The Golden Quest:A Comparative Study of Common Mythological Motifs in

Oriental and Occidental Traditions of Alchemy

Urmi Chanda-VazAdv. PG Diploma in Comparative Mythology,

Dept. of Sanskrit, University of Mumbaie: urmi.chanda@gmail.com

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INDEX

Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 3

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 4

2. A Brief History of Alchemy .............................................................................................. 6

3. Some important tenets ................................................................................................... 9

4. Creation motifs ................................................................................................................. 11

5. Animal myths and symbols ............................................................................................. 17

6. Gods, Priests and Alchemists ............................................................................................. 22

7. The Mythology of Metals ................................................................................................ 36

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 45

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Abstract

The beginnings of alchemy mark an interesting period between mythical time and historical time.Between the primitive understanding of nature and the development of science, alchemy bridges agap with magic and mythology. It may have had its share of brickbats in the modern times, butalchemy has allured and intrigued the minds of some of history's best men. These men tried to makesense of and replicate nature in their labs, aiming for perfection symbolized by gold. In exoteric terms,they sought to create the pure, precious metal and in esoteric terms, they sought a pureconsciousness. This fascinating branch of knowledge was best explained and understood through mythand allegory. This paper attempts a comparative study of mythological motifs, tenets and tales inorder to understand the common ground of all aspirants of the Golden Quest.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Change is everywhere. The immutable cycles of night and day, birth and death, and the seasons must

have proved to man very early in time that change indeed is the law of nature. Man must have beheld

in awe the transformation of a caterpillar to a butterfly, water to ice, seed to plant, the human infant

to an old person and many such processes in nature. He must have bowed to the powers that could

bring about these miraculous changes and eventually wondered if he could do the same.

Just as things change in nature, he must have aspired to change the nature of things, giving rise to the

first experiments with materials like plants and stones around him. 'Celestial stones' or meteors

will have especially fascinated the primitive man, as Mircea Eliade suggests in his book, The Forge and

the Crucible'. The prehistoric man's first brush with these mysterious metallic substances was perhaps

the beginning of the magic associated with it. When ores were eventually discovered, man realised

how these sacred, secret treasures could be purified or completely changed in combination with other

substances.

The idea of such transmutation did not restrict itself to materials in nature. Man extended it to the

realm of his body and mind and started trying to purify, to perfect them. This led to the development

of a three-fold ideology of the transmutation of man, metal and mind that has come to be

understood as Alchemy. The spiritual or mental aspects of alchemy were naturally a later

development. In its initial phase, alchemy restricted itself to transmuting metals (into gold) and finding

elixirs (of immortality). It is on these grounds that most definitions of alchemy are based. Some of

them have been considered below:

The Oxford English Dictionary offers the two following definitions:

The medieval forerunner of chemistry, concerned with the transmutation of matter, in

particular with attempts to convert base metals into gold or find a universal elixir.

A seemingly magical process of transformation, creation, or combination.

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Mircea Eliade's definition1 of alchemy is given with respect to man accelerating or slowing down

nature's temporal processes. He says:

Thus it seems that the central secret of the Art (alchemy) is related to the alchemist's

mastery of cosmic and human time.

Carl Jung, on the other hand, sees psychological truths in alchemical processes. In his book

Psychologie und Alchemie, he says:

Alchemy is a symbolic representation of the individuation process. He adds, Only by

discovering alchemy have I clearly understood that the Unconscious is a process and that ego's

rapports with the unconscious and his contents initiate an evolution, more precisely a real

metamorphoses of the psyche.

Of these, H J Sheppard's definition seems most precise and all encompassing.

Alchemy is the art of liberating parts of the Cosmos from temporal existence and achieving

perfection which for metals is gold, and, for man, longevity, then immortality, and finally

redemption.

Because the traditions of alchemy have been greatly varied across time and cultures, definitions of

alchemy are equally diverse. However the three enlisted definitions offer insights into three definitive

views on the subject. Interest in research in this field has been sustained and more ideas and

definitions have been forthcoming.

However, this paper deals primarily with the mythological aspects of alchemy. This study aims to

conduct a comparative study of the common myths and motifs that occur across different alchemical

traditions. From the east to the west, an assessment will be made of the recurrent or divergent myths

and symbols in order to understand the primeval patterns pertaining to metals, man and his mind.

1 Mircea Eliade, 'What is Alchemy?', Hidden Truths: Magic, Alchemy and the Occult (Religion, History and Cultural Selections from The Encyclopedia of Religion), Edited by Lawrence E. Sullivan, (Macmillan Publishing Company), p. 246

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2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF ALCHEMY

The subject of alchemy has always been shrouded in mystery and myth. Christian myths about the

origin of alchemy also abound where God is supposed to have taught Adam this art, or where fallen

angels taught it to human women in exchange for sex2! There are also theories about how alchemy

was taught by aliens or that it was a lost art of Atlantis3.

In his iconic book, The Forge and the Crucible, Eliade traces a convincing evolution of alchemy from

prehistoric times. But some scholars believe that the roots of alchemy were not all that ancient and

that it emerged from the melting pot of Egyptian, Greek and oriental cultures as late at the 12 th

century CE4. Still others are of the opinion that alchemy has its roots in China in the 4 th century BCE5.

Each of these nations have their respective histories of alchemy that will be considered shortly.

However, but for the sake of this paper, we shall turn to the popular view of alchemical history,

choosing Egypt as our starting point.

The origins of alchemy are most commonly attributed to Hermes Trismegistes or Hermes 'Three times

Great' of ancient Egypt. This sage-like character is believed to have lived anywhere between the 19 th

and 13th centuries BCE. A seeming fusion of the Egyptian god, Thoth and the Greek god, Hermes, he is

more legend than history. But it is plausible to attribute the beginnings of alchemy to the land of Egypt

where we have the first known instances of embalming and mummification. These ancient procedures

presupposed experiments with natural chemicals and hence the popular notion of Egypt being

alchemy's original home.

Sources point us to Egypt where the Corpus Hermeticum a compendium of fifteen manuscripts

about alchemy and the famous Tabula Smaragdina (emerald tablet), which are thought to have been

2 Robert Allen Bartlett, Real Alchemy: A Primer of Practical Alchemy, (Nicolas-Hays, Inc., 2009), p 13 Ibid.4 A. Tramer, R. Voltz, F. Lahmani & and J. Szczepinska-Tramer, What Is (Was) Alchemy? (Acta Physica Polonica A,

supplement, Vol 112, 2007), p S-55 Trevor H. Levere, Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball, (John Hopkins University

Press, 2001), p 3

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authored by Hermes Trismegistes6. According to a myth, which tries to make a Biblical connection with

alchemy, the Tabula Smaragdina was discovered by Sara, wife of Abraham, at the tomb of Hermes

Trismegistes. The corpse of the sage was supposedly found clutching the tablet to his chest 7. These

texts were preserved and found in Greece and then made available through translations. The earliest

Latin translations made the text obscure, so it is through Jbir ibn ayyan's version that the world was

acquainted to them. The Arabic corpus was discovered by E J Holmyard, a science historian of the 19 th

century CE. He declared that the Arabic Jabirian corpus was indeed one of the oldest, but the base

text may have been Greek.

It is easy to be confounded by these mixed, roundabout histories when it comes to alchemy. But

broadly speaking, the knowledge of alchemy traveled from Egypt to the Hellenistic and Islamic world

in the early centuries of the Common Era. After the fall of the Latin Empire, alchemy lay forgotten for

many centuries. However, it continued to be developed in the east at the time especially in India,

China and the Arabic nations. Interest in alchemy was revived in Europe through Spain 10 th century CE

onwards. From then on, right upto the Industrial Revolution, alchemy influenced not just the realms of

material sciences but also those of philosophy and metaphysics. Having started with Egypt, we shall

briefly outline the respective alchemical histories of the other nations below.

Chinese alchemy

Central to Chinese alchemy is the mineral cinnabar. The importance given to cinnabar and other

blood-coloured compounds can be traced back to the Neolithic times in China8. Several burials with

red mineral compounds have been unearthed. It is, therefore, veritably argued that the Chinese were

among the first practitioners of alchemy, alongside Hellenistic Egypt.

Chinese alchemy has strong philosophical links with Lao Tzu's Taoism, which came to be popular

around the 6th century BCE. Chan Tao Ling, the first Taoist pope, spent many years studying alchemy

and even succeeding in creating the elixir of immortality. A popular myth says Ling took the elixir and

6 Mark Haeffner, Dictionary of Alchemy, (Karnac Books, 2004), p 1187 Ibid.8 Nathan Sivin, 'Chinese Alchemy' in Hidden Truths: Magic, Alchemy and the Occult (Religion, History and Cultural

Selections from The Encyclopedia of Religion), Edited by Lawrence E. Sullivan, (Macmillan Publishing Company), p. 257

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became perfectly youthful at age sixty9. People flocked to him in thousands to get this miraculous

solution. Because he demanded sackfuls of rice in return, he was dubbed the 'rice thief'. He is said to

have ascended to heaven at the age of 122. These myths and stories place the beginnings of Chinese

alchemy firmly in the early Christian era.

Chinese alchemy is centred around ideas of immortality of the body and spirit and induction into the

divine ranks once immortality was assumed. Laboratory-made metal-based compounds were

consumed to attain those goals. These ideas were communicated through metaphors drawn from

nature and popular religion. In time, these ideas evolved and acquired a spiritual character. Eventually

core alchemical practices ceased to exist mainstream, but its remnants can be seen to this day in the

still extant system of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).

Indian alchemy

The origin of Indian alchemy has been attributed to the semi-mythical sage called Nagarjuna. There

may have been several texts across centuries roughly 2nd to the 12th centuries CE10 developing

alchemical studies by several authors, but only one author is given credit. Texts like Kaksaputa Tantra,

Rasendramangalam, and Sushruta Samhita were important texts of alchemy. Alchemy in India has two

branches viz. Hindu alchemy and Buddhist alchemy but there are several overlaps. Schools of Yoga,

Tantra, Vajrayana Siddha, Nathas share several precepts of alchemy. The Hindu branch, with its focus

on mercurial solutions, is known as dhatuvada, while the Buddhist branch is called rasayana.

The Hindu premise of alchemy is based on the idea that everything is an emanation of the Supreme

and everything must return to it. With the use of alchemical solutions in conjunction with

meditational practices, sacrifices and prayers and person could perfect his body and become, in

essence, like the Supreme. Gold was the standard of eternity and purity and the elements used most

in the alchemist's lab were mercury and sulphur. A perfected body, free of age and disease and full of

powers would be a jivanmukta or a siddha.

9 K. S. Tom, Echoes from Old China: Life, Legends, and Lore of the Middle Kingdom, (University of Hawaii Press, 1989), p 65

10 David White, 'Indian Alchemy' in Hidden Truths: Magic, Alchemy and the Occult (Religion, History and Cultural Selections from The Encyclopedia of Religion), Edited by Lawrence E. Sullivan, (Macmillan Publishing Company), p. 262

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The Buddhist conception was a little more metaphysical and focused on purifying the mind in pursuit

of the Bodhicitta. Alchemy was of the mind rather than matter. Sexual, meditative and yogic

processes were used to attain those ends.

Jaina alchemy, which also contributed in a big way to Indian chemical sciences, developed in the later

stages early Middle Age11. However, Jaina tradition also traces back the beginnings of alchemy to

Sage Nagarjuna.

Islamic alchemy

Alchemy's strong connections with the Islamic world is perhaps most evident from the etymologies of

common 'alchemical' words. Take for example the following Arabic words: al-kmya (alchemy), ai-iksr

(elixir), and ajar al-falsifa (philosopher's stone). The word al-kmya refers to the art of

transmutation, and as with other traditions of the world, Islamic alchemy also referred to physical and

spiritual transmutation. Purification of metals and that of the soul were the two aims of alchemy. In

Sufi thought, the iksr stood for divine truth that would transform and purity the soul of the mystic.

The words and ideas come from Greece and the Muslim world acknowledges the masters of the

ancient world viz. Aristotle, Galen, Socrates and Plato among others. The Arabs trace back the

tradition to Adam, and the most venerated Muhammad was also said to practice and endorse alchemy

during the 7th century CE. Al ibn Ab Tlib and Khlid ibn Yazd and later Jbir ibn ayyan were among

the prominent names in alchemy in that period12. Definitive historical accounts of Islamic alchemy

come in with the Jabirian corpus of Jbir ibn ayyan and later, Al Rz in the 9 th - 10th centuries CE from

where it traveled to Medieval Europe.

Hellenistic and Medieval alchemy

The Jewish community seems to have been the harbinger of alchemy in medieval Europe. The earliest

legends are that of Maria the Jewess, aka Maria Hebraea or Maria Prophetissa who seems to have

11 J C Sikdar, Jaina Alchemy, (Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol 15, no. 1, 1980), p 612 Habibeh Rahim, 'Islamic Alchemy' in Hidden Truths: Magic, Alchemy and the Occult (Religion, History and Cultural

Selections from The Encyclopedia of Religion), Edited by Lawrence E. Sullivan, (Macmillan Publishing Company), p. 264

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lived in the first and third centuries CE13. She is credited to have formulated several alchemical

solutions and authored treatises on the subject. She is also said to have developed the colour

gradation system that is so characteristic of later Hellenistic alchemy14. Maria also stood for both

aspects of this tradition exoteric and esoteric.

Hellenistic alchemy was a complex system of beliefs and practices, which assumed religious and cultic

significance in the early centuries of the common era. Deriving from the philosophies of ancient Greek

philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, and the Stoics and from the esoteric interpretations of

Islamic, medieval European alchemy came to be characterised by gnosticism, Hermeticism, ritualism,

and symbolism in addition to lab-oriented practices.

This brief historical basis helps us understand when and how the culture of alchemy developed

through time and across continents. Further in this paper, the myths and symbols of alchemy from all

these traditions will be compared and contrasted.

13 Raphael Patai, The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book, (Princeton University Press, 2014), p 1014 Mark Haeffner, Dictionary of Alchemy, (Karnac Books, 2004), p 169

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3. IMPORTANT TENETS

Hermeticism: The term Hermeticism (or Hermetism) is derived from the word, 'Hermes'. Hermes

Trismegistus (thrice great) is a legendary philosopher from ancient Egypt and often identified with

the Egyptian god, Thoth or the Greek God, Hermes. He is supposed to have given mankind the

knowledge of the three great arts of alchemy, astrology and theurgy. Hermeticism, thus, is a religious

and philosophical tradition that has to do with the study and practice of these arts. Its wisdom is to be

found in a body of literature comprising The Corpus Hermeticum, The Emerald Tablet of Hermes

Trismegistus and The Perfect Sermon (also known as The Asclepius). Its practitioners are called

Hermetics. The wisdom of Hermes travelled from Egypt to Greece to Rome to Arabia and then Europe.

It was considered a forerunner to the development of science and gained great traction in medieval

Europe during the Renaissance and Reformation. Its most famous adherents include Plutarch, St.

Thomas of Aquinas, John Donne, Isaac Newton and Walter Scott.

Philosopher's stone: Also known in Latin as the Lapis Philosophorum, the

Philosopher's Stone is central to the Western school of alchemy. It is

understood to be a legendary alchemical substance that is capable of

transforming any metal like lead into gold (or silver), heal people and prolong

life. The process of creating the Philosopher's Stone has been described as

the Magnum Opus. But the concept has metaphorical allusions too and is

thought to be a symbol of personal transformation. It known by many other

terms15 such as The Stone of the Wise, The Celestial Ruby, The Elixir of Life

and Tincture among others. There are a few Biblical myths associated with

the Philosopher's Stone. One myth says this stone was given to Adam by God

himself and another refers to it as the rejected cornerstone from King

Soloman's temple16. In the Hindu tradition, it has been equated with the

Chintamani17.

15 Israel Regardie, Philosopher's Stone: Spiritual Alchemy, Psychology, and Ritual Magic, (Llewellyn Worldwide, 2013), glossary, p 459

16 Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book (Princeton University Press, 1995), p.1917 Gunon, Ren, Symbols of Sacred Science, (Sophia Perennis, USA, 2004), p. 277

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Encasing the circle within a square within a triangle within a lerger circle was asymbol of the Philosopher's Stone [Image source: Wikimedia Commons]

Elixir: Closely connected with the concept of Philosopher's Stone is the concept of elixirs. Although

the Philosopher's Stone itself has sometimes been called the Elixir, the fundamental difference

between the two is that of their perceived state of matter. While the 'stone' is thought of as a solid

material, the elixir essentially implies some sort of a liquid a drink. The Greek Ambrosia and the

Hindu Soma come closest to the conception of an elixir a magical drink that makes the drinker

immortal and forever youthful and free of decay and disease. In the strictly alchemical sense, an elixir

was some sort of a 'medicine' that would cure metals of their corruptions and impurities18.

Prima materia: Prima materia is that ethereal material which forms the base of preparing the

Philosopher's Stone. It is an unknown substance, which could be chemical, philosophical, or

mythological in nature. In psychological terms, Jung has even called it a projection of psychic content,

unique to every individual19. However, in purely alchemical terms, Prima Materia has been a

mysterious medium, which has been variously understood to be anything from the Microcosmos to

Urine, from Chaos to Venom, from clouds to Boiling Milk among many others as defined in Ruland's

1612 alchemical dictionary, Lexicon alchemiae sive dictionarium alchemistarum. A related ancillary

concept is that of Prima Energia, and with Prima Materia, it forms the basic duality of nature. Its

parallels can be found in Chinese alchemy as Yin and Yang, in Hindu alchemy as Prakriti and Purusa20,

and in Hermetic 'science' as sulphur and mercury.

Magnum Opus: Magnum Opus refers to the process by which the Prima Materia turns into the

Philosopher's Stone. Originally defined in three stages, the concept was eventually expanded to

include upto 14 or more stages. The three basic processes21 have physical and metaphorical

implications and are Nigredo (blackening) or the phase of putrefaction or decaying; Albedo

(whitening) or the purging of the black matter using a liquid and Rubedo (reddening/ purpling) or the

final stage of transmutation whereby the substance takes on the reddish hue of gold. In some texts,

18 Haefnner, op. cit., p 11719 Carrie L. Rothgeb, Abstracts of the Collected Works of C.G. Jung , (Karnac Books, 1994), p 1220 Manfred M. Junius, Spagyrics: The Alchemical Preparation of Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs, (Inner Traditions

/ Bear & Co, 2007), p 4221 Jane Alexander, The Body, Mind, Spirit Miscellany: The Ultimate Collection of Fascinations, Facts, Truths, and Insights,

(Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2009), p 53

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there are upto ten stages22 of transformation viz. Division, Coitus, Calcination, Sublimation, Solution,

Generation, Putrefaction, Fermentation, Conjunction and Separation and each stage is represented by

a symbol. These symbols will be elaborated upon below.

Traditio Mystica: While a Hermetic principle, the tradition of mysteriousness surrounding alchemy

was common to all cultures. There was great secretiveness relating to alchemical knowledge and its

transmission was strictly from a master to a worthy pupil. Learning was meant to be by revelation and

disclosure was considered a taboo23. The language was shrouded in mystery and the use of symbols

was rampant. Traditio Mystica referred to the mythical, magical and mystical nature of alchemy.

22 C. J. S. Thompson, Alchemy and Alchemists, (Courier Corporation, 2012), p 12923 Encyclopedia of Religion, Second edition, p 246

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4. CREATION MOTIFS

Alchemy implies transmutation; transmutation implies creation. When the form of a substance or a

soul changes, it is essentially born again created into a new entity. To create, one must bring

together opposites. One must imitate the coming together of Earth Mother and Sky Father to bring

things into being. Principles of oneness to duality and back to oneness and their respective processes

of transformation dominate the sphere of alchemical beliefs.

Creation motifs and myths were, therefore, central to all traditions of alchemy. Several rites and rituals

in alchemy were but symbolic of the process of creation. They often borrowed terminology from

popular creation myths of the region. Enacting creation myths supposedly infused special powers in

the alchemist and enabled him to create mini universes in his crucible. In this section, we shall

examine some of the common creation motifs that occur in different alchemical traditions.

Earth Mother

A primary myth of creation that occur in the

context of alchemy is that of the Earth Mother.

Eliade24 gives an account of many ancient cultures

which believed in the notion of the earth as the

primal mother a womb that gives birth to all

matter, especially metals. Since metals, minerals

and chemicals are drawn from earth and are

central to the laboratory aspect of alchemy, the

Earth Mother symbol is very sacred to alchemists.

Clay or stone is seen as the basic building block of

creation in many myths25 and in that sense it could

be considered the prima materia that elusive

primal substance often referred to by alchemists.

24 Mircea Eliade, The Forge and the Crucible, (The University of Chicago Press, 1978), p 4325 David Adams Leeming, Creation Myths of the World, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), p 313

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Image of Earth Mother from Alexander Roos: Alchemie &Mystik, Taschen, 2007 via Wikipedia

Sky Father

As with agricultural myths pertaining to creation, metallurgical myths also presuppose the fertilizing

Sky Father as a counterpart to the Earth Mother. This Sky Father was responsible for raining the waters

of life that would activate dormant earth. It is the fluid to the rigid, the yang to the yin, the purusha to

the prakriti. The separation of the Sky Father and the Earth Mother create an essential tension that

acts as a catalyst for change and creation.

Ouroboros, the serpent of regeneration: The Ouroborous is a

serpent symbol that is very common in the body of alchemical

myths. It occurs in Egyptian, Greek, Chinese and Christian myths

among others. It is depicted as a serpent/dragon eating its own tail

or a dragon and serpent eating each others' tails in an endless circle.

The symbol originated in ancient Egypt and represented

regeneration and eternity26. This ancient symbol was based on the

principles of sun worship, serpent-worship and phallism, suggests

Read27. He says: These interpretations were taken over by

alchemists, who also used serpentine symbols for the fixed and

volatile principles, masculine and feminine characters, sophic

sulphur and sophic mercury, the tria prima, and in a wider sense to

denote wisdom, power and creative energy.

The Cosmic Egg: The Cosmic/Orphic/Philosophical Egg often appears in conjunction to Ouroboros, the

serpent symbol. The cosmic egg is another universal cosmogonic myth, where it is supposed that the

world originated from some kind of a primal egg. The Brahmanda and Hiranyagarba from Hinduism

are classic examples of the cosmic egg, from which all creation arises. Similar motifs occur in

Hellenistic and Chinese alchemy as well. In fact, the term 'egg' was traditionally in Hellenistic alchemy

to refer to the sealed vessel in which the substances were worked upon28.

26 John Read, From Alchemy to Chemistry, (Courier Corporation, 2013), p 5927 Ibid.28 Rosemary Guiley, The Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy, (Infobase Publishing, 2006) p 85

15

The Ouroboros or the serpent of regeneration [Image source: nitasia.wordpress.com

Battistani29 crisply summarizes the symbolism of the egg in the context of alchemy. The author says:

In alchemical doctrine... it is likened to a sealed vase (the alembic), containing the substance to be

subjected to transmutation. Adepts associate the egg with the four cosmic elements (shell/earth,

membrane/air, albumen/water, yolk/fire) and use it literally in the production of the philosopher's

stone, as an ingredient of the alchemical compound.

Dismemberment

As sordid as it sounds, dismemberment is another popular theme that can be observed in alchemy.

But dismemberment in this context is for the sake of creation. It draws from the age old idea of

destroying the old in order to create the new. In his famous work, Psychology and Alchemy, Carl Jung

says, The secret is that only that which can destroy itself is truly alive.

Here the entity that is destroyed is single, unlike the necessary dual principles in other forms of

creation. In this case, the parts of the dismembered being give rise to new entities. The

dismemberment of Osiris in Egyptian mythology, that of Ymir in Norse mythology and the sacrifice of

the primeval man or purusha in Hindu mythology are some examples of the same. Myths of

dismemberment not only add a supernatural element but also underline the idea that creation or

transformation is not possible without some pain and sacrifice.

29 Matilde Battistini, Astrology, Magic, and Alchemy in Art, (Getty Publications, 2007), p 342

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5. ANIMAL MYTHS AND SYMBOLS

Alchemy has its roots in prehistory a time when man was

intimately connected with nature. The creation motifs

discussed above are examples of how the world was

perceived at an elemental level. The earth and all its

creatures were part of a divine matrix and therefore sacred.

While alchemy dealt mostly with matter and the spirit, their

worldview seemed to encompass other aspects of nature too.

Animals, for instance, appear to play an important role. They

appear as prolific symbols in alchemical literature to help

define alchemical processes. Some of these animals were real

and some, mythical. The four sacred animals of alchemy were

'lion representing the enigma of fire, man representing the

mercury of secret philosophy, eagle corresponding to air and

the bull symbolizing the earth. The Egyptian Sphinx

incorporated all these four symbols.

These symbols use the special attributes of the animals in question to qualify an alchemical activity. In

doing so, a rich tapestry of myth and intrigue is built in the narrative of alchemy. Composite images

with several animals, like the one alongside, occurred in various texts and represented the process of

transmutation. Some of the popular animal symbols and myths, occurring mostly in Western alchemy,

have been explored below.

The Green Lion: Lions form an important part of the alchemical imagery. Chemically, a lion stood for

'any salt or fixed substance obtained from metals'30. Different coloured lions were used to signify

different properties and applications of chemicals. For example, a black lion signified a dark substance

like lead ore that needed to be purified by fire; a red lion stood for the life force in blood or cinnabar,

while a yellow lion represented yellow sulphides31.

30 Dennis Hauck, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Alchemy, (Penguin, 2008), p 6331 C. J. S. Thompson, Op. Cit. p 127

17

A symbolic animal motif representing the alchemical process. [Image source: levity.com]

But the most commonly known symbol is that of the

green lion. A green lion usually stood for a strong

purifying chemical like green vitriol or sometimes the

ore of antimony32. The devouring of the sun could

signify the strength of the acid which could even

consume gold. There are many other possible

interpretations and associations.

For the naturalist, the green lion devouring the sun

stood for photosynthesis a chemical change well

known to the world33. Alchemists tried to isolate and

replicate this life force of plants in their labs.

An archaic French text on alchemy, La Cosmopolite, makes an interesting statement about the

imagery. There is this one green lion, which closes and opens the seven indissoluble seals of the

seven metallic spirits which torments the bodies, until it has perfected them, by means of the artists

long and resolute patience. As as be seen in the illustration above (p 17), the 'seven indissoluble

seals' have been depicted by seven red stars. One cannot help

but draw a comparison with the seven chakras of the human

body as propounded in Hindu alchemy. One can, then, look

at the green lion as a symbol of a purifying agent that

would unlock the potential of metals or persons.

Raven: As has been elaborated above (see Magnum Opus,

p 12), the alchemical process was divided into three

main stages viz. Nigredo (blackening), Albedo (whitening)

and Rubedo (reddening). Some more intermediate stages

were proposed by other alchemists. Each of these stages

32 Brian Cotnoir, The Weiser Concise Guide to Alchemy, (Weiser Books, 2006) p 1833 Hauck, Op. cit., p 63

18

A raven representing the stage of nigredo in alchemical art. [Image source: soul-guidance.com]

The green lion devouring the sun as illustrated in an alchemical manuscript. [Image source: atlanteangardens.blogspot.in]

was represented by an animal or bird. The raven, for example, stood for the first stage of decay or

putrefaction, when the matter in question turned black. The blackening could be a result of direct or

indirect heat. Marlan34 quotes Edward Kelly on the symbolism of the raven: The beginning of our work

is the black raven which, like all things are to grow and receive life, must first putrefy. For putrefaction

is a necessary condition of solution, as salvation is of birth and regeneration.

The raven or the crow is an obvious choice of a symbol for all things dark and thereby inauspicious,

and it occurs in most cultures. But it is an inevitable symbol, as darkness is before light.

White Swan: The alchemical process continues whence the

blackened substance becomes white with extreme heat. In

decaying matter, the whiteness manifests as fungus. This

stage of albedo is symbolised by a white swan35. The

substance, when sublimated with the application of

greater heat even 'flies up' like the bird in question. A

white goose, white eagle, or a white albatross were

sometimes used instead of a swan36. The swan is typically a

symbol of purity, owing to

its pristine white colour.

Parallels can be seen in Hindu mythology too, where the goddess of

wisdom and discernment, Saraswati, is associated with a swan.

Eagle/ Mercurial bird: The eagle, a symbol of majesty, was associated

with most important element of alchemy, i.e. mercury. It was thus

also known as the mercurial bird. According to Cosman and Jones37,

An eagle was mercury after the process of sublimation. Sublimation

34 Stanton Marlan, The Black Sun: The Alchemy and Art of Darkness, (Texas A&M University Press, 2008), p 8135 Herbert Silberer, Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the Occult Arts, (Courier Corporation, 1917), p 9836 Hauck, Op. cit., p 6137 Madeleine Pelner Cosman & Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, (Infobase Publishing, 2009), p

428

19

Illustration of a white swan representing the whitening stage [Image source: esotericonline.net]

Eagle or mercurial bird [Image source: unearthed.com]

was chemical purification of matter by heating it, reducing it, volatizing it. Because mercury was

volatile and supposedly voracious, it resembled the imperious eagle devouring lesser birds. Mercury

destroyed, consumed, and reduced gold to its first matter. The spread eagle in alchemical aviary was

sublimed sal ammoniac.

Dragon: Like the serpent Ouroboros (see p 15), the

dragon is an essential symbol of alchemy and stands for

many things. The mythical animal was, in fact, used

interchangeably with the serpent and salamander

symbols. Some authors38 opine that an unwinged

dragon represented the nigredo stage while a winged

dragon represented the rubedo stage. Some others say

that the dragon was used to symbolise 'an alloy of

copper and silver made by warming the two metals with mercury (the sea)... At the end of twenty

days, no traces of the silver and copper remained visible, so that the dragon had bitten its tail till

nothing was left.'39 There are many other interpretations and variations of the dragon symbol, but it

would suffice to say that it was a very pregnant image not just in alchemy of

the West but of other cultures too.

Toad: The toad is also associated with the putrefaction stage of alchemy. It

stands for the base matter that is release after the first stage of nigredo. The

Ripley Scrolls, written by George Ripley a famous 16th century English

alchemist, associate the toad with 'earth, blackness, immoderate eating,

venomousness and death'.40 However, the associations of the toad were not

entirely negative. Being of the earth, it stood for stability too. For example, in

images where a toad was chained to the ground and an eagle hovered above,

the process of bringing together stable and volatile elements was depicted41.

38 Jordan Stratford & Jeffrey S Kupperman, A Dictionary of Western Alchemy, (Quest Books, 2014), p 2839 E J Holmyard, Alchemy, (Courier Corporation, 2012), pp 160-16140 Alison Adams and Stanton J. Linden, Emblems of Alchemy, (Librairie Droz, 1998), p 9041 Hauck, Op. cit., p 62

20

An image two intertwined twin dragons appearing in alchemical texts. [Image source: mindspring.com]

A black toad at the centre of the apparatus representing base matter. [Image source: levity.com]

Phoenix: The Phoenix is a mythical bird that self combusts after

its 'mission' and rises again from its own ashes in an endless

cycle. Among alchemists, it was also called the Orpus. With its

deeply mystical significance, it was naturally drawn into the

alchemical leitmotif. The Phoenix has been called the 'crown of

the alchemical Opus', and it represents the 'spiritual and divine

dimension from which souls were born'42. It also represented the

planet Mercury, the solar and male principles and the

'Philosopher's gold'. The phoenix was also closely associated

with the Emerald Tablet43.

While the ones listed above are the most defining animal symbols of Western alchemy, Hauck44

mentions several other creatures who were associated with the craft. Among them were two fish

swimming in the opposite direction representing the essence of the spirit and soul during dissolution;

a stag with antlers represented the red tincture or red powder; the unicorn was the symbol of white

powders & tinctures and of sublimation; birds, bees and butterflies were associated with purity and

rebirth; dogs stood for domesticated spirit and 'benevolent' mercury, while wolves were a symbol of

untamed natural forces and metal antimony.

Animal symbolism in Chinese culture is also a very well-known fact. Apart from the more popular

zodiac context, animal symbolism prevailed in the realm of Chinese alchemy too in the early centuries

of the Common Era. Certain animals like the crane, the common house fowl and the tortoise were

associated with longevity45. Formulae for many elixirs included the blood and/ or eggs of these

creatures. It was believed that drinking these concoctions would ensure longevity and vitality.

Islamic and Indian alchemical traditions, on the other hand, do not seem to have too much in terms of

animals myths or symbols. The other kinds of myths will be dealt with in the following sections.

42 Battistini, Op. cit., p 25343 Hauck, Op. cit., p 15944 Ibid., p 6245 Obed Simon Johnson, A Study of Chinese Alchemy, (Martino Publishing, 2009), p 61

21

The mythical Phoenix represented the highest ideal in alchemy [Image via Pinterest]

6. GODS, PRIESTS AND ALCHEMISTS

The profusion of mythology continues in the realm of alchemy with tales of gods, divine priests and

magical shamans. Because alchemy was about creation and affecting fundamental changes in nature,

all gods of creation became venerable for alchemists. On the level of the laboratory, one sought to

control and replicate nature's processes; and on the level of the spirit, elevation was the goal. An

alchemist could not do either without divine intervention. So he prayed to certain gods to invest him

with powers or grant him a master who would help him channel these higher forces. In this section we

shall see how the god and the guru were important tenets of alchemy and despite the differences in

myth, all traditions shared similar paradigms.

Hermes Trismegistus: It wouldn't be right to begin any list of

priests and gods of alchemy without placing the so-called

founding father right at the top. There are many postulates

about the origin and life of this legendary sage, but he

remains unknowable to a great extent. In fact, it is his

enigmatic character that lent the whole branch of alchemy

such mysteriousness over the centuries. As mentioned above

(see pages 6, 11), there was probably a line of teachers who

were called Hermes, just like the great Indian sage, Vyasa46.

However, he is generally conceived of as one person, whose wisdom is collected in a corpus of

literature that include The Corpus Hermeticum, The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus and The

Perfect Sermon (also known as The Asclepius). His image is very wizard-like in later texts an old man

with a beard and flowing robes. The 'Thrice Great Hermes' is said to be a blend of the Egyptian god,

Thoth and the Greek god, Hermes. His famous maxim was 'He who knows himself, knows the All47'. He

is credited with giving Egypt profound philosophical wisdom, having defeated Typhon the dragon of

46 Subodh Kapoor, A Dictionary of Hinduism: Including Its Mythology, Religion, History, Literature, and Pantheon, (Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd, 2004), p 453

47 David Adams Leeming, Creation Myths of the World: Parts I-II, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), p 428

22

Hermes Trismegistus is pictured as a wise old man with a flowing beard in several alchemical texts. [Image source: ambrosiasociety.com]

ignorance, and mental, moral & physical perversions48.

Thoth: The Egyptian god, Thoth, had a central role to play in Egyptian

alchemy. As the scribe of gods and the god of the moon, he was

naturally associated with knowledge and magic. Thoth was also related

to the realm of the dead, as he weighed the the souls of the dead in the

Judgment Hall of Osiris49. He was associated with mystical wisdom,

healing, magic, speech, writing, etc. The son of Agathodaimon was

believed to have the greatest mystical powers. His ineffability is

described by Hauck50: Thoth is impossible to characterize because he

transcends anything we normally think about gods and men. At first

glance, he seems like a simple personification of the powers of logic...

However, there are clues in the many alternative names of this God of

Thought from ancient Egypt papyri that suggest he really represents the

ultimate archetype of the Word of God creating the universe.'

Osiris: Osiris was the Egyptian god of the dead and the underworld and was

deeply entrenched in Egyptian alchemical lore. The myth of Osiris'

dismemberment by his brother Set and his resurrection by his wife, Isis, is a

common creation myth. Isis also holds an important place in Egyptian

alchemy. Dismemberment and creation, as noted, above are principal tenets

in alchemy. Added to it, the dimension of magic, made Osiris a perfect

object of veneration by alchemists. The green-skinned god was considered

merciful, benign and eternally youthful. He is depicted, Pharoah-like, with a

crown, a crook, a flail and partially mummified legs. Jung worked extensively

in interpreting the Osiris myth on the psychological level focusing on the

symbolism of death and rebirth. To him, the myth was important to Egyptian

48 Rosemary Guiley, The Encyclopedia of Witches, Witchcraft and Wicca, (Infobase Publishing, 2008), p 16049 Ibid., p 13450 Dennis William Hauck, The Emerald Tablet: Alchemy of Personal Transformation, (Penguin, 1999)

23

The ibis-headed Egyptian god, Thoth. [Image source: philipcoppens.com]

Osiris, the Egyptian god of theunderworld. [Image source: think-aboutit.com]

alchemists as it denoted a method of transmutation of the consciousness, rather than that of metals

and chemicals. This is why the myth thrived over centuries. In conclusion, one may quote Cavalli51. He

says, The Osiris myth survived old Egypt because it possessed elements of both, magic and alchemy,

bridging an old magical tradition to a protoscience that eventually coalesced into formal laboratories

and experimentation.

Hermes: The Greek god, Hermes whose namesake Hermes

Trismegistus is, also is an important figure in ancient Greek

alchemy. His Roman counterpart of this messenger god is Mercury.

According to the Encyclopedia of Magic and Alchemy, Hermes

represents 'wisdom, cunning, magic, spiritual illumination, skill with

words and mischief'. He is depicted as a beautiful, muscular man in

the nude having wings and wearing a winged helmet. The wings

signify his swiftness in delivering messages both in the realms of

heaven and the underworld. He carries a caduceus in his hands,

which is the symbol of medicine even today. The caduceus indicates

Hermes' association with healing practices. The staff with two

intertwined serpents represent the reconciliation of opposites52.

A myth suggests that Hermes couples with Aphrodite the goddess of

love, to create the Hermaphrodite of alchemy. This is one of the best

etymological explanations of the word. The Great Hermaphrodite

represents the fundamental principle of the union of opposites

Hierosgamos that has such an important part in alchemy. Call it yin &

yang, mercury & sulphur, wet & dry, cold & hot and so on.

The complex and overlapping imagery of Hermes, Thoth and Hermes

Trismegistus forms the crux of Western alchemical symbolism.

51 Thom F Cavalli, Embodying Osiris: The Secrets of Alchemical Transformation, (Quest Books, 2013), p 5352 Guiley, op. cit., p 133

24

Greek god Hermes holding acaduceus [Image source:

mythologian.net]

The Great Hermaphrodite [Image source: nachtkabarett.com]

Vulcan: The Graeco-Roman mythological traditions are rife with

alchemical motifs. Based on the Greek god Hephaestus, Vulcan was

the Roman god of firework and metal craft. The son Jupiter and Juno

has a benevolent and malevolent side and ancient Romans placated

him with fire rituals and sacrifices. He was responsible for both,

creative and destructive fires like volcanoes, made iron implements

and armour for the gods. He is depicted with a forge and in some

versions is lame in one leg.

While Vulcan, the blacksmith god, was proclaimed to be the patron

deity of alchemists by medieval alchemist, Paracelsus only in the 15th

century, the god has been associated with the craft since the times of Plato53. Atwood54 explains the

significance and symbolism of Vulcan from the point of view of Hermetic philosophy: The Vulcan of

the Alchemists is motion. Why Vulcan is represented as lame in the myths is because motion or action

in this life is halting; it runs after something it never catches; it runs in a line keeping on without

returning, circularly into its own principle; in this life it is not meant to do so, for nothing here contains

its own principle in itself. Vulcan is not the fire, but stirrer up of the fire the instrument of the

motive agent the mind.

Eliade55 lists a number of smith-gods who may have been associated with metal-working alchemists. In

Mesopotamian mythology, the God of Hurricane receives weapons from a smith god, much like the

divine smith Tvashtri does for Indra in Hindu mythology. The motif continues in a Canaanitish legend

in which the 'skilled' god, Kothar-Wa-Khasis (or Kothar-Wa-Hasis) forges two cudgels for the god, Baal.

Further, in Egyptian lore, Ptah the potter god creates weapons for Horus; in Greek mythology

Hephaestus forges a thunderbolt for Zeus, while dwarfs with magical powers are responsible for

making Thor's invincible hammer, Mjolnir. Such 'metal' myths abound in alchemical mythology, but

those will be explored in another section. For now, we continue to look at gods and priests.

53 Aaron Cheak, Alchemical Traditions: From Antiquity to the Avant-Garde, (Numen Books, 2013), p 15354 M A Atwood, Hermetic Philosophy & Alchemy, (Routledge, 2012), p 58855 Eliade, op. cit., pp 97-98

25

The ancient Roman god of fire and smithy, Vulcan [Image source: crystalinks.com]

One may also mention a number of mythical priest-like personages associated with alchemical metal

work in early Greece, as listed by Eliade in his book The Forge and the Crucible. Groups of people

called Telchines, Cabiri, Kuretes and Dactyles were apparently secret guilds who worked in different

kinds of metals. Eliade explains: According to various traditions, the Telchines were the first people to

work in iron and bronze, the Idean Dactyles discovered iron-smelting and the Kuretes bronze work.

The latter, too, were reputed for their special dance which they performed with a clash of arms. The

Cabiri, like the Kuretes, are given the title of 'masters of the furnace' and were called 'mighty in fire';

their worship spread all over the eastern Mediterranean. The Dactyles were priests of Cybele, the

goddess of the mountains as well of mines and caves...56

The patterns of magic, myth and ritual begin

to emerge strongly in early Greece through

such practices and becomes a paradigm even

in the later ages. One is reminded of the

fairytale of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,

which seems to have been inspired from such

legends. The story depicts the dwarfs as

strange secretive little men who know and

practice the art of metal work, excavating

enormous amounts of precious metal and

stones from hidden caves and indulging in some form of ritual singing. The fact that they are able to

bring Snow White back from the brink of death several times also suggests that they might have had

possession of some kind of life-giving elixir.

Such groups of priest/ shaman like figures occur in many cultures. Though the Celtic Druids were not

alchemists strictly speaking, they definitely ascribed to clandestine esoteric practices deep in the

forests in a bid to unlock the secrets of longevity. This resembled greatly the spiritual aspects of

alchemy that will be discussed in the last section. We return to the subject of gods and priests for now.

56 Eliade, op. cit., pp 102-103

26

A grab from the Disney animation film, 'Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs', showing the dwarfs in action in the mines. [Image source: disney.wikia.com]

Sumerian mythology also has a lot of alchemical precepts by way of creation myths and a number of

gods and goddesses, who stand for creative, transmutative processes. Some of them are as under.

Enki and Ninhursag: Enki is the archetypal male god who creates humankind. He is the alchemist of

the gods, a magician who can change the form of all things in nature. He is, therefore, the perfect role

model for the alchemist. His Babylonian counterpart is the god Ea, and they perform similar functions.

with lumps of clay mixed with a magic liquid that was either blood or spittle57. Ninhursag is Enki's

female counterpart, who is both his sister and wife. She is the earth mother, who is important to

alchemists because she holds and nurtures metals within her womb. Enki and Ninhursag create man

with lumps of clay mixed with a magic liquid that was either blood or spittle58. The base matter like

the alchemical prima materia comes from a creature called Geshtu-e, who is sacrificed. The motif of

man being made from clay occurs in the Chinese myth of the goddess Nuwa, in the Egyptian myth of

Khnum and also in the Bible. In all three cases, gods are said to have created man out of clay59. Here,

one cannot help but relate it to the Hindu myth of Ganesha, who is created by Parvati using clay/ or

dirt from her body.

Other gods in the Sumerian pantheon that are instrumental to the symbolism and mythology of

alchemy are Nergal, the god of war; Adad, the storm god; Ishtar, the goddess of fertility and so on.

57 Gary Edson, Mysticism and Alchemy through the Ages: The Quest for Transformation, (Mc Farland, 2012), p 97 58 Ibid.59 Ibid.

27

Enki, Ninhursag and the Tree of Life [Image source: wespenre.com]

In the realm of Indian alchemy the Vedic soma is a central precept, as it contributes to the alchemical

ideas of elixirs of vitality and longevity. In this regard, the moon god, Chandra is most important

because he is also identified with Soma. The myth of ocean churning also stands out prominently from

the Puranas as from there emerges amrita the nectar of immortality. However, the philosophy of

Indian alchemy blooms fully through Tantra and Siddha, and by extension through Shakta and Shaiva

symbolism. Cheak rightly points out how all most Indian alchemical texts, like Rasarhdaya Tantra,

Rasarnava [tantra] and Kakachandeshvarimata, describe themselves as tantras and matas60. Some of

the important gods from each of these strands will be examined below.

Chandra: Chandra, the moon god, is the source of rasa,

semen, or the essence of life61. A myth about royal

consumption is popular about the moon. Having spent all his

rasa in a lunar cycle, the moon must perform a sacrifice in

order to renew his prowess and continue the cycle. The

perpetual waxing and waning of the moon has been a

symbol of dissolution and regeneration among many

cultures. In the Indian context, especially Ayurveda,

rejuvenation is done through elixir therapy or rasayana. The

symbol of rasa as semen runs strongly through sexual

alchemy that is unique to India and has its roots in the moon myth. Other Vedic gods like Prajapati,

Indra and Varuna also make minor appearances in myths about alchemy.

Shiva and Shakti: The Shiva-Shakti duo is the single most

important mythological symbol in Indian alchemy because it

represents creation by the union of the male and female

principles. In Tantric art, this union is represented by a 6-

pointed star, which is the coming together of two triangles.

60 Cheak, op. cit., p 22361 David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.

Ltd., 2004), p 24

28

An illustration of Chandra from a medieval text [Image source: Wikimedia Commons]

Shiva is revered in Tantra as the original teacher of alchemy62.

As Dakshinamurti, he is the guru of all gurus, as Nilakantha, he

is the subduer of poison, as Chandrashekhara, he is the keeper

of the moon. He is the primal alchemist who works on the

primal matter i.e. Prakriti. Hence, Shiva is connected with

alchemy on a number of levels.

Shakti is worshipped in her many forms by alchemists and

tantrics too. She is venerated as Kali, Gauri, Kakachandeshwari,

Tripurasundari, Chandi or Kamakya.

As stated above, the element of semen in important in the

sexual dimension of alchemy. The other aspect is menstrual

blood and these two tattvas were often used in Tantric rites. In the context of rituals, these fluids are

not merely human excrement but divine tools of transmutation. Mercury and sulphur are said to have

originated from Shiva's semen and Shakti's menstrual blood respectively, but we shall plumb those

myths in the next section on myths about metals. Suffice it to say here that Shiva and Shakti are very

important in the context of Indian alchemy.

Apart from gods, other supernatural beings like yakshis and yognis are also revered in the tradition of

alchemy. The yoginis are especially significant in the context of Tantrism and were known to grant

esoteric powers to their sadhakas.

Further, one must point to the importance of gurus in the alchemical craft. The Indian system of

education, since ancient times, has given the teacher supreme importance. Divine knowledge was

revealed to the rishis and seers, who in turn passed it down to their students. The oral tradition of

dissemination of knowledge continued this way for centuries until the art of writing was developed. In

the Indian alchemical tradition, some teachers, seers and priests figure prominently. We take a look at

these legendary figures next.

62 Eliade, op. cit., p 132

29

Shiva and Shakti in symbolic union as depicted in many alchemical texts [Image source: exoticindiaart.com]

Sage Agastya and the Siddhas: What Hermes Trismegistus is to Egyptian and Hellenistic alchemy, sage

Agastya is to the Siddha tradition. An immortal, he is the first among the 18 Siddhars or masters of

alchemy and is said to have taught the craft to the rest of mankind63. But then, the mythical figure of

Agastya [spelled variously as Agasthiyar, Agathiyar, Akattiyar, etc.] is credited for all things Tamil

language and the arts. The name of sage Bogar/ Bhogar also appears in the list of important

contributors to the art and science of alchemy.

Sage Nagarjuna and Buddhist alchemists: The figure of Nagarjuna is a perplexing one, given the

multiple personalities, texts and traditions associated with him. Chiefly, he is associated with the

Madhyamika school of Philosophy and Mahayana Buddhism64 and even Jaina alchemy. In Bana's

Harshacharita, one Nagarjuna gives a Satavahana king an elixir in the form of a jewel. Hsuan-tsang's

accounts speak of a Bodhisattva Nagarjuna who consumed his own magical elixirs and lived hundreds

of years. He also occurs in Chinese and Tibetan myths as well, in which he was given the knowledge of

63 Mohan Lal, Encyclopedia of India Literature: Sasay to Zorgot, (Sahitya Akademi, 1992), p 409364 White, op. cit., p 67

30

Sage Nagarjuna as conceived by the Buddhist alchemists is the legendary character who taught them the craft [Image source: chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com]

Mahayana by the Nagas, who also gave him his name. However, cautions White65, Even in those

Chinese, Tibetan, and Indian legends in which the philosopher Nagarjuna is made out to be an

alchemist of sorts the possessor of an elixir of long life and some rudiments of transmutational

alchemy there is never any specific mention of raw materials or techniques he employs in his craft.

But he is sometimes associated with mercury, which will be discussed in the next section. It can be

concluded that Nagarjuna indeed was the fount of Buddhist alchemical thought and its chief mascot.

Matsyendranath and the Nathas: The Natha tradition is a mix of

Yogic and Tantric philosophies with the seers Matsyendranath

and Gorakhnath at its centre. The concepts of Kundalini, Hatha

Yoga and mastery over natural forces are some of the

fundamentals of this school of thought. Divine knowledge is

revealed to the two masters by Shiva and through them to the

nathas, who are accomplished yogis. While not explicit, many of

their myths and legends have strong alchemical currents. For

example, consumption of mercury that would kill an ordinary

man, would become a life-lengthening elixir or a Natha yogi who

knows how to control the way the body reacts to the element.

Alchemy kicked in in a big way in the Islamic nations in the

middle ages and soon influenced Western alchemy. In fact, the

concepts of 'Philosopher's Stone' and 'Elixir of Life' were both Islamic imports to the West. Because of

their strongly monotheistic tenets, gods and mythical beings have no part to play in Islamic alchemy.

However, because it is an Abrahamic religion, some Biblical myths pertaining to alchemy are

applicable to to for example, Adam being the first alchemist. But these myths will be dealt with a

little later.

What stands out in the Islamic tradition is the strong line of alchemists and teachers, who contributed

immensely to the craft, especially chemical sciences. Jabir Ibn Hayyan of Persia known as Geber in the

65 Ibid.

31

Gorakhnath, one of the Nathas is considered an important icon among Indian alchemists. [Image source: artoflivingsblog.com]

West, was called the 'Father of Arab Chemistry' thanks to his vast corpus of literature referred to as

the Jabirian corpus66. Other important alchemical masters included Ibn Sina, Muhammad ibn

Zakariya, Abu Bakr, Al-Razi, Ali ibn Wahshiya and others.

We now turn to Chinese alchemy among oriental

traditions. Chinese alchemy is fundamentally rooted in

Taoism which is a philosophical system there are

hardly any divinities associated with it. The only

exception is The Kitchen or the Stove God, which is a

later Taoist development. Chamberlain suggests that the

Taoist alchemists may have been inspired by this god,

also known as Zao Jun, Zao Shen, or Zhang Lang67.

The story of this important domestic god can be traced

back to the 2nd century BCE, where it starts with an

ordinary mortal who rises to assume a divine position.

The connection of a 'fire' god and alchemy is pretty

obvious in this context.

However, Taoist Chinese alchemy recognises a line masters.

These are proper historical figures with their achievements and claims recorded in word. The craft is

split into Waidan (outer alchemy concerned with metallurgy) and Neidan (inner alchemy related to

spiritual practices)68, and these masters were concerned primarily about the former. Among the most

famous Chinese alchemists were Tsou Yen, who is credited with founding the discipline of alchemy in

the fourth century before Common Era. Other known alchemists included the imperial magician Li

Chao Kuin, Liu Hsiang the immortal and Pao Pu'tzu. While these masters did not preach and

practice worship of any gods, they claimed that physical and spiritual alchemical processes would

66 Hunt Janin, The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World, 610-2003, (McFarland 2005), p 5367 Jonathan Chamberlain, Chinese Gods: An Introduction to Chinese Folk Religion, (Blacksmith Books, 2010), p 6968 Fabrizio Pregadio, 'Elixirs and Alchemy' from Daoism Handbook, edited by Livia Kohn, (BRILL, 2000), p 165

32

Zao Jun, the Chinese god of the Kitchen or the Stove [Image source: Wikipedia]

allow a mortal 'to summon immortals and other divine beings,

from the most exalted gods like The Great One (Taiyi) to minor

deities like Ministers of the Mountains (shanqing) and the Officers

of the Moorlands (zewei), and from the gods of soil and grain

(Sheji), to the Count of the Wind (Fengbo) and the Master of Rain

(Yushi)...'69

An ancient set of alchemical texts, called the Three Sovereigns was

also said to have mystical powers. It was believed that he who

possessed or read these texts would be safe from demons and evil

forces, and could also summon the heavens70.

In the later stages, when Buddhism spread in China, syncretism led to the veneration of Buddha also

a historical personage in the context of alchemy. Eliade71 quotes R Stein's writing from a relatively

modern view from a Chinese text: that is why the (Buddha) Jou-lai (Tathagata), in his great mercy, has

revealed to man the (alchemical) method of work with fire and has taught him to penetrate anew to

the matrix in order to refashion its (true) nature and (the plentitude of) his lot in life. The idea of sage

Nagarjuna also travelled to China from the Indian Buddhist tradition where he came to be worshipped

as Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, also known as Lung-Mng Phu-Sa.

We now turn our attention to some Biblical and Jewish myths about alchemy that developed as a

result of the craft reaching and developing in medieval Christian Europe. The motif of primal parents

in recognised in the Jewish myth of Jeh and Havah, who combined to make the androgynous

Jehovah72. In the Christian context, the Genesis myth is interpreted as the ultimate act of alchemy.

Adam: A Dominican friar of the 13th century was the first to suggest that Adam (another primal

parent) was the first teacher of alchemy. Further, the Book of Sidrach a medieval text of alchemy

69 Ibid., pp 128-12970 Ibid., p 12871 Eliade, op. cit., p 11972 Gary Edson, Mysticism and Alchemy through the Ages: The Quest for Transformation, (McFarland, 2012), p 99

33

Liu Hsiang, a Taoist 'immortal' [Image source: goldenelixir.com]

claimed that God taught Adam the art of smithy and how Noah took the implements made by Adam

on the ship73. In other texts, the theme is exhorted in saying how God handed over the 'Secret of

Secrets' to Adam or 'the Water of Life' or the 'Stone of Spirit and Truth'74.

Therefore, the Biblical Adam or the Judaic Adam Kadmon were seen to be the founders of alchemy.

The third son of Adam, Seth, was believed to have been given the secrets of alchemy by his father.

Further, it has been suggested that the etymological origins of the word chemiya (from which alchemy

is derived) may lie in the name of Noah's son Cham (Ham), the first practitioner75.

Tubal-Cain: Tubal-Cain is a character mentioned in the Genesis (4:22), and is told to be a descendent

of Cain and the son of Zamech and Lilla. He is significant as he is described as the forger of every

cutting instrument of brass and iron. He is clearly the first master of the metallurgical craft, seen

through this account.

Moses: The Judea-Christian religious figure that

stands out most in alchemical lore is that of Moses.

He has been identified with the Greek god Musaeus

and has been called the master of several arts like

philosophy, medicine, instruments, utensils, the

hieroglyphic characters, etc76. The Egyptians also

identified him with Hermes. Moses was conceived

of as a magician more than a alchemist but his

associations with the tools of the craft were too

strong to overlook the alchemical connect. This

image of Moses as one of the earliest alchemists

with a divine lineage survived through the Middle

Ages.

73 Raphael Patai, The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book, (Princeton University Press, 1994), p 1974 Ibid.75 Ibid., p 2176 Ibid., p 34

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The powerful figure of Moses is associated with alchemy [Image source: gnosticteachings.org]

Miriam/ Maria Prophetissa: The enigmatic character of Maria

Prophetissa has already been introduced in the history of

Hellentistic alchemy earlier in the paper (see p 9). Her's is a

confusing identity, because the historical Maria who lived in the 3rd

century CE Alexandria is often identified with the Biblical Miriam,

sister of Moses77.

She was first referred to by Zosimos, a 4th century CE Greek

alchemist. She is known by several names such as Miriam the

Jewess, Mary of Cleofa, Maria Prophetissima or Maria Hebraea. A

later text titled The Dialogue of Mary and Aros on the Magistery of

Hermes attributes the formulation of several formulae notably

hydrochloric acid and the invention of many chemical apparatuses

to her. That her dialogue partner Aros is associated with Egyptian

god, Horus or the Biblical Aaron78 compounds the mystery more.

David: The Biblical David, King of Israel, is a fascinating character. But the Jewish version of him is far

more colourful than the Christian version. Apart from the very famous tale of David and Goliath, there

are a number of myths and tales associated with this mighty king, warrior, poet and musician. Literary

accounts of David having heaps of precious metals like gold and silver and some mysterious stones

(thought to be Philosopher's Stones), led later alchemists to believe in David's alchemical prowess79.

Solomon: But more than David, it was his son, Solomon who was thought to be a powerful alchemist.

Soloman, the third king of Israel is said to have inherited some special stones from his father again

presumed to be Philosopher's Stones, which he then used to make the famous Temple. He had many

magical powers like being able to talk to animals, ride on flying carpets, control demons80 and

possessed great wisdom which has been likened to knowing alchemical secrets and insights. Many

77 Anke Timmermann, Verse and Transmutation: A Corpus of Middle English Alchemical Poetry, (BRILL,2013), p 10378 Ibid.79 Patai, op. cit. pp 25-26 80 Geoffrey W. Dennis, The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic and Mysticism, (Llewellyn Worldwide, 2007), p 245

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Engraving depicting Maria Prophetissima from Michael Maier's book Symbola Aurea Mensae Duodecim Nationum (1617) [Image source: Wikipedia]

later works by authors like Zosimos speak of the king's achievements in texts like The Testament of

Solomon, Key of Solomon and so on.

Mary Magdalene: Another Mary from the Abrahamic tradition

who is equally mysterious, and often controversial, is Mary

Magdalene. Sometimes purported to be simply Jesus' disciple and

sometimes his wife, Mary Magdalene's character is shrouded in

myths. Goddard says, Mary Magdelene, according to some

Christian Gnostic sects was the shakti or spiritual consort of

Jesus...81 She is usually depicted with some accoutrements which

suggest that she was seen as a wise woman and a healer. She

holds a skull/ cup/ chalice, which are 'rich symbols of sustenance,

holy blood, and healing waters all intimately connected with

goddess energies.82' The belief in such powers of Mary made her

an important symbol for alchemists.

Jesus: Last but not the least is the figure of Jesus himself, who has been called the greatest alchemist,

most definitely in spiritual terms. In his book, Jesus Through Pagan Eyes: Bridging Neopagan

Perspectives with a Progressive Vision of Christ, Townsend says, For the Christian mystic, Jesus can be

seen as the philosophical gold, the perfected man who has found the secret of the Philosopher's

Stone. He has been elevated from the lead of the world into the gold of heaven. There are plenty of

metaphors of healing, rejuvenation and resurrection in the Bible that have been interpreted in terms

of alchemy. For example, the three-fold elements of salt, sulphur and mercury were identified with

the Trinity, and in some cases, the story of Jesus' birth, death and resurrection was considered an

alchemical process83!

81 David Goddard, The Tower of Alchemy: An Advanced Guide to the Great Work, (Weiser Books, 1999)82 Siobhan Houston, Invoking Mary Magdalene: Accessing the Wisdom of the Divine Feminine, (Sounds True, 2006), p 4883 William E. Burns, The Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopedia, (ABC-CLIO, 2001), p 9

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A painting of Mary Magdalene and Jesus [Image source: joyfulheart.com]

7. MYTHOLOGY OF METALS

The turning point of all great cultures of the world was the discovery of iron and metal technology.

The Iron Age marks the transition from primitiveness to civilization in all societies and is therefore one

of the most significant times in their respective histories. This importance is marked by the

development of a body of myths and stories about metals, their genesis, their presiding gods and the

first magical men who had the power to extract, smelt and master them. Not just metals but most

primary elements harvested from the earth have such myths associated with them. Alchemy was

intricately related to metallurgy and therefore these myths were adopted and circulated in alchemical

lore. In this section, we explore and compare some such myths about metals.

Birth, gender and the life of metals

One of the most famous notions about metals among alchemists was that they are born and mature

in the earth's womb until they've reached the stage of perfection, that is, turned into gold.

Thompson84 quotes an ancient Chinese alchemist called Liu An (122 CE) on this: ... gold grows in the

earth by a slow process and is evolved from the immaterial principle underlying the universe, passing

from one form to another up to silver, and then from silver to gold. Innate to this story was the belief

that metals were living objects, just like plants and animals. In a Chinese myth, one hears of gold that

assumes the shape of a cow and runs away when people try to mine it from a mountain85. Metals

were born upon the union of the male and female principles in nature and it took thousands of years

to turn into gold. Alchemists deigned to accelerate this process in the lab and create gold in a matter

of days, where it took Nature eons.

Metals and chemicals were classified into male and female genders, and were 'married' accordingly

for the sake of alchemical creation. The Kitara people of Africa, for example, classified metallic ores as

male and female. For them, 'male' ores were hard, black and found on the surface, while 'female' ores

84 Thompson, op. cit. p 5285 Robert James Forbes, Metallurgy in Antiquity: A Notebook for Archaeologists and Technologists, (Brill Archive, 1964),

p 85

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were soft, red and found in the bowels of the earth86. The Arabs called soft iron feminine, and hard

iron masculine in the context of making blades for weapons87. Such classification of ores, metals and

salts continued right down to the Middle Ages in Europe. But other fascinating metal myths had

started occurring much earlier in ancient Greece, as is seen next.

Plato's Myth of Metals

In his famous book titled Republic, Plato defends Socrates' idea of a Noble Lie, wherein it is considered

acceptable to lie for the benefit of the state under certain circumstances. The lie, in the form of a

Phoenician myth, is crafted to quell civil dissent and create a superficial sense of brotherhood and

unity. The myth says that all people are essentially equal because God created all men with metals. A

varying combination of metals like gold, silver, iron and bronze made up different kinds of people who

would form different sections in the society. Thus , the 'gold race' i.e. people with more gold would

constitute royalty and philosophers while people with more iron would make up workers and

agriculturists88.

Metal races The Greek myth of creation

This interesting myth isn't the only creation myth with regards to metals. Plato seemed to have

derived his story from the Greek myth of creation in which Zeus populates the earth with successive

races of people made with metals. First came the Golden Race, who lived in perfect peace and

harmony, and upon death, became the guardians of mankind. Then came the Silver Race of a people

so beautiful that they were terribly vain. Zeus did away with this race and sent them to the

underworld. The third race made of bronze turned out to be terribly violent and perished as a result of

inter-killings. The fourth race, which had no metallic component, comprised demigods and heroes.

The fifth and the final race was called the Iron Race and to this humans belonged. This race was born

with troubles and hard work, with a mix of good and bad and that of sorrow and hope89.

86 Eliade, op. cit., p 3787 Ibid., p 3888 Roger L. Huard, Plato's Political Philosophy: The Cave, (Algora Publishing, 2007), p 9089 Howard J Sherman, Mythology for Storytellers: Themes and Tales from Around the World, (Routledge, 2014), p 36

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Origin of metals in Hindu mythology

Among genesis myths, the Hindu myth of Hiranyagarbha, where the world is created from the Cosmic

Golden Egg, has been recounted earlier in the paper (see p 15). While it is not explicitly mentioned

that the golden egg is made of gold, the suggestion is clear. Incidentally, in Zoroastrian mythology,

which shares close connections with Hindu lore, one finds mention of Ahura Mazda's first material

creation, which is a heaven made out of a shining metal egg90!

In Hinduism, gold is equated with Agni and is a symbol of purity and immortality. The sacredness

follows from the myth of creation of gold, silver and the other metals. In the Shatapatha Brahmana,

we find the story of the divine origins of gold. Gold comes from the seed of Vishvarupa or the

primeval man. In another version, gold is generated from the tapas of Prajapati's body. In the

Ramayana, gold and silver are formed from the embryo that is formed as a result of Agni and Earth's

union. From this embryo, the god Skanda-Kartikeya is born and from his effulgence, other metals like

copper, iron, tin and lead are generated91.

90 M. L. West, The East Face of Helicon : West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth, (Oxford university Press, 1997), p 140

91 David Gordon White, The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, (University of Chicago Press, 1998), p 189

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The Hiranyagarbha is the golden cosmic egg of creation floating in the primeval waters in Hindu mythology [Image source: exoticindia.com]

Metals in Hindu mythology also find representation in the concept of ages or yugas much like Zeus'

creation of races discussed above. Here, gold stands for Satya/Krita Yuga, silver for Dvapara Yuga,

bronze for Treta Yuga, and iron for Kali Yuga92.

Myths of metals

All primary metals and chemicals in an alchemist's lab have a myth or two associated with them.

Divine or supernatural origins are attributed to most of them. From iron to mercury, from gold to

copper, from silver to sulfur, there are interesting myths about them all and some of them shall be

explored below.

Iron: Eliade devotes a whole chapter to the mythology of iron (age) in

his classic, The Forge and the Crucible. He rightly points out how iron

was considered a celestial metal since man first came upon it from

meteors. He says how Iron still retains its extraordinary magico-

religious prestige even among peoples, which have a fairly advanced

and complex history.

In Egypt, iron was believed to be the 'bones of Seth', while magnetic

iron oxide was what the 'bones of Horus' were made of93. A medieval

Indian text, Rasakamadhenu, suggests that iron comes from Yama, the

god of death94, while the planet-god Mars is associated with iron in the

Western tradition95. Further, the iron hammer becomes a symbol of

divinity and power as with the Mjlnir, Thor's hammer in Norse

mythology.

92 James G. Lochtefeld, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, (The Rosen Publishing Group, 2002), p 15693 Forbes, op. cit. p 42794 White, op. cit., p 19195 Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Collection of Ancient Texts, (JHU

Press, 2006), p 442

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Iron was considered to be the bones of the god Seth in Egyptian mythology. [Image source: psuvanguard.com]

Mercury: Quicksilver or mercury has been the single most important element in the tradition of

alchemy across all cultures. It has various mythological associations and a mysterious image, thanks to

its ambivalent yet powerful nature. The 'watery' metal is often associated with its namesake planet,

Mercury in the Western tradition96. In Hindu mythology, it is called Harabija or Shivadhatu and

considered the semen of Shiva97. Mercury was sometimes considered the 'soul of all metals'98,

sometimes the 'King of metals99' and at some other times, a hermaphrodite100. Among Oriental

traditions, mercury was considered the 'child of cinnabar' in China101.

Sulfur: Thanks to its fiery nature and yellow colour, sulfur came to be associated with gold. In the

alchemist's lab, it was the fundamental opposite of mercury and was therefore often combined with it

in the quest for gold. In Hindu alchemy, sulfur is the female counterpart of the male mercury and is

96 Ibid.97 Prem P. Bhalla, Hindu Rites, Rituals, Customs and Traditions, (Pustak Mahal, 2006), p 3698 Herbert Silberer, Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the Occult Arts, (Courier Corporation, 1917), p 11499 Karen Pinkus, Alchemical Mercury: A Theory of Ambivalence, (Stanford University Press, 2009), p 84100 Kathleen P. Long, Hermaphrodites in Renaissance Europe, (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006), p 117101 Fabrizio Pregadio, Great Clarity: Daoism And Alchemy In Early Medieval China, (Stanford University Press, 2006), p 172

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In Hindu mythology, scented sulfur is said to have arisen from the menstrual blood of the Mother Goddess or Shakti. [Image source: shestirs.wordpress.com]

said to be the sexual essence of the goddess. Also called gandhaka for its wonderful scent, sulfur was

considered to be the divine feminine's menstrual blood102. Sulphur also formed one of the Three

Essentials of Western alchemy, the other two being Mercury and Salt. It was considered to embody

the volatile principles of fire and air103, which led to magical combustion.

Gold: The purest and most precious of metals held the highest place of pride for alchemists whether

in the exoteric or in the esoteric traditions. La Niece elaborates how gold has traditionally been related

to myth and magic. She says: Gold has been inextricably linked to myth and magic throughout

history. The dangers of mining perhaps gave rise to many legends of fire-breathing dragons guarding

piles of treasure deep inside mountain caverns, of a land of a one-eyed man and gold-guarding

griffins, (and) of huge hairy gold-digging ants...104

Gold stood for perfection in nature and the soul and was often equated with the the sun 105. As noted

above (see p 38), gold was also compared to Agni in Hindu mythology. Agni or Vishwarupa were

considered to be its sources.

Silver: Next in line of preciousness was silver, which was considered

only one step lower than gold in terms of 'metallic evolution'. Pure

and 'cool', this metal contrasted with the fiery 'heat' of gold. It has

been associated often with the moon, who in turn is called the

'Archetypal Queen of Alchemy106'.

The moon was almost used synonymously for silver by alchemists,

whether as Chandra in the Hindu context, Hathor in the Egyptian

context, or Artemis/Diana in the Graeco-Roman context107.

102 White, op. cit., pp 192-193103 Robert Allen Bartlett, Real Alchemy: A Primer of Practical Alchemy , (Nicolas-Hays, Inc., 2009)104 Susan La Niece, Gold, (Harvard University Press, 2009), p 19105 A.W. Sylvester, The First Mythology: A Book, (Trafford Publishing, 2008), p 18106 Hauck, op. cit., p 124

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Diana, the goddess of moon and hunting by Guillaume Seignac [Image source: lexicolatry.com]

Copper: The metal copper one of the seven noble metals of

antiquity is most commonly associated with the Roman

goddess, Venus108. The goddess of love and beauty aptly

represented this amenable metal, which easily combined with

other metals. In fact, the association was so strong the metal

was called 'copper Venus'.

In the Indian tradition, the sun god, Surya was associated with

copper, as he was with gold and rubies109. The redness of the

metal made such an identification natural. Interestingly, copper

sulfate is known an nilakantha in Tamil a recognition of its

poisonous nature via the myth of Shiva who drank the poison,

halahal that emerged during the churning of the ocean110.

Tin: Tin is yet another of the noble metals and in Western

alchemy is associated with the Roman god, Jupiter111.

Nobility, malleability, and incorruptibility were perhaps

the attributes of the m