Vaastu Design

Copyright 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment

* Correspondence to: Dr. Reena Patra, Department of Philosophy, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India. E-mail: [email protected]

Sustainable DevelopmentSust. Dev. 17, 244256 (2009)Published online 12 November 2008 in Wiley InterScience(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/sd.388

Vaastu Shastra: Towards Sustainable Development

Reena Patra*Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

ABSTRACTThis article discusses Vaastu Shastra (an ancient Indian knowledge of architecture) in rela-tion to the idea of sustainable development. It informs the complicated problems of urbanization and overpopulated cities of today. By drawing attention towards Vaastu Shastra, this paper discusses the built form of Indian settlements and explores the possibility of creating a living environment that is self-suf cient, ecologically balanced and culturally stimulating. It explains the concept of sustainable development based on ancient Indian traditional knowledge, through its culture, heritage and orientation towards forest sustain-ability, as a way to address elements within sustainable development. Further, the funda-mental principles, the relevance of Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala and the history of Vaastu Shastra are highlighted with discussions on its philosophical and social aspects. Last, an attempt has also been made to create a close relationship between Vaastu Shastra and sustainable development that can rede ne the present form of planning human settlement. Copyright 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.

Received 16 November 2007; revised 3 June 2008; accepted 4 June 2008

Keywords: Vaastu Shastra; sustainable development; human settlement; urban planning; environmental policy

Introduction

IN THIS FAST DEVELOPING WORLD, UNLESS WE HAVE A FIRM COMMITMENT TO SUSTAINABILITY, EARTHLY RESOURCES WILL become extinct and life chaotic. The sheer force of economic developments, especially in India and China, with their two-thirds of the worlds population, could have a drastic impact on this already exploited planet. If we are to check and turn around the world from its path of inevitable self-destruction, an integrated, prac-tical approach to sustainable development must be identi ed. Inappropriate human settlement, planning and indiscriminate material-use have depleted the earths resources. Rationalizing an approach to land choice and use, water, sewage disposal, materials and community self-management will yield a solution. Traditional knowledge plays an important role in controlling human aspirations and ensuring interdependence and sustainability.

The resultant built form of Indian cities today is complex, amorphous and chaotic. It no longer re ects a coher-ent response and ambience to its environmental context. The situation is reaching a crisis stage and a sustainable ecological relationship with built form is missing in new settlements. Today, humans are more than ever before aware of a loss of totality, wholeness and harmony. There is fragmentation and alienation of humans at all levels: individual, societal, psychical and cosmic. This is the consequence of adopting borrowed notions of planning and development. What is more unfortunate is that we are still looking towards Western concepts in attempting to solve the urban environmental crisis.

Vaastu Shastra: Towards Sustainable Development 245

Copyright 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment Sust. Dev. 17, 244256 (2009)DOI: 10.1002/sd

Such an approach, with overemphasis on technological solutions, often overlooks the social, cultural and local peculiarities. Looking at the damage that our cities and development have in icted upon the environment, one of the prime agendas is to explore the possibility of creating a living environment that is self-suf cient, ecologically balanced and culturally stimulating. We need to look at the fundamentals of human settlements, and evolve a system whereby we can establish a harmony among settlements, nature and people, and change the pattern of living.

Therefore, a serious consideration of sustainable philosophy is required by taking traditional concepts on the subject as a model. Here Vedic knowledge Vaastu Shastra (an ancient Indian knowledge of architecture) is pre-sented as a model for sustainable development. Hence, Vaastu Shastra as a doctrine provides guidelines for human settlements and governance (Patra, 2007). To understand the rationale for human settlement design as contained in the Vaastu Shastra, one has to understand to devise a system that controls human settlement as an interest of sustainability, respecting the social fabric of the citizens, and their settlement. Sustainability is thus all about understanding the situation and developing methods that are equitable and that make sense ecologically, economically and socially.

The concept of sustainable development. The term sustainability is one of the most widely used words today, in the scienti c eld as a whole and in the environmental sciences in particular. Until the late 1970s, the word sus-tainability was only occasionally used; in most cases, it was used to refer to the ways in which forest resources should be used. It has, therefore, a strong connection with the forestry sector. Other than this, the expression sustainability has been traditionally used as synonymous with words such as long-term, durable etc. It sheds light on the connection between nature and human communities, nature and culture. Sustainability character-izes the management of nature; this nature has already been practically and socially adopted, and turned into culture. As nature has been transformed into culture, therefore, there is an interactive relation between nature and culture (Hull, 2008). Sustainable development is a development that is likely to achieve lasting satisfaction of human needs and improvement of the quality of human life (Robert, 1980). The basic idea of sustainability is straightforward: a sustainable system is one that survives or persists. The term sustainable development suggests that the lessons of ecology can and should be applied to economic processes. The following rules and criteria underline the concept of sustainable development.

Rules. These correspond to the ecology; economic and social criteria are given below (Gebauer, 2002, p. 6).

The rate of exploitation of renewable resources must not exceed the rate of natural regeneration. The level of missions must not exceed the assimilative capacities of the eco-system affected when non-renewable resources are depleted, the reduction in stocks must be compensated for by an equivalent increase in the stocks of renew-able resources (Simonis, 1998, p. 25).

Renewable resources (such as forests or water) should be used only in line with their rate of regeneration. The absorption capacity of nature for harmful emissions (such as CO2 emissions or toxic wastes) should not be

overstrained, so that the eco-systems remain intact. To get these management rules intact at the various levels of decision-making, technical, social and institutional innovations are needed and adequate incentives have to be set.

The effects of anthropological in uences on eco-systems must not abolish the limiting effect of their natural bounds. These regulations can be considered for the integration of management into the regeneration regime of nature. Sustainable management must also be organized in such a way that its integration is possible under technical, economical, political, legal, social, cultural and personal aspects (Pawowski, 2008).

Criteria. Developments are connected with ecology, economy and social compatibility. There are three types of criterion introduced by the Board of Environment Experts for individual compatibility and also for the range of building and living. These are detailed below (Gebauer, 2002, p. 4).

1. Ecological. Land consumption, sealing, resource consumption, energy consumption/carbon dioxide emission.2. Economic. Life cycle costs of buildings, investments in change/preservation in comparison to new buildings,

infrastructure and subsidy expenditures.

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3. Social. Job effect, safety device of living and meeting demands, suitable residential environment, work and spare time, healthy living, increase of the residential property ratio, cost of living.

Sustainable development is focused on a social organization of a learning process, on the ability to use nature and social resources i.e. the possibility of changing the development path and adopting alternative ways, considering the possible endangerment of the reproduction of nature and society or nature and culture in the diversity of their possible use for human (Tyburski, 2008).

The concept of sustainable development is close to what we learn from the Indian traditional knowledge, such as culture and heritage. Today, Vaastu Shastra (an ancient science of architecture, planning and designing) has become more relevant for modern humans because the environment has gained importance due to air, water and land pollution, dynamic changes in climate, population pressures and congested and overcrowded cities. It no longer re ects a coherent response and ambience to its environmental context (Nagdeve, 2004, pp. 461473). The situation is reaching a crisis stage and a sustainable ecological relationship with built form is missing from new settlements. Consequently, it has become necessary to acquire the traditional knowledge of Vaastu for developing human settlements such as Indian mega-cities, which can be transformed with the help of fundamental princi-ples of Vaastu Shastra.

This paper further emphasizes the following points:

learning from the traditional Indian context fundamental principles of Vaastu Shastra history of Vaastu Shastra and Vaastu Shastra towards sustainable development.

The term Vaastu was originally derived from the root word vas, meaning to dwell or a dwelling place. The term Vaastu implies a human settlement or a place where more than one household lives. It can include a village, town, major city or metropolitan centre. As such, settlements provide the living environment for virtually all people. Vaastu Shastra, with its traditional values, can play a major role in meeting development goals, for instance in meeting peoples needs for a secured shelter and in implementing regulations that protect human health and environment from pollutants and pathogens. Vaastu Shastra, an architectural knowledge, is important for managing and providing the infrastructure and services that are required to underpin economic expansion and prosperity. This implies adding a concern for sustainability to existing development goals.

Learning from Traditional Indian Context

Vaastu Shastra is discussed below through its culture, heritage and orientation towards forest sustainability. For example, planting trees has traditionally been an act of charity by which one could win universal applause. This tradition of valuing trees was passed on to the Indian culture and it led to a subtle ecological relationship between human communities and the forest community of trees, plants and animals. Human society is dependent on the forest for survival and prosperity; therefore, we need to nourish and protect it. The environment is not only ora and fauna: it includes the human species, too. In the past, the forest was a place of peace and harmony where Indian monks and rishis (sages) lived and meditated for the attainment of salvation, based on the understanding that an environmental approach to life is a part and parcel of spiritual culture; it ows from the human self-development (Prime, 1994, pp. 910).

Culture. Culture is the way a society lives, how its people behave and its religious expressions. These alter with time and place. In particular, the way humanity sees itself in relation to its surroundings is the fundamental re ection of human culture. Today, we are destroying nature in such a way that whenever nature stands in the way of what we want she is pushed aside. In the Indian perception, a human (manav) is a being that respects nature, and a demon (danav) one that misuses nature. History has shown that the cultures which are not respectful to nature do not last long they bring about their own downfall (Prime, 1994, pp. 1820).



Heritage. Heritage springs from human culture. This is part of human life, from which we learn who we are and how we live, and pass our values to the next generation. Though we have received so much from previous generations and civilizations, yet we act irresponsibly and neglect our heritage. People have become estranged from their natural surroundings and forgotten the time-honoured ecological values of their culture. A warning is needed to human beings that environmental destruction cannot be continued if there is to be any hope for the future. All over India, there are local environmental projects and grass-root groups struggling against the tide of pollution and environmental destruction. For example, the two most important environmental movements in India are the Chipko Movement (Shiva and Bandyopadhyay, 1986; Guha, 1989) and the Anti-Tehri Dam Project (Ghai and Vivian, 1992, pp. 265277).

Forest sustainability. The origin of the term forest sustainability at the transition of the 17th18th century was concern about a threatening and existing wood emergency as a consequence of excessive use leading to forest destruction. This was due to the rising standard of living and caused by the initiation of the industrial age (Prodan, 1977, p. 109; Dehn, 1981, p. 9). The development of the term forest sustainability is inseparably con-nected with the economic system of mercantilism and cameralism, which were predominant in the past as well (Zrcher, 1993, p. 254).

Traditional views are very important for a calculated modern scienti c development, for they remind us the negative side of certain achievements and give useful insight to create a balance between humans and nature. The main concept of Vaastu Shastra is to explain how the human body is related to the building and to the universe, i.e. it establishes a relationship between humans and nature. Here, humans are the subject, object and the cause of Vaastu. They perceives and conceives Vaastu in relation to their experiences with the surrounding world. As tool-making animals, they design and control their environment. The sequence of the ve natural elements is used as the mediums or the materials of the Vaastu, known as earth, water, air, sun and space. Vaastu goes beyond designing and architecture. At a higher level, it deals with the subtle effect of the design on the environment. The Vedic traditions of ancient India always held that the microcosm is a re ection of the macrocosm. A dwelling is an ecological unit, a microcosm that re ects the macrocosm. The modern mind identi es ecology with nature. For Vaastu Shastra, the ve primordial elements are the starting points for a design. The guidelines and rules of Vaastu Shastra have been laid down clearly in several ancient texts, but the principles upon which they have been formulated are steeped deep in the Indian philosophy of Vedas. The importance of Vaastu Shastra lies in under-standing the basic principles as it analyses the blueprint which provides for a design system.

Fundamental Principles of Vaastu Shastra

Vaastu Shastra is essentially an art of correct setting whereby one can optimize maximum bene ts of the Panch-bhutas ( ve elements) of nature, earths magnetic eld and the rotational in uence of the sun, moon and the other planets surrounding the earth, It has laid down several principles for constructing buildings. The fundamental principles of Vaastu Shastra are applied in constructing buildings such as houses, commercial complexes, indus-try layouts, towns, temples etc. There are ve basic principles on which the great edi ce of the Vaastu science of architecture stands. They are

(1) the doctrine of orientation; (2) site planning; (3) the proportionate measurement of building; (4) the six canons of Vedic architecture; (5) the aesthetics of the building.

The doctrine of orientation. In Indian thought, the cardinal directions hold a particular signi cance. The various associations given to the eight cardinal directions (northeast, east, southeast, south, southwest, west, north-west and north) help elucidate the orientation principles of Vaastu Shastra (Chakrabarti, 1998, pp. 101102). The theory of orientation of buildings is secular as well as ecclesiastical, as laid down by Indian designers of

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structures, which consists in setting them in such a way that they may get maximum bene ts from solar radia-tion. The xing of cardinal points thus occupies a prominent place in Vaastu Shastra.

Site planning (Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala). Vaastu Shastra lays down various guidelines for choosing the proper site (Patra, 2007). It emphasizes strongly the examination of the soil, size, shape, taste, colour, smell and veg-etation features of the land. If the plot of land is found to be satisfactory on all these criteria, then it is selected for the purpose of building a house, village, industry, town, fort etc. After the selection of land, the blueprint of Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala is provided for the grid that facilitates the inception of the design, and in addition to being the architects square pad, where the concepts crystallize, each of its lines and divisions holds within it layers of meaning within which the intricacies of design unfold (Figure 1).

Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala is considered a model of the Universe and provides the basis for architectural design. It is a metaphorical expression of the plan of the Universe and depicts the link between people, buildings and nature. Here Vaastu means environment, site or a building. As a concept, it extends to include a village, town, a country or indeed the whole earth in all its manifestations. When a building is in a perfect state or order, it is viewed as a Purusha, the man of the universe, representing pure energy, soul or consciousness; a kind of cre-ative intelligence in the universe. Mandala means a diagram. It relates to orientation because the earth is essen-tially demarcated by sunrise and sunset, by east and west, north and south. It is known as Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala because the name consists of three parts: Vaastu + Purusha + Mandala. As a rule its shape is square, which is the fundamental form of Indian architecture. The square form of Vaastu-Purusha can be converted into a triangle, hexagon, octagon or circle of equal area and retain its symbol-ism. Once the orientation of the site is established, the Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala or the ground plan is superim-posed on the site. The Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala was so universal that it could be applied to an altar, a temple, a house, a city or the entire cosmos. Thus, Vaastupurusha is the form of human in a planned site characterized

Figure 1. Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala



by the symbols of zodiac signs, constellations and planets, which represent the entire solar system, and make the site, house, palace, village, city etc. a micro-cosmic aspect of the macro-cosmic Purusha or Vaastupurusha (Kramrisch, 1976; Shukla, 1993).

The Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala adopts the shape of the site, and this functional attribute of the Mandala active in the mind of the designer in its ideal form of a square, acquiring a different shape in reality, is a primary example of its inherent exibility. Not only does it adapt to the site constraints, but also it adopts the parameters of design requirements of contexts as diverse as the hot-and-arid state of Rajasthan and the wet-and-humid state of Kerala, as well as the variations in building materials, functional requirements and the social and political context in which it is used (Chakrabarti, 1998, p. 63).

The proportionate measurement of building (Maana). The third basic principle of Vedic architecture is Maana, the proportionate measurements. The measurements are divided into six categories measurement of height, breadth, width or circumference, measurement along plumb lines, measurement of thickness and measurement of inter-space. The role of Vaastu Shastra in the system of measurement is to achieve harmony between the absolute and the quanti able. Measurement mediates nality to an architectural concept, similar to the spoken word, which provides a frame over which the canvas of thought is stretched. Measure xes as well as evaluat-ing (Chakrabarti, 1998, p. 35).

The six canons of Vedic architecture (Aayaadi-Sadvarga). There are six main components of a building, base (Aadhistaana), column (Paada or Stambha), entablature (Prastaara), ear or wings (Karna), roof (Shikara) and dome (Stupi). The Ayaadi formulas1 are some of the aspects analysed to assess the qualities of the house (Guna). In short, Aaya means measurement of building = length breadth (Shukla, 1993, pp. 211217).

The aesthetics of the building. Aesthetics as a branch of philosophy deals with the nature of beauty. Applying aesthetic considerations to buildings and related architectural structures is complex, as factors extrinsic to spatial design (such as structural integrity, cost, the nature of building materials and the functional utility of the building) contribute to the design process. Notwithstanding, architects can still apply the aesthetic principles of ornamentation, texture, ow, solemnity, symmetry, colour, granularity, the interaction of sunlight and shadows, transcendence, and harmony. In Indian tradition, beauty is considered as chanda (moon); the structural aspect of building and its rhythmical disposition is like that of poetry (cf. Shukla, 1993, pp. 180211).

These traditional principles contour buildings in multifarious forms, structures varied from one another to suit the different classes of buildings, to satisfy different functions, and they never present an identical view. As a result, Vaastu Shastra has been described as a body of knowledge, which has been sustained, developed and modi ed by successive generations of architects through many centuries. It implies a tradition of knowledge that has, at various times, been ordered and expressed (and so is handed down to us) in a range of texts, with a variety of titles.

History of Vaastu Shastra

Vaastu Shastra, an Indian knowledge of architecture, is as old as the Vedas,2 which belong to the period 15001000 B.C. The rst textual evidence of it is found in the Rig Veda,3 where the protector of the house (Vastospati) is invoked (Rig Veda, VII. 54. 1). Vaastu Shastra is a part of Sthapatya Veda4 subordinate to Atharva Veda5.

Vaastu Shastra as an applied knowledge evolved over a period of at least 2500 years, producing a large number of texts such as Kashyapa Shilpa Shastra, Brihat Samhita, Brihadvaastumala, Vaastu vidya, Rajavallabha of Mandana Sutradhara, Viswakarma Vaastu Shastra, Samarangana Sutradhara, Vishu Dharmodhare, Purana Manjari, Manasara, Mayamata, Aparajitapccha, Silparatna Vaastu Shastra etc. Some of the great sages, originators, teachers and preachers of Vaastu Shastra are Brahma, Narada, Brihaspati, Bhrigu, Vasistha, Vishwakarma, Maya, 1 There are varying opinions about the consideration of area or length and breadth, or perimeter for the Ayadi calculation. For variation see Shukla, 1993, pp. 211217, and also Shastri, 1994, p. 406. The variations are overlooked to focus on the role of the Ayadi calculations, rather than on the textual inconsistencies. The divisors in the formulae are more often than not consistent.2 Veda knowledge.3 Rig Veda Veda of hymns or verses (one of the four Vedas).4 Sthapatya Veda knowledge that deals with architecture. Vaastu Shastra is a part of Sthapatya Veda.5 Atharva Veda knowledge of science,

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Kumara, Anirudha, Bhoja, Sukra and others (Rao, 1995, pp. xixii). The rituals associated with architecture are described in the later Vedas, Sutras,6 Puranas,7 Tantras,8 Vaastu Vidya9 and its compilations till the 15th century AD, and are still part of the construction process today (Bhattacharya, 1986, pp. 2, 126). Most of the material, from the 6th century B.C. to the 6th century A.D., has been lost, and only fragmented portions are used in the later works of Vaastu Vidya (Bhattacharya, 1986, pp. 129, 138). The two streams of Vaastu Shastra, the Nagara and the Dravida School, imitated each other, explaining the common basis of their indigenous development (Bhattach-arya, 1986, pp. 144, 148). This indicates the prevalence of common architecture traditions all over India.

The most renowned excavations of ancient Indian sites such as Harappa and Mohenjodaro (now in Pakistan) have highlighted on ancient Indian civic art and re ned civic sense during this era (Shukla, 1993, p. 51). It was only in the medieval period that town planning according to Vaastu principles was rst depicted in Arthashastra10 (Scharfe, 1978, p. 169; Kangla, 1965). The compilers of Arthashastra attached great importance to the orientation to the elements of the city planning because the scheme applies the plan of Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala (geometrical plan or ground plan). Ancient Indians equated the place, the temple, the house etc as kinds of regular space (Vaastu). All these buildings were viewed as re ections of cosmic structure. All of them have followed the same scheme of Mandala as a pattern of the whole universe (Stein, 1985; Begde, 1978; and Schlingloff, 1967, 1969) and the basic principles, which were formulated by maharishis11 and rishis,12 are still applied because of their empirical and technical nature. For example, the cities of Jaipur and Chandigarh have followed the principles of Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala. Volwahsen (1969) has elaborately explained the geometric interpretations of Jaipur city.

The design of Chandigarh by Le Corbusier (French architect) was welcomed by Jawaharlal Nehru as a creative approach in new terms, trying to think in terms of light, air, ground, water and human beings, not in terms of rules and regulation laid down by our ancestors.

Although Le Corbusier followed his own architectural philosophy, his Chandigarh master-plan (Figure 2) cor-responds to the Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala, the architectural mechanism providing a blueprint for building in the Vaastu Shastra legend.

(1) Capital Complex symbolizes the head, which is in the northeastern direction. This coincides with the head of the macrocosmic Purusha.

(2) According to Vaastu, water should be in the north or east directions for healthy living. The Sukhna Lake occupies the east/northeast corner. It is the best place for water and also for meditation. This is because the morning sun rays, rich in ultra-violet radiation, kill germs and disease-causing bacteria present in the water.

(3) According to Vaastu principles, places of study and the healthy environment are situated in the northern direction. If one looks at the map of Chandigarh, the Panjab University and PGI hospital are located in the north, where the causative planet is Mercury (Buddha); this planets main attribute is health (treasure of health and knowledge).

(4) According to Vaastu, Lord Brahma occupies the centre of the place. Thus, the city centre (Sector 17) is the heart of the city. It is a recognized place for administration/assembly.

(5) According to Vaastu, the northwest is known as the darker side of the plot. Accordingly, the cremation ground is placed in the northwest part of the city, which was marked for the same purpose in the ancient city.

(6) The industrial area, according to Vaastu, is suitably located in the southeast belt, governed by Agni, which symbolizes re; in the case of industry, Agni ( re) symbolizes the use of electricity, energy, power.

(7) Lastly, according to Vaastu, the south and west directions are favourable places for living purposes. Thus, residential buildings are located in the southwest, south and west zones of the city.

6 Sutras concise text written in meter.7 Puranas ancient scripture, stories etc.8 Tantras system, structure, process, liturgy, ritual, science.9 Vaastu Vidya architectural knowledge.10 Arthashastra reveals statecraft.11 Maharishis great saints or sages.12 Rishis saints, sages.



The philosophy of Vaastu Shastra, based on time-tested scriptures and guidelines, works on the principle that correct placement of various activities in the right direction and in suitable zones under the in uence of respective planets is bound to bring happiness, prosperity and peace of mind. The philosophy applies to any kind of architectural development, emphasizing the relationship between humans and nature.

Vaastu Shastra Towards Sustainable Development

The term sustainable development and Vaastu Shastra brings together two strands of thought about the manage-ment of human activities one concentrating on development goals, the other on controlling the harmful impacts of human activities on the environment (United Nations Centre For Human Settlements (Habitat), 1991). The fundamental nature of ecological planning is that the buildings and open space should adapt minimum disruption to the land-forms. The main concept of Vaastu Shastra is to facilitate a harmonious relationship between human beings and the environment, which leads to sustainable development.

The principles of Vaastu should be brought together and coordinated through the process of management, if sustainability is to be achieved in all aspects of development. Management is the means for reconciling goals, priorities, resource allocations and the implementing methods, which should be contained in a comprehensive

Figure 2. The Chandigarh master-plan overlaid by the Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala: (1) Capital Complex symbolizes the head; (2) Sukhna Lake occupies the E/NE corner; (3), (4) the PGI and Panjab University located in the north; (5) the city centre, Sector-17 occupies the heart of the city; (6) cremation ground, placed in NW direction; (7) industrial area located in the southeast; (8) southwest, south and west zones for living purposes

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sustainable development programme. The role of Vaastu Shastra in promoting sustainable development would include the following:

1. devising settlement systems and settlement plans that lead to resource-ef cient and affordable transport patterns, e.g., by promoting short-distance and long-distance mobility;

2. developing programmes for economizing on the use of non-renewable energy sources and for adapting settlements to the use of renewable energy systems;

3. providing water-supply, sanitation and waste-processing and recycling systems, that meet basic needs in a resource-conserving manner;

4. promoting the use of indigenous building materials and appropriate construction technologies, inter alia, by revising building and planning codes supporting small-scale production processes.

In order to bring balance between human settlement and nature, Vaastu Shastra contributes two central devel-opment goals productive, innovative economies and high-quality living environments, also providing an impor-tant mechanism for sustainably managing natural-resource use. It also includes support schemes to (a) conserve, recycle, re-use or reclaim materials or energy currently discarded or wasted (Tsai, 2008), (b) identify and put into use unused or underutilized resources, (c) implement pollution-control measures and adjustments to pricing structures, so that these contribute to sustainability and to development goals, and (d) forge partnerships with low-income groups and their community organizations to address housing and environmental health problems. The role of Vaastu in programming for promoting sustainability in natural-resource use must be based on a life-cycle approach to long-term productivity. Such an approach needs an appropriate legislative, regulatory and scal framework within which to encourage individuals, communities and businesses to contribute to meeting sustainable development goals.

Greatly improving the quality of life for the rapidly growing populations of developing countries cannot be achieved by following the same energy-consumption and resource-use patterns as those followed by developed countries. Each society must develop its own response to its ecological problems, and it is in this context that the role of democratic and participatory local governments and community organizations appears not only as a goal of sustainable development, but also as a critical means of attaining it. Sustainable development needs the contri-bution of local people, citizen groups, businesses and governments that can make realistic development plans, and the mobilization and the use of local resources, but it also needs managers and professionals trained to work within such a framework (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), 1991, p. 9).

Some of the main points discussed below try to bring close relationship between Vedic knowledge and sustainable development. They are

evolution of built form integrated ecological systems sustainable energy system for human settlements eco-centric culture. Evolution of built form. Starting from caves and nest building of higher apes, the built form has evolved with

human beings. The modern built forms have developed from a host of complex factors. However, built forms of traditional societies and those of modern cities have entirely different concepts of space (OMeara, 1999, p. 94). The earlier concepts were derived on the basis of prevailing myths, notions and symbols of nature. The complementary space was seen as a symbolic manifestation of the cosmic system.

In India, the best-known iconographic system had been the Mandala or Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala. It is the cosmography of universal order and a source of self-identi cation within the order of the universe. The strict adherence to the directional alignment of the buildings and its enclosed functions is one of the consequential derivations of the site envisaged as a cosmological grid of the Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala. Apart from the ritualistic and philosophic import, the textual description of the Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala (Kramrisch, 1976; Shukla, 1993) helps the architect to visualize the design solution, leading him towards a controlled and regulated solution. The symbol relates physical form with the outer form and the inner vision. The Mandala is not only a spatial axiom but a temporal process as well. It is a module encompassing the principles of inter-relationship of parts, inter-dependence of systems, resonance and synchronicity (Padam, 1998, pp. 170171).



Integrated ecological systems. Urban centres are where the generation of most wastes arising from production and consumption occurs. Because of the present inadequate management of the settlements, such wastes that cause air, land and water pollution have a serious impact on the health of inhabitants; and their impacts also stretch beyond settlement borders. Water needed for industrial processes, residential use and commercial activities is usually returned to water bodies at a quality lower than that originally supplied. This not only represents a hazard to human health, but also can damage vegetation (and rural livelihoods) in surrounding areas. Solid wastes col-lected from city households and businesses are usually disposed of on land sites around the city, with inadequate provision to protect groundwater sources from contamination. Further, in most cities, a considerable portion of all solid wastes is not collected, and nds its way into water bodies, adding to pollution. So, we need to look at the fundamental principles of Vaastu, and evolve a system whereby we can establish harmony with nature and live life by ensuring minimum waste. This can only be done by creating an organic interrelationship among various resources and the settlement developments on the basis of the recycling principle. In todays context, it implies effective utilization of urban waste energy from incineration plants and sewage treatment, which can be used for cooling, heating, air-conditioning and supply of hot water. It is also necessary to rediscover new sources of zero-polluting energy such as wind power, solar energy, photovoltaic cells, decentralized mini-hydel power generation and the water wheel.

Sustainable energy system for human settlements. The development of simple, small eco-technologies with bio-architecture, which use replenishable fuels and adopt recycling, provides environmentally sustainable and economical alternatives to the present energy crisis and the pollution caused by it (Williams and Dair, 2007). We must demonstrate the technical feasibility of solar, wind and geothermal-energy technologies, introduce new preventive and control techniques and adopt higher energy-ef ciency standards for everything from automo-biles to household appliances. Achievement of sustainable development, therefore, implies the realization of a sustainable energy future, especially in meeting transport, industrial and household demands (United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (Habitat), 1990, p. 35). Thus, designers need to realize the usefulness of passive solar heating and natural cooling of buildings, and encourage design of buildings that incorporate these techniques. Settlement plans should take into account the need to orient buildings for maximum energy ef ciency (Muschett, 1997, pp. 115118). The goal is to promote buildings in which the design, materials and site orientation make best use of the sun and wind, so as to limit the need for heating or air-conditioning. Of course, this goal is one among many other such goals, as those related to health, safety and low cost. The design and use of materials are always trade-offs between cost and performance; it is technically feasible to produce high-quality housing in both warm and cool climates, which needs little external energy to keep the internal temperature comfortable, but it would hardly be appropriate to promote this strongly if it implied a large increase in housing costs. Even though it cannot be generalized, the fact is that most societies have traditional building forms and materials that are more successful at moderating internal temperatures at low cost, compared with many modern, imported techniques and designs (Muschett, 1997, pp. 115118). Changing work patterns, advancing telecommunication technologies and a dawning sense of ecological aware-ness offer the promise of a transformed habitat and the potential to humanize our relations in space. New management, communication and new patterns of Vaastu living are converging to promote the productive home, where workshop and garden, community and production areas may be components in the design and grouping of homes. As such, Vaastu city-planning should be to conserve transportation and avoid physical movement by communication, wherever possible. Decentralization of work centres, mixed land use and linear morphology of work centres with chowks and squares enhance socio-cultural richness and provide an even pattern of transportation (Padam, 1998, p. 185).

Eco-centric culture. Planning and development should provide a holistic perspective and engage attention on cross-cutting issues within the context of local communities and eco-systems. The fundamental premise of sustainable development in the Indian tradition is based on the process of self-help, public participation and arousing consciousness among the masses by spiritual, ritual and religious connotations. This facili-tates a harmonious relationship between human beings and environment. Today, unless everyone is con-cerned about the environment, the government, centralized efforts and nance and legislation cannot be successful.

254 R. Patra


To make a breakthrough, it is essential to rediscover simple and pragmatic measures that establish a holistic integration of the ve elements of nature (the panchabhutas) with space, mankind and time. On this premise, there is a need to rediscover the eco-centric culture, which provides an innate and all-embracing survival, replacing the techno-centric approach leading to destruction of the environment.

Conclusion

Vaastu Shastra, or the Indian knowledge of architecture, is as old as the Vedas, which belong to the period 15001000 B.C. The study of Vaastu Shastra in this paper has been concerned to reveal it not as an assembly of frag-mentary pieces of knowledge, but as a coherent and complete program for architectural design. It is a corpus of knowledge that forms the blueprint, which has adapted itself to the regional, social and political variations it has encountered in the past, and is the very basis of its continuation and contemporary use. This ancient knowledge (Vaastu Shastra) has not been presented in terms and concepts familiar to the modern world. In order to evaluate the relevance of Vaastu Shastra to the complicated problems of urbanization and overcrowded cities of the present world, we need to nd out how the traditional knowledge of Shastras can be fruitfully used in our modern world.

The main concern of this paper is to facilitate a harmonious relationship between humans, building and the environment, which leads to sustainable development. Vaastu Shastra has become more relevant for modern humans because of the surrounding environment, which has gained importance due to pollution, climatic change, population pressures and overcrowded cities.

In the 21st century, urban growth is one of the biggest challenges for humankind, so there is much discussion about the estimates of land consumption, the manageable size of mega-cities, and simple ways to structure, if not to control, this vast spread of urbanization. The essence of ecological planning is that the buildings and open space should adapt to the land-forms with minimum disruption. When looking at the damage that our cities and devel-opment have in icted upon the environment, one of the prime points in the agenda is to explore the prospect of a living environment that is ecologically balanced and culturally stimulating. In view of the changing patterns of lifestyle and advanced technology, the issue is whether we can evolve a new set of rituals to preserve the urban environment. Can we rede ne simple thumbnails of sustainable development? Sustainable development is mainly a concern of planning and designing with the environment. It means development and human intervention in the natural system to the extent of the carrying capacity of an area. The carrying capacity of a land/water area is the population or level of activity that can be sustained for a given length of time without depletion of resources or breakdown of the biological/natural systems. Therefore, Vaastu Shastra as an applied knowledge is an important approach in establishing a balance between human-settlement development and natural-resource use, while ensur-ing that the use of natural resources and systems does not deplete the lands carrying capacity for the future generations. As a result, a society must not deplete natural resources or pollute the environment so as to irrepa-rably harm future generation. It requires a livable built environment, which relates to the quality and nature of the built environment, including housing, roads, urban infrastructure and land use.

Further, this article has highlighted four main points. They are

learning from the traditional Indian context fundamental principles of Vaastu Shastra history of Vaastu Shastra and Vaastu Shastra towards sustainable development.

Vaastu Shastra, in the form of the planning of human settlements, has numerous important ancient Indian texts, which give a lot of information on principles governing building activity and on the use of rational materials. The appropriate knowledge of Vaastu practice of architectural design and methodology has been sustained through thousands of years and is still applied in India explicitly and intentionally by architects, planners, NGOs and citizens. This validates the importance of Vaastu Shastra in the present context of sustainability.



Vaastu Shastra has evolved as a compilation of planning principles for a healthy living based on the knowledge base of the time (similar to Western treatises such as Vitruvius) and was not meant to be absolute. Vaastu was earlier used in the design of homes, but became less prominent in the industrialization period during the colonial British time. However, it is used extensively in temple design, and so survived in the clans of temple designers and architects. In recent years, it has again gained mainstream popularity, and there are several Vaastu consult-ants in India.

The importance of ve basic principles of Vaastu Shastra has also been discussed. They are the doctrine of orientation, site planning (Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala), the proportionate measurement of building, the six canons of Vedic architecture and the aesthetics of the building. These principles were formulated thousands of years (approximately 5000 years) back by sages, and are still applicable because of their technical practice and ecological dimensions. It can be easily tuned, extended and modernized accordingly to meet the basic needs of human beings.

In order to establish the relevance of Vaastu Shastra as a science and to sustain parameters of judgment where in the ultimate analysis a thing that ts in with its functions is beautiful, whether it is a human being or a house, there arises the concept of the Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala as ground plans and site plans. This provides templates that have the dual potential of interpretation of old monuments and conceptualization of new buildings. This epithet of ground plan blurs the difference in planning from one house to another, based on Vaastu Shastra (which in reality may not be geometrically a perfect square grid), conjectured as based on Vaastu Shastra because of its geometric similarity with the textual ground plan. The principles of the Mandala coexist with the other principles of orientation, system of measurement, forms and so on constituting the Vaastu Shastra programme for architecture.

Vaastu-Purusha-Mandala as a central idea of a plan evolves to meet natural elements such as light, water, wind, re, biodiversity etc. While the terms light, air, ground, water and so on were intrinsic to the traditional programme of architecture, as they would be to any other programme concerning architecture, the perception and the archi-tectural consequence of these terms was newly imported to echo the modern movement in the West (Ghadlali, 1959, p. 156). For example, the design of Chandigarh by Le Corbusier (a French architect) was welcomed by Jawaharlal Nehru as a creative approach in new terms of light, air, ground, water and human beings. The role of the architect continued by using the new perception to study and understand the tradition of the people within the region, to consider the local conditions and in some cases, to force certain changes in the life of the people by his knowledge of a healthy and re ned life (Curtis and Doshi, 1988, p. 159).

Further, some of the important points of Vaastu Shastra are emphasized in promoting sustainable development. They are

settlement plans which lead to resource-ef cient affordable transport patterns, providing basic needs such as water-supply, sanitation and waste-processing and recycling systems, by revising building and planning codes supporting small-scale production processes and by promoting the use

of indigenous building materials and appropriate construction technologies, by implementing pollution-control measures and adjustments to pricing structures, so that these contribute to

sustainability and to development goals; by conserving, recycling, re-using or reclaiming materials.

The fundamentals of Vaastu Shastra are based on low-cost architecture at a reduced environmental cost, with low-rise, high-density urban areas for example in the state of Rajasthan as a best way of using natural and local resources. Similarly, in the state of Kerala, everything is re-used and recycled. Leaves that fall from palm trees are used again for the roofs. This traditional knowledge is a magni cent approach to the modern world that shows us how to work with the environment, climate and materials that had long been available but unfortunately modern architects had forgotten and forsaken them.

Hence, an old script of Vaastu Shastra that we have today is the most wonderful traditional knowledge existing in the world, and with some modi cation it could exemplify all the concerns of humans today.

256 R. Patra


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