tide of popular insurgency…. notes a swift tide of popular insurgency…. It will fall to Venezuela to play an important It will fall to Venezuela to play an important role in Latin America’s integration process.”role in Latin America’s integration process.”

Transnational Politics and Soft PowerTransnational Politics and Soft Power

Soft power emphasizes policies and diplomacy Soft power emphasizes policies and diplomacy which engender admiration and attraction…. The world which engender admiration and attraction…. The world today is characterized by an information revolution. today is characterized by an information revolution. This has created “virtual communities and networks” This has created “virtual communities and networks” that cut across national boundaries, they are that cut across national boundaries, they are transnational. “Politics,” says Nye, “become in part a transnational. “Politics,” says Nye, “become in part a competition for attractiveness, legitimacy and competition for attractiveness, legitimacy and credibility.”credibility.”

SourceSource: Joseph S. Nye, Jr. : Joseph S. Nye, Jr. ‘Soft Power’: The means of ‘Soft Power’: The means of Success in World PoliticsSuccess in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), p. 41. See also, Dominique Moisi, 2004), p. 41. See also, Dominique Moisi, The The Geopolitics of Emotion: How Cultures of Fear, Geopolitics of Emotion: How Cultures of Fear, Humiliation, and Hope are Reshaping the World (2009).Humiliation, and Hope are Reshaping the World (2009).

Conclusion: Conclusion: Greater Geopolitical Maneuverability Greater Geopolitical Maneuverability

for Cuba and Puerto Rico for Cuba and Puerto Rico The modification of US hegemony has opened the The modification of US hegemony has opened the

door for Venezuela and Cuba to use soft power in a wide-door for Venezuela and Cuba to use soft power in a wide-ranging fashion, and Caribbean states to challenge US ranging fashion, and Caribbean states to challenge US objections to certain initiatives such as, for instance, objections to certain initiatives such as, for instance, offshore banking and gambling. It has amplified Puerto offshore banking and gambling. It has amplified Puerto Rico’s potential options.Rico’s potential options.

The sovereign determination of Caribbean The sovereign determination of Caribbean governments to accept and respond to what are governments to accept and respond to what are essentially anti-American initiatives such as ALBA, essentially anti-American initiatives such as ALBA, however, has limits. These limits are set by their peoples’ however, has limits. These limits are set by their peoples’ political cultures and social preferences as well as the political cultures and social preferences as well as the ongoing realities of trade, investment, technology and ongoing realities of trade, investment, technology and certainly not to be ignored, race and ethnic identifications certainly not to be ignored, race and ethnic identifications and preferences, including those of the diasporas.and preferences, including those of the diasporas.