UUNNIITT WORLD WAR II AND ITS World War II and Its … · CHAPTER 26 Cold War Conflicts 1945–1960...

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U N I T P R O J EC T UN I T UN I T World War II and Its Aftermath 1931–1960 World War II and Its Aftermath 1931–1960 CHAPTER 24 World War Looms 1931–1941 CHAPTER 25 The United States in World War II 1941–1945 CHAPTER 26 Cold War Conflicts 1945–1960 CHAPTER 27 The Postwar Boom 1946–1960 Debate As you read Unit 7, pay attention to arguments on either side of a political issue. Work with a group to stage a debate. Write a proposition, such as “Resolved: The U.S. has a responsibility to end its isolationism and enter World War II.” Choose teams to argue either for or against the resolution. Dawn Patrol Launching by Paul Sample 730 U N I T P R O J EC T MORE ABOUT THE IMAGE Carriers were used extensively in the Pacific Theatre of World War II. The first time an airplane took off from a ship was in November of 1910. Actually land- ing an airplane on the deck of a ship did not happen until January of 1911. The first true carrier was the British built HMS Argus, developed during World War I. Battleship gun range was approximately 20 miles. Aircraft range was approximately 200 miles. Most of the airplanes aboard an aircraft carrier were single-seat fighters, dive-bombers, or torpedo planes. 1 1 2 Previewing the Unit Unit 7 describes how militaristic dictators in Europe and Japan start a worldwide war that forces the United States to fight on two fronts. Victory leads to an uneasy peace with the Soviet Union, with the threat of nuclear war looming over the world. The economic expansion brought on by the war and the return to peace fuels a postwar economic boom and the spread of a suburb-based consumer culture. DEBATE Tips for Teaching issue of isolationism in this unit there are other controversial topics, such as the use of nuclear weapons, U.S. involvement in the Korean War, and Cold War involvement in the affairs of many different countries. and rules for a formal debate. on debate topics. Rubrics A debate should . . . of the issue UNIT 7 WORLD WAR II AND ITS AFTERMATH 1931–1960 730 UNIT 7

Transcript of UUNNIITT WORLD WAR II AND ITS World War II and Its … · CHAPTER 26 Cold War Conflicts 1945–1960...

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UNIT

PROJECT

UNITUNIT

World War II and Its Aftermath1931–1960

World War II and Its Aftermath1931–1960

CHAPTER 24

World War Looms1931–1941

CHAPTER 25

The United States in World War II1941–1945

CHAPTER 26

Cold War Conflicts1945–1960

CHAPTER 27

The Postwar Boom1946–1960

DebateAs you read Unit 7, pay attention to arguments on either side of a political issue. Work with a group to stage a debate. Write a proposition, such as “Resolved: The U.S. has a responsibility to end its isolationism and enter World War II.” Choose teams to argue either for or against the resolution.

Dawn Patrol Launching by Paul Sample

730

UNIT

PROJECT

MORE ABOUT THE IMAGE

Carriers were used extensively in the Pacific Theatre of World War II. The first time an airplane took off from a ship was in November of 1910. Actually land-ing an airplane on the deck of a ship did not happen until January of 1911. The first true carrier was the British built HMS Argus, developed during World War I.

Battleship gun range was approximately 20 miles. Aircraft range was approximately 200 miles.

Most of the airplanes aboard an aircraft carrier were single-seat fighters, dive-bombers, or torpedo planes.

1

Foldelev

31 2

Previewing the Unit

Unit 7 describes how militaristic dictators in Europe and Japan start a worldwide war that forces the United States to fight on two fronts. Victory leads to an uneasy peace with the Soviet Union, with the threat of nuclear war looming over the world. The economic expansion brought on by the war and the return to peace fuels a postwar economic boom and the spread of a suburb-based consumer culture.

DEBATE

Tips for Teaching

issue of isolationism in this unit there are other controversial topics, such as the use of nuclear weapons, U.S. involvement in the Korean War, and Cold War involvement in the affairs of many different countries.

and rules for a formal debate.

on debate topics.

RubricsA debate should . . .

of the issue

UNIT 7

WORLD WAR II AND ITS AFTERMATH 1931–1960

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HISTORY from VISUALSInterpreting the PaintingWorld War II is sometimes known as the age of the aircraft carrier. The attack on Pearl Harbor, carried out by carrier based planes, clearly demonstrated the value of this new style of warfare. Paul Sample’s painting illus-trates a series of planes ready for an early morning patrol assignment. The painting appeared in an issue of Life magazine. Ask students why Life magazine might have chosen to publish this painting. (To show people what action on an aircraft carrier was like.)

Extension Have student use library or Internet sources to investigate the development of air-planes that are found on aircraft carriers. They should put their findings in an illustrated chart.

o

2

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Folding wings enabled aircraft to be taken by elevator to below-deck hangers.

The aircraft were fitted with retractable arrester hooks that caught wires across the deck, enabling them to brake to a stop.

The superstructure on the side of the flight deck held the control tower.

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1941 The Japanesebomb Pearl Harbor.

1941 A. Philip Randolphdemands that warindustries hire AfricanAmericans.

1941 Hitler invades the Soviet Union.

USAWORLD

19411941 19421942

1942 Roosevelt creates the War Production Board tocoordinate mobilization.

1942 Japanese Americansare sent to relocation centers.

1942 In the Pacific, the Battle of Midway turns the tide in favor of the Allies.

1942 Nazis develop the "final solution" forexterminating Jews.

The raid on Pearl Harbor disabled the bulk of the U.S. fleet, including the Tennessee (left)and the Arizona (right).

CHAPTER

Essential Question

How did the United States use its resources to win World War II?

What You Will Learn

In this chapter you will discover the military campaigns, political decisions, and home front sacrifices that led to victory in World War II.

SECTION 1: Mobilizing for DefenseFollowing the attack on Pearl

Harbor, the United States mobilized for war.

SECTION 2: The War for Europe and North Africa

Allied forces, led by the United States and Great Britain, battled Axis powers for control of Europe and North Africa.

SECTION 3: The War in the PacificIn order to defeat Japan and

end the war in the Pacific, the United States unleashed a terrible new weapon, the atomic bomb.

SECTION 4: The Home FrontAfter World War II,

Americans adjusted to new economic opportunities and harsh social tensions.

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As Americans marched off to war, both the armed services and defense indus-tries turned to women to meet their “manpower” needs. Women proved they could handle almost any job.

See Teacher’s Edition note, p. 769.

For America’s minorities, the war meant a struggle for equal treatment in the workplace and in the military. The gov-ernment violated the civil rights of Japanese Americans by sending them to internment camps.

See Teacher’s Edition note, p. 770.

The war put unprecedented numbers of Americans on the move. Young men left home for military training and service overseas. As towns and cities with defense plants boomed to the bursting point, workers moved in to take jobs.

See Teacher’s Edition note, p. 797.

The post-war period brought renewed opportunities for Americans to forge their dreams of the good life. The GI Bill of Rights promised to help return-ing veterans keep that dream alive.

See Teacher’s Edition note, p. 798.

HISTORY from VISUALSInterpreting the PhotographAsk students to examine the photograph and to describe the action. Ask them to supply adjectives that identify their reaction to it. (Exciting, dramatic, fiery, scary) Discuss the subject of perspective or point of view. Ask students if the perspective makes them feel like they are part of the action. Ask stu-dents to put themselves into different places in the photograph: on shore and on each ship. How might their reaction or feeling change from being part of the action? (It would be both terrifying and exciting.)

Time Line DiscussionExplain to students that the time line covers events during the war years, 1941–1945.

occurred in 1941? (Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor; Hitler invades Soviet Union.)

Americans and in what year. (Japanese Americans are sent to relocation centers in 1942.)

war and how did he come to office? (Harry S. Truman; his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, died in office.)

GooFranHomSim

LecNewNar

RTHEMES IN CHAPTER 25

Introduce the Essential Question Describe the wartime mobilization of various industries.

Discuss the need for troops and war materi-als in order to fight the battles taking place in the European and Pacific theaters.

Consider the war effort’s effect on the home front.

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I N T E R A C TI N T E R A C TW I T H H I S T O R YW I T H H I S T O R Y

1945 Nazi retreat begins after theBattle of the Bulge.

1945 Japan surrenders after atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

1945 U.S. Marinestake Iwo Jima.

1945 Harry S. Truman becomes president when Roosevelt dies.

1944 GI Bill ofRights is passed.

1944 PresidentRoosevelt is elected to a fourth term.

It is December of 1941. After Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. has entered the war. As a citizen, you and millions like you must mobilize a depressed peacetime country for war. The United States must produce the workers, soldiers, weapons, and equipment that will help to win the war.

Explore the Issues

to wartime production?

1943 1944

1943Zoot-suit riots rock LosAngeles.

1943 Rommel’s forces surrender in North Africa.

1943 1944

1944 On June 6,the Allies launch a massive invasionof Europe.

19451945

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BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER

Goodwin, Doris K. No Ordinary Time: Franklin & Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994.

Leckie, Robert. Delivered From Evil.New York: Harper Trade, 1988. Narrative history of World War II.

Ernie’s War: The Best of Ernie Pyle’s World War II Dispatches. David Nichols, ed. New York: Random, 1986.

Sulzberger, C. L. The American Heritage Picture History of World War II. New York: Wings Books, 1995.

Terkel, Studs, “The Good War.” New York: The New Press, 1997. Oral history of World War II.

America, the Way We Were: The Home Front: 1940–1945. IVN Entertainment, Inc., 1987. A three-tape series on behavior, attitudes, and popular culture.

Zoot Suit. Universal Home Studios, 1981. Mexican and Anglo cultures clash in 1940s California.

SOFTWARE

D-Day: 100 Days of Destiny. Educorp, 7434 Trade Street, San Diego, CA.

Powers of Persuasion: The Art of Propaganda in World War II. Fife and Drum Software, 316 Soapstone Lane, Silver Spring, MD 20905.

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

I N T E R A C TW I T H H I S T O R Y

Objectives

of mobilizing for war

personal terms

Explore the Issues1. Have students consider the challenge in

transforming car, appliance, and other heavy industry factories to accommodate the production of weapons and war material.

2. Have students consider the enormous courage it took for millions of men to go to war and the challenge and opportunities the war presented to Americans all over the country.

3. Discuss what media and advertising appeals the government would use to attract people to enlist in the military.

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BacThe origi“galvbut wreint“govissuunifosuppthe camAmeOne American's Story

TAKING NOTES

George MarshallWomen’s Auxiliary Army Corp (WAAC)A. Philip RandolphManhattan Project

Office of Price Administration (OPA)War Production Board (WPB)rationing

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States mobilized for war.

Military industries in the United States today are a major part of the American economy.

Charles Swanson looked all over his army base for a tape recorder on which to play the tape his wife had sent him for Christmas. “In desperation,” he later recalled, “I had it played over the public-address system. It was a little embarrassing to have the whole company hear it, but it made everyone long for home.”

A PERSONAL VOICE MRS. CHARLES SWANSON

“ Merry Christmas, honey. Surprised? I’m so glad I have a chance to say hello to you this way on our first Christmas apart. . . . About our little girl. . . . She is just big enough to fill my heart and strong enough to help Mommy bear this ache of loneliness. . . . Her dearest treasure is her daddy’s picture. It’s all marked with tiny handprints, and the glass is always cloudy from so much loving and kissing. I’m hoping you’ll be listening to this on Christmas Eve, somewhere over there, your heart full of hope, faith and courage, knowing each day will bring that next Christmas together one day nearer.”

—quoted in We Pulled Together . . . and Won!

As the United States began to mobilize for war, the Swansons, like most Americans, had few illusions as to what lay ahead. It would be a time filled with hard work, hope, sacrifice, and sorrow.

Americans Join the War EffortThe Japanese had attacked Pearl Harbor with the expectation that once Americans had experienced Japan’s power, they would shrink from further conflict. The day after the raid, the Japan Times boasted that the United States, now reduced to a third-rate power, was “trembling in her shoes.” But if Americans were trembling, it was with rage, not fear. Uniting under the battle cry “Remember Pearl Harbor!” they set out to prove Japan wrong.

Mrs. Charles Swanson and her daughter, Lynne, with a picture of her husband.

Mobilizing for Defense

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes about how the United States prepared for war.

SECTION

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APROGRAM RESOURCES

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7 Guided Reading Workbook

Spanish/English Guided Reading Workbook

Access for Students Acquiring English/ESL

Formal Assessment

INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY

Electronic Library of Primary Sources

OBJECTIVESExplain how the United States expanded its armed forces in World War II.

Describe the wartime mobilization of industry, labor, scientists, and the media.

Trace the efforts of the U.S. government to control the economy and deal with alleged subversion.

SKILLBUILDERS

CRITICAL THINKING

Focus & MotivateAsk students to put themselves in the place of

think how the news of war will impact their lives.

InstructInstruct: Objective 1Americans Join the War Effort

how did it help the United States meet man-power needs?

ties make to the military effort?

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

Electronic Library of Primary Sources

EyeCla

Task

Pur

TEST-TAKING RESOURCES

Strategies for Test Preparation

Online Test Practice

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WOMEN IN THE MILITARYA few weeks after the bill to establish the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) had become law, Oveta Culp Hobby (shown, far right), a Texas newspaper execu-tive and the first director of the WAAC, put out a call for recruits. More than 13,000 women applied on the first day. In all, some 350,000 women served in this and other auxiliary branches during the war. The WAC remained a separate unit of the army until 1978 when male and female forces were inte-grated. In 2006, more than 200,000 women served in the United States armed forces.

SELECTIVE SERVICE AND THE GI After Pearl Harbor, eager young Americans jammed recruiting offices. “I wanted to be a hero, let’s face it,” admitted Roger Tuttrup. “I was havin’ trouble in school. . . . The war’d been goin’ on for two years. I didn’t wanna miss it. . . . I was an American. I was seventeen.” Even the 5 million who volun-teered for military service, however, were not enough to face the challenge of an all-out war on two global fronts—Europe and the Pacific. The Selective Service System expanded the draft and eventually provided another 10 million soldiers to meet the armed forces’ needs. The volunteers and draftees reported to military bases around the country for eight weeks of basic training. In this short period, sea-soned sergeants did their best to turn raw recruits into disciplined, battle-ready GIs. According to Sergeant Debs Myers, however, there was more to basic training than teaching a recruit how to stand at attention, march in step, handle a rifle, and follow orders.

A PERSONAL VOICE SERGEANT DEBS MYERS

“ The civilian went before the Army doctors, took off his clothes, feeling silly; jigged, stooped, squatted, wet into a bottle; became a soldier. He learned how to sleep in the mud, tie a knot, kill a man. He learned the ache of loneli-ness, the ache of exhaustion, the kinship of misery. He learned that men make the same queasy noises in the morning, feel the same longings at night; that every man is alike and that each man is different.”

—quoted in The GI War: 1941–1945

EXPANDING THE MILITARY The military’s work force needs were so great that Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall pushed for the formation of a Women’sAuxiliary Army Corps (WAAC). “There are innumerable duties now being performed by soldiers that can be done better by women,” Marshall said in support of a bill to establish the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps. Under this bill, women volunteers would serve in noncombat positions. Despite opposition from some members of Congress who scorned the bill as “the silliest piece of legislation” they had ever seen, the bill establishing the WAAC became law on May 15, 1942. The law gave the WAACs an official status and salary but few of the benefits granted to male soldiers. In July 1943, after thousands of women had enlisted, the U.S. Army dropped the “auxiliary” status, and granted WACs full U.S. Army benefits. WACs worked as nurses, ambulance drivers, radio operators, electricians, and pilots—nearly every duty not involving direct combat.

BackgroundThe initials GIoriginally stood for“galvanized iron” but were later reinterpreted as “government issue,” meaning uniforms and supplies. In time, the abbreviation came to stand for American soldiers.

In March 1941, a group of African-American men in New York City enlisted in the United States Army Air Corps. This was the first time the Army Air Corps opened its enlistment to African Americans.

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ACTIVITY LINK TO LANGUAGE ARTS BLOCK SCHEDULING

Eyewitness TestimonyClass Time 45 minutes

Task Preparing interview questions about World War II experiences

Purpose To understand the experience of the war

Directions To find willing interviewees, contact local veterans’ organizations or retirement homes to identify veterans or people who lived through the war on the home front. Have groups of students prepare questions for different categories of interviewees: combat veterans, women in the military, people who lived through the war as adults, people who lived through the war as children. Arrange for the groups to complete their interviews and report their findings.

Tracing Themes

Women in the MilitaryIn addition to the WAACs, many women served in the WAVES (Navy), and the SPAR (Coast Guard). Female pilots served in the Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) and the Women’s Air Force Service Pilots (WASP). The performance of these womenled General Dwight D. Eisenhower to admit that “when this project [women in the military] was proposed . . . like most old soldiers, I was violently against it . . . Every phase of the record they compiled during the war convinced me of the error of my first reac-tion.”

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

NOW & THEN

Women in the MilitaryDrawing Conclusions Ask students: Now that women have been integrated into combat forces, do you think that women should be drafted into the armed forces, along with men? (Some may answer if men are going to be drafted, it is only fair that women be sub-ject to the draft as well. Others might suggest women may be in the military, but not in combat. Still others might suggest that women may volunteer for the military but should not be drafted.)

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FormGeneB W

difficuwomeminorthe wforce?

B. AnWomminodiscrSomeplantto hirWompaid men.

The Production Miracle

Source: The Times Atlas of the Second World War

Aircraft and Ship Production, 1940–45 U.S. Budget Expenditure, 1941–45

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aircraft

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RECRUITING AND DISCRIMINATION For many minority groups—especially African Americans, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and Asian Americans—the war created new dilemmas. Restricted to racially segregated neighborhoods and reservations and denied basic citizenship rights, some mem-bers of these groups questioned whether this was their war to fight. “Why die fordemocracy for some foreign country when we don’t even have it here?” asked aneditorial in an African-American newspaper. On receiving his draft notice, an African American responded unhappily, “Just carve on my tombstone, ‘Here liesa black man killed fighting a yellow man for the protection of a white man.’”

DRAMATIC CONTRIBUTIONS Despite discrimination in the military, more than 300,000 Mexican Americans joined the armed forces. While Mexican Americans in Los Angeles made up only a tenth of the city’s population, they suf-fered a fifth of the city’s wartime casualties. About one million African Americans also served in the military. African-American soldiers lived and worked in segregated units and were limited mostly to noncombat roles. After much protest, African Americans did finally see combat beginning in April 1943. Asian Americans took part in the struggle as well. More than 13,000 Chinese Americans, or about one of every five adult males, joined the armed forces. In addition, 33,000 Japanese Americans put on uniforms. Of these, several thousand volunteered to serve as spies and interpreters in the Pacific war. “During battles,” wrote an admiring officer, “they crawled up close enough to be able to hear [Japanese] officers’ commands and to make verbal translations to our soldiers.” Some 25,000 Native Americans enlisted in the armed services, too, including 800 women. Their willingness to serve led The Saturday Evening Post to comment, “We would not need the Selective Service if all volunteered like Indians.” A

A Production MiracleEarly in February 1942, American newspapers reported the end of automobile production for private use. The last car to roll off an automaker’s assembly line was a gray sedan with “victory trim,”—that is, without chrome-plated parts. This was just one more sign that the war would affect almost every aspect of life.

THE INDUSTRIAL RESPONSE Within weeks of the shutdown in production, the nation’s automobile plants had been retooled to produce tanks, planes, boats, and

ContrastingA How did the

American response to the Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor differ from Japanese expectations?

SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Graphs1. Study the first graph. In what year did aircraft and ship production reach their highest

production levels?2. How does the second graph help explain how this production miracle was possible?

A. AnswerThe Japanese expected the United States toact like a defeated nation. Instead enraged Americans mobilized for war.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. 1944

2. The U.S. budgetexpenditurewas highest in 1944.

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DACTIVITY SKILLBUILDER LESSON BLOCK SCHEDULING

Analyzing Bias Bias can be used to demean the subject or, ironically, it can

even appear in what was intended as praise. To detect bias, look for words or phrases that may convey a positive or a negative point of view.

On the board write the following quotation about Native American soldiers. “The red soldier is tough. . . . He has lived outdoors all his life and lived by his senses; he is a natural Ranger. He takes to Commando fighting with gusto. Why not? His ancestors invented it.” American Legion Magazine

Tell students that while the quote was written in praise, it stereotypes Native Americans. Ask students to rewrite the quote in a way that removes the stereo-types.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

Tracing Themes

Chinese ExclusionIn 1942, sociologist Rose Hum Lee wrote an article on Chinese-American participation in the war effort. In it she noted that the Chinese exclusion laws still banned immigra-tion from China to the United States and that Chinese immigrants already in America were not allowed to become naturalized citizens. “To be fighting for freedom and democracy in the Far East . . . and to be denied equal opportunity in the greatest of democracies seems the height of irony.” The irony was not lost on President Roosevelt, who persuaded Congress to repeal the Chinese exclusion laws in 1943.

Instruct: Objective 2A Production Miracle

war effort?-

ties for women and minorities?

war effort?

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

CoHavthe prejthe

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command cars. They were not alone. Across the nation, factories were quickly converted to war production. A maker of mechanical pencils turned out bomb parts. A bedspread manufacturer made mosquito netting. A soft-drink company converted from filling bottles with liquid to filling shells with explosives.

Meanwhile, shipyards and defense plants expanded with dizzying speed. Bythe end of 1942, industrialist Henry J. Kaiser had built seven massive new ship-yards that turned out Liberty ships (cargo carriers), tankers, troop transports, and“baby” aircraft carriers at an astonishing rate. Late that year, Kaiser invited reporters to Way One in his Richmond, California, shipyard to watch as his work-ers assembled Hull 440, a Liberty ship, in a record-breaking four days. Writer Alyce Mano Kramer described the first day and night of construction.

A PERSONAL VOICE ALYCE MANO KRAMER

“ At the stroke of 12, Way One exploded into life. Crews of workers, like a cham-pion football team, swarmed into their places in the line. Within 60 seconds, the keel was swinging into position. . . . Hull 440 was going up. The speed of [produc-tion] was unbelievable. At midnight, Saturday, an empty way—at midnight Sunday, a full-grown hull met the eyes of graveyard workers as they came on shift.”

—quoted in Home Front, U.S.A.

Before the fourth day was up, 25,000 amazed spectators watched as Hull 440slid into the water. How could such a ship be built so fast? Kaiser used prefabri-cated, or factory-made, parts that could be quickly assembled at his shipyards. Equally important were his workers, who worked at record speeds.

LABOR’S CONTRIBUTION When the war began, defense contractors warned the Selective Service System that the nation did not have enough workers to meet both its military and its industrial needs. They were wrong. By 1944, despite the draft, nearly 18 million workers were laboring in war industries, three times as many as in 1941.

More than 6 million of these new workers were women. At first, war industries feared that most women lacked the necessary stamina for factory work and were reluctant to hire them. But once women proved they could operate welding torches or riveting guns as well as men, employers could not hire enough of them—especially since women earned only about 60 percent as much as men doing the same jobs.

Defense plants also hired more than 2 million minority workers during the war years.Like women, minorities facedstrong prejudice at first. Beforethe war, 75 percent of defense contractors simply refused to hire African Americans, while another 15 percent employed them only in menial jobs. “Negroes will be considered only asjanitors,” declared the general manager of North American Aviation. “It is the company policy not to employ them as mechanics and aircraft workers.” B

During the war, women took many jobs previously held by men. In this 1943 photo, a young woman is seen operating a hand drill in Nashville, Tennessee.

Forming GeneralizationsB What

difficulties did women and minorities face in the wartime work force?

B. AnswerWomen and minorities faced discrimination.Some defense plants refused to hire blacks. Women were not paid as much as men.

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DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION LESS PROFICIENT READERS BLOCK SCHEDULINGG

Comparing Have students compare the treatment of women with the treatment of minorities in the workforce as explained in the section Labor’s Contribution. List examples of prejudicial treatment on two side-by-side lists on the board or a wall chart. See the example at the right.

More About . . .

Henry J. KaiserKaiser (1882-1967) was an industrial pio-neer. He first proved his genius in organizing the construction companies that were involved in the construction of the Boulder, Bonneville, and Grand Coulee Dams. He revolutionized production with his shipyards in California during the war. By 1945, his shipyards were launching one ship a day. Kaiser also pro-duced cars and steel. The first health mainte-nance organization, Kaiser Permanente, originated in Kaiser Industries.

More About . . .

Women in Defense IndustriesDuring World War II, women were actively recruited into what had been non-traditional work for women, including such jobs as weld-ing, machinist, construction, and bus and truck driving. The image of “Rosie the Riveter” was used to encourage women to join the workforce.

Women Minorities

paid less not hired at all

not promoted menial jobs only

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History ThroughHistory Through

HOLLYWOOD HELPS MOBILIZATIONIn the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, Hollywood churned out war-oriented propaganda films. Heroic movies like Missionto Moscow and Song of Russia glorified America’s new

wartime ally, the Soviet Union. On the other hand, “hiss-and-boo” films stirred up hatred against the Nazis. In this way, movies energized people to join the war effort. As the war dragged on, people grew tired of propa-ganda and war themes. Hollywood responded with musicals, romances, and other escapist fare designed to take filmgoers away from the grim realities of war, if only for an hour or two.

SKILLBUILDER Interpeting Visual Sources1. How does the image from Hitler, Beast of Berlin

portray the Nazis? 2. How might audiences have responded to

propaganda films?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R23.

Moviemakers also turned out informational films. The most important of these films—the Why We Fight series—were made by the great director Frank Capra. Capra is shown (right) consulting with Colonel Hugh Stewart (commander of the British Army film unit) in a joint effort in the making of Tunisian Victory, the first official film record of the campaign that expelled Germany from North Africa.

Hitler, Beast of Berlin, produced in 1939, was one of themost popular hiss-and-boo fi lms. Viewing audiences watched in rage as the Nazis conducted one horrible act after another.

To protest such discrimination both in the military and in industry, A. Philip Randolph, president and founder of the Brotherhood of Sleeping CarPorters and the nation’s most respected African-American labor leader, organized a march on Washington. Randolph called on African Americans everywhere to

come to the capital on July 1, 1941, and to march under the banner “We Loyal Colored Americans Demand the Right to Work and Fight for

Our Country.”Fearing that the march might provoke white resentment or vio-

lence, President Roosevelt called Randolph to the White House and asked him to back down. “I’m sorry Mr. President,” the labor leader said, “the march cannot be called off.” Roosevelt then asked, “How many people do you plan to bring?” Randolph replied, “One hundredthousand, Mr. President.” Roosevelt was stunned. Even half that num-

ber of African-American protesters would be far more than Washington—still a very segregated city—could feed, house, and

transport.In the end it was Roosevelt, not Randolph, who backed down. In return

for Randolph’s promise to cancel the march, the president issued an executive order calling on employers and labor unions “to provide for the full and equitable participation of all workers in defense industries, without discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin.”

A. Philip Randolph in 1942.

772 CHAPTER 25

More About . . .

A. Philip RandolphAmerican labor and civil rights leader Asa Philip Randolph (1889-1979) was the son of a minister. After attending college in New York, he organized the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters in 1925. It was the first union composed of mostly black workers to be granted a charter by the American Federation of Labor. In 1955, Randolph was elected a vice president of the merged AFL-CIO. In 1963, he was one of the organizers of the March on Washington.

History Through Film

World War II Era FilmsPeople did tire of the earnest propaganda films churned out by a patriotic Hollywood. Though it wasn’t a smash hit in its day, comedian Charlie Chaplin’s 1940 film The Great Dictator, a spoof of Hitler’s dreams of world conquest, was prophetic and a true work of art. If possible, show the film or a portion of it to students.

SKILLBUILDER ANSWERS1. The Nazis are portrayed as brutally

cruel, as one Nazi official whips a bound prisoner.

2. Audiences might have become enraged at the cruelty of the Nazis. This might have united them in their desire to defeat Germany.

DDIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION GIFTED AND TALENTED

Comparing Presidential Responses to Popular Pressure Roosevelt’s backing down from Randolph stands in stark comparison to an event nine years earlier, Hoover’s reaction to the Bonus Marchers. In both cases, the president was faced with popular pressure. Ask students to research both situa-tions. Make sure that they take into account the context of both situations—Depression and brink of war. Then ask them to write a short paper that compares and contrasts each president’s response to popular pressure.

RubricThe compare and contrast paper should. . . .

Integrated Assessment

GHtuc

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MAIN IDEA

MOBILIZATION OF SCIENTISTS That same year, in 1941, Roosevelt created the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) to bring scientists into the war effort. The OSRD spurred improvements in radar and sonar, new technologies for locating submarines underwater. It encouraged the use of pesticides like DDT to fight insects. As a result, U.S. soldiers were probably the first in history to be rel-atively free from body lice. The OSRD also pushed the development of “miracle drugs,” such as penicillin, that saved countless lives on and off the battlefield. The most significant achievement of the OSRD, however, was the secret devel-opment of a new weapon, the atomic bomb. Interest in such a weapon began in 1939, after German scientists succeeded in splitting uranium atoms, releasing an enormous amount of energy. This news prompted physicist and German refugee Albert Einstein to write a letter to President Roosevelt, warning that the Germans could use their discovery to construct a weapon of enormous destructive power. Roosevelt responded by creating an Advisory Committee on Uranium to study the new discovery. In 1941, the committee reported that it would take from three to five years to build an atomic bomb. Hoping to shorten that time, the OSRD set up an intensive program in 1942 to develop a bomb as quickly as possible. Because much of the early research was performed at Columbia University in Manhattan, the Manhattan Project became the code name for research work that extended across the country. C

The Federal Government Takes ControlAs war production increased, there were fewer consumer products available for purchase. Much factory production was earmarked for the war. With demand increasing and supplies dropping, prices seemed likely to shoot upwards.

ECONOMIC CONTROLS Roosevelt responded to this threat by creating the Office of Price Administration (OPA). The OPA fought inflation by freezing prices on most goods. Congress also raised income tax rates and extended the tax to millions of people who had never paid it before. The higher taxes reduced con-sumer demand on scarce goods by leaving workers with less to spend. In addition,

SummarizingC Why did

President Roosevelt create the OSRD, and what did it do?

The Government Takes Control of the Economy, 1942–1945

Agencies and Laws What the Regulations Did

and coffee

medical insurance

inflation

rolls

C. AnswerTo bring scientists into the war effort; it developed improvements in radar and sonar, pesticides, and “miracle drugs.” It also launched the Manhattan project to create an atomic bomb.

The United States in World War II 773

3

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION LESS PROFICIENT READERS

Government Regulations

consumers.

More About . . .

Albert Einstein

-

--

mament.

Instruct: Objective 3The Federal Government Takes Control

HISTORY from VISUALSInterpreting a Chart

(Americans might reject so much govern-ment intrusion and control over the nation’s economy.)

Regulation Effect

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Preparation for War,1941–1942

the government encouraged Americans to use their extra cash to buy war bonds. As a result of these measures, infla-tion remained below 30 percent—about half that of WorldWar I—for the entire period of World War II.

Besides controlling inflation, the government needed toensure that the armed forces and war industries received theresources they needed to win the war. The WarProduction Board (WPB) assumed that responsibility.The WPB decided which companies would convert from peacetime to wartime production and allocated raw materi-als to key industries. The WPB also organized drives to col-lect scrap iron, tin cans, paper, rags, and cooking fat for recycling into war goods. Across America, children scoured attics, cellars, garages, vacant lots, and back alleys, looking for useful junk. During one five-month-long paper drive in Chicago, schoolchildren collected 36 million pounds of oldpaper—about 65 pounds per child. D

RATIONING In addition, the OPA set up a system for rationing, or establishing fixed allotments of goods deemed essential for the military. Under this system, households received ration books with coupons to be used for buying such scarce goods as meat, shoes, sugar, coffee, and gasoline. Gas rationing was particularly hard on those who lived in western regions, where driving was the only way to get around. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt sympathized with their complaints. “To tell the people in the West not to use their cars,” she observed, “means that these people may never see another soul for weeks and weeks nor have a way of getting a sick person to a doctor.” Most Americans accepted rationing as a personal contribution to the war effort. Workers carpooled or rode bicycles. Families coped with shortages of every-thing from tires to toys. Inevitably, some cheated by hoarding scarce goods or by purchasing them through the “black market,” where rationed items could be bought illegally without coupons at inflated prices. While people tightened their belts at home, millions of other Americans put their lives on the line in air, sea, and land battles on the other side of the world.

George MarshallWomen’s Auxiliary Army Corp (WAAC)

A. Philip RandolphManhattan ProjectOffice of Price Administration (OPA)

War Production Board (WPB)rationing

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTES

Re-create the web below on your paper, and fill in ways that America prepared for war.

CRITICAL THINKING3. ANALYZING EVENTS

How did government regulations impact the lives of civilians?

4. ANALYZING VISUAL SOURCESWhat is the message of the World War II poster to the right? Why was this message important?

IdentifyingProblemsD What basic

problems were theOPA and WPB created to solve?

Children of all ages helped with wartime recycling. This 5-year-old boypounded the pavement in New York City collecting aluminum.

D. AnswerControlling inf-lation, managing shortages, and making sure that the armed forces and war industries got the resources they needed.

774 CHAPTER 25

1. TERMS & NAMESGeorge Marshall, p. 769Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps

(WAAC), p. 769A. Philip Randolph, p. 772Manhattan Project, p. 773Office of Price Administration (OPA),

p. 773War Production Board (WPB), p. 774rationing, p. 774

2. TAKING NOTESIndustries to wartime production; employment of women in the war indus-try; creation of OSRD; establishment of OPA

3. ANALYZING EVENTSRationing forced people to use resources wisely, carpool or walk to work, and to do without some goods. A “black market” developed that illegally sold scarce goods.

4. ANALYZING VISUAL SOURCESThe poster stresses the importance of gas rationing at home. Gas rationing was important because overseas forces needed gas for vehicles that carried supplies and moved troops.

More About . . .

RationingRationing affected every American in some way. For people living in cities with mass transportation systems, the rationing of gasoline and rubber had minimal impact. But for rural Americans, it was especially limiting. However, for many Americans already used to the deprivations brought on by the Depression, the restrictions on consumer goods were not as difficult as they might have been for people used to the availability of a plentiful and affordable supply of goods.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

Assess & Reteach

Have students work in pairs to answer ques-tions. One student should work on questions 1 and 3 and the other on questions 2 and 4.

Formal Assessment

Have students exchange papers and discuss how they would modify each other’s answers to make them more complete.

RETEACHCreate a class web on the board indicating the ways that America prepared for war in 1941–1942. Use students’ answers to ques-tion 2 as the basis for the web.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

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One American's Story

TAKING NOTES

SECTION

It was 1951, and John Patrick McGrath was just finishing his sec-ond year in drama school. For an acting class, his final exam was to be a performance of a death scene. McGrath knew his lines perfectly. But as he began the final farewell, he broke out in a sweat and bolted off the stage. Suddenly he had a flashback to a frozen meadow in Belgium during the Battle of the Bulge in 1945. Three German tanks were spraying his platoon with machine-gun fire.

A PERSONAL VOICE JOHN PATRICK MCGRATH

“ Only a few feet away, one of the men in my platoon falls. . . . He calls out to me. ‘Don’t leave me. Don’t. . . .’ The tanks advance, one straight for me. I grab my buddy by the wrist and pull him across the snow. . . . The tank nearest to us is on a track to run us down. . . . When the German tank is but 15 yards away, I grab my buddy by the wrist and feign a lurch to my right. The tank follows the move. Then I lurch back to my left. The German tank clamors by, only inches away. . . . In their wake the meadow is strewn with casualties. I turn to tend my fallen comrade. He is dead.”

—A Cue for Passion

Like countless other soldiers, McGrath would never forget both the heroism and the horrors he witnessed while fighting to free Europe.

The United States and Britain Join Forces“Now that we are, as you say, ‘in the same boat,’” British Prime Minister Winston Churchill wired President Roosevelt two days after the Pearl Harbor attack, “would it not be wise for us to have another conference . . . . and the sooner the better.” Roosevelt responded with an invitation for Churchill to come at once. So began a remarkable alliance between the two nations.

Private John P. McGrath carried this bullet-riddled letter in a pack that saved his life. In 1990, he visited Anzio, where members of his company were buried.

Dwight D. EisenhowerD-DayOmar Bradley

George PattonBattle of the BulgeV-E DayHarry S. Truman

Allied forces, led by the United States and Great Britain, battled Axis powers for control of Europe and North Africa.

During World War II, the United States assumed a leading role in world affairs that continues today.

The War for Europe and North Africa

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes on the war in North Africa and Europe.

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23

1

PROGRAM RESOURCES

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7 Guided Reading Workbook

Spanish/English Guided Reading Workbook

Access for Students Acquiring English/ESL

Formal Assessment

INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY

Critical Thinking Transp. CT25

Geography Transp. GT25

Humanities Transp. HT24

Electronic Library of Primary Sources

OBJECTIVESSummarize the Allies’ plan for winning the war.

Identify events in the war in Europe.

Describe the liberation of Europe.

SKILLBUILDERS

CRITICAL THINKING

Focus & MotivateAsk students to recall a time when they felt they were in danger. How did it feel? How do they think they would react if they were sol-diers marching into battle?

InstructInstruct: Objective 1The United States and Britain Join Forces

early in the war?

crucial to the fortunes of the Allies?

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

Humanities Transparencies HT24

Critical Thinking Transparencies CT25

TEST-TAKING RESOURCES

Strategies for Test Preparation

Online Test Practice

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SynB W

key ddetefinal Stali

B. AStalsionthe Hitleto bmattcost

WAR PLANS Prime Minister Churchill arrived at the White House on December 22, 1941, and spent the next three weeks working out war plans with President Roosevelt and his advisors. Believing that Germany and Italy posed a greater threat than Japan, Churchill convinced Roosevelt to strike first against Hitler. Once the Allies had gained an upper hand in Europe, they could pour more resources into the Pacific War.

By the end of their meeting, Roosevelt and Churchill had formed, in Churchill’s words, “a very strong affection, which grew with our years of com-radeship.” When Churchill reached London, he found a message from the presi-dent waiting for him. “It is fun,” Roosevelt wrote in the message, “to be in the same decade with you.”

THE BATTLE OF THE ATLANTIC After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hitler ordered submarine raids against ships along America’s east coast. The German aim in the Battle of the Atlantic was to prevent food and war materials from reaching Great Britain and the Soviet Union. Britain depended on supplies from

the sea. The 3,000-mile-long shipping lanes from North America were her lifeline. Hitler knew that if he cut that lifeline, Britain would be starved into submission.

For a long time, it looked as though Hitler might succeed in his mis-sion. Unprotected Amer-ican ships proved to be easy targets for the Ger-mans. In the first four months of 1942, the Germans sank 87 ships off the Atlantic shore. Seven months into the year, German wolf packs had destroyed a total of 681 Allied ships in the Atlantic. Something had to be done or the war at sea would be lost.

The Allies responded by organizing their cargo ships into convoys. Convoys were groups of ships traveling together for mutual protection, as they had done in the First World War. The convoys were escorted across the Atlantic by destroy-ers equipped with sonar for detecting submarines underwater. They were also accompanied by airplanes that used radar to spot U-boats on the ocean’s surface. With this improved tracking, the Allies were able to find and destroy German U-boats faster than the Germans could build them. In late spring of 1943, Admiral Karl Doenitz, the commander of the German U-boat offensive, reported that his losses had “reached an unbearable height.”

At the same time, the United States launched a crash shipbuilding program. By early 1943, 140 Liberty ships were produced each month. Launchings of Allied ships began to outnumber sinkings.

By mid-1943, the tide of the Battle of the Atlantic had turned. A happy Churchill reported to the House of Commons that June “was the best month [at sea] from every point of view we have ever known in the whole 46 months of the war.” A

A convoy of British and American ships ride at anchor in the harbor of Hvalfjord, Iceland.

AnalyzingCausesA Why had the

tide turned in the Battle of the Atlantic by mid-1943?

A. AnswerThe Allies had succeeded in using convoys; the United States had greatly increased the production of ships.

776 CHAPTER 25

ADIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION STUDENTS ACQUIRING ENGLISH/ESL

Understanding IdiomsHave students work in pairs to find the following idioms and other expressions in the text above. Have them read the sentence in context. Then have them explain in their own words what the idiom or expression means.

submarines

More About . . .

Roosevelt and Churchill

genuine affection for each other helped facilitate a strong alliance between their two nations that continued after the war.

HISTORY from VISUALSInterpreting the Photograph

mander? (The convoy changed the odds; a U-Boat might successfully sink an Allied ship but faced likely destruction if it dared attack.)

CreCla

Tas

Pur

Dire

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The Eastern Front and the MediterraneanBy the winter of 1943, the Allies began to see victories on land as well as sea. The first great turning point came in the Battle of Stalingrad.

THE BATTLE OF STALINGRAD The Germans had been fighting in the Soviet Union since June 1941. In November 1941, the bitter cold had stopped them in their tracks outside the Soviet cities of Moscow and Leningrad. When spring came, the German tanks were ready to roll. In the summer of 1942, the Germans took the offensive in the southern Soviet Union. Hitler hoped to capture Soviet oil fields in the Caucasus Mountains. He also wanted to wipe out Stalingrad, a major industrial center on the Volga River. (See map, page 778.) The German army confidently approached Stalingrad in August 1942. “To reach the Volga and take Stalingrad is not so difficult for us,” one German soldier wrote home. “Victory is not far away.” The Luftwaffe—the German air force—pre-pared the way with nightly bombing raids over the city. Nearly every wooden building in Stalingrad was set ablaze. The situation looked so desperate that Soviet officers in Stalingrad recommended blowing up the city’s factories and abandon-ing the city. A furious Stalin ordered them to defend his namesake city no matter what the cost. For weeks the Germans pressed in on Stalingrad, conquering it house by house in brutal hand-to-hand combat. By the end of September, they controlled nine-tenths of the city—or what was left of it. Then another winter set in. The Soviets saw the cold as an opportunity to roll fresh tanks across the frozen land-scape and begin a massive counterattack. The Soviet army closed around Stalingrad, trapping the Germans in and around the city and cutting off their sup-plies. The Germans’ situation was hopeless, but Hitler’s orders came: “Stay and fight! I won’t go back from the Volga.” The fighting continued as winter turned Stalingrad into a frozen wasteland. “We just lay in our holes and froze, knowing that 24 hours later and 48 hours later we should be shivering precisely as we were now,” wrote a German soldier, Benno Zieser. “But there was now no hope whatsoever of relief, and that was the worst thing of all.” The German commander surrendered on January 31, 1943. Two days later, his starving troops also surrendered. In defending Stalingrad, the Soviets lost a total of 1,100,000 soldiers—more than all American deaths during the entire war. Despite the staggering death toll, the Soviet victory marked a turning point in the war. From that point on, the Soviet army began to move westward toward Germany. B

Dazed, starved, and freezing, these German soldiers were taken prisoner after months of struggle. But they were the lucky ones. More than 230,000 of their comrades died in the Battle of Stalingrad.

SynthesizingB What two

key decisions determined the final outcome at Stalingrad?

B. AnswerStalin’s deci-sion to defend the city and Hitler’s decision to besiege it no matter what the cost.

e he

s; tes

2

ACTIVITY LINK TO HUMANITIES / THE ARTS BLOCK SCHEDULING

Creative Response to WarClass Time

Task

Purpose

Directions

Rubric

Instruct: Objective 2The Eastern Front and the Mediterranean

More About . . .

Stalingrad

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AnaEffeD

resuItalia

D. ATheItalyHitlethe Anzwasfrom

1943

1942

1942

19 4 2

1944

1943

1942

60 N

30°N

15°W

Volga R.

AT L A N T I CO C E A N

Black SeaAdriatic Sea

Baltic

Sea

NorthSea

Caspian Sea

PersianGulf

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

EASTPRUSSIA

LondonBerlin

Paris

Madrid

OranAlgiers

Lisbon

Casablanca

Rome

El Alamein

Tobruk

Anzio

Warsaw

Leningrad

Moscow

Stalingrad

FRANCE

SAUDI ARABIA

GREECE

ALBANIA

ITALYBULGARIA

TURKEY

YUGOSLAVIA

SWITZ.ROMANIA

HUNGARYAUSTRIA

BELG. GERMANY

NETH.

POLAND S O V I E TU N I O N

S O V I E TU N I O N

DENMARK

FINLANDNORWAY SWEDEN

ALGERIA

LIBYA

TUNISIA

EGYPT

MOROCCO

PORTUGALSPAIN

GREATBRITAINIRELAND

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

A S I A

E U R O P E

A F R I C A

N

S

EW

Axis and Axis controlled

Allies

Neutral countries

Axis forces

Allied forces

Soviet forces

Major battles

0 200 400 kilometers

0 200 400 miles

November 8, 1942Operation Torch

May 13, 1943Axis surrender of North Africa

November 1942Farthest Axis advance

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Place Which countries were neutral in

1942?2. Movement What was the name of

the invasion that the Allies launched in North Africa?

Summariz ingC What was the

outcome of the North African campaign?

American journalist Ernie Pyle, shown here in 1944, was one of the most famous war correspondents of World War II.

THE NORTH AFRICAN FRONT While the Battle of Stalingrad raged, Stalin pres-sured Britain and America to open a “second front” in Western Europe. He argued that an invasion across the English Channel would force Hitler to divert troops from the Soviet front. Churchill and Roosevelt didn’t think the Allies had enough troops to attempt an invasion on European soil. Instead, they launched Operation Torch, an invasion of Axis-controlled North Africa, commanded by American General Dwight D. Eisenhower. In November 1942, some 107,000 Allied troops, the great majority of them Americans, landed in Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers in North Africa. From there they sped eastward, chasing the Afrika Korps led by General Erwin Rommel, the legendary Desert Fox. After months of heavy fighting, the last of the Afrika Korps

surrendered in May 1943. British general Harold Alexander sent a message to Churchill, reporting that “All enemy resistance has ceased. We are masters of the North African shores.” American war correspondent Ernie Pyle caught the mood of the victorious troops. C

A PERSONAL VOICE ERNIE PYLE

“ This colossal German surrender has done more for American morale here than anything that could possibly have happened. Winning in battle is like winning at poker or catching lots of fish. . . . As a result, the hundreds of thousands of Americans in North Africa now are happy men.”

—Ernie’s War: The Best of Ernie Pyle’s World War II Dispatches

World War II: Europe and Africa, 1942–1944

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Sweden,Switzerland2. Operation Torch

C. AnswerThe defeat of Hitler’s troops.

778 CHAPTER 25

ADIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION GIFTED AND TALENTED

The Enigma MachineThe German Enigma cipher machine was an electro-mechanical coder that was produced commercially in the 1920s and became the standard code machine of the German military and secret police. Have students research the story of how Alan Turing and other British cryptographers unlocked the secrets of the Enigma machine and helped turn the tide of war in favor of the Allies. Have students describe the machine and explain how it worked to the class.

RubricThe enigma machine report should . . .

Integrated Assessment

More About . . .

Erwin RommelAfter D-Day, Rommel tried to convince Hitler that the war was lost and he should sue for peace. On July 20, 1944, there was a failed assassination attempt on Hitler. In the subse-quent investigation, Rommel’s name came to light, although he did not participate in the attempt. Rommel’s popularity in Germany was so high that Hitler did not want to accuse him in public. Instead, he sent two generals to Rommel with poison and the promise that Rommel’s participation would be kept secret and his family protected. Rommel took the poison, died, and was buried with full military honors.

HISTORY from VISUALSInterpreting a MapAsk students to use the map to answer the following question: How did the Axis surrender in North Africa make the invasion of Sicily possible? (Control of North Africa removed Axis presence from around Sicily and made the invasion possible.)

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

CoCla

Tas

Pur

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On May 31, 1943, the 99th Pursuit Squadron, the first group of African-American pilots trained at the Tuskegee Institute, arrived in North Africa. Below is their regimental insignia.

AnalyzingEffectsD What were the

results of the Italian campaign?

THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN Even before the battle in North Africa was won, Roosevelt, Churchill, and their commanders met in Casablanca. At this meeting, the two leaders agreed to accept only the unconditional surrender of the Axis pow-ers. That is, enemy nations would have to accept whatever terms of peace the Allies dictated. The two leaders also discussed where to strike next. The Americans argued that the best approach to victory was to assemble a massive invasion fleet in Britain and to launch it across the English Channel, through France, and into the heart of Germany. Churchill, however, thought it would be safer to first attack Italy.

The Italian campaign got off to a good start with the capture of Sicily in the summer of 1943. Stunned by their army’s collapse in Sicily, the Italian government forced dictator Benito Mussolini to resign. On July 25, 1943, King Victor Emmanuel III summoned Il Duce (Italian for “the leader”) to his palace, stripped him of power, and had him arrested. “At this moment,” the king told Mussolini, “you are the most hated man in Italy.” Italians began celebrating the end of the war.

Their cheers were premature. Hitler was determined to stop the Allies in Italy rather than fight on German soil. One of the hardest battles the Allies encoun-tered in Europe was fought less than 40 miles from Rome. This battle, “Bloody Anzio,” lasted four months—until the end of May 1944—and left about 25,000 Allied and 30,000 Axis casualties. During the year after Anzio, German armies continued to put up strong resistance. The effort to free Italy did not succeed until 1945, when Germany itself was close to collapse. D

HEROES IN COMBAT Among the brave men who fought in Italy were pilots of the all-black 99th Pursuit Squadron—the Tuskegee Airmen. In Sicily, the squadron registered its first victory against an enemy aircraft and went on to more impressive strategic strikes against the German forces throughout Italy. The Tuskegee Airmen won two Distinguished Unit Citations (the military’s highest commendation) for their outstanding aerial combat against the German Luftwaffe.

Another African-American unit todistinguish itself was the famous 92ndInfantry Division, nicknamed the Buffaloes. In just six months of fighting in Europe, the Buffaloes won 7 Legion of Merit awards, 65 Silver Stars, and 162 Bronze Stars for courage under fire.

Like African Americans, most Mexican Americans served in seg-regated units. Seventeen Mexican-American soldiers were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. An all-Chicano unit—Company E of the 141st Regiment, 36th Division became one of the most decorated of the war.

Japanese Americans also served in Italy and North Africa. At the urging of General Delos Emmons, the army created the100th Battalion, which consisted of 1,300 Hawaiian Nisei. (The word Nisei refers to American citizens whose parents hademigrated from Japan.) The 100th saw brutal combat and became known as the Purple Heart Battalion. Later the 100th was merged into the all-Nisei 442nd Regimental Combat Team. It became the most decorated unit in U.S. history.

D. AnswerThe Allies freed Italy despite Hitler’s efforts atthe Battle of Anzio. Mussolini was removed from power.

The United States in World War II 779

d

1942is

in

ngthe e

pain, udi ey,

f s.

ACTIVITY COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Combat HeroesClass Time

Task

Purpose

Directions

Integrated Assessment

More About . . .

Mussolini’s Last Days

More About . . .

The Tuskegee Airmen

Squadron posted a training period grade

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KEY PLAYERKEY PLAYER

DWIGHT D. “IKE” EISENHOWER1890–1969

When Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall chose modest Lieutenant General Dwight David Eisenhower to become the Supreme Commander of U.S. forces in Europe, he knew what he was doing. Ike was a superb planner and possessed a keen mind for military tactics. More important, Eisenhower had an uncommon ability to workwith all kinds of people, even competitive and temperamental allies. After V-E Day, a grateful Marshall wrote to Ike, saying, “You have been selfless in your actions, always sound and toler-ant in your judgments and alto-gether admirable in the courage and wisdom of your military deci-sions. You have made history, great history for the good of mankind.” In 1953, Dwight D. Eisenhower became president of the United States.

The Allies Liberate EuropeEven as the Allies were battling for Italy in 1943, they had begun work on a dra-matic plan to invade France and free Western Europe from the Nazis. The task of commanding Operation Overlord, as it was called, fell to American General Dwight D. (“Ike”) Eisenhower.

D-DAY Under Eisenhower’s direction in England, the Allies gathered a force of nearly 3 million British, American, and Canadian troops, together with moun-tains of military equipment and supplies. Eisenhower planned to attack Normandy in northern France. To keep their plans secret, the Allies set up a huge phantom army with its own headquarters and equipment. In radio messages they knew the Germans could read, Allied commanders sent orders to this make-believe army to attack the French port of Calais—150 miles away—where the English Channel is narrowest. As a result, Hitler ordered his generals to keep a large army at Calais.

The Allied invasion, code-named Operation Overlord, was originally set for June 5, but bad weather forced a delay. Banking on a forecast for clearing skies, Eisenhower gave the go-ahead for D-Day—June 6, 1944, the first day of the invasion. Shortly after midnight, three divisions parachuted down behind German lines. They were fol-lowed in the early morning hours by thousands upon thousands of seaborne soldiers—the largest land-sea-air operation in army history. Despite the massive air and sea bombardment by the Allies, German retaliation was brutal, particularly at Omaha Beach. “People were yelling, screaming, dying, running on the beach, equipment was flying everywhere, men were bleeding to death, crawling, lying everywhere, firing coming from all directions,” soldier Felix Branham wrote of the scene there. “We dropped down behind any-thing that was the size of a golf ball.”

THE ALLIES GAIN GROUND Despite heavy casualties, the Allies held the beachheads. After seven days of fighting, the Allies held an 80-mile strip of France. Within a month, they had landed a million troops, 567,000 tons of supplies, and 170,000 vehicles in France. On July 25, General Omar Bradley unleashed massive air and land bombardment against the enemy at St. Lô, providing a gap in the German line of defense through which General George Patton and his Third Army could advance. On August 23, Patton and the Third Army reached the Seine River south of Paris. Two days later, French resistance forces and American troops liberated the French capital from four years of German occupation. Parisians were delirious with joy. Patton announced this joyous event to his commander in a message that read, “Dear Ike: Today I spat in the Seine.” By September 1944, the Allies had freed France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. This good news—and the American people’s desire not to “change horses in mid-stream”—helped elect Franklin Roosevelt to an unprece-dented fourth term in November, along with his running mate, Senator Harry S. Truman. E

BackgroundAmerican para-troopers on D-Day carried a simple signaling device to help them find one another in the dark. Each had a metal toy cricket to click. No German radio operators could intercept these messages.

EvaluatingE Was the Allied

invasion of Europe successful? Explain your answer.

Skillbuilder Answers1. This is the nar-rowest part of the channel.2. It was com-plex, involving fi ve separate landings in France.

E. AnswerYes. On D-Day, the Allies penetrated the beaches along the Normandy Coast. Despite heavy losses, they held the beachheads and began moving inland.

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Sequencing To help students understand the events on pages 780–783, have them construct an annotated time line beginning with D-Day (June 6, 1944) and ending with V-E Day (May 8, 1945). The time line should include all events referred to in the section.

After the students have constructed the time line, assign one event to each student and have them create a “living” time line in which they stand in the correct sequence and identify and explain their event.

Instruct: Objective 3The Allies Liberate Europe

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

KEY PLAYERDwight D. “Ike” Eisenhower1890-1969Eisenhower was a master planner. For Operation Overlord, he knew that he needed

on the French railroad in northern France. Eisenhower insisted that bombers be diverted

the railroad in a wide area so as not to give away Normandy as the landing target.

More About . . .

Omar Bradley and George Patton

best all around combat leader” in the U.S.

tory in the Tunisian campaign, and later in the

strong-willed commander capable of directing

tlefield initiative more often than not got him

the men to work together toward the common goal of defeating the Nazis.

ADIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION LESS PROFICIENT READERS

June 6, 1944D-Day

St. LôDecember 1944–January 1945

Russian Army

May 8, 1945V-E Day

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On D-Day morning, a platoon of American infantry wade ashore to Omaha Beach.

Mulberry HarborIn order to accommodate the vast number of invading ships, the Allies built two enormous concrete ports and towed them to Gold Beach on the French coast on D-Day. They sank 70 old ships to create a breakwater for the artifi cial harbor.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Place How does the inset map at the top of the page help

explain why Hitler was expecting the invasion to cross from Dover to Calais over the Strait of Dover?

2. Human-Environment Interaction Was D-Day a simple or complex operation? How can you tell?

D-Day, June 6, 1944

The United States in World War II 781

HISTORY from VISUALSInterpreting a MapHelp students use the information provided to understand there was much more to the inva-sion than landing soldiers on the beach. Have them identify the paratrooper landings, the con-struction of a harbor, and the bombing cam-paigns that preceded the invasion. Tell them that the success of the bombing campaign was crucial. Taking out bridges and rail lines impeded the Germans’ ability to move troops from the Calais area where they had been massed to meet the expected invasion. Have them use the map to determine which of the armies shown might have had the greatest challenge in communication and coordination. (Bradley’s 1st Army, split between Omaha and Utah Beaches, might have had the greatest communication and coordination challenge.)

More About . . .

D-DayThe key to the success of D-Day was the mili-tary’s ability to deliver so many men to the invasion point at the same time. A great armada of ships, including 1,200 fighting ships, 4,126 landing craft, 804 transport ships, and many other special purpose ships, delivered 132,500 soldiers across the English Channel from several ports. The Allies used 10,000 planes. World War II was the first war in which parachutists were used in such a tac-tical manner. Twenty-three thousand airborne troops were used. Ten thousand American paratroopers were dropped into France in the early morning of the invasion.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

D-DayClass Period 45 minutes

Task Researching the planning and execution of Operation Overlord

Purpose To better understand the international cooperation of D-Day operations

Directions Have student groups choose between the planning of Operation Overlord or the actual attack on D-Day, and use library and Internet resources to find out more about the participation of British and Canadian forces. Have students construct a multimedia presentation of their findings.

Integrated Assessment

ACTIVITY LINK TO WORLD HISTORY

1945

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Vocabularyelite: a small and privileged group

AUDIE MURPHYNear the end of the Second World War, Audie Murphy became famous as the most decorated American soldier of the war. He received 24 medals from the United States—including the Congressional Medal of Honor. He was also awarded three medals by France and one more by Belgium. Born in Kingston, Texas, Murphy enlisted in the army in 1942. He served in North Africa and Europe, and in 1944 he rose to the rank of second lieutenant. His most impressive act of brav-ery occurred in January 1945 near Colmar, France, when in the midst of a furious German attack, he jumped onto a burning tank destroyer and killed about 50 Axis troops with his machine gun. Although wounded in the leg, he rallied his troops to retake the ground the Germans had gained earlier in the day.

AnalyzingEffectsF Why was the

Battle of the Bulge important?

THE BATTLE OF THE BULGE In October 1944, Americans captured their first German town, Aachen. Hitler responded with a desperate last-gasp offensive. He ordered his troops to break through the Allied lines and torecapture the Belgian port of Antwerp. This bold move, the Führer hoped, would disrupt the enemy’s supply lines and demoralize the Allies. On December 16, under cover of dense fog, eight German tank divisions broke through weak American defenses along an 80-mile front. Hitler hoped that a victory would split American and British forces and break up Allied supply lines. Tanks drove 60 miles into Allied territory, creating a bulge in the lines that gave this desperate last-ditch offensive its name, the Battle of the Bulge. As the Germans swept westward, they captured 120 American GIs near Malmédy. Elite German troops—the SS troop-ers—herded the prisoners into a large field and mowed them down with machine guns and pistols. The battle raged for a month. When it was over, the Germans had been pushed back, and little seemed to have changed. But, in fact, events had taken a decisive turn. The Germans had lost 120,000 troops, 600 tanks and assault guns, and 1,600 planes in the Battle of the Bulge—soldiers and weapons they could not replace. From that point on, the Nazis could do little but retreat. F

LIBERATION OF THE DEATH CAMPS Meanwhile, Allied troops pressed eastward into the German heartland, and the Soviet army pushed westward across Poland toward Berlin. Soviet troops were the first to come upon one of the Nazi death camps, in July 1944. As the Soviets drew near a camp called Majdanek in Poland, SS guards worked feverishly to bury and burn all evidence of their hideous crimes. But they ran out of time. When the Soviets entered Majdanek, they found a thousand starving prisoners bare-ly alive, the world’s largest crematorium, and a storehouse containing 800,000 shoes. “This is not a concentration camp,” reported a stunned Soviet war correspondent, “it is a gigantic murder plant.” The Americans who later liber-ated Nazi death camps in Germany were equally horrified.

A PERSONAL VOICE ROBERT T. JOHNSON

“ We started smelling a terrible odor and suddenly we were at the concentration camp at Landsberg. Forced the gate and faced hundreds of starving prisoners. . . . We saw emaciated men whose thighs were smaller than wrists, many had bones sticking out thru their skin. . . . Also we saw hundreds of burned and naked bodies. . . . That evening I wrote my wife that ‘For the first time I truly realized the evil of Hitler and why this war had to be waged.’”

—quoted in Voices: Letters from World War II

UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER By April 25, 1945, the Soviet army had stormed Berlin. As Soviet shells burst overhead, the city panicked. “Hordes of soldiers stationed in Berlin deserted and were shot on the spot or hanged from the nearest tree,” wrote Claus Fuhrmann, a Berlin clerk. “On their chests they had placards reading, ‘We betrayed the Führer.’”

F. AnswerThe Germans lost men and equipment that they could not replace. The battle weakened their offense.

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ACTIVITY LINK TO HUMANITIES BLOCK SCHEDULING

Eyewitness JournalClass Time 30 minutes

Task Writing journal entries for eyewitness discovery of the death camps

Purpose To deepen understanding of the experience of soldiers who liberated death camps

Directions Ask students to put themselves in the role of Robert T. Johnson (quoted in A Personal Voice) or other soldiers who discovered the death camps. While persecution of the Jews was a part of Nazi propaganda, no one had any idea of the deadly efficiency with which the Nazis had transformed words into deeds. Ask students to write a journal entry or letter based on what they discover. Have students share their writing with the class.

Integrated Assessment

HISTORICAL SPOTLIGHTAudie MurphyAudie Murphy leveraged his fame as a soldier into an acting career in which he appeared in more than 40 movies. Perhaps the pinnacle of his acting career was the 1955 movie about his life, To Hell And Back, which dram-atized Murphy’s battlefield heroics.

Murphy was also a successful songwriter. His songs were recorded by such artists as Dean Martin, Charley Pride, and Porter Waggoner. Murphy died in an airplane acci-dent in 1971. Ask: Why do you think Audie Murphy became an American hero? (Murphy rose above the level of the common soldier and did something extraordinary.)

More About . . .

Survivors of Concentration CampsIsrael Lau was just eight years old when an American Jewish Chaplain, smiling and weep-ing, embraced him in Buchenwald on April 11, 1945. “‘How old are you, my child?’ he asked. ‘What difference does it make. I’m older than you,’ I answered. ‘Why do you think you are older than me?’ he asked. ‘Because you cry and laugh as a child. And I can’t even cry. So I must be older than you.’”

1. TDwiD-DOmaGeoBattV-E Har

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event one event three

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In his underground head-quarters in Berlin, Hitler pre-pared for the end. On April 29, he married Eva Braun, his longtime companion. The same day, he wrote out his last address to the German people. In it he blamed the Jews for starting the war and his gener-als for losing it. “I die with a happy heart aware of the immeasurable deeds of our soldiers at the front. I myself and my wife choose to die in order to escape the disgrace of . . . capitulation,” he said. The next day Hitler shot himself while his new wife swallowed poison. In accordance with Hitler’s orders, the two bodies were carried outside, soaked with gasoline, and burned. A week later, General Eisenhower accepted the unconditional surrender of the Third Reich. On May 8, 1945, the Allies celebrated V-E Day—Victory in Europe Day. The war in Europe was finally over.

ROOSEVELT’S DEATH President Roosevelt did not live to see V-E Day. On April 12, 1945, while posing for a portrait in Warm Springs, Georgia, the pres-ident had a stroke and died. That night, Vice President Harry S. Trumanbecame the nation’s 33rd president.

Dwight D. EisenhowerD-Day

Omar BradleyGeorge Patton

Battle of the BulgeV-E Day

Harry S. Truman

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

Vocabularycapitulation:surrender

New Yorkers celebrate V-E Day with a massive party that began in Times Square and went on for days at sites throughout the city.

MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTES

Create a time line of the major events influencing the fighting in Europe and North Africa.

Write a paragraph indicating how any two of these events are related.

CRITICAL THINKING3. EVALUATING DECISIONS

Do you agree with the decision made by Roosevelt and Churchill to require unconditional surrender by the Axis powers? Why or why not? Think About:

the advantages of defeating a foe decisively

the advantages of ending a war quickly

how other conflicts, such as the Civil War and World War I, ended

4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCESWhen President Roosevelt’s body was brought by train to Washington, Betty Conrad was among the servicewomen who escorted his casket.

“ The body in the casket was not only our leader but the bod-ies of all the men and women who had given their lives for freedom. They must not and will not have died in vain.”

What did Roosevelt’s body symbolize to Betty Conrad?

The United States in World War II 783

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HISTORY from VISUALSInterpreting the PhotographAsk students to put themselves in the photo-graph. Remind them of what they have read so they can get a better idea why people are so happy. Point out the man in the foreground with his fingers signaling “V” for victory. Ask students: How do you think you would have felt if you were alive on V-E Day? (Relieved and happy, but also sad at the loss and suf-fering that had taken place)

Assess & Reteach

Divide the class in half. Have the groups com-pete to answer questions 1 and 2 in the shortest time with the fewest errors. Then have the groups work on questions 3 and 4 cooperatively.

Formal Assessment

Have students write short narratives following a fictional American soldier through the events of World War II in North Africa and Europe between 1942 and 1945.

RETEACHUse the maps on pages 778 and 781 to review the events leading up to the liberation of Europe during World War II.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

1. TERMS & NAMESDwight D. Eisenhower, p. 778D-Day, p. 780Omar Bradley, p. 780George Patton, p. 780Battle of the Bulge, p. 782V-E Day, p. 783Harry S. Truman, p. 783

2. TAKING NOTESChoose any four dates: Dec. 22, 1941—Churchill and Roosevelt meet; Feb. 2, 1943—German troops surrender at Stalingrad; May 1943—Last of Afrika Korps surrenders; May 1944—Battle of Anzio ends; June 6, 1944—Allies invade Normandy; July 1944—Russians liberate first death camp; Jan. 1945—Germany loses Battle of the Bulge; May 8, 1945—V-E Day.

3. EVALUATING DECISIONSAgree: Hitler had to be crushed com-pletely so that he would not have the opportunity to rebuild his army. Disagree: If something less than unconditional surrender were required, the bloodshed would stop earlier and fewer Allied soldiers would be killed.

4. ANALYZING PRIMARYSOURCES

Roosevelt’s body symbolized the bodies of all the men and women who had given their lives for freedom.

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One American's Story

TAKING NOTES

SECTION

The writer William Manchester left college after Pearl Harbor to join the marines. Manchester says that, as a child, his “horror of violence had been so deep-seated that I had been unable to trade punches with other boys.” On a Pacific island, he would have to confront that horror the first time he killed a man in face-to-face combat. Manchester’s target was a Japanese sniper firing on Manchester’s buddies from a fisherman’s shack.

A PERSONAL VOICE WILLIAM MANCHESTER

“ My mouth was dry, my legs quaking, and my eyes out of focus. Then my vision cleared. I . . . kicked the door with my right foot, and leapt inside. . . . I . . . saw him as a blur to my right. . . . My first shot missed him, embedding itself in the straw wall, but the second caught him dead-on . . . . A wave of blood gushed from the wound. . . . He dipped a hand in it and listlessly smeared his cheek red. . . . Almost immediately a fly landed on his left eyeball. . . . A feeling of disgust and self-hatred clotted darkly in my throat, gagging me.”

—from Goodbye Darkness: A Memoir of the Pacific War

The Pacific War was a savage conflict fought with raw courage. Few who took part in that fearsome struggle would return home unchanged.

The Allies Stem the Japanese TideWhile the Allies agreed that the defeat of the Nazis was their first priority, the United States did not wait until V-E Day to move against Japan. Fortunately, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 had missed the Pacific Fleet’s submarines. Even more importantly, the attack had missed the fleet’s aircraft carriers, which were out at sea at the time.

American soldiers on Leyte in the Philippine Islands in late 1944.

DouglasMacArthurChester NimitzBattle of Midwaykamikaze

J. Robert OppenheimerHiroshimaNagasakiNuremberg trials

In order to defeat Japan and end the war in the Pacific, the United States unleashed a terrible new weapon, the atomic bomb.

Countries of the modern world struggle to find ways to prevent the use of nuclear weapons.

The War in the Pacific

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes on the war in the Pacific.

784 CHAPTER 25

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TEST-TAKING RESOURCES

Strategies for Test Preparation

Test Practice Transparencies TT97

Online Test Practice

APROGRAM RESOURCES

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

Guided Reading Workbook

Spanish/English Guided Reading Workbook

Access for Students Acquiring English/ESL

Formal Assessment

INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY

Electronic Library of Primary Sources

OBJECTIVESIdentify key turning points in the war in the Pacific.

Describe the Allied offensive against the Japanese.

Explain both the development of the atomic bomb and debates about its use.

Describe the challenges faced by the Allies in building a just and lasting peace.

SKILLBUILDERS

CRITICAL THINKING

Focus & Motivate Ask students to look at a map of the western Pacific and then think about how different it would be to fight a war in Japan rather than in Europe.

InstructObjective 1The Allies Stem the Japanese Tide

conquests?

Japanese?

fighting Japan?

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

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A. AnswerBoth were surprise naval attacks that resulted in sub-stantial destruc-tion of the enemy’s fl eet.

JAPANESE ADVANCES In the first six months after Pearl Harbor, the Japanese conquered an empire that dwarfed Hitler’s Third Reich. On the Asian mainland, Japanese troops overran Hong Kong, French Indochina, Malaya, Burma, Thailand, and much of China. They also swept south and east across the Pacific, conquering the Dutch East Indies, Guam, Wake Island, the Solomon Islands, and countless other outposts in the ocean, including two islands in the Aleutian chain, which were part of Alaska. In the Philippines, 80,000 American and Filipino troops battled the Japanese for control. At the time of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, General Douglas MacArthur was in command of Allied forces on the islands. When American and Filipino forces found them-selves with their backs to the wall on Bataan, President Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to leave. On March 11, 1942, MacArthur left the Philippines with his wife, his son, and his staff. As he left, he pledged to the many thousands of men who did not make it out, “I shall return.”

DOOLITTLE’S RAID In the spring of 1942, the Allies began to turn the tide against the Japanese. The push began on April 18 with a daring raid on Tokyo and other Japanese cities. Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle led 16 bombers in the attack. The next day, Americans awoke to headlines that read “Tokyo Bombed! Doolittle Do’od It.” Pulling off a Pearl Harbor–style air raid over Japan lifted America’s sunken spirits. At the same time, it dampened spirits in Japan.

BATTLE OF THE CORAL SEA The main Allied forces in the Pacific were Americans and Australians. In May 1942 they succeeded in stopping the Japanese drive toward Australia in the five-day Battle of the Coral Sea. During this battle, the fighting was done by airplanes that took off from enormous aircraft car-riers. Not a single shot was fired by surface ships. For the first time since Pearl Harbor, a Japanese invasion had been stopped and turned back.

THE BATTLE OF MIDWAY Japan’s next thrust was toward Midway, a strategic island which lies north-west of Hawaii. Here again the Allies succeeded in stopping the Japanese. Americans had broken the Japanese code and knew that Midway was to be their next target. Admiral Chester Nimitz, the commander of American naval forces in the Pacific, moved to defend the island. On June 3, 1942, his scout planes found the Japanese fleet. The Americans sent torpedo planes and dive bombers to the attack. The Japanese were caught with their planes still on the decks of their carriers. The results were dev-astating. By the end of the Battle of Midway, the Japanese had lost four aircraft carriers, a cruiser, and 250 planes. In the words of a Japanese official, at Midway the Americans had “avenged Pearl Harbor.” A

The Battle of Midway was a turning point in the Pacific War. Soon the Allies began “island hopping.” Island by island they won territory back from the Japanese. With each island, Allied forces moved closer to Japan.

BackgroundAllied forces held out against 200,000 invading Japanese troops for four months on the Bataan Peninsula. Hunger, disease, and bombardments killed 14,000 Allied troops and wounded 48,000.

ComparingA In what ways

were the American victory at Midway and the Japanese triumph at Pearl Harbor alike?

Four hundred Navajo were recruited into the Marine Corps as code talkers. Their primary duty was transmitting telephone and radio messages.

NAVAJO CODE TALKERSOn each of the Pacific islands that American troops stormed in World War II, the Japanese heard a “strange language gurgling” in their radio headsets. The code seemed to have Asian overtones, but it baffled everyone who heard it. In fact, the language was Navajo, which was spoken only in the American Southwest and tra-ditionally had no alphabet or other written symbols. Its “hiddenness” made it a perfect candidate for a code language. Though the Navajo had no words for combat terms, they developed terms such as chicken hawk for divebomber and war chief for commanding general.Throughout the Pacific cam-paign—from Midway to Iwo Jima—the code talkers were considered indispensable to the war effort. They finally received national recognition in 1969.

The United States in World War II 785The United States in World War II 785

ACTIVITY COOPERATIVE LEARNING BLOCK SCHEDULING

Creating a CodeClass Time 30 minutes

Task Creating a code

Purpose To gain an understanding of cryptology

Directions Divide students into small groups. Ask them to create a code using numbers as indicators. Have them write a sentence in their code. Then give each group a chance to crack the other’s code.

HISTORICAL SPOTLIGHTNavajo Code TalkersPhilip Johnston, the son of a missionary to the Navajo and one of the few non-Navajo people fluent in the Navajo language, was the man responsible for using Navajo in this crucial role. Johnston approached a Marine com-mander who arranged a test. The Navajo so out-performed all other code machines that the commander was impressed and began the Code Talker program immediately. Navajo Code Talkers provided indispensable service in every Marine assault in the Pacific from 1942 to the end of the war. Ask: Why do you think it took so long for Navajo Code Talkers to receive national recognition? (General prej-udice and a tendency to overlook the contri-butions of non-whites is a probable reason.)

More About . . .

The Battle of MidwayDespite catching the Japanese carriers unpre-pared at Midway, the battle at first went dis-astrously for the Americans. Speedy Japanese fighters cut down the slow torpedo bombers as they approached the Japanese carriers. But per-sistence paid off. Thirty six dive-bombers made it through the Japanese defenses and scored direct hits on carriers. A fourth carrier was later crippled, resulting in an overwhelming defeat for the Japanese navy.

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P A C I F I C O C E A N

I N D I A N O C E A N

A U S T R A L I A

D U T C H E A S T I N D I E S

MALAYABRUNEI

PHILIPPINESTHAILAND

INDOCHINA

BURMAINDIA

C H I N A

MANCHURIA(Provinceof China)

KOREAJAPAN

MONGOLIA

SOVIETUNION

,June 1942

,Oct. 1944

,June 1944

,July–Aug.1944

,Feb. 1944

,Jan.–Feb. 1944

,June–July 1944

,April–June1945

,Feb.–Mar. 1945

,Sept.–Nov. 1944

,Mar. 1944

,Aug. 1942–Feb. 1943,

May 1942

,Nov. 1943

,Aug. 6, 1945

,Aug. 9, 1945

N

S

EW

Japanese Empire and conquest

Major Allied campaign

Limit of Japanese advance

Atomic bombing

Major battle

0

0 800 1,600 kilometers

800 1,600 miles

War in the Pacifi c and in Europe

PACIFIC

EUROPE

1941 1942 1943Dec AprApr May JunJun Aug Nov Feb May

U.S. declares war on Japan.

Germany invades Greece and Yugoslavia.

Germany and Italy declare war on the United States.

Hitler orders attack on Stalingrad.

Allies land in North Africa.

German troops sur-render at Stalingrad.

Axisforcessurrender in North Africa.

Germany invades the Soviet Union.

U.S. surrenders Bataan in the Philippines.

Allies defeat Japan in Battle of Midway.Allies turn back Japanese fleet in Battle of the Coral Sea.

U.S. marines land on Guadalcanal.

World War II: The War in the Pacifi c, 1942–1945

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Movement Which island served as a jump-

ing-off point for several Pacific battles?2. Human-Environment Interaction How

do you think the distances between the Pacific islands affected U.S. naval strategy?

786 CHAPTER 25

DDIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION LESS PROFICIENT READERS

SeqHelpthemTheafte194

Map ReadingReading a map involves different spatial and visual skills than reading text. Students may need assistance reading a complicated map such as the one on this page. Have students work in pairs to analyze the map on page 786.

text and find it on the map.

It might be helpful for students to refer to the map as they create a time line for the war in the Pacific. Students may benefit from seeing a chronology for the battles shown on the map.

HISTORY from VISUALSInterpreting a MapAsk students to use the map to help them predict how the course of the war might have been different had the Japanese won the Battle of Midway. (Midway’s location near Hawaii is crucial. If the Japanese had won the Battle of Midway, they might have attempted an invasion of Hawaii. Certainly they would have delivered a crippling blow to the U.S. Navy and a discouraging one to the American people. This may have been so great a blow that the United States might have been forced to sue for peace in the Pacific.)

More About . . .

Island HoppingThe map illustrates the American strategy in fighting an ocean war with Japan. Remind stu-

the geography of the war put enormous pres-sure on the United States to supply forces thousands of miles from home. A strong navy, and the quick building of bases on newly con-quered islands, complete with port facilities and airfields, is what enabled the United States to wage a successful war, despite the geographic challenge.

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DrawingConclusionsB Why was the

Battle of Leyte Gulf so crucial to the Allies?

Allies win Battle of the Philippine Sea.

Allies win Battle of Leyte Gulf.

Allies capture Iwo Jima.

Allies capture Okinawa.U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Japan surrenders.

"Bloody Anzio" ends.

Allies liberate Paris.Germans attack Allies in Battle of the Bulge.

Allies invade Europe on D-Day.Soviets first liberate death camps.

V-E Day ends war in Europe.

Hitler commits suicide.Italians execute Mussolini.

1944 1945 1946May Jun Jul Aug Oct Dec Mar Apr May Jun Aug SepJul Sep

Alliesinvade Sicily.

Italy secretly surrenders to Allies.

The Allies Go on the Offensive The first Allied offensive began in August 1942 when 19,000 troops stormed Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. By the time the Japanese abandoned Guadalcanal six months later, they called it the Island of Death. To war corre-spondent Ralph Martin and the troops who fought there, it was simply “hell.”

A PERSONAL VOICE RALPH G. MARTIN

“ Hell was red furry spiders as big as your fist, giant lizards as long as your leg, leeches falling from trees to suck blood, armies of white ants with a bite of fire, scurrying scorpions inflaming any flesh they touched, enormous rats and bats everywhere, and rivers with waiting crocodiles. Hell was the sour, foul smell of the squishy jungle, humidity that rotted a body within hours, . . . stinking wet heat of dripping rain forests that sapped the strength of any man.”

—The GI War

Guadalcanal marked Japan’s first defeat on land, but not its last. The Americans continued leapfrogging across the Pacific toward Japan, and in October 1944, some 178,000 Allied troops and 738 ships converged on Leyte Island in the Philippines. General MacArthur, who had left the Philippines two years earlier, waded ashore and announced, “People of the Philippines: I have returned.”

THE JAPANESE DEFENSE The Japanese threw their entire fleet into the Battle of Leyte Gulf. They also tested a new tactic, the kamikaze ( ), or suicide-plane, attack in which Japanese pilots crashed their bomb-laden planes into Allied ships. (Kamikaze means “divine wind” and refers to a legendary typhoon that saved Japan in 1281 by destroying a Mongol invasion.) In the Philippines, 424 kamikaze pilots embarked on suicide missions, sinking 16 ships and damaging another 80. Americans watched these terrifying attacks with “a strange mixture of respect and pity” according to Vice Admiral Charles Brown. “You have to admire the devotion to country demon-strated by those pilots,” recalled Seaman George Marse. “Yet, when they were shot down, rescued and brought aboard our ship, we were surprised to find the pilots looked like ordinary, scared young men, not the wide-eyed fanatical ‘devils’ we imagined them to be.” Despite the damage done by the kamikazes, the Battle of Leyte Gulf was a dis-aster for Japan. In three days of battle, it lost 3 battleships, 4 aircraft carriers, 13 cruisers, and almost 500 planes. From then on, the Imperial Navy played only a minor role in the defense of Japan. B

Japanese kamikaze pilots pose—smiling—just before taking off on the mission that would be their last.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. Guam.2. The distances meant that the Allies had to leapfrog from one island to another, causing great diffi culties in transporting goods and men.

B. AnswerThe battle was a disaster for Japan. From then on, the Imperial Navy played only a minor role in the defense of Japan.

The United States in World War II 787

Is.

150 W

15 N

30 N

45 N

SKAS.)

Harbor

nquest

ce

s

600 miles

May

Axisforcessurrender in North Africa.

ea.

2

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION LESS PROFICIENT READERS

SequencingHelp students see the sequence of events that brought the war to a close. Ask them to write July, August, and September as heads for three columns on the page. Then give them the following dates to enter under the correct heads, leaving space after each date: July 16, 1945; August 9, 1945; July 25, 1945; September 2, 1945; August 6, 1945.

Help students enter the correct event next to each date:

Instruct: Objective 2The Allies Go on the Offensive

kamikazes?

Jima?

foretaste of an invasion of Japan?

More About . . .

GuadalcanalJapanese strategy on Guadalcanal was to wage a guerrilla war of attrition in the jungle. The Japanese questioned American resolve

combat on Guadalcanal was a trial of American grit and also a preview of what the

to be like for the remainder of the war.

More About . . .

Japanese Kamikaze PilotsAt first, young Japanese airmen considered it a great honor to volunteer for suicide missions. The pilots’ farewell letters were filled

wrote his family, “Think kindly of me and consider it my good fortune to have done something so praiseworthy.” Another left this final

the spring / Let us fall / Clean and radiant.”

e

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History ThroughHistory Through

Six marines were sent to replace the flag with an even larger one. Joe Rosenthal, a wire-service photographer, saw the second flag raising, grabbed his camera, and clicked off a frame without even looking through his viewfinder. Rosenthal’s photo appeared the next morning on the front pages of American newspapers. In the minds of Americans, it immediately replaced the gloomy, blurred images of Pearl Harbor going up in flames.

Photographer Lou Lowery documented the men of “Easy Company” hoisting an American flag on a makeshift pole atop Mount Suribachi. But the original flag was soon taken down to be kept as a souvenir by the commanding officer.

SKILLBUILDER Interpeting Visual Sources1. One of the Mount Suribachi images became one of the most

recognized, most reproduced images of World War II. Study the details and point of view in each photo. Explain why you think Rosenthal’s image, rather than Lowery’s, became important.

2. What human qualities or events do you think Rosenthal’s photograph symbolizes?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R23.

RAISING THE FLAG ON IWO JIMAOn February 19, 1945, the war in Europe was nearing its end, butin the Pacific one of the fiercest battles of World War II was aboutto erupt. On that day, 70,000 marines converged on the tiny, Japanese-controlled island of Iwo Jima. Four days later, they had captured Mount Suribachi, the island’s highest point, but the battle for Iwo Jima would rage on for four more weeks.

788 CHAPTER 25

DrawConC W

Okinasignifin thePacif

ACTIVITY LINK TO HUMANITIES BLOCK SCHEDULING D

Iconic ImagesClass Time 45 minutes

Task Explaining the meaning of a patriotic image or song

Purpose To understand the power of art and images to communicate beyond their literal meaning

Directions Explain to students that Rosenthal’s famous photograph has become an American icon. To Americans who grew up during or after the war, it is in indelible patriotic image. Ask students to think about other pictures, artworks, or songs that have that inspirational power for Americans, and have them bring in an example to show and explain what meaning they think Americans find in the work.

History Through Photojournalism

Interpreting the PhotographAfter the first flag raising, Marine battalion commander, Lt. Col. Chandler Johnson told 2nd Lt. Albert Tuttle to go down to a ship and get a large battle flag, “large enough that the men at the other end of the island can see it. It will lift their spirits also.” Tuttle found such a flag, 96 inches by 56 inches, on a ship. Later investigations revealed that the flag had been salvaged from a ship at Pearl Harbor. Rosenthal climbed the mountain shortly after the flag raising detail and nearly missed the shot when a Marine cameraman distracted him.

SKILLBUILDERInterpreting Visual Sources1. Rosenthal’s image shows six men strongly

united in the effort of raising the flag. The flag is in the process of being raised, thus symbolizing the difficulty of the struggle.

2. unity, cooperation, courage, triumph against odds

ApDeva testudwortheyresp

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KEY PLAYERKEY PLAYER

DrawingConclusionsC Why was

Okinawa a significant island in the war in the Pacific?

IWO JIMA After retaking much of the Philippines and lib-erating the American prisoners of war there, the Allies turned to Iwo Jima, an island that writer William Manchester later described as “an ugly, smelly glob of cold lava squatting in a surly ocean.” Iwo Jima (which means “sulfur island” in Japanese) was critical to the United States as a base from which heavily loaded bombers might reach Japan. It was also perhaps the most heavily defended spot on earth, with 20,700 Japanese troops entrenched in tun-nels and caves. More than 6,000 marines died taking this desolate island, the greatest number in any battle in the Pacific to that point. Only 200 Japanese survived. Just one obstacle now stood between the Allies and a final assault on Japan—the island of Okinawa.

THE BATTLE FOR OKINAWA In April 1945, U.S. Marines invaded Okinawa. The Japanese unleashed more than 1,900 kamikaze attacks on the Allies during the Okinawa cam-paign, sinking 30 ships, damaging more than 300 more, and killing almost 5,000 seamen. Once ashore, the Allies faced even fiercer opposition than on Iwo Jima. By the time the fighting ended on June 21, 1945, more than 7,600 Americans had died. But the Japanese paid an even ghastlier price—110,000 lives—in defending Okinawa. This total included two generals who chose ritual suicide over the shame of surrender. A wit-ness to this ceremony described their end: “A simultaneous shout and a flash of the sword . . . and both generals had nobly accomplished their last duty to their Emperor.” The Battle for Okinawa was a chilling foretaste of what the Allies imagined the invasion of Japan’s home islands would be. Churchill predicted the cost would be a million American lives and half that number of British lives. C

The Atomic Bomb Ends the War The taking of Iwo Jima and Okinawa opened the way for an invasion of Japan. However, Allied leaders knew that such an invasion would become a desperate struggle. Japan still had a huge army that would defend every inch of homeland. President Truman saw only one way to avoid an invasion of Japan. He decided to use a powerful new weapon that had been developed by scientists working on the Manhattan Project—the atomic bomb.

THE MANHATTAN PROJECT Led by General Leslie Groves with research direct-ed by American scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the development of the atomic bomb was not only the most ambitious scientific enterprise in history, it was also the best-kept secret of the war. At its peak, more than 600,000 Americans were involved in the project, although few knew its ultimate purpose. Even Truman did not learn about it until he became president. The first test of the new bomb took place on the morning of July 16, 1945, in an empty expanse of desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico. A blinding flash, which was visible 180 miles away, was followed by a deafening roar as a tremen-dous shock wave rolled across the trembling desert. Otto Frisch, a scientist on the project, described the huge mushroom cloud that rose over the desert as “a red-hot elephant standing balanced on its trunk.” The bomb worked!

DOUGLAS MACARTHUR1880–1964

Douglas MacArthur was too arro-gant and prickly to be considered a “regular guy” by his troops. But he was arguably the most brilliant Allied strategist of World War II. For every American soldier killed in his campaigns, the Japanese lost ten. He was considered a real hero of the war, both by the military and by the prisoners on the Philippines, whom he freed. “MacArthur took more territory with less loss of life,” observed journalist John Gunther, “than any military commander since Darius the Great [king of Persia,522–486 B.C.].”

C. AnswerIt was the last island that stood between the Allies and a fi nal assault on Japan. The battle itself was a foretaste of what the Allies imagined the fi nal invasion of Japan would be.

The United States in World War II 789

3

G DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS

e ble hat e to

Application of Science Development of the atomic bomb represented not only a scientific triumph but also a technological application of unprecedented destructive power. Have interested students discuss the responsibility of scientists for the practical results of their work. Ask the following questions: How can scientists pursue “pure” knowledge, if they must be alert for negative applications of their discoveries? Who should take responsibility for the application of theoretical knowledge?

RubricThe discussion should . . .

KEY PLAYERDouglas MacArthurMacArthur’s most lasting achievement may have been his role in rebuilding Japan after the war. He implemented a complete reform of the Japanese economic and political insti-tutions. What made his work so successful was his ability to adapt Japanese traditions to a westernized political and economic system. MacArthur had presidential ambitions but failed to gain the Republican nomination. Ask: Do you think MacArthur’s experience as a general and his work in Japan qualified him to run for president? (Some students will think the experience was valuable; others may think MacArthur was not political enough for the job.)

Instruct: Objective 3The Atomic Bomb Ends the War

bomb?

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

More About . . .

First Atomic Bomb TestJ. Robert Oppenheimer, in describing the first bomb test in New Mexico, recalled, “A few people laughed, a few people cried, most people were silent.” Oppenheimer himself said that as he watched the incredible spectacle, he thought of two passages from the ancient Hindu epic Bhagavad-Gita. First: “If the radi-ance of a thousand suns were to burst into the sky, that would be the splendor of the Mighty One.” But the second was, “I am become Death, the shatterer of worlds.”

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AnaMotD

Rooto mconcStalthe post

President Truman now faced a difficult decision. Should the Allies use the bomb to bring an end to the war? Truman did not hesitate. On July 25, 1945, he ordered the military to make final plans for dropping two atomic bombs on Japanese targets. A day later, the United States warned Japan that it faced “prompt and utter destruction” unless it surrendered at once. Japan refused. Truman later wrote, “The final decision of where and when to use the atomic bomb was up to me. Let there be no mistake about it. I regarded the bomb as a military weapon and never had any doubt that it should be used.”

HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI On August 6, a B-29 bomber named Enola Gay released an atomic bomb, code-named Little Boy, over Hiroshima, an important Japanese military center. Forty-three seconds later, almost every building in the city collapsed into dust from the force of the blast. Hiroshima had ceased to exist. Still, Japan’s leaders hesitated to surrender. Three days later, a second bomb, code-named Fat Man, was dropped on Nagasaki, leveling half the city. By the end of the year, an estimated 200,000 people had died as a result of injuries and radiation poisoning caused by the atomic blasts. Yamaoka Michiko was 15 years old and liv-ing near the center of Hiroshima when the first bomb hit.

A PERSONAL VOICE YAMAOKA MICHIKO

“ They say temperatures of 7,000 degrees centigrade hit me. . . . Nobody there looked like human beings. . . . Humans had lost the ability to speak. People couldn’t scream, ‘It hurts!’ even when they were on fire. . . . People with their legs wrenched off. Without heads. Or with faces burned and swollen out of shape. The scene Isaw was a living hell.”

—quoted in Japan at War: An Oral History

Emperor Hirohito was horrified by the destruction wrought by the bomb. “I cannot bear to see my innocent people suffer any longer,” he told Japan’s leaders tearfully. Then he ordered them to draw up papers “to end the war.” On September 2, formal surrender ceremonies took place on the U.S. battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay. “Today the guns are silent,” said General MacArthur in a speech marking this historic moment. “The skies no longer rain death—the seas bear only commerce—men everywhere walk upright in the sunlight. The entire world is quietly at peace.”

Hiroshima in ruins following the atomic bomb blast on August 6, 1945

790 CHAPTER 25

ACTIVITY COOPERATIVE LEARNING BLOCK SCHEDULING

Letters to Truman About Use of Atomic BombClass Time 30 minutes

Task Writing a letter to President Truman, advising him on what to do with the first two atomic bombs

Purpose To build an historical perspective about the reasons for using the bomb against Japan

Directions Divide students into small groups. Ask them to review the material they have read about the atomic bomb and then add their own opinions. Then have the group draft a letter, summarizing their reasoning to the president. Dissenting members can file a dissenting opinion.

Integrated Assessment

More About . . .

Hiroshima and NagasakiThe Hiroshima atomic bomb killed over 70,000 people on impact and injured 69,000. In Hiroshima, the bomb destroyed about 67 percent of the city’s structures. In Nagasaki, it is estimated that the bomb destroyed about 40 percent of the city. The Nagasaki bomb did less damage because of the geography of the city. It killed more than 39,000 and injured 25,000.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki have become centers for peace movements to ban atomic bombs. Hiroshima houses the Peace Memorial Park, which is located near the center of the atomic blast site. The park contains a museum and a memorial to those who died in the blast.

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

More About . . .

The Firebombing of TokyoIncredibly, Hiroshima and Nagasaki were not the worst blows absorbed by Japan. On March 9, 1945, 334 B-29 bombers bombed Tokyo, starting many fires which, whipped by high winds, turned into a terrible firestorm. This firestorm destroyed much of the city. The attack left more than 83,000 people dead, 125,000 wounded, and 1.2 million homeless.

PwcCwd

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C O U N T E R P O I N TC O U N T E R P O I N TP O I N TP O I N T

D. AnswerRooseveltwanted Soviet help in the war against Japan; He also wanted Soviet coopera-tion in establish-ing the United Nations.

THINKING CRITICALLYTHINKING CRITICALLY

1. CONNECT TO HISTORY Summarizing What were the main arguments for and against dropping the atomicbomb on Japan?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R4.

2. CONNECT TO TODAY Evaluating Decisions Do you think the United States was justified in using the bomb against the Japanese? In a paragraph, explain why or why not.

“Japan’s staggering losses were enough to force Japan’s surrender.”

Many of the scientists who had worked on the bomb, as well as military leaders and civilian policymakers, had doubts about using it. Dr. Leo Szilard, a Hungarian-born physicist who had helped President Roosevelt launch the project and who had a major role in develop-ing the bomb, was a key figure opposing its use. A petition drawn up by Szilard and signed by 70 other scientists argued that it would be immoral to drop an atomic bomb on Japan without fair warning. Many supported staging a demonstration of the bomb for Japanese leaders, perhaps by exploding one on a deserted island near Japan, to convince the Japanese to surrender. Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower agreed. He maintained that “dropping the bomb was completely unnecessary” to save American lives and that Japan was already defeated. Ike told

Secretary of War Henry Stimson, “I was against it [the bomb] on two counts. First the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn’t necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon.”

“The only way to end the war against Japan was to bomb the Japanese mainland.”

Many advisors to President Truman, including Secretary of War Henry Stimson, had this point of view. They felt the bomb would end the war and save American lives. Stimson said, “The face of war is the face of death.” Some scientists working on the bomb agreed—even more so as the casualty figures from Iwo Jima and Okinawa sank in. “Are we to go on shedding American blood when we have available a means to a steady victory?” they petitioned. “No! If we can save even a handful of American lives, then let us use this weapon—now!” Two other concerns pushed Americans to use the bomb. Some people feared that if the bomb were not dropped, the project might be viewed as a gigantic waste of money. The second consideration involved the Soviet Union. Tension and distrust were already developing between the Western Allies and the Soviets. Some American officials believed that a success -ful use of the atomic bomb would give the United States a powerful advantage over the Soviets in shaping the postwar world.

Rebuilding BeginsWith Japan’s surrender, the Allies turned to the challenge of rebuilding war-torn nations. Even before the last guns fell silent, they began thinking about principles that would govern the postwar world.

THE YALTA CONFERENCE In February 1945, as the Allies pushed toward victory in Europe, an ailing Roosevelt had met with Churchill and Stalin at the Black Sea resort city of Yalta in the Soviet Union. Stalin graciously welcomed the president and the prime minister, and the Big Three, as they were called, toasted the defeat of Germany that now seemed certain. For eight grueling days, the three leaders discussed the fate of Germany and the postwar world. Stalin, his country devastated by German forces, favored a harsh approach. He wanted to keep Germany divided into occupation zones—areas controlled by Allied military forces—so that Germany would never again threaten the Soviet Union. When Churchill strongly disagreed, Roosevelt acted as a mediator. He was prepared to make concessions to Stalin for two reasons. First, he hoped that the Soviet Union would stand by its commitments to join the war against Japan that was still waging in the Pacific. (The first test of the atom bomb was still five months away.) Second, Roosevelt wanted Stalin’s support for a new world peace-keeping organization, to be named the United Nations. D

AnalyzingMotivesD Why was

Roosevelt anxious to make concessions to Stalin concerning the fate of postwar Germany?

The United States in World War II 791

4

G

ave g

Pro Arguments: prevent additional Allied casualties; if the project were dropped, people would regard it as a great waste of money; suc-cess would give the United States an advantage over the Soviet Union. Con Arguments: immoral to drop the bomb on Japan without fair warning; unnecessary to drop the bomb because Japan was already defeated

CONNECT TO TODAYRubricThe paragraph should . . .

support the position

and benefits of the action taken

P O I N TCOUNTERPOINT

Objectives

ethics of using the atomic bomb

-sures to use the bomb

Instruct

Okinawa influence the decision to use the bomb against Japan?

bomb offer to Secretary Stinson?

Instruct: Objective 4Rebuilding Begins

States make near the end of the war?-

viving leaders of Germany and Japan?

ended?

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

More About . . .

The Yalta ConferenceIn February 1945, Roosevelt could not see the

needed. Both Roosevelt and Churchill believed Stalin would keep his word about elections in Eastern Europe. Russian domina-tion of those countries had begun. As the Red Army rolled across Eastern Europe, it not only killed Nazis, but also inserted Commissars into local politics.

THINKING CRITICALLY: ANSWERSTHINKING CRITICALLY: ANSWERS

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1.

M2.

The historic meeting at Yalta produced a series of compromises. To pacify Stalin, Roosevelt convinced Churchill to agree to a temporary division of Germany into four zones, one each for the Americans, the British, the Soviets, and the French. Churchill and Roosevelt assumed that, in time, all the zones would be brought together in a reunited Germany. For his part, Stalin promised “free and unfettered elections” in Poland and other Soviet-occupied Eastern European countries. Stalin also agreed to join in the war against Japan. That struggle was expected to continue for another year or more. In addition, he agreed to participate in an international conference to take place in April in San Francisco. There, Roosevelt’s dream of a United Nations (UN) would become a reality. E

THE NUREMBERG WAR TRIALS Besides geographic division, Germany had another price to pay for its part in the war. The discovery of Hitler’s death camps led the Allies to put 24 surviving Nazi leaders on trial for crimes against huma-nity, crimes against the peace, and war crimes. The trials were held in the southern German town of Nuremberg. At the Nuremberg trials, the defendants included Hitler’s most trusted party officials, government ministers, military leaders, and powerful industrial-ists. As the trial began, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson explained the significance of the event.

A PERSONAL VOICE JUSTICE ROBERT JACKSON“ The wrongs which we seek to condemn and punish have been so calculated, so malignant and so devastating, that civilization cannot tolerate their being ignored because it cannot survive their being repeated. . . . It is hard now to perceive in these miserable men . . . the power by which as Nazi leaders they once dominated much of the world and terrified most of it. Merely as individuals, their fate is of little consequence to the world. What makes this inquest significant is that these prisoners represent sinister influences that will lurk in the world long after their bodies have returned to dust. They are living symbols of racial hatreds, of terrorism and violence, and of the arrogance and cruelty of power. . . . Civilization can afford no compromise with the social forces which would gain renewed strength if we deal ambiguously or indecisively with the men in whom those forces now precariously survive.”

—quoted in opening address to the Nuremberg War Crimes Trial

SummarizingE What

decisions did Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin make at the Yalta Conference?

Each defendant at the Nuremberg trials was accused of one or more of the following crimes:

Crimes Against the Peace—planning and waging an aggressive war

War Crimes—acts against the customs of warfare, such as the killing of hostages and prisoners, the plundering of private property, and the destruction of towns and cities

Crimes Against Humanity—the murder, extermination, deportation, or enslavement of civilians

War Criminals on Trial, 1945–1949

E. AnswerThey agreed to a temporary division of Germany into four zones; Stalin promised that Soviet-occupiedEasternEuropean coun-tries would have free elections; Stalin agreed to send troops to defeat Japan; Stalin agreed to the establish-ment of the United Nations.

792 CHAPTER 25

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS

Human Rights LawThe Nuremberg Trials played a part in the development of international law that sanctions human rights. Ask students to research the Internet to find information on the foundations of human rights in international law. Then have them identify one place where human rights organizations have been effective in bringing atten-tion to the breaking of international law.

RubricThe research report should . . .

Integrated Assessment

More About . . .

The Nuremberg War TrialsThe Nuremberg trials (1945–1946) were con-ducted by the International Military Tribunal under authority from the London Agreement (1945), and negotiated by representatives of the United States, Great Britain, France and the Soviet Union. Among those tried and con-victed were Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler’s Foreign Minister, who negotiated the Hitler-Stalin Pact of 1939; Rudolf Hess, Hitler’s Vice Chancellor; Hermann Goering, head of the Luftwaffe; and Albert Speer, Hitler’s chief architect.

More About . . .

Rudolf HessHess was an early associate of Hitler’s whose loyalty earned him promotions in the Nazi hierarchy until he became Vice Chancellor, or the number-two man in the Nazi Party. In 1941, Hess, feeling his prestige falling, under-took a peace mission. He flew to Scotland and parachuted into the country with peace proposals. The British treated Hess as a pris-oner of war and ignored his peace proposals. Hitler rejected Hess, saying he was suffering from “pacifist delusions.” After the war, Hess was brought to Germany, tried, and convicted. He served a life sentence, dying in prison in 1987.

1. TDouCheBattkamJ. RHiroNagNur

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In the end, 12 of the 24 defendants were sentenced to death, and most of the remaining were sent to prison. In later trials of lesser leaders, nearly 200 more Nazis were found guilty of war crimes. Still, many people have argued that the trials did not go far enough in seeking out and punishing war criminals. Many Nazis who took part in the Holocaust did indeed go free. Yet no matter how imperfect the trials might have been, they did establish an important principle—the idea that individuals are responsible for their own actions, even in times of war. Nazi execu-tioners could not escape punishment by claiming that they were merely “following orders.” The principle of individual responsibility was now firmly entrenched in international law.

THE OCCUPATION OF JAPAN Japan was occupied by U.S. forces under the com-mand of General Douglas MacArthur. In the early years of the occupation, more than 1,100 Japanese, from former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo to lowly prison guards, were arrested and put on trial. Seven, including Tojo, were sentenced to death. In the Philippines, in China, and in other Asian battlegrounds, additional Japanese officials were tried for atrocities against civilians or prisoners of war. During the seven-year American occupation, MacArthur reshaped Japan’s economy by introducing free-market practices that led to a remarkable economic recovery. MacArthur also worked to transform Japan’s government. He called for a new constitution that would provide for woman suffrage and guarantee basic freedoms. In the United States, Americans followed these changes with interest. The New York Times reported that “General MacArthur . . . has swept away an autocratic regime by a warrior god and installed in its place a democratic gov-ernment presided over by a very human emperor and based on the will of the people as expressed in free elections.” The Japanese apparently agreed. To this day, their constitution is known as the MacArthur Constitution.

“ I was only followingorders.”

DEFENDANTS AT THE NUREMBERG TRIALS

Douglas MacArthurChester Nimitz

Battle of Midwaykamikaze

J. Robert OppenheimerHiroshima

NagasakiNuremberg trials

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTES

Using a chart such as the one below, describe the significance of key military actions in the Pacific during World War II.

Which military action was a turning point for the Allies?

CRITICAL THINKING3. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVEAt the trials, many Nazis defended themselves by saying they were only following orders. What does this rationale tell you about the German military? Why was it important to negate this justification?

4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONSExplain how the United States was able to defeat the Japanese in the Pacific.

5. EVALUATING DECISIONSIs it legitimate to hold people accountable for crimes committed during wartime? Why or why not?Think About:

the laws that govern society the likelihood of conducting a fair trial the behavior of soldiers, politi-cians, and civilians during war

Military Action Significance

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The United States in World War II 793

ng

the ce?

1. TERMS & NAMES 2. TAKING NOTESDoolittle’s raid:

Midway:Leyte Gulf:

Hiroshima:

3. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS

5. EVALUATING DECISIONSPeople should be prose

More About . . .

Emperor Hirohito

Assess & Reteach

RETEACH

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19AFmakHedr

TRAC I NG

T H E MES

1914–1918 WORLD WAR I

Science and TechnologyRadar, guided missiles, nuclear submarines, reconnaissance satellites, atomic bombs—the inventions of the 20th century seem intended mainly for war, with theusual dreaded results. But these technological developments have also had far-reaching applications in peacetime. Because the innovations were originally intend-ed for the battlefield, they were developed quickly and with a narrow purpose. However, their applications during peacetime have led to life-enhancing benefits that will extend far into the 21st century.

FIGHTER PLANES TO COMMUTER FLIGHTSAirplanes were first used to gather military information but were soon put to work as fighters and bombers. The Sopwith Camel (shownat right), was one of the most successful British fighter planes, bringing down almost 1,300 enemy aircraft during World War I. The development of flight technology eventually led to sophisticated supersonic aircraft. Today, non-military aircraft are primarily used for travel and cargo transport. Jumbo jets carry hun-dreds of passengers with each takeoff.

794

TRACINGTHEMES

Objectives

-

Focus & MotivateMaking Predictions -

(Students may cite wireless technolo-gy and the ability to receive and send mes-sages and entertainment from any place in the world.)

(Answers will vary.)

More About . . .

Supersonic Flight

-

The Invention That Changed the World.

Computer: A History of the Information Machine.

Out from Behind the Eight-Ball.

-

The Pulse of Radar.

A Is for Atom. --

The Age of Flight.

Distant Voices.

-

Echoes of War.Nova

Wings: The Jet Age.

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

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RESEARCH WEB LINKS

1939–1945 WORLD WAR IIATOM BOMBS TO BRAIN SCANSFaced with alarming rumors of work on a German atomic bomb, America mobilized some of the finest scientific minds in the world to create its own atomic bomb. The energy released by its nuclear reaction was enough to kill hundreds of thousands of people, as evidenced by the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. But the resulting ability to harness the atom’s energy also led to new technologies for diagnosing and treating human diseases. Techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) now reveal the inner workings of the human brain itself.

1945–1991 THE COLD WARSATELLITES TO CELLULAR PHONES The Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first successful artificial space satellite, in 1957. As the United States raced to catch up with the Soviets in space, both countries eventually produced satellites that have improved life for people around the world. Satellites not only track weather patterns and control air traffic but also link the continents in a vast communications network.

THINKING CRITICALLYTHINKING CRITICALLY

CONNECT TO HISTORY1. Hypothesizing Do you think that peacetime technolo-

gies would have been developed without the stimulus provided by war? Support your answer.

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R13.

CONNECT TO TODAY2. Evaluating Technological Impact What invention

or technological breakthrough do you think has had the greatest impact on American society? Write a paragraph to explain your answer. Stage a debate with your classmates in which you defend your choice.

PEACETIME USE

Transistors, radios, electronics

Software programs, video games

TV dinners, space-shuttle rations

Telephones, automobile fenders, pacemakers

Weather tracking, air traffic control, archaeological digs

MILITARY USE

Navigation

Code breaking

Soldiers’ rations

Parachutes, weaponsparts, tires

Tracking and surveillance

TECHNOLOGY

Semiconductors

Computers

Freeze-dried food

Synthetic materials

Radar

Applications of World War II Technology

The United States in World War II 795

. cing

eo, tary

Instruct1. Ask students to evaluate the importance

of the inventions and applications dis-cussed on pages 794–795. Then have the class rank the developments based on their usefulness.

2. Discuss civilian applications of the tech-nologies discussed on pages 794–795. (airplane—crop dusting, cloud seeding; nuclear power—generation of electricity; satellites—satellite TV, the Internet)

Make sure students understand the signifi-cance of digital technology and how it has changed the American economy from an industrial economy to an information econ-omy. Help students understand that digital technology will change the way they will earn a living. While their grandparents and even parents could make a decent living with a minimum of education and even technology, their prospects are likely to rise and fall with the technical skills and education they acquire.

More About . . .

Cellular Phones and Wireless TechnologyCellular telephones are an addition to the telephone company in industrialized coun-tries. But in the Third World, where the basic infrastructure for telephones and even electric-ity is nonexistent or of uncertain reliabil-ity, cellular telephones have enabled countries to leapfrog over an era of technology and create a working phone system with relatively little investment.

Peacetime inventions of the past or the motives such as profit, fame, and the desire to benefit humanity. The funding for or drive to do the research arose only because of wartime emergencies, Cold War competition, and threats to the nation’s survival.

RubricParagraphs should . . .

THINKING CRITICALLY: ANSWERSTHINKING CRITICALLY: ANSWERS

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Vocmigrof mone regio

AnaCauA

War U.S.to s

One American's Story

TAKING NOTES

SECTION

The Home Front

GI Bill of RightsJames Farmer Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

internment Japanese AmericanCitizens League (JACL)

After World War II, Americans adjusted to new economic opportunities and harsh social tensions.

Economic opportunities afforded by World War II led to a more diverse middle class in the United States.

The writer and poet Maya Angelou was a teenager living in San Francisco when the United States got involved in World War II. The first change she noticed was the disappearance of the city’s Japanese population. The second change was an influx of workers, including many African Americans, from the South. San Franciscans, she noted, maintained that there was no racism in their city by the bay. But Angelou knew differently.

A PERSONAL VOICE MAYA ANGELOU

“ A story went the rounds about a San Franciscan white matron who refused to sit beside a Negro civilian on the streetcar, even after he made room for her on the seat. Her explanation was that she would not sit beside a draft dodger who was a Negro as well. She added that the least he could do was fight for his country the way her son was fighting on Iwo Jima. The story said that the man pulled his body away from the window to show an armless sleeve. He said quietly and with great dignity, ‘Then ask your son to look around for my arm, which I left over there.’ ”

—I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

At the end of the war, returning veterans—even those who weren’t disabled—had to begin dealing with the very real issues of reentry and adjustment to a society that offered many opportunities but still had many unsolved problems.

Opportunity and AdjustmentIn contrast to the Great Depression, World War II was a time of opportunity for millions of Americans. Jobs abounded, and despite rationing and shortages, people had money to spend. At the end of World War II, the nation emerged as the world’s dominant economic and military power.

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes on the war’s effects on the home front.

Like many minority veterans, Obie Bartlett wastwice a patriot—and was still regarded as a second-class citizen.

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1

2

1

A

CC

T

P

PROGRAM RESOURCES

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

Farewell to Manzanar,

Guided Reading Workbook

Spanish/English Guided Reading Workbook

Access for Students Acquiring English/ESL

Formal Assessment

INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGYCritical Thinking Transp. CT59

Electronic Library of Primary Sources

OBJECTIVESDescribe the economic and social changes that reshaped American life dur-ing World War II.

Summarize both the opportunities and the discrimination African Americans and other minorities experienced during the war.

SKILLBUILDERS

CRITICAL THINKING

Focus & Motivate

women and minorities.

InstructInstruct: Objective 1Opportunity and Adjustment

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

TEST-TAKING RESOURCES

Strategies for Test Preparation

Test Practice Transparencies TT97

Online Test Practice

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WestCoast

Mountain andPlains States

Midwest

MiddleAtlantic

NewEngland

South–1,244,800+283,600

+26,300

+523,200

+386,800 +24,900

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Movement To which geographic region did the greatest number

of African Americans migrate?2. Movement How did the wartime economy contribute to this

mass migration?

ECONOMIC GAINS The war years were good ones for working people. As defense industries boomed, unemploy-ment fell to a low of 1.2 percent in 1944. Even with price and wage controls, average weekly pay (adjusted for inflation) rose 10 percent during the war. And although workers still protested long hours, overtime, and night shifts, they were able to save money for the future. Some workers invested up to half their paychecks in war bonds.

Farmers also prospered during the war. Unlike the depression years, when farmers had battled dust storms and floods, the early 1940s had good weather for growing crops. Farmers benefited from improvements in farm machinery and fertilizers and reaped the profits from rising crop prices. As a result, crop production increased by 50 percent, and farm income tripled. Before the war ended, many farmers could pay off their mortgages. Women also enjoyed employment gains during the war, although many lost their jobs when the war ended. Over 6 million women had entered the work force for the first time, boosting the percentage of women in the total work force to 35 percent. A third of those jobs were in defense plants, which offered women more challenging work and better pay than jobs traditionally associated with women, such as as waitressing, clerking, and domestic service. With men away at war, many women also took advantage of openings in journalism and other professions. “The war really created opportunities for women,” said Winona Espinosa, a wife and mother who became a riveter and bus driver during the war. “It was the first time we got a chance to show that we could do a lot of things that only men had done before.”

POPULATION SHIFTS In addition to revamping the economy, the war triggered one of the greatest mass migrations in American history. Americans whose fami-lies had lived for decades in one place suddenly uprooted themselves to seek work elsewhere. More than a million newcomers poured into California between 1941 and 1944. Towns with defense industries saw their populations double and even triple, some-times almost overnight. As shown in the map to the right, African Americans left the South for cities in the North in record numbers. A

Vocabularymigration: the act of moving from one country or region to another

The war gave women the chance to prove they could be just as productive as men. But their pay usually did not reflect their productivity.

AnalyzingCausesA How did World

War II cause the U.S. population to shift?

SkillbuilderAnswers1. The Midwest.2. There were defense jobs in northern factories.

A. AnswerIn towns and cities with defense plants, populationincreased.AfricanAmericans left the South for factory jobs in the North.

The United States in World War II 797

e

ns, was—

ACTIVITY LINK TO POPULAR CULTURE BLOCK SCHEDULING

Changing Attitudes Toward WomenClass Time 15 minutes

Task Discussing attitudes toward women’s roles in the 1940s

Purpose To understand changing social attitudes

Directions Have students hold a brief discussion in which they attempt to iden-tify the social values that were operating that dictated what happened to women at the time. Ask students to speculate about what happened and when attitudes toward women changed.

More About . . .

Women in the Postwar WorkforceThe employment gains made by women during the war proved to be short-lived. After the war was over, a massive propaganda campaign was mounted and the Department of Labor invoked seniority rules to force women to give up their jobs to returning servicemen. Women who continued to work were demoted to less-skilled jobs with smaller paychecks. Mean-while, federal subsidies for daycare centers were eliminated, raising the cost of childcare for working mothers or eliminating the service altogether.

HISTORY from VISUALSReading the Map Make sure students under-stand that the positive numbers in the arrows represent gains in Northern regions’ African-American populations; the negative number represents the loss from the South. Have them verify that the South’s loss equals the North’s gain by adding the positive numbers and comparing the negative number with that total.

Tracing Themes

Wartime MigrationIn addition to the mass African-American migration from the South, thousands of young men left home for military training in other parts of the country and then for service over-seas. The rapid growth of defense industries further changed American demographics as workers pulled up roots to follow the job opportunities.

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AnalCausC W

the rathe 1C. AnDiscrracistratioties i

Attending Pennsylvania State College under the GI Bill of Rights, William Oskay, Jr., paid $28 a month for the trailer home in which you see him working.

SOCIAL ADJUSTMENTS Families adjusted to the changes brought on by war as best they could. With millions of fathers in the armed forces, mothers struggled to rear their children alone. Many young children got used to being left with neighbors or relatives or in child-care centers as more and more mothers went towork. Teenagers left at home without parents sometimes drifted into juvenile delinquency. And when fathers finally did come home, there was often a painful period of readjustment as family members got to know one another again.

The war helped create new families, too. Longtime sweethearts—as well as couples who barely knew each other—rushed to marry before the soldier or sailor was shipped overseas. In booming towns like Seattle, the number of marriage licenses issued went up by as much as 300 percent early in the war. A New Yorker observed in 1943, “On Fridays and Saturdays, the City Hall area is blurred with running soldiers, sailors, and girls hunting the license bureau, floral shops, min-isters, blood-testing laboratories, and the Legal Aid Society.”

In 1944, to help ease the transition of returning servicemen to civilian life, Congress passed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, better known as the GI Bill of Rights. This bill provided education and training for veterans, paid for by the federal government. Just over half the returning soldiers, or about 7.8 million vet-erans, attended colleges and technical schools under the GI Bill. The act also pro-vided federal loan guarantees to veterans buying homes or farms or starting new businesses. B

Discrimination and Reaction Despite the opportunities that opened up for women and minorities during the war, old prejudices and policies persisted, both in the military and at home.

CIVIL RIGHTS PROTESTS African Americans made some progress on the home front. During the war, thousands of African Americans left the South. The major-ity moved to the Midwest, where better jobs could be found. Between 1940 and 1944, the percentage of African Americans working in skilled or semiskilled jobs rose from 16 to 30 percent.

AnalyzingEffectsB How did the

war affect families and personal lives?

ContrastingA How did the

American response to the Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor differ from Japanese expectations?

B. AnswerDuring the war, mothers became single parents and women took jobs outside the home. The war helped create new families.

798 CHAPTER 25

2

AACTIVITY COOPERATIVE LEARNING BLOCK SCHEDULING

Effect of DemobilizationClass Time 20 minutes

Task Predicting the effect on colleges and universities of the GI Bill

Purpose To understand the social and political impact of demobilization

Directions Help students understand the problems governments are faced with in demobilizing large armies. First ask students to predict what will happen when thousands of military personnel return to the United States after the war. What needs will these individuals have? Ask students to consider the effects of the GI Bill on colleges and universities. Ask them to consider how the GI Bill was a win-win situation for both veterans and the U.S. government.

Tracing Themes

The GI Bill of RightsThe GI Bill of Rights made the American dream a reality for millions of World War II veterans by providing them with education and unemployment allowances, and home, farm, and business loans. The GI Bill programs continue to cover men and women who served in the armed forces, including those who served in the Persian Gulf War and those serving in the Reserves and Army and Air National Guard.

More About . . .

GI Bill of RightsThe GI Bill offered free education to returning veterans. It was estimated that the bill pro-duced 450,000 engineers; 238,000 teachers; 91,000 scientists; 67,000 doctors; 22,000 dentists; and more than a million other col-lege-trained men and women. The World War II program cost the government approximately $14.5 billion.

Instruct: Objective 2Discrimination and Reaction / Internment of Japanese Americans

and in the military?

acceptance of African Americans?

internment camps?

for internment?

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7

CreCla

Task

Purabro

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AnalyzingCausesC What caused

the race riots in the 1940s?

Wherever African Americans moved, however, discrimination presented tough hurdles. In 1942, civil rights leader James Farmer founded an interracial organization called the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to confront urban segregation in the North. That same year, CORE staged its first sit-in at a segregated Chicago restaurant.

As African-American migrants moved into already overcrowded cities, ten-sions rose. In 1943, a tidal wave of racial violence swept across the country. The worst conflict erupted in Detroit on a hot Sunday afternoon in June. What started as a tussle between blacks and whites at a beach on the Detroit River mushroomed into a riot when white sailors stationed nearby joined the fray. The fighting raged for three days, fueled by false rumors that whites had murdered a black woman and her child and that black rioters had killed 17 whites. By the time President Roosevelt sent federal troops to restore order, 9 whites and 25 blacks lay dead or dying.

The violence of 1943 revealed to many Americans—black and white alike—just how serious racial tensions had become in the United States. By 1945, more than 400 committees had been established by American communities to improve race relations. Progress was slow, but African Americans were determined not to give up the gains they had made. C

TENSION IN LOS ANGELES Mexican Americans also experienced prejudice dur-ing the war years. In the violent summer of 1943, Los Angeles exploded in anti-Mexican “zoot-suit” riots. The zoot suit was a style of dress adopted by Mexican-American youths as a symbol of their rebellion against tradition. It consisted of a long jacket and pleated pants. Broad-brimmed hats were often worn with the suits.

The riots began when 11 sailors in Los Angeles reported that they had been attacked by zoot-suit-wear-ing Mexican Americans. This charge triggered vio-lence involving thousands of servicemen and civilians. Mobs poured into Mexican neighborhoods and grabbed any zoot-suiters they could find. The attackers ripped off their victims’ clothes and beat them senseless. The riots lasted almost a week and resulted in the beat-ing of hundreds of Mexican-American youth and other minorities.

Despite such unhappy experiences with racism, many Mexican Americans believed that their sacrifices during wartime would lead to a better future.

A PERSONAL VOICE MANUEL DE LA RAZA

“ This war . . . is doing what we in our Mexican-American movement had planned to do in one generation. . . . It has shown those ‘across the tracks’ that we all share the same problems. It has shown them what the Mexican American will do, what responsibility he will take and what leadership qualities he will demonstrate. After this struggle, the status of the Mexican Americans will be different.”

—quoted in A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America

These Mexican Americans, involved in the 1943 Los Angeles riots, are seen here leaving jail to make court appearances.

C. AnswerDiscrimination,racism, concen-tration of minori-ties in cities.

The United States in World War II 799

e ies

n er

r, me

s ook he r

ACTIVITY LINK TO CIVICS BLOCK SCHEDULINGG

in

I n-

Creating a Political CartoonClass Time 30 minutes

Task Creating a political cartoon commenting on World War II-era race riots

Purpose To communicate the irony of American minorities fighting for freedom abroad and facing prejudice and discrimination at home

Directions Briefly review the injustice and irony of how minorities were treated during a war for freedom and justice. Then have students choose either the Detroit or Los Angeles riot as a subject and create a cartoon that comments on the injus-tice and irony of the situation.

Integrated Assessment

More About . . .

Detroit Race Riot of 1943U.S. Army troops occupied Detroit for six months after the riot. The governor of Michigan commissioned an investigation of the causes of the riot. The commission quickly blamed African Americans. The mayor of Detroit praised the police force for its restraint despite the fact that 17 of the 25 African-American fatalities had been killed by the police. NAACP official and future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall excoriated both the mayor and the police for their han-dling of the riot.

More About . . .

Mexican Americans in Los AngelesBy 1940, Los Angeles had the largest urban population of people of Mexican descent out-side Mexico City. It also had a poor record of discrimination in jobs, housing, education, and recreation. Here is one example of that discrimination: A public swimming pool was open to Mexican Americans and African Americans only one day a week. After it closed for that day, the pool was drained, cleaned, and refilled before being reopened for whites.

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Internment of Japanese Americans

While Mexican Americans and African Americans struggled with racial tension, the war produced tragic results for Japanese Americans. When the war began, 120,000 Japanese Americans lived in the United States. Most of them were citi-zens living on the West Coast. The surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii had stunned the nation. After the bombing, panic-stricken citizens feared that the Japanese would soon attack the United States. Frightened people believed false rumors that Japanese Americans were committing sabotage by mining coastal harbors and poisoning vegetables. This sense of fear and uncertainty caused a wave of prejudice against Japanese Americans. Early in 1942, the War Department called for the mass evacuation of all Japanese Americans from Hawaii. General Delos Emmons, the military gover-nor of Hawaii, resisted the order because 37 percent of the people in Hawaii were Japanese Americans. To remove them would have destroyed the islands’ economy and hindered U.S. military operations there. However, he was eventually forced to order the internment, or confinement, of 1,444 Japanese Americans, 1 per-cent of Hawaii’s Japanese-American population. On the West Coast, however, panic and prejudice ruled the day. In California, only 1 percent of the people were Japanese, but they constituted a minority large enough to stimulate the prejudice of many whites, without being large enough to effectively resist internment. Newspapers whipped up anti-Japanese sentiment by running ugly stories attacking Japanese Americans. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed an order requiring the removal of people of Japanese ancestry from California and parts of Washington, Oregon, and Arizona. Based on strong recommendations from the military, he justified this step as necessary for national security. In the following weeks, the army rounded up some 110,000 Japanese Americans and shipped them to ten hastily constructed remote “relocation centers,” euphemisms for prison camps.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Location How many Japanese internment

camps existed in 1942?2. Place Why do you think the majority of these

camps were located in the West?

Japanese Relocation Camps, 1942

On March 3, 1942, a Japanese-American mother carries her sleeping daughter during their relocation to an internment camp.

SkillbuilderAnswers1. There were ten internment camps.2. The West was less populated. The internment camps were situated in remote areas.

800 CHAPTER 25

DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION GIFTED AND TALENTED

Japanese InternmentAsk students to use Internet and other research tools to read original articles involving the Japanese population in California in 1941 and 1942. Use the Los Angeles Times, San Francisco Chronicle, San Francisco Examiner, and Oakland Tribune between December 8, 1941, and February, 1942, when Roosevelt signed the executive order for internment. Have them report their findings to the rest of the class. Then discuss what the research suggests about the mainstream press and its reporting of the situation.

RubricThe research report should . . .

Integrated Assessment

More About. . .

Japanese-American InternmentThe following are excerpts from the instruc-tions given to Japanese Americans in California.

The Following Instructions Must Be Observed:

1. A responsible member of each family will report . . . to the Civil Control Station to receive further instructions. This must be done between 8:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M.on Monday, May 24, 1942, or between 8:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M. on Tuesday, May 25, 1942.

2. Evacuees must carry with them on depar-ture . . . the following property:(a) Bedding and linens (no mattress) for

each member of the family;(b) Toilet articles for each member of the

family;(c) Extra clothing for each member of the

family;(d) Sufficient knives, forks, spoons, plates,

bowls and cups for each member of the family;

(e) Essential personal effects for each member of the family.

3. No pets of any kind will be permitted.4. No personal items and no household

goods will be shipped.

Electronic Library of Primary Sources

In-Depth Resources: Unit 7Farewell to Manzanar,

Snow Falling on Cedars,

1. TGI BJamCon

pinteJapa

(J

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About two-thirds were Nisei, or Japanese people born in this country of parents who emigrated from Japan. Thousands of Nisei had already joined the armed forces, and to Ted Nakashima, an architectural draftsman from Seattle, the evac-uation seemed utterly senseless. D

A PERSONAL VOICE TED NAKASHIMA

“ [There are] electricians, plumbers, draftsmen, mechanics, carpenters, painters, farmers—every trade—men who are able and willing to do all they can to lick the Axis. . . . We’re on this side and we want to help. Why won’t America let us?”

—from New Republic magazine, June 15, 1942

No specific charges were ever filed against Japanese Americans, and no evi-dence of subversion was ever found. Faced with expulsion, terrified families were forced to sell their homes, businesses, and all their belongings for less than their true value. Japanese Americans fought for justice, both in the courts and in Congress. The initial results were discouraging. In 1944, the Supreme Court decided, in Korematsu v. United States, that the government’s policy of evacuating Japanese Americans to camps was justified on the basis of “military necessity.” (See pages 802–803.) After the war, however, the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) pushed the government to compensate those sent to the camps for their lost property. In 1965, Congress authorized the spending of $38 million for that purpose—less than a tenth of Japanese Americans’ actual losses. The JACL did not give up its quest for justice. In 1978, it called for the pay-ment of reparations, or restitution, to each individual that suffered internment. A decade later, Congress passed, and President Ronald Reagan signed, a bill that promised $20,000 to every Japanese American sent to a relocation camp. When the checks were sent in 1990, a letter from President George Bush accompanied them, in which he stated, “We can never fully right the wrongs of the past. But we can take a clear stand for justice and recognize that serious injustices were done to Japanese Americans during World War II.”

MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTES

List the advances and problems in the economy and in civil rights during World War II.

Which of these advances and problems do you think had the most far-reaching effect? Explain your answer.

CRITICAL THINKING3. COMPARING

How were the experiences of African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Japanese Americans similar during World War II? How were they different?

4. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEDo you think that the government’s policy of evacuating Japanese Americans to camps was justified on the basis of “military necessity”? Explain your answer.

5. ANALYZING EFFECTSWhat effect did World War II have on American families? Think About:

the role of women in families and the economy

the relationship between the races

the impact of the federal govern-ment on society

Advances Problems Economy

Civil Rights

GI Bill of RightsJames Farmer

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

internment Japanese AmericanCitizens League (JACL)

1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

AnalyzingMotivesD Why did

President Roosevelt order the internment of Japanese Americans?

D. AnswerBecause some people per-ceived them as a threat to national security

The United States in World War II 801

1. TERMS & NAMES 2. TAKING NOTESEconomy—Advances: -

Problems:

Civil Rights—Advances:

Problems:

3. COMPARING

Different:

4. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Yes

There

5. ANALYZING EFFECTS

More About . . .

Fred Korematsu

Assess & Reteach

RETEACH

The United States in World War II 801

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KOREMATSU v. UNITED STATES (1944)ORIGINS OF THE CASE Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, U.S. military officials argued that Japanese Americans posed a threat to the nation’s security. Based on recommendations from the military, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, which gave military officials the power to limit the civil rights of Japanese Americans. Military authorities began by setting a curfew for Japanese Americans. Later, they forced Japanese Americans from their homes and moved them into detention camps. Fred Korematsu was convicted of defying the military order to leave his home. At the urging of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Korematsu appealed that conviction.

THE RULING The Court upheld Korematsu’s conviction and argued that military necessity made internment constitutional.

LEGAL REASONINGExecutive Order 9066 was clearly aimed at one group of people—Japanese Americans. Korematsu argued that this order was unconstitutional because it was based on race. Writing for the Court majority, Justice Hugo Black agreed “that all legal restrictions which curtail the civil rights of a single racial group are immediately suspect.” However, in this case, he said, the restrictions were based on “a military imperative” and not “group pun-ishment based on antagonism to those of Japanese ori-gin.” As such, Justice Black stated that the restrictions were constitutional.

“ Compulsory exclusion of large groups, . . . except under circumstances of direct emergency and peril, is inconsistent with our basic governmental institutions. But when under conditions of modern warfare our shores are threatened by hostile forces, the power to protect must be commensurate with the threatened danger.”

Justice Frank Murphy, however, dissented—he opposed the majority. He believed that military necessity was merely an excuse that could not conceal the racism at the heart of the restrictions.

“ This exclusion . . . ought not to be approved. Such exclusion goes over ‘the very brink of constitutional power’ and falls into the ugly abyss of racism.”

Two other justices also dissented, but Korematsu’s conviction stood.

U.S. CONSTITUTION, FIFTH AMENDMENT (1791)“No person shall . . . be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.”

EXECUTIVE ORDER 9066 (1942)“I hereby authorize and direct the Secretary of War . . . to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he . . . may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded.”

HIRABAYASHI v. UNITED STATES(JUNE 1943)

The Court upheld the conviction of a Japanese-American man for breaking curfew. The Court argued that the curfew was within congressional and presi-dential authority.

EX PARTE ENDO(DECEMBER 1944)

The Court ruled that a Japanese-American girl, whose loyalty had been clearly established, could not be held in an internment camp.

LEGAL SOURCES

LEGISLATION

RELATED CASES

802 CHAPTER 25

HISTORIC DECISIONS OFTHE SUPREME COURT

Objectives

Korematsu United States -

Korematsu

Focus & MotivateDrawing Conclusions

-

-

More About . . .

Military Necessity

-

-

--

BOOKS

Korematsu v. United States: Japanese American Internment Camps.

Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II.

chieving the Impossible Dream: How Japanese Americans Obtained Redress.

Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians.

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

802 CHAPTER 25

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President Clinton presents Fred Korematsu with a Presidential Medal of Freedom during a ceremony at the White House on January 15, 1998.

WHY IT MATTEREDAbout 110,000 Japanese Americans were forced into internment camps, as shown above, during World War II. Many had to sell their businesses and homes at great loss. Thousands were forced to give up their possessions. In the internment camps, Japanese Americans lived in a prison-like setting under constant guard. The Court ruled that these government actions did not violate people’s rights because the restrictions were based on military necessity rather than on race. But the government treated German Americans and Italian Americans much differently. In those instances, the gov-ernment identified potentially disloyal people but did not harass the people it believed to be loyal. By contrast, the government refused to make distinctions between loyal and potentially disloyal Japanese Americans.

HISTORICAL IMPACTIn the end, the internment of Japanese Americans became a national embarrassment. In 1976, President Gerald R. Ford repealed Executive Order 9066.

Similarly, the Court’s decision in Korematsu became an embarrassing example of court-sanctioned racism often compared to the decisions on Dred Scott (1857) and Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). In the early 1980s, a schol-ar conducting research obtained copies of government documents related to the Hirabayashi and Korematsu cases. The documents showed that the army had lied to the Court in the 1940s. Japanese Americans had notposed any security threat. Korematsu’s conviction was overturned in 1984. Hirabayashi’s conviction was over-turned in 1986. In 1988, Congress passed a law order-ing reparations payments to surviving Japanese Americans who had been detained in the camps.

CONNECT TO HISTORY 1. Hypothesizing The internment of Japanese Americans

during World War II disrupted lives and ripped apart families. What do you think can be done today to address this terrible mistake? How can the government make amends?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R13.

CONNECT TO TODAY 2. Visit the links for Historic Decisions of the Supreme Court

to locate the three dissenting opinions in Korematsu writ-ten by Justices Frank Murphy, Robert Jackson, and Owen Roberts. Read one of these opinions, and then write a summary that states its main idea. What constitutional principle, if any, does the opinion use?

INTERNET ACTIVITY

THINKING CRITICALLYTHINKING CRITICALLY

The United States in World War II 803

THINKING CRITICALLY: ANSWERS

Instruct 1. What was the key conflict in the

Korematsu case?

2. What role did the military play in the Court’s decision?

3. What did Justice Murphy base his dis-sent on?

MAKING PERSONAL CONNECTIONS

Discuss how the use of wartime propaganda to build support for the war made it difficult, if not impossible, to stop the racial stereotyp-ing and hatred directed toward Japanese Americans.

More About . . .

Politics and the CourtThe Korematsu case ranks with Dred Scottand Plessy v. Ferguson as one of the low points of the Supreme Court. Hindsight clearly shows the racism and expediency behind the military’s thinking. What students of the Court are left to ponder is why a majority on the Court accepted the military’s evaluation with-out question. The politics of the war certainly made questioning the military a risky busi-ness. The decision was a case of a Court majority going along with the actions because the political energy to stand by the Constitution in wartime was not there.

CONNECT TO HISTORYStudents may refer to the compensations granted by the government in 1988 or may have additional suggestions as to reparations to Japanese Americans.

CONNECT TO TODAYRubricThe summary should . . .

-tutional principle cited

Justice

THINKING CRITICALLY: ANSWERS

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CHAPTER ASSESSMENT

THE UNITED STATES

IN WORLD WAR II

TERMS & NAMESFor each term or name below, write a sentence explaining its connection to World War II.

MAIN IDEASUse your notes and the information in the chapter to answer the following questions.

Mobilizing for Defense (pages 768–774) 1. How did the U.S. military reflect the diversity of American

society during World War II? 2. How did the federal government’s actions influence civilian

life during World War II? 3. What role did the media play in helping the country mobilize?

The War for Europe and North Africa (pages 775–783) 4. How did the Allies win control of the Atlantic Ocean between

1941 and 1943? 5. What was the significance of the Battle of Stalingrad? 6. How did the Battle of the Bulge signal the beginning of the

end of World War II in Europe?

The War in the Pacific (pages 784–793) 7. Briefly describe the island war in the Pacific. 8. Why did President Truman decide to use atomic weapons?

The Home Front (pages 796–801) 9. How did the U.S. economy change during World War II?10. What events show the persistence of racial tensions?

CRITICAL THINKING 1. USING YOUR NOTES In a chart like the one shown, provide

causes for the listed effects of World War II.

2. ANALYZING ISSUES Would you support the use of nuclear weapons today, and if so, under what circumstances?

3. INTERPRETING MAPS Judging from the map on page 778, why was a victory in North Africa essential to an invasion of southern Europe?

Effects

The U.S. enters the war.

Congress creates the Office of Price Administration.

Japanese Americans are sent to relocation centers.

Top Nazi officials are put on trial at Nuremberg.

Causes

LONG-TERM CAUSES

Defeat of Axis powers Destruction and immense loss of life Recognition of Holocaust Founding of United Nations

WORLD WAR II

Expansion of Germany, Italy, and Japan

Failure of appeasement German invasion of Poland Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

Rise of United States and Soviet Union as superpowers

Cold War Soviet control of Eastern Europe Divided Germany Development of nuclear capability

IMMEDIATE CAUSES

IMMEDIATE EFFECTS

LONG-TERM EFFECTS

VISUAL SUMMARY

Discontent about Treaty of Versailles Economic instability in Europe Rise of totalitarian governments

CHAPTER

1. A. Philip Randolph 2. Manhattan Project3. rationing

4. Dwight D. Eisenhower 5. D-Day 6. V-E Day

7. Douglas MacArthur 8. Hiroshima 9. GI Bill of Rights 10. Congress of Racial

Equality (CORE)

804 C H A PT E R 25

804 CHAPTER 25

TERMS & NAMES1. A. Philip Randolph, p. 7722. Manhattan Project, p. 7733. rationing, p. 7744. Dwight D. Eisenhower, p. 7785. D-Day, p. 7806. V-E Day, p. 7837. Douglas MacArthur, p. 7858. Hiroshima, p. 7909. GI Bill of Rights, p. 798

10. Congress of Racial Equality, p. 799

MAIN IDEAS1. It included large numbers of white,

African Americans, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and Asian Americans.

2. It drafted civilians and established a sys -tem of rationing and other economic controls.

3. The media issued propaganda films that stressed the alliance between the United States and the Soviet Union and rein-forced the view of Germany as the enemy.

4. They used the convoy system and an accelerated shipbuilding program.

5. Soviets stopped Hitler’s eastward expan-sion and diverted German troops from the western front.

6. Germany could not replace the manpower and weapons it lost, and could only retreat.

7. The Allies adopted a policy of leapfrog-ging from island to island, all the time moving westward toward the Japanese homeland.

8. The United States wanted to avoid the casualties that would result from an inva-sion of Japan, and to end the war quickly.

9. Unemployment decreased, women took jobs outside the home, and housing and food were in short supply.

10. Racial riots in Detroit, zoot suit riots in Los Angeles, and the internment of Japanese Americans.

IN

RuTh

m

t

Cause: Japan bombs Pearl Harbor. Effect: The United States enters the war. Cause: The threat of inflation. Effect: Congress creates the OPA. Cause: Japanese Americans are seen as a security threat. Effect: Japanese Americans are sent to relocation centers. Cause: The Allies discover Hitler’s death camps. Effect: Top Nazi officials

are put on trial at Nuremberg. Yes: Use of

nuclear weapons is justified to respond to an enemy attack or to prevent an enemy from using them. No: Using atomic weapons is not justified because they kill and maim indiscriminately. The use of nuclear weapons by one country may provoke another country into using them, thus

resulting in a nuclear holocaust that would destroy the world.

North Africa and southern Europe are sepa-rated only by the Mediterranean Sea. Once the Allies secured North Africa, they could use it as a launching pad to send forces and supplies into southern Europe.

CRITICAL THINKING

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UNIT

PROJECT

Tokyo

CHINA

PHILIPPINES120 E

135 E

30 N

45 N

150 E

JAPANKOREA

MANCHURIA(Provinceof China)

Okinawa

Formosa

IwoJima

P A C I F I C

O C E A N

0 500 1000 kilometers

0 500 1000 miles

INTERACT WITH HISTORY

Think about the issues you explored at the beginning of the chapter. Write a newspaper article in which you describe the ways in which the United States used its resources during World War II. Include infor-mation about rationing and about the various offices that the federal government established to monitor inflation and convert a peacetime economy into a wartime economy.

Use the map and your knowledge of U.S. history to answer question 1.

1. Why was it critical for the Allies to take the Japanese-held islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa?

A The islands were highly populated areas with little military protection.

B The islands were critical as bases from which Allied bombers could reach Japan.

C The islands were centers for Japanese develop-ment of a nuclear bomb.

D The Allies intended to drop atomic bombs on the islands.

2. How did World War II lead to one of the largest population shifts in U.S. history?

F Service men and women were forced to leave their homes for Europe.

G The loss of loved ones led people to move in with their families.

H People moved to states with military bases and factories for better jobs.

J People moved to the middle of the country to escape wars on both coasts.

3. How did natural geography contribute to Germany’s defeat in World War II?

A Large bodies of water stood between Germany and its enemies.

B Germany had to fight a war on three fronts: North Africa, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.

C There were too few rivers to be used for German supplies.

D Switzerland pledged to remain neutral through-out the war.

For additional test practice, go online for: Diagnostic tests Tutorials

MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITY

Visit the Chapter Assessment links to find out more about A. Philip Randolph. Create a Web site dedicated to his lifelong contributions as a labor leader. Include a biography with details about his life and his work.

STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE

FOCUS ON WRITING

Imagine that you work for the U.S. military. Your job is to recruit new soldiers. Write a persuasive essay to be published in newspapers across the nation. In your essay, use vivid details and figurative lan-guage to describe the significance of the attack on Pearl Harbor and to explain why the military needs Americans to enlist.

The United States in World War II 805

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STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE

The United States in World War II 805

INTERACT WITH HISTORY

RubricThe newspaper article should . . .

FOCUS ON WRITING

Rubric

MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITY

Rubric

1. The correct answer is letter B.

2. The correct answer is letter H.

losses would not have resulted in such

3. The correct answer is letter B.

DEBATE

Tips for Teaching

evidence.

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