URBAN SANITATION iN ZIMBABWE AND THE RELATION TO … · Library IRC Intem~tionaI’Water and...

824 ZW97

URBAN SANITATION iN ZIMBABWEAND THE RELATION TO

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

ai~~—~T&. 431 1O~

Fax 431 O~SI

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development

824—zw—14008

CONLON PRINTERS

ACRONYMS

CRF CentralRatesFundCSO CentralStatisticalOfficeDDF DistnctDevelopmentFundDWR Departmentof WaterResourcesMLAWR Ministry of LandsandWaterResourcesMLGRUD Ministry of Local Govemmeru,RuralandUrbanDc~clopmciitMOF Ministry of FinanceMOHCW Ministry of HealthandChild WelfareMPCNIH Ministry of Public ConstructionandNationalHousingPCB Pollution ControlBranchRDC Rural DistnctCouncilWPAB WaterPollutionAdvisory BoardZINWA ZimbabweNationalWaterAuthority

LibraryIRC Intem~tionaI’Waterand Sanitation CentreTel.. +31 7030689 8~Fax +31 7035 899 64

1JRBAN SANITATION IN ZIMBABWEAND THE RELATION TO

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Institute of Water and Sanitation Development

LIBRARY lAGP0 Box 93190, 2509 AD ThE HAGUE

Tel.: +31 70 30689 80Fax: +31 7035 899 64

BARCODE: j~LO:

March 1997

URBANSANITATION IN ZIMBABWE ANDTHE RELATION TOENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . 3BACKGROUND 6

UrbanAfrica . . . 6UrbanSanitation currenttrends .9

URBAN ZIMBABWE 11Urbangrowth iiAccessto sanitationservicein urbanareas 12Technologychoice 12Effluentdisposal 14Institutional rblesandresponsibilities 16Financingofurbansanitation 18

Dr. P. Taylor and Eng. N. R. Mudege,Institute of Water and Sanitation Development,Box MP 422, Mount Pleasant

Barare, Zimbabwe.

Instituie ofWater and Sanitation D~velopment

Operationalstatusoftechnology. . 20Regulation 22Humanresources 26

CONCLUSIONS . . . ... . . .27Coverage!technology ... . 27Operationandmaintenanceissues. 27Legislation 27Managementofpollution . 28Investmentand financing .... 29Environmentalandhealthconcerns .. . 30Humanresourcesissues 30Institutional issues 31

REFERENCES . . 32

AcknowledgmentsWe would like to thankMr M Mtetwa,Pollution ControlBranch,DepartmentofWaterResources,for assistancewith information collectionandanalysis TheUNDP-World BankWaterand SanitationProgram(RWSG - EA) providedfinancialassistancefor thepreparationof thereport We aregrateful to Dr P Robinsonforcommentson thedraft

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URBAN SANITATION IN ZIMBABWE

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In urbanareasofthedevelopingworld, inadequatesanitationis oneof theprincipalhealthproblemsfacingthepoor. Almost 40%oftheurbanpopulationin low incomecountriesremainwithout adequatesanitationdespitemassiveinvestmentsduring the1980’s Additionally, agrowingawarenessofthe limited availability offreshwaterresourcesdrawsattentionto the impactofsanitationservices,or the lackofthem, ontheavailability andusefulnessof ourwaterresources.Sanitationis thusinextricablylinked to thebroaddevelopmentprocessaswell asto thespecificissuesofenvironment,healthandwaterresourcesmanagement.

In mostAfrican countriesthe largestcities growmostrapidlywith urbangrowthestimatedat 4.37%per annumacrossAfrica and 5.28%in Zimbabwewhereoveronethird oftheurbanpopulationlive in Harare.Poorpeople,informal settlementsandsquattersall tendto be foundon theworstland - steepslopes,low lying landpronetoflooding,areaswith high watertable - andtheymaynot be settledin a patternconvenientfor servicedelivery, all of which canseverelylimit thesanitationoptions.Theprovisionofservicesin urbanareasoften favoursthewell offwith subsidieswhilstdenyingthedisadvantagedThehigh costof seweragehaslimited thetechnologychoicefor manycitiesin Africa andtheconfusionofregulatoryandimplementationrolesofgovernmenthasweakenedtheability ofmanygovernmentsto enforceservicestandards

Coveragewith sanitationservicesaverages70%acrossAfrica but thequality ofthatserviceis hardto determine.In Zimbabwecoveragewith acceptablesanitation(flushtoilets) in theurbanareasvariesfrom 85 to 98% A total of42,996householdsdo nothaveaccessto adequatesanitationin urbanareason thebasisofcensusfigures. Asurveyof 1910urbanhouseholdsby CSOin 1994 confirmedthehigh accessto flushlatrinesbut alsoreportedthat 28 8%ofurbanhouseholdsweresharingaflush toilet.Urbangrowthin Zimbabwehasbeenaccompaniedby increasedsublettingandtheconstructionofbackyardshackswhich haveresultedin thesharingandoverloadingofhouseholdtoilets.

Thefocuson waterbornesystemsfor urbanareashasthe consequencethat watersuppliesmustbe reliableand alsothat a full seweragesystemis required.Thereis agoodrangeofwastedisposaltechnologiesin usein Zimbabwefrom thesimplepitlatrine(not allowed in urbanareas)to full seweragewith activatedsludgetreatmentsystems.Themajority of off-site treatmentsystemsuseoxidationpondsbut thereisincreasingadoptionof moreadvancedtreatmentsystems.Thereis generallya lackofinformationat municipal level on thesystemcapacityandactual flows for seweragesystems.A largenumberofthe smallersystemsthroughoutZimbabwe,mainlyponds,haveno flow measuringdevices

Theqiiality anddisposaloftreatedeffluent is a factorofmajorconcernwhenconsideringtheenvironmentandthesustainableuseoflimited waterresources.Thereis no mechanismfor systematicallyrecordinghow orwhereeffluent is disposedofbuttherecordsfrom visits ofthePollution ControlBranchin theDepartmentofWaterResources(PCB)to wastewatertreatmentworks showsthat themajority ofwastewatertreatmentplantsdisposeoftreatedeffluentto naturalwaterbodiesoruse

1nstiiute ofWaterand SanitationDevelopment

3

THE RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

it in irrigation. Of thesesystemsalmost50%produceeffluentofpoorquality LakeChiverois an examplewhereinadequatelytreatedeffluent and inadequatecontrolsover industrial effluentarebelievedto contributeto unacceptablelevelsofpollutantsinthe lake

Therearefew examplesoftruerecycling oftreatedwastewaterin ZimbabwebutMaronderahasbeenactivelyexaminingthecostbenefitsofrecyclingwaterfrom thewastewatertreatmentplant ratherthanconstructingan expensivenewwaterstorageand reticulationsystem

Responsibilityfor sanitationdoesnot fall clearlywithin any governmentagency.Whilstlocal authoritiesaretaskedwith responsibilityfor serviceprovision, unlikewith watersupplies,theydo not haveany technicalagencyto resortto for advice,policyguidelinesor othertechnicalsupport Urbansanitationstandardsareset andcontrolledthroughavarietyof legislativemechanismsfrom theHousingStandardssetbyMLGRUD, thePublicHealthAct enforcedby theMOHCW andtheWaterActenforcedby theMLWR

Within urbanauthoritiesthereis usuallyaworks divisionwith asubdivisiondealingwith waterandsewerage.Smallerurbanauthoritiesmay lacktheservicesof anengineerandrely on artisanswhereasgrowthpoints andservicecentresmay lack eventhis level oftechnicalsupportwith no clearallocationofresponsibilityto the localauthorityor Local Board TheCentralRatesFund(CRF) builds,owns, operatesandmaintainssanitationsystemsin smallurbancentres In all casestheCRFhasretainedresponsibilityfor themaintenanceofthefacilities it hasconstructedbut is experiencingdifficulty dueto reducedbudgetaryallocations TheCRFdoesnot act asafundbut asa supplierofgoodsand servicesat subsidisedprices -

Largeurbancentresin Zimbabweareconsideredto be providinga reasonablywellmanagedserviceasregardswatersupplyand sanitationandareconsideringseparatingthewaterand seweragedepartmentto improveefficiencyand managementoftheservicesMunicipalitieslargely manageto financetheoperationandmaintenanceoftheseweragesystemfrom theincomefrom sewagechargesbut thereis no stronglinkagebetweentherealcostof effectiveserviceprovisionand the servicechargeapplied withtheconsequencethat servicechargesmay lagbehindthe costofprovisionor incomefrom the servicemaybeusedto financeotherlocal authorityactivities to the detrimentof thesanitationservice Thegeneraltrendis that operationandmaintenanceis under-financedresultingin a gradualdecayof thesystemto thepointwhereavery largeinvestmentis requiredfor rehabilitation

The conditionofthewastewatertreatmentplantswhenlastvisited by the PCBshowsthat only 20%could be regardedasgoodwith almost45% in thepoorcategoryThereis no fixed scheduleofexaminationof sites by PCB who areunderstaffedFrom1971 to 1991 107 original exemptionpermitsweregrantedto allow temporarydischargeofinadequatelytreatedwasteandin manycasestheexemptionwasrenewed,evenfor periodsofover 10 years,without the pollutionbeing controlled

The majorityof seweragereticulationsystemsarefacingproblemsdueto overloadingin the highdensityareasWhereadditional treatmentworkshavebeenbuilt or

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extensionsmadeto existingones,oftenthereticulationsystemhasnot beenupgradedastheincreasedflows arecomingfrom infilling or densification,sublettingandincreasedoccupancyrates

Laboratoryservicesarefound in themain urbancentersandtheseprovidebasicanalysisofwaterand wastewaterquality The lackofaccessto laboratoryservicesmaypresentdifficulties for the introductionofeffectivemanagementofeffluent quality

Theexperienceoutlined in casestudiessuggeststhat thepollution controlregulationsarerarelyenforced,prosecutionrarelyresultsandthe low staffinglevelsofthePCBmakeinvestigationa long anddrawnout processPermitsareoftenrenewedfor longperiodsoftime Thedatafrom thePCBsuggeststhat a largenumberofagenciespollutewithout obtainingexemptionpermitsandthat exemptionpermitsareonlysoughtasa meansof avoiding imminent prosecution

Sanitationstandardsin urbanareasaregovernedby thefollowing.• TownPlanningAct• PublicHealthAct• HousingStandardsAct

In termsof theseregulationslocal authoritiesare forcedto providewaterbornesanitationandpotablewatersupply in all urbanareasThewatermustbe approvedbytheMOHCW who mustalsobe satisfiedwith the standardofsanitationprovidedThereareno regulationsrequiringthat wastewatertreatmentplantsareoperatedbyqualifiedor trainedoperatorsTheattentiongiven to wastewatertreatmentis indirect,coming from theeffectsofdischargeon waterquality andthebreachoftheWater(Effluent andWasteWaterStandards)Regulations,1977 Thereis no regulatoryactgoverningtheperformance,standardofoperation,personnelqualifications,healthandsafetystandardsfor wastewatertreatmentworks andthereforethereareno personnelableto superviseorassessthese.

Theproblemofurbansanitationin Zimbabwe,unlike in otherpartsofAfrica, is notprimarily one ofaccessto servicesbut oneof disposaloftheeffluent Environmentalpollution, reductionin usablewaterresourcesandhealthrisks all result An alternativepollution control managementapproachis suggestedbasedon shifting responsibilityfrom governmentto the dischargeauthority A reviewofthis systemis urgentlyrequiredto createan environmentwherepollution will be effectively andprogressivelycontrolled

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5

THE RELATIONTO ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

BACKGROUND

In urbanareasofthedevelopingworld, inadequatesanitationis oneoftheprincipalhealthproblemsfacingthepoor Almost 40%oftheurbanpopulationin low incomecountriesremainwithout adequatesanitationdespitemassiveinvestmentsduring the1980’s(Watson,G 1995,World DevelopmentReport1994) Theresultsarenotdifficult to seeandthey arelargely restrictedto thepoorercommunitiesofhigh densityareas,informal andillegal settlementswheresanitationsystemsareeithernot provided,havebeenallowedto fall into disrepairor areinadequatefor thepopulationtheyareexpectedto serve.Additionally, agrowingawarenessof the limited availability offreshwaterresourcesmustdrawattentionto the impactofsanitationon theavailability andusefulnessofourwaterresources.Sanitationis thereforeinextricably linked to the broaddevelopmentprocessaswell asto thespecificissuesofenvironment,healthandwaterresourcesmanagement

Zimbabweis not immuneto theseproblemsand,whilst generallyproudofthe level ofits urbanservices,increasingpressuresfrom rapidurbangrowth,economicconstraintsandthe institutional reformstaking placeunderstructuraladjustmenthavealreadyresultedin a declinein environmentalhealth This studylooks atthe presentsituationregardingurbansanitationin Zimbabweandtheactionsbeing takento maintainorimprovethe service

URBAN AFRICA

Urbangrowth

Table I Thegrowthof someAfncancittes(Rossi-Espagnet,1984,andCSOZimbabwe.)

Population in millions City’s popn (1980)as % of:

1950 1980 2000 National ~Opfl Urban popnCatro 25 74 129 176 386Addis Ababa 0.2 1 7 5 8 5 2 36 6Nairobi 0 1 1 3 5 3 7 9 57 3Kinshasa 01 31 80 110 280

Harare* 0.02 066 1.18 114 371(* Hararedataarefrom 1941, 1982and 1992 and thenationalcompansonsare for 1992)

In most countriesthelargestcities growmostrapidly andit is evidentfrom Table 1thatthereis a rapidurbangrowthtaking place In many African countries,includingZimbabwe,overonethird oftheurbanpopulationlive in onecity.Whilst mostdevelopingcountriesin Africa arekeento slow downtherural to urbanmigrationfor a varietyofreasonswhich includetheaccessto services,sofar nocountryhasreally succeeded(Nordberg & Winblad, 1992) Beckeret al (1986)concludethat themigrationis inevitable,not necessarilyundesirable,anaturalconsequenceofeconomicgrowthandreflectsthenot mistakenbeliefamongstthemigrantsthat opportunitiesarein factbetterin theurbanareas

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URBAN SANITATION iN ZIMBABWE

Habitat, in a global reporton humansettlements(1-labitat, 1996)showsarapidlyurbanisingpopulationin Africa and alsoZimbabwe(Table2) whilst otherstudiesinZimbabweestimateurbangrowthto be evenhigher(Zimconsult,pers.comm.)

Table 2. Urbanisationtrendsin Africa, 1975-2025.(Habttat,1996)

% Total l)opulation in Urbansettlements

UrbanPopulation. Rural populationAnnual growth rate Annual growthrate(%)(%)

1975 2000 2025 1975-2000 2000-2025 1975-2000 2000-2025Africa 25 15 37 30 53 77 4.37 3.81 2.08 113Zimbabwe 19 56 35 97 55.39 5 28 3.53 1.93 0.36

From Table2 Zimbabweshowsa morerapidly urbanisingpopulationthanAfrica ingeneralandwill havealmost 11 million urban residentsby 2025.

Servicecoverage

Table 3. Urbansanitationcoveragein Africa 1980-90andexpectedcoveragefor the ear2000at thecurrentrateof progress.(Nordbcrg& Winblad, 1992; Christmas& deRooy, 1991)

Population(millions)

% Coverage No served(millions)

No unserved(millions)

1980 119.77 65 7785 41.921990 202.54 79 16001 42.532000 33249 73 242.17 9032

Sanitationin urbanareastendsto bemoreofaproblemthanwatersupply.During theInternationalDrinking WaterSupplyandSanitationDecadefrom1980 to 1990approximately82 millionurbanresidentsin Africa wereprovidedwith adequatesanitation(Table3)(Christmas& deRooy, 1991)However,therewerealmostthesamenumberofunservedpeoplein urbanareasatthe endofthe decadeasat thebeginningandthe rapidgrowthbeingexperiencedin urbanpopulationssuggestthat theprojectionsfor theyear2000could evenbe an underestimate.Figuresfrom Africa publishedmorerecentlyshowthat from 36 countrieslisted, 15 hadlessthan50% of theurbanpopulationwith accessto sanitationfacilities (World Bank, 1996)Althoughofficial figuressuggestthatpeoplein urbanareasarebetterservedthaninrural areas,public provisionto removehumanexcretaandto disposeof it safely isusuallyno betterin poor urbanneighbourhoodsthanit is in rural areas.Thehealth

Inst~luteof Waterand SanitationDevelopment

SomeAfrican Cities:DakarSenegalesetownshaveno provisionfor theremovalofhouseholdandpublicwaste A surveyin 1980/81found only 28%of householdshaveprivatewaterconnections.Nearlyonesixthof humansolidwastesisdumpedoutsidepropertoiletfacilities.DarEs Salaam.Froma surveyof 660 householdsatall incomelevelsin 1986/8747%haveno pipedwatersupplywithin theimmediatevicinity. Only 13%of thedirty waterandsewageis regularly disposedof. As manyas89%ofhouseholdsusedsimplepit latrines.Only4.5%hadtoiletsconnectedto septictanksor sewersandmosthouseholdshad to sharesanitaryfacilities.KhartoumThe systemsof watersupplysewagedisposalandrefusedisposalareall inadequateboth in the coverageof theurbanareaandthemaintenanceof theservice.The municipal seweragesystemservesonly about5%of Khartoum urbanareaand is susceptibletobreakdownswhenwasteis dischargeddirectly into theriver or onto open land(Habitat. 1989)

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problemsthat arisefrom this areusuallymoreseriousin urbanareasdueto thehighpopulationdensities(Habitat, 1989,Wateraid,1996)

Official figuresofpopulationcoveredwith adequateservicesareoftendifficult tobelieveandunfortunately“adequate”is rarelydefinedandmay includesituationswhereahundredormorepeopleareexpectedto sharea singlepublic latrine, orwheresimplepit latrinesarean acceptedtechnologyfor high densityurbancommunities Thefiguresquotedabovehowevershowthat thereis going to bean increasingnumberofurbanresidentswithout accessto eventhesimplestform of latrineThe Habitatreporton humansettlements(Habitat, 1996)presentsagloomy pictureofa significantdeclinein serviceprovisionin urbanareasof Africa Whilst alsorecognisinga transitionfrom public investmentandprovisionofservicesto increasedprivateactivity this is not widely practisedwith theresultingsteadydeteriorationinservices(seebox on deteriorationof services)

SouthAfrica evaluatedaccessto sanitationin urbanareasandincluded in thedefinitionof urbanthe “densesettlements”to be found on the fringesof cities but not officiallywithin thecity limits (Table4) (WRC, 1993) This typeofsettlementhasasits primaryeconomicbasetheurbaneconomyyet usuallyignoredastheyarenot formally within amunicipalarea.Of thosewithout adequateaccessto sanitation51%arein metropolitanareas,22% in townsand27%in the“densesettlements”(WRC, 1994)

Table4. Urban sanitationcoveragein SouthAfrica (WRC, 1993)

Sanitationtype Population

Adequate69%Full waterborne 1 5,71 8,00()Septic tank 439.00()VIP latrine 266,000

Other 398.00()UnimprovedPit 5.253.000

Inadequate31%Bucket 1.926.000None 491.000TOTAL 24.491.000

Demandandwillingnessto payThe World Bank statesthat thereis abundantevidencethaturbanfamilies arewillingto pay substantialamountsfor theremovalof excretaandwastewaterfrom theirneighbourhoods(World Bank, 1992) As with water,this is mostevidentin thoseareaswherepeoplelack accessto theservice In Kumasi, Ghanafor example,theuseof

Institute of Water and S,uiiUiion Dc\ eiopment

DeterioratingservicesIn many African cities, ,noct refuse is uncollected andpiles ofdecaying waste are allou’ed to rot instreets and vacant lots Schools are becoming so overci-oticled that iiiany students have on/v minimalcontact with their teachers Ba.c,c drugs have disappearedfrom public clinics and professionalmedical care is ext,-e,nely difficult to obtain, more and ,iiore people live in ‘informal’ housing,where clean drinking ii’ater must be direct/v purchasedfroiii water sellers at a prohibitive costIn Dar Es Salaam there ii’as a decline in expenditure on services and infrastructure of8 5% per yearfrom 1978/79 to 1986’87 The capital expenditures of’the Nairobi City c’o,n,,iission (USS per capita)for water and seti’erage fellfrom $27 78 in 1981 to $2 .17 in 1987, and per capita maintenanceexpenditurecfell from S7 29 to 52 30 Such figures suggest an alarming decrease in the abili~ofaniodern African city to service the needs of its population (Habitat. 1996)

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public latrinesandbucketlatrinesaccountsfor largerecurrentexpendituresofabout2 5 and I % respectivelyof family income In Kumasi andin Ouagadougoufamiliesarewilling to pay about2 % ofhouseholdincome for an improvedsanitationsystem(World Bank, 1992)

Institutional issuesA World Bank reviewof morethan 120water andsanitationsectorprojectsover 23yearsconcludesthat in only four countrieshavepublic sewerageandwaterutilitiesreachedan acceptablelevel ofperformance(World Bank, 1992) Thenaturalmonopolyofsanitationserviceprovisiondoesnot lend itself to accountabilityThis isparticularlysowheretheregulatoryframeworkis weakornot separatedfrom theserviceprovider Thethrustof structuraladjustmentin Africa hasrevolvedaroundanopeningup oftheeconomyandagreaterinvolvementoftheprivate sectorHoweverthe limited applicationofthis to waterandsanitationprovisionsuchastheLusakaWaterand SewerageCorporationhasnot yet shownitself to be superiorto well run

municipal utilities Thereareseveralexamplesofwell managedwaterutilities(RepublicofGuinea,Ivory Coast,Botswana)but the samecannot be saidofsanitationwhich is oftennot cateredfor in the commercialisationofwatersupplies

Institutional reformshouldnot only dealwith theoperationandmaintenanceofexistingservicesbut alsowith investment Infrastructuredevelopment,especiallywatersupplyand sanitation,goeshand in handwith economicgrowth,mutually supportingeachother Thelack of investmentin urbaninfrastructurenot only inhibits economicexpansionbut imposesheavyadditional costson manufacturingenterprises(Habitat,1996)

Inappropriateinstitutional arrangementswascited asoneof theconstraintsandproblemsfacingurban sanitationprovisionat anUrban SanitationWorkshopheld inUgandaunderthe auspicesof UNICEF, HABITAT andTJNDP-WorldBank Waterand SanitationProgramThepresentsectortrendsidentifiedby theworkshopwere~

• demanddrivenservice,• communitymanagement,• strategicplanning, and• increasedprivate sectorinvolvement,

all of which imply arevisedinstitutional frameworkandsectorstrategy

SouthAfrica’s draftwhite paperon sanitationrecognisesthe institutionalcomplexityof dealingwith sanitationand it is probablythis institutionalcomplexity whichmakesitdifficult in manydevelopingcountriesto identify oneleadagencyresponsibleforsanitationpolicy and regulation

URBAN SANITATION: CURRENTTRENDS

Poorpeople,informal settlements,squattersall tendto be foundon theworst land -

steepslopes,low lying landproneto flooding,areaswith highwatertable - andtheymaynotbe settledin a patternconvenientfor servicedelivery, all of which canseverelylimit the sanitationoptions Much work hasbeencarriedout on on-sitesanitationoptions suchas improvedpit latrine design,andpour flush latrinesfavouring low cost

yet improvedsocialandenvironmentalbenefits The inability of manyurbanauthorities

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in Africa to provideareliable accessto watersupplieshasmeantthat on sitesanitationhasbeenapossible,if not adesirableoption However,for a varietyof reasons,suchashigh housingdensity, impermeablesoils, high watertable,and theneedto disposeofconsiderablequantitiesof domesticwastewater,on site sanitationsolutionsdo notfunctionwell in manyurbanareas,especiallywherewatersuppliesareadequate.

Table5 Typical rangeof capital costsper householdof alternativesanitationsystems(NordbcrgandWinblad, 1992; World Bank, 1992).

TECHNOLOGY COSTUSSTwin pit, pour flush latrine 75-150VIP latnne 68-175shallowsewerage 100-325Small boresewerage 150-500Conventionalseptictanks 200-600Conventionalsewerage 300-1.000

Conventionalsewerageis consideredtoo expensivefor mostdevelopingcountriesbuttherearea rangeof alternative,cheaper,sewerageoptionswhich cancut coststo 20-30%ofconventionalsewerage(seeTable5, alsocondominialsewerageexamplefromBrazil, World Bank, 1992) Advanceshavealsobeenmadein sewagetreatmentfromthe relatively low cost stabilisationpondsto theModified Activated SludgeprocessesTheimportantpoint beingto developandadopttechnicalsQiutionsappropriateto theclimatic, economicandmanagerialrealities Howeveron the otherhandthesocialandenvironmentalgoalsplacedemandsfor a minimumlevel of serviceand it is the matchbetweenthesetwo which mustbe found in termsof affordability andtechnicalandmanagerialskills

Otherthantechnologicalissues,probablythemostsignificant changestakingplacerelateto an acceptanceof the importantrole that consumersthemselveshaveto playWaterandsanitationservicesareanaturalmonopolyandconsumerscannotforceservicesuppliersto be accountableHoweverexamplesfrom aroundthe world haveshownthat aseparati9n~of theregulatoryandservicefunctionshasallowedagreaterconsumerinvolvement,moreaccountabilityofthe serviceprovider,and animprovementin servicesNew approachesin serviceprovisionsuchas the OrangiPilotProjectin PakistanandCondorninialseweragein Brazil haveprovidedexamplesofvery successfulpartnershipbetweena formal sectorresponsiblefor “trunk” servicesandcommunitiesresponsiblefor “feeder” infrastructure(World Bank, 1992)

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URBAN ZIMBABWE

In examiningthe urbansanitationsituationin Zimbabweafew centreswereselectedfor detailedexamination(Chegutu,Marondera,Gutu-MupandawanaandMutare)butmost informationwascollectedfrom interviews,a studyof existingreportsandrecordsand selectedsitevisits In thecontextof this report largeurbancentresrefertodesignatedtowns,citiesandmunicipalitiesof which thereareabout21 in ZimbabweSmall Urbancentresrefer to growth points, servicecentresandothergroupsof highpopulationdensitywhich aremanagedundera varietyofsystemssuchasTownBoards,AreaBoards,TownshipSuperintendents,or the District Administrator

URBAN GROWTHChegutuChegutuis designatedasatown andhasapopulationestimatedto haveswelledfrom32,000 in 1992 to approximately50,000in 1996,mainly as a result of new miningdevelopmentstaking place Theeconomyof Chegutuis dominatedby two longestablishedindustriesof farmingandtextile productionanda morerecentdevelopmentof a platinummining venture A varietyof servicebusinessessupportthetown Thelayout of thetown canbe describedin 4 zones industrialarea,centralbusinesszone,high density(approx 4,500stands)andlow density(approx. 1,500stands)housing It is estimatedthat standsdesignedto holdup to 8 peoplearenowoccupiedby 12 - 14 peopledueto thepracticeof sublettingrooms The numberofstandsin the high densityareahasincreasedfrom 3917 in 1991 to 4592 in 1995

Gutu MupandawanaGutu MupandawanaDistrict ServiceCentreis oneof the largestgrowth pointsinZimbabwe It is an amalgamationoftwo townshipsunitedundertheGutu RuralDistrict Council The 1992censusgivesapopulationof 6,197for thecentreandthiscompareswith apopulationof4,409 in the 1982census,an annualrateofincreaseofalmost 15% The centreis dependentuponsmallservicesandcommercialactivitiesinsupportofthesurroundingfarmingcommunity Thecentrewas originallyservicedbycommunalseptictanksbut this systemwaschangedto awastestabilisationpondsystemin 1975and currentlyan estimated95%ofthepopulationarethoughtto be onmainsseweragewith theremainderon septictanks

Table 6. Percentannualurbangrowthin Zimbabweand selectedcities andmunicipalitiesfrom 1962 to 2020(Zimconsult 1997)

1962-1969 1969-1982 1982-1992 1992-1996 1996-2000 2000-2020Harare 23 46 61 55 54 47Bulawayo 1 7 4 4 5 4 49 5 2 4.5Chitungwiza n a 20 7 4 8 4 1 4 3 3 8Mutare -0 2 4 0 — 6 6 5 8 6 1 5.4Gweru 26 42 50 46 48 43Kwekwe 6 0 3 3 — 4 7 4 4 4 6 4 1Marondera 6 5 4 9 6 9 6 4 6 7 5,9Zimbabweurban

1 9 6 0 5 3 4 9 5 2 4 5

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ACCESS TO SANITATION SERVICES IN URBAN AREAS

The coverageand typeof technologyusedin urbanareasis documentedin the nationalcensusdatafrom 1992 Thesedatahavebeensummarisedin thefollowing table(CSO,1993a-j)

Table 7 Percentageof urbanhouseholdsusingeachsanitationtechnolog by Province(CSO, 1993a-J)

TECHNOLOGYProvince Flush Blair Pit Bucket None no data No of Hlholds

Manicaland 96 6 1 48 1 66 0 0 25 0 01 43857Mashonaland Central 85 37 773 4.97 0.15 1.74 004 15684Mashonaland East 87.94 4 88 3.69 0 3.14 0 05 15160Mashonaland West 90 43 1 .9 48 0 2 87 0 60767Matabeleland North 91.44 1 33 553 0 1.64 001 16719Matabeleland South 88.37 3.86 508 008 257 003 11964Midlands 94.4 1.37 2.23 0 2.01 0.01 70196Masvingo 9701 1 04 0.93

4190 1.03 0 24181

Harare 93 94 1 71 0 0.13 0.04 359216Bulawayo 98 41 0 51 0 65 0 0.42 0 01 145962

From this tableit can be seenthat thecoveragewith acceptablesanitation(flushtoilets) in theurbanareasof Zimbabwevariesfrom 85 to 98% A total of42,996householdsdo not haveaccessto adequatesanitationin urbanareason thebasisofthecensusfigures Howeverin additionto this is theproblemof densification In thelargeurban settlements,thehousingcrisis hasseenthe constructionof largenumbersofwoodenshacksin thegardensof existinghouseholdsTheseshacksarelet to tenantfamilies who haveto makeuseofthe limited facilities ofthemain dwelling house As aresultlargenumbersof peoplemaybe usingasingle flush toilet A surveyof 1910urbanhouseholdsby CSO in 1994confirmedthehigh accessto flush latrines(946%)but alsoreportedthat 28 8%ofurbanhouseholdsweresharingaflush toilet (CSO,1995)

In Chegutu,MaronderaandMutareover95% ofthepopulationareon mainssewagewith theremainderon septictanks The1992 censusreportsoneortwo percentofthepopulationin mosturbanareasusepit latrinesor haveno sanitation

TECHNOLOGY CHOICE

The sanitationservicesaffordedto theurbanpopulationofZimbabweis primarilybasedon theflush toilet Bucketsystemsusedto be permissiblein urbanareasbut havebeenphasedout overthe last few decadesTheyareno longer apermissibletechnologyin termsofthe HousingStandardsAct and haverecentlybeenexcludedasanacceptabletechnologyin minesalso (Mining (HealthandSanitation)Regulations,1995)Urbanareasclassified,astownsorcities arenot permittedto haveventilatedpit latrinesasa sanitationoptionfor housing Thereareoneor two isolatedcaseswherewateris

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URBAN SANITATION iN ZIMBABWE

not availableandthereis aneedfor public facilities (e g somestreetvendorsites) Pitlatrinesofany descriptionare not acceptedasa sanitationoptionfor urbanhousing.At small urbancentressuchasgrowthpointsand servicecentres,pit latrinesarecommonlyfound In thesesituationswatersuppliesareoften run by an authorityotherthanthe local authority andmaynot extendto the wholeurbancommunity.Additionally, thesesmallurban centresarerun by a local boardortheRuralDistrictCouncilwho haveneitherthe technicalskills nor financial resourcesto be ableto installandmaintainfull sewerage

The CentralRatesFundis constructingseweragesystemsin thesecentres(growthpointsandservicecentres)to encouragewaterbornesanitationbut theytendto beunderutilisedandmaintenanceis aproblem The installationof septictank systemshaveprovedto beaproblemin thesmallerurbancentresdueto the lackofaccessto aseptictankemptyingservice(e g Jererain Zaka)Thefocuson waterbornesystemsfor urbanareashastheconsequencethatwatersuppliesmust be reliableandalso that a full seweragesystemis required Thereis agoodrangeofwastedisposaltechnologiesin useinZimbabwefrom thesimple pitlatrineto full seweragewithactivatedsludgetreatmentsystemsTherecordsofvisits to off site treatmentplantsbytheDWR Pollution ControlBranch(PCB)over thepast10 yearsshowthenumbersandtypesofsystemsin operationasin Table8 Not all systemthroughoutZimbabwehavebeenvisited but this representstheclosestto acompleterecordthat is available

For sampledtownsthetechnologyin useis shownin Table9 Of interestis the lackofinformationat municipal level on thesystemcapacityandactual flows A largenumberofthe smallersystemsthroughoutZimbabwe,mainly ponds,haveno flow measuringdevices

Table9. Wastewatertreatmenttechnologyin usein sampledto~~ns.

Urbancentre

Treatmentsystem

Capacity Average flow!day

Effluentquality

Maintenance

Chegutu 3 wastestabilisationpondsystems

recordslost no measuringdevices

not monitored Poor

Marondera 1 stabilisationpond system

200,000cum 5 8Ml/day lab available good

Mutare Biological filterBiological filterM,A S plant

6140curn/day4090curn/day23.400cumlday

monitoredfortnightly

good

I

Gutu 2 Stabilisationpond systems

unknown no measunngdevices

not monitored fairly good

Gutu Mupandawanaasone ofthe largestgrowthpointshastwo wastestabilisationpond systems,bothofwhichareconsideredto haveconsiderablesparecapacityat thepresenttime. Thesecondsystemwasbuilt in 1994 to caterfor expectedgrowthto thesouthofthecentre

instituteofWater and SanitationDeveiopment

Table 8. Numberandtype ofwastewatertreatmentsystemrecordedin Zimbabwe

Oxidation pondsActivatedsludgeBiological filtersMisc treatmentplants!evaporationponds!slimesdams(mainly mines)

101131213

13


EFFLUENT DISPOSAL

Thequality anddisposaloftreatedeffluent is afactorofmajorconcernwhenconsideringtheenvironmentandthesustainableuseoflimited waterresources.Thereis no mechanismfor systematicallyrecordinghow or whereeffluent is disposedofbuttherecordsfrom visits ofthePCBto wastewatertreatmentworksprovidessomeinsight into themethodsused(Table 10).

Table 10. Methodsusedfor the disposalof treated~vastcwaterin relation to thequality of theeffluent (Poor most parametersdo not meetrequiredstandards;average= morethanhalfthe

parametersmeetthestandards,good= all parametersmeetthestandards)

Disposalmethod Numberofsystems

Effluent quality (whereavailable)

Poor Average Goodto naturalwaters 52 30 11 2irrigation 41 17 14 4recycling 3 0 2 1evaporation 9 4 3 2

In Chegutu,most oftheeffluent from thetreatmentworks is pumpedto a commercialfarmwhereit is usedfor irrigation of citrus As thepondsareoverloadedthisavoidspollution oftheriver systemhoweverthefarmerdoesnot haveto acceptthepartiallytreatedsewerageandfrom time to time thesurplusis releasedinto the river system.Wateris a valuablecommodityandwhilst at the momentthis is a relieffor Chegutu,with betterwater treatmentthewater couldeitherbe recycledto thetownor besoldfor incomegenerationto thefarmingcommunityasa supplementto theincreasinglyscarcewaterresourcesfor irrigation.

Effluent from Maronderais alsodisposedof to acommercialfarm Proposalshavebeenmadeto improvethewastewatertreatmentand recyclethetreatedwaterthuspostponingtheneedfor themunicipality to makeaconsiderableinvestmentinadditional rawwatersuppliesfor thetown A consultantsreporton Bulawayoduringthe 1992/93droughtstronglyrecommendedtherecyclingof waterhoweverthis is anareastill receivingonly scantattentionin thesearchfor additionalwatersupplies

Mutareconveytheeffluent from thebiological filters for furthertreatmentin theM.A S system After this treatmentit is thenreleaseddirectly into theSakubvariverprovidedthat qualityguidelinesare met otherwiseit is retainedin amaturationpondTheCity hasbeengrantedexemptionsfrom time to time whenit hasbeenunabletoachievethedesiredquality ofeffluent necessaryfor releaseinto theriver systemBasiceffluent quality testsareperformedevery 2 weeksby thecity chemistand amoredetailedexaminationcarriedout by theGovernmentAnalytical laboratoriesmonthly

Gutu Mupandawanahastwo treatnientsystemsThe older 1975 systempasseseffluentto atreeplantationwhich is expectedto providesomeform ofcostrecovery The1994pondsmayeventuallydo thesamebut at thepresenttime the small amountof

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14


effluentgeneratedflows onto disusedland Theeffluent is not examinedto determinethequality

Harareand Chitungwizasit on thecatchmentoftheir own watersupply Problemsrelatedto urbanpopulationgrowth, delaysin upgradingthewastewatertreatmentworks,and periodicbreakdownshasresultedin both citiesreleasinginadequatelytreatedeffluent into rivers andtherebypolluting LakeChivero Inadequatecontrolsover industrialeffluent arealsobelievedto contributeto unacceptablelevelsofpollutantsin LakeChivero(Environment2000, 1996) Theresult hasbeenan increasein thepollution levelsoftheLaketo thepoint whereit is not only hypertrophicbutalsocontainsunacceptablyhigh levelsofheavymetals(Tables11,12)(Zaranyika,1996)and mayposea serioushealththreatto thepopulationofthecity aswell astheenvironment

Table Ii. Levelsof phosphate,nitrateandchloride ions (ing/l) atLakeChivero in Oct 1995(Zaranyika, 1996) (* exceedsWHO drinkingwaterstandards)

Range MeanPhosphate 5 14-Il 86 80*Nitrate 1 70-4570 12 0*Chlonde 137-221 177

Table 12.Heavymetal concentrationsin watersamplesfrom LakeChiverospillway. Apnl 1996(Zaranyika.1996) (* exceedsWHO drinkingwaterstandards)

Element PP~Cadmium 0 018*Copper 0261Nickel 0 147*Lead 0 362*Zinc 0061

Effluent reuse for irrigation is viewedasa convenientway of disposingofinadequatelytreatedwastewater which would otherwisepollutea naturalwaterbody.Beneficially, it mayalsoresult in somerevenuegenerationif the wasteis irrigatedontolocal authority landbut often it is suppliedat low costor freeto the recipientfarmerTherearefew examplesoftrue recyclingof treatedwastewaterbutMaronderahasbeenactivelyexaminingthecostbenefitsof recycling waterfrom thewastewatertreatmentplant ratherthanconstructinganexpensivenewwater storageandreticulationsystem(Robinson,1996)

Disposaloftreatedeffluent hasposedproblemsin that technologyavailablefor mosturbancentres,evenwhenworking satisfactorily,produceswaterofhighphosphateandnitratelevelscausingpollution andeutrophicationof receivingwater (LakeChiverosupplyingwater for Harareis a well documentedcasewherethis hasbeenacontinuingproblemfor the last 30 years) Techniquesfor thefull recyclingofwastewaterhavenotbeenwidelyadoptedin Zimbabweandthemost significantmethodofavoidingpollutionhasbeentheuseof effluent for irrigation This useis controlledby theguidelineslaid down in the Public Health(Effluent) Regulations,1970, whichregulate

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15


theuseofsewageeffluent for irrigation purposesThedisposalof effluent into naturalwaterbodiesis controlledby theWater(Effluent andWasteWater)Regulations,1977

INSTITUTIONAL ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Responsibilityfor sanitationdoesnot fall clearlywithin any governmentagencyWhilstlocal authoritiesaretaskedwith responsibilityfor serviceprovision,unlike with watersupplies,theydo not haveanytechnicalagencyto resortto for advice,policyguidelinesorother technicalsupport TheMinistry of HealthandChild Welfarehasassumedresponsibilityfor rural sanitationbut not for UrbansanitationUrbansanitationstandardsareset andcontrolledthroughavarietyof legislativemechanismsfrom theHousingStandardssetby MLGRUD, thePublicHealthAct enforcedby theMOHCW andtheWaterAct enforcedby theMLWR TheMinistry ofPublicConstructionlooks afterwastewatertreatmentsystemsestablishedat governmentinstitutions

Local authorities.Local authoritiesfollow theappropriatelegislationandbylawswhich determinethestandardof servicesto be provided.Within urbanauthoritiesthereis usuallyaworksdivision with asubdivisiondealingwith waterand sewerageThelargerlocalauthoritieshavea town engineerheadingtheworkssectionand ableto providetechnicalguidancefor theauthority Smallerurbanauthoritiesmay lackthe servicesofan engineerand rely on artisanswhereasgrowthpoints andservicecentresmay lackeventhis level oftechnicalsupport

Small urbancentrestypically haveatownshipsuperintendentandaLocal Boardbutthesecentreshavethegreatestdifficulty with sanitationservicesin that thereareoftendiffering institutionalarrangementsandno clearallocationof responsibilityto the localauthority or Local Board.

A casein point is Gutu Mupandawanawhich, along with othergrowthpoints, suffersfrom alackofclearorganisationalresponsibility.TheCentralRatesFund(A sectionunderMLGRUD) ownsandoperatesthemajority oftheseweragesystemin GMalthoughonehigh densityarea,constructedwith donorsupportis ownedandmaintainedby theRDC. This sectionfeedsinto themain trunk sewerownedby theMILGRUD UnfortunatelyneithertheMILGRT.JD northeRDC havethetechnicalskillsto managethe systemasthereareno qualified staffemployedby eitherorganisationUnlike largerurbancentreswhich havewaterand seweragesectionsunderaworksdepartment,thereis no suchstructurefor Gutu Mupandawanaor othergrowth pointsandno clear linesof accountabilityor responsibility.

CentralRatesFundCentralRatesFund(CRF) is anotheragencyresponsiblefor sanitationservicesincertainareasofthe country.The CRFwasestablishedwithin theMLGRUD to financethe developmentof small growthcentresin therural areas(Lenneiye,1989) Preindependencethere were 13 suchcentres which havenow grownto 57 growthpoints(oneper district) plus alargenumberof rural servicecentres Thegrowth pointsgenerallyhaveasanitationinfrastructurecoveringat leastpart of thecentrewhich isbasedon afull seweragesystem Only a few of the rural servicecentreshavea

Ii.istilute of ~Vater.jnd Sanitation Development

16


seweragesystemwith most relyingon pit latrinesorseptictanks TheCRFhasnotactedasaFundanddoesnot makeloansto Local Authoritiesbut builds, owns.operatesandmaintainsthe systemsIn all casesthe CR~Fhasretainedresponsibilityforthe maintenanceof the facilities it hasconstructed

Waterand seweragechargesarecombinedandwhile theratesarepresentlyunderreviewtheyhavenotbeenchangedsince1986 anddo not in anyway reflect the realcostsof maintenancelet aloneloanrepaymentsTheCRF leviesrentalsandsupplementarychargesat Growthpoints,District ServicecentresandRural servicecentresaftermaking investmentin the infrastructurein thesecentresPrior to theimplementationof theRDC Act the CRFwasthe body responsiblefor developinginfrastructurein thesecentres.SincetheRDC Act theCRFhascontinuedto managesanitationservicesandcollect rates,feesandrents

The revenueraisedfrom chargesis creditedto the CRFat nationallevel who thenallocatesfinancesfor runningthe systemsthroughoutthe country. CRFemploystownshipsuperintendentsandoneor two labourerstaffto run their infrastructureandthis is coordinatedby theDA TheRDC hasno role in the serviceprovisionto thesegrowth points,at leastasrelatesto theCRF facilities This is inconsistentwith thepresentRDC Act and alsoresultsin investmentand managementdecisionsbeingmadefar from thesite of action.Not surprisingly,thereis evidencethat manyof theseCRFsystemsarepoorly managed

TheCRF is operatingon a decreasingbudgetandis unableto carryout any newworks. Therewasevidencein 1989 of decliningallocationsto CRF andoneof thereasonsgivenwasthe failure ofCRFto meetits repaymentcommitmentsto MOF.With the lackof anytechnicalstaffwithin theFund,any complainthasto be referredtotheprivatesectorandsupervisionof thetechnicalperformanceof the CRFfacilities isseverelylimited. CRFreceivesfinancefrom treasuryandis expectedto repaythoseloans - this it doesthroughfurthergrantsfrom treasuryto augmentthe incomereceivedfrom servicechargesWith thedecreasingallocationsfrom treasurythe CRFis experiencingdifficulty in effectingtherequiredmaintenanceofits infrastructure

Thecentralisednatureof theCRF meansthatasimplebreakdownat the furthestpart

of thecountryhasto be referredto Harare The CRFdoesnot actasafundbut asasupplierof goodsandservicesat subsidisedprices Not surprisinglyit is difficult tohandoversuchaserviceto anotheragencywho doesnot havethe largesseandwouldhaveto facethe socialandpolitical consequencesof the requiredlargeincreasesinfees This waspresumablythe reasonfor the commissioningof astudy on thedevelopmentof arevenuecollectionsystemfor District servicecentres(Lenneiye,1989)but which seemsnot to havebeeneffective

TheCRF ofnecessitymanagedthesefacilities whilst therewasno effectivelocalauthority. In thepresentcircumstancesthey feel unableto handfacilitiesover to theRDC astheRDC is presumedunableto repaythe loansto treasury In factwith thepresentchargingsystemtheCRF is alsonot able to recoverenoughmoneyto maintainthe services

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17


PrivatisationLargeurbancentresin Zimbabweareconsideredto be providing areasonablywellmanagedserviceasregardswatersupplyandsanitationThis is in an environmentwheretherehasbeenconsiderableattentiongiven internationallyto thebenefitsofprivatisedwaterutilities. The successof the systemsin the municipalitiesmight suggestthat a waterutility maynot provideanyparticularadvantagesfor Zimbabwe However,therehavebeenconcernsthatthefull incorporationofwaterandsanitationservicesinto municipal accountsandmanagementresultsin revenuefrom theseservicesbeingusedto subsidisedeficits in otherareasratherthanin ensuringthepropermaintenanceanddevelopmentof waterandsanitationservices It is for this reasonthat somemunicipalitieshavebeenconsideringseparatingthewaterandseweragedepartmenttostandalonebut still remainingwithin Council in an effort to improveefficiencyandmanagementofthe servicesThis would providea compromisebetweentheprivatisationadvocatesandthe public concernsfor efficient, accountablemanagementoftheseessentialservices.

Thesmallurbancentresprovideacompletelydifferent scenariowhereaccountsdo notbalance,chargesbearno relation to serviceprovided,no oneagencyis responsibleoraccountableandthereis aseriouslack oftechnicalskills As growthpointsattemptingto attractinvestorsthe lack of reliableservicesis amajordrawback The possibilityexiststhat managementcontractsfor suchareasmaybe an appropriateway to moveforward.

Giventhe financingsituationandthe operationandmaintenancestatusfor urbansanitationsystemsit is essentialthat themanagementissuebe addressedurgentjy.Local authoritiesshouldreview the managementsystemfor waterand sanitationservicesto ensuretherevenuesmatchthe realcosts,to ensurethat adequateallocationsaremadefor operationandmaintenanceofsanitationsystems,andtoensuretimely investmentin newinfrastructureto meetthedemandsofgrowth.Thereis little or no accountabilityin thepresentsystemand thelackofeffectivepolicing from nationallevel removesall incentivesfor urbansanitationto performeffectively andefficiently.

FINANCING OF URBAN SANITATION

InvestmentUrbancentresrely on loansfrom centralgovernmentor externalagenciessuchastheWorld Bank for investment in new infrastructure Theincomeand expenditure

statementsfor the urbancentresshownbelowdo not suggestthat thesanitationservicesaregeneratingenoughrevenuefor theoperationandmaintenancelet aloneforloanrepaymentsTheseparationof thewaterand sewerage’ services into a separate

entity maybe moreeffective in ensuringthemaintenanceofahigh standardof service

by linking thechargesto the real costof providingthe services

The World BankUrban II projectprovidesassistanceto 21 largeurbanlocalauthoritiesin termsofloans. It is interestingto notethatof the 21 local authorities,20haveproposalsin streamfor sanitationrelatedprojectsandthereareadditionalsanitationprojectsbeingfundedoutsideoftheUrbanII project This showsthat

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18


sanitationis recognised as a high priority andan arearequiringurgentattentioninmanyoftheseurbancentres.

TheCRFobtainsloansfrom treasuryfor infrastructuredevelopmentin thedesignatedsites in rural areas However these are not handedover to the local authority.Theamountof investmentandtheprioritisation bearsno relationto theability orwillingnessofthebeneficiariesto pay for theintendedserviceandgiven the limitedgovernmentfinances,prioritiesendup beingsetat nationallevel

Financingoperationand maintenanceMunicipalitieslargely manageto finance theoperationandmaintenanceof theseweragesystemfrom theincomefrom sewagecharges(Table 13).

Table 13. Annual incomeandexpenditurepatternsfor selectedlargeurbancentres(Z$)ChegutuYear Incomefrom

sewagechargesExpenditure

1991 149.189 ?1992 301,164 370.1501993 410,038 615.2511994 675,452 771,6601995 910,747 1.026,830

MaronderaYear Incomefrom

sewagechargesExpenditure

1991 411,188 540,4681992 619,620 787,0461993 840,390 824.5451994 1,362,995 898.1361995 1.448,185 1.631,262

Year Incomefromsewagecharges

Expenditure

1991 2.639.865 2,881,9731992 3,027,838 3,637,3321993 3,895,562 4,627,4031994 5,362,142 5,779,1331995 6.636.512 7,310,398

Sewerageratesvary considerablyeg the Municipality ofKadomacharge$43!household!month asaflat ratewhereasMaronderahavediffering ratesfor domestic,andcommercial/industrialpremiseswith additionalchargesfor additionaltoiletsMutarehaveafixed monthly chargeof $53 55 which is includedin theratesbill issuedon amonthly basis Maronderaaswith mostofthe largermunicipalities,hasa fullycomputerisedbilling systemandhasateamof staffdesignatedto thecollectionofoutstandingbills

No figures of revenue generated were availablefrom eithertheRDC, CRFortheMLGREJD in Gutu Mupandawanaandthepresentinstitutional system makes itunlikely that a managementsystembasedon sound commercial principles can beimplemented for thesanitationservicesin small urban communities

Whilst it variesfrom local authorityto local authority,it would appearthat servicecharges are not set in relation to the costof the serviceprovidedbut in relationto theoverall municipalbudget Similarly financialallocationsfor operationandmaintenanceand investment are made by taking into accountthewhole local authoritybudgetaryrequirements As a resultthereis no stronglinkagebetweentherealcostof effectiveserviceprovision andtheservicechargeappliedwith theconsequencethat service

Instituteof Waler and SanitationDevelopment

Mutare

19


chargesmaylag behindthe costofprovision or income from theservicemaybe usedto financeotherlocal authority activitiesto thedetrimentof thesanitationservice.

It is also difficult without a detailedsurvey,to assesshow muchmoneyshouldbeallocatedfor operationandmaintenanceofeachsystem Thegeneraltrendis thatoperationand maintenanceis under-financedresultingin agradualdecayofthesystemto the point whereavery largeinvestmentis requiredfor rehabilitation.Thelocalauthoritythenclaims thatneither it northegovernmenthasthefinancialresourcesforthis rehabilitationand pollution continuesindefinitely

Theseparationofthe waterandsewageoperations,accountsandbudgetsfrom thegenerallocal authoritysystemmay be oneway to resolvethis but it is imperativein thefaceofrapidurbangrowththata revisedmanagementsystemis put in placeto ensurethat

a) feesarerealisticand coveroperationandmaintenanceaswell asinvestmentcosts,b) operationandmaintenanceis not carriedout ascrisis managementbutretainstheoperatingstandardof theservice,andc) thatthe managementis accountablefor the serviceprovided

A corollary to this is that an effectivewaterpollution control systemis put in placebygovernmentto monitor effluentdischargesand ensurecompliancewith theregulationsThelackofany effectivesanctionsagainstpollutersis believedto havea significantinfluenceon theallocationof operationandmaintenancefundsby urbanauthoritieswherebyfinanceis allocatedto activitiesof ahigherpublic profile

OPERATIONAL STATUS OF TECHNOLOGY

ThePCB inspect water in rivers and trace problems backto theirsource A numberoflocal authorities are polluting natural waters in terms of the Water Act andthe smallergrowth pointsandservicecentresarealsoconsideredto bemajoroffenders Theconditionoftheplantswhen last visited by thePCB showsthat only 20%couldberegardedasgoodwith almost45%in thepoorcategory(Table 14) Thereis no fixedscheduleofexaminationofsiteswith somenot visited sincethe 1970’sbut theindicationsfrom thetablearethat therehasbeenan improvementin the conditionofthe ~lantsover the last20 years

Table 14. Condition oftreatmentplantsvisited by thePCBat the lastvisit, which variesfrom 1971to 1996, and thosevistled withIn thelastthreeyears (poor = maintenancelacking, plantJustrundown; average= somemaintenancebeingdone, good = well maintainedplantwith goodhousekeeping).

Condition of plant All Data Plant visitedbetween1994-96

Poor 44 13Average 37 19Good 22 11

From 1971 to 1991 107 original exemptionpermitsweregrantedto allow temporarydischargeof inadequately treated waste Thesecoveredvarying periodsof exemption

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20

URBANSANITATION IN ZIMBABWE

In manycasesthe exemptionwasrenewedevenfor periodsof over10 yearswithoutthe pollution being controlled However in the vast majority of cases the exemptionpermits were not renewed with the assumptionthatpollution hadceasedResultsfromexaminationofwastewatertreatmentplantsby PCBdo not showthat therehasbeenany significant improvement in the quality of effluent being released (Table 15).

Table 15. Quality of effluent examined from treatmentplantsfrom 1971 - 1996 andthosefrom 1994-96 (Poor = most parameters do not meetrequiredstandards;average = more than halftheparameters meet the standards, good = all parameters meet the standards)

Condition of plant All Data Plant visitedbetween1994-96

Poor 51 23Average 34 15Good 11 8

In highdensityurbanareasfurther densification hasresultedin singlestandsactuallyhousingup to 40 peopleasvisitors, lodgers,or tenantsin backyardwoodenshacks.Existing sanitationservicesbecomeoverloadedcausingincreasedblockagesin pipesandoverloadingof the treatmentfacility As the overloadingis asa resultof increasedoccupancyofstands,the local authorityis not receivingincreasedrevenuein termsofservicechargesThis situationis occurringin mostcities.

Coverageis difficult to determinewhereasin thepasta 100%coverageusedto beassumedthis is now no longerthe case Theoccupancyofstandsis assumedto beamaximumof 12 accordingto the housingstandardsandthereforeoccupancyhigherthanthis with only 1 latrine is consideredto be under-served.In additiontherearehighdensitysettlementssuchasEpworth,Hatcliffe, DzivaresekwaandPortafarm wheresanitationis not at an acceptablestandardfor an urbancommunity,and,falling outsidecity limits, thegeneralregulationsof ruraldistrict councilsapply

Chegutuis an examplewherethepondsystems,whilst simple to maintain, havebeenallowedto becomeovergrownwith weedsandto be in needofdesludging.Mosquitobreedingtakesplaceandundoubtedlythesystemcouldwork moreeffectively,haveahigher capacityandthereforereleasemoreacceptablequality ofeffluent if properlymaintained Thefocuson Chegutuasaresultof the newmining developmentsis likelyto resultin a pressurefor actionto be takensoon in Chegutu,problemsoccurwithpipeblockagesdueto theaccumulationof sandand from theincreasedloadingon thesystemasa result offurtherhousingdevelopmentanddensificationTheseptictanksystemin Chegutuhasnot apparentlyexperiencedany majorproblemsA tractortowedvacuumemptyingsystemis usedandthesmall numberof septictanksdoesnotcreatea significantproblemwhenit is underrepair

TheMaronderapondsystemis very well maintained,showsno evidenceofoverloadingat thepresenttime, andis desludgedannually However,it is believedthatif thecurrenthighrateof leakageof sewerage(40%) from themain sewerreticulationsystemwereto be remedied,thenthe pondswould be closeto capacityThemunicipalityhasno vacuumsystemfor emptyingseptictanks, andwhilst the numberoftheseis small (400-500)themethodof using labour is not satisfactoryThereis no

Instituteol Water and SaiiitationDevelopment

21

THERELATIONTOENVIRONMENTALPOLLUTION

evidencethat the possibleeffectsofthehigh leakagefrom thepipelinesongroundwaterquality hasbeeninvestigated

Themajority ofseweragereticulationsystemsarefacingproblemsdueto overloadingin thehigh densityareasWhereadditionaltreatmentworkshavebeenbuilt orextensionsmadeto existing ones,oftenthereticulationsystemhasnot beenupgradedastheincreasedflowsarecoming from infilling or densification,sublettingandincreasedoccupancyrates Commonproblems,and in casessuchasMaronderatheyareserious,areleakageandblockagesCommonly,sandis usedfor thecleaningofutensilsandaccumulatesin thereticulationsystem Additional problemsarecausedbysolid objectswhichenterthesystemvia squatpansor opened!vandalisedmanholecovers.Suchobjectsblock, orrestrict theflow throughpipes Theseproblemsareexacerbatedby thefact that levelsof sewagenow beingconveyedin thesewernetworksarefar higherthanthat for which thesewerwasdesignedThiswas foundinvirtually all systemsexamined

In Mutare, theflow into the Gimboki M A S systemhasbeenincreasingat over 10%peryear Gutu Mupandawana’sreticulationsystemwasinstalled in 1978/79andthereforeis relativelynew Thereare2-3 blockagesof sewersper monthwhich aredealtwith by labourersfrom MLGRUD Ownersofseptictankscarryout theirowntank emptying.Thepondsarerelativelywell maintainedalthoughwith sparecapacityat thepresenttime

Laboratoryservicesarefound in the mainurbancentersandtheseprovidebasicanalysisofwaterand wastewaterquality (Mutare,Marondera,Harare,Bulawayo)additionaltestsarecarriedout by thegovernmentanalystslaboratoryin Harare Thelackofaccessto laboratoryservicesmay presentdifficulties for the introductionofeffectivemanagementofeffluent quality

REGULATION

The control over urban sanitation isexercisedthroughamixture oflegislative and institutional mechanisms _______

The Ministry of Lands and Water ________

Resourceshasa Pollution ControlBranchwithin theDepartmentofWaterResourceswhich monitorswaterpollution throughoutthecountry Thisincludesthe monitoringofthefunctioningofwastewatertreatmentworkswheretheyposea pollutionriskto surfaceor groundwaterThePCBusestheWaterPollution Advisory Boardasa referencepoint for decisionmakingon stepsto be takenwhenpollution isobservedto be occurring.TheWPAB, establishedin termsofanamendingAct, No 7/1979,to theWater

liisimtute of Water and SanitationDevelopment

CASE STUDY 1

Problem Acid mine drainageDuration 1992 - 1995Key eventsSept 1992 complaint filedJun 1993 Final warntngFeb 1994Commissionerof policeapproachedafierlocal policefail to takeactionFeb 1994 Local poitcesayno groundsfor actionNov 1994Matter referredto Attorney General1995 Court summonsissuedfor August1995Jun 1995 Settlement reached,casewithdrawn.

OutcomeSatisfactoryin that action takento control pollutionUtisatisfacloryin failing to penaltsetheoffenderfora) not taking timely action,b) environmentaldamageincurred,andc) the high governmentcostsincurredThemessageto the offender is to delay as much aspossibleas it makesno differenceto thepenalty.

22


Act, is madeup ofmembersappointedby theMinister ofLAWR comprisingGovernment,Local Government,andprivatesectorinterestsandmeetsquarterlytoconsiderreportsfrom thePCB TheWPAB is purely advisoryhowevertheDWRrefersmost mattersconcerningbreachesof the Water Act relevant to pollution to theBoard Action is thentakenby theDWRin terms of theWaterAct, 1976ThePCBis staffedby 5 peopleandthey ______

haveinspectedtreatmentplantsand _______

reticulationsystemsoverthewhole ________

country. Theyfind it difficult in practicetoprosecute local authorities as both referthecaseto the AttorneyGeneralHowever,thebreachof Statutoryregulationsby local authoritiesaresupposedto be handledby the localauthority itself TheMILGRUD shouldonly be involved and referthemattertotheAttorneyGeneralif it is acaseofprecedenceor politically sensitive Theprocessfollowed is to first notit~’theoffendingauthorityandgiverecommendationsfor remedialaction Theauthority iS given time to respondandiftheresponseis not satisfactorythentheyaregivena time limit for actionto betakenprior to prosecutionThecaseis _______

thensentto theAttorneyGeneral (seethecasestudiesin Boxes 1-4)Lock (1994)reportsthatthe WPAB hashad difficulty in persuadingthe policeandtheAttorneyGeneral’soffice to taketherequestedprosecutionsseriously,and thattheWPAB is powerlessto force local authoritiesto implementpollution controlworks ifgovernmentis unableorunwilling to allocatethemadequateloanfundsto do so(Lock, 1994)

Examiningexemptionpermitsgrantedbetween1971 and 1991 showsatotal of 107original exemptionsweregranted Fifty percentof theseareassumedto havebeenremediedwithin the time allocatedof 6 monthsto 2 yearswhereasothersweregrantedfurtherexemptionsasshownin Figure 1 Thenumberofnewexemptionsgrantedbetween1991-95wasthreewith somebeingrenewedwhile remedialwork wasinprogress

Theexperienceoutlinedin thecasestudies(Boxes 1-4) suggeststhat theregulationsarerarelyenforced,prosecutionrarelyresultsandthe low staffing levelsofthePCBmakeinvestigationa long anddrawnout processPermitsareoftenrenewedfor longperiodsoftime Thedatafrom thePCB suggeststhat a largenumberof agenciespollute without obtainingexemptionpermitsand that exemptionpermitsareonlysoughtasa meansof avoiding imminent prosecution

in~,tittiieof \Vaier and Saini.it ion 1)cvelopuieiii

CASE STUDY 2

Problem Pollution from a water treatmentworksDuration 1991 - presentKey eventsMay 1991 applicationfor exemptionrefusedasnopollution abatementworksin progressNov 1993re-applicationfor exemptionrefusedMarch 1994 application for exemptionapprovedbasedon work in progress1995 exeniptionsrenewedasoffenderfails tocomplete pollution abatement workApr 1995 final warningsent,exemptionpermitnotrenewedNov 1995River boardunsuccessfullyattemptedprosecutionon behalfof farmersthroughtheAdministrativecourtFeb 1996 unopposedapplicationto High CourtbyDWR for an order to offender to effect remedialactionJun1996 High Court requestedreasonabletimeforoffenderto remcd\ thesituationand furtherexplanationof dangerscausedby pollutionProblemcontinuesOutcomeUnsatisfactoryin that pollution continuesunabated,no penaltyfor thepolluter, no exemptionpermit iii place.High Courtactingon behalfof theoffendei in an unopposedapplication

23

THERELATIONTOENVIRONMENTALPOLLUTION

Figure 1. Number of renewals topollution exemptions

Number ofrenewals

The Ministry of Health, throughthe directorateof environmentalhealthbecomesinvolved wherepolluted wateris beingusedfor humanconsumptionor for theirrigation ofcropsfor possiblehumanconsumption Action is thentakenin termsofthePublicHealthAct. _______________________________________The NaturalResourcesAct is alsorelevant to control pollutionIn terms of regulation, the Ministry ofPublic Construction and theDepartmentofPhysicalPlanningsetstandardscontrollingdevelopmentThelocal authoritieshavebylawswhich _____

also controlthetypeand standardofdevelopmentactivitiesSanitation standards in urban areas aregoverned by the following

• TownPlanningAct• Public HealthAct• HousingStandardsAct

In termsof these regulations localauthoritiesareforced to providewaterborne sanitation and potable watersupply in all urban areas The water _____

mustbeapprovedby theMOHCWwho mustalsobe satisfiedwith thestandardofsanitationprovided Forexample, Chitungwiza sought _________________________________________permissionfrom theMOHCW todeviate from the Housing Standards Actwere refusedpermissionandforcedto install waterborneseweragein newhousingdevelopments.

In the situation of small urban centresclassified asgrowthpointsor servicecentresregulations are not so clear In many of the new Rural District Councils, who are thelocal authority for these centres, there are no bylaws governing service standards Theyhaveto meetthe approvalof theMOHCW but there are difficulties in applying thePublic HealthAct exceptfor the public facilities in these growth points and service

centres.The MOHCW aimsfor waterborne sanitationwhere there is a water supply,

InstituteofWater and SanitationDevelopment

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6+

CASE STUDY 3

~~q~cni dischargeof untreatedsewageinto naturalwatercourse

Duration~1985-1994

KeyeventsDcc 1985 Attention drawn to the offenceFeb 1987 Farmerscomplainto DWR1987- 1994CorrespondencebetweenoffenderandDWRFeb 1994 Watersamplestaken asbasisforprosecution??‘~i994Applicationby DWR to prosecuteoffenderFarmersrepresentativesmakecourt applicationagainstoffenderOct 1994Offendergiveninterdictto stoppollution andorderedto cotnpensatefarmers

OutcomeSatisfactoryin that pollutionnowceased,compensationpaidUnsatisfactoryin that it tookso longandfinal outcomewasdnvenmoreby farmerdemandsthangovernmentregulation

andusepit latrinesin the urban area.They

24


an upgradeableaquaprivyor wherethereis no reticulatedwatersupplyaBlair VIPlatrine Sanitationstandardsfor minesare setby theMining Healthand Sanitationregulations(1995)which in therecentamendmentremovedbucketlatrinesasanacceptablesanitationoption UnderthePublicHealthAct governmentactuallyhasthepower to rectify an illegal situation and then recover the cost from the offender Thispower has not been used as yet

If government systems are not functioning properly theMOHCW can a) advise, b)prosecute, c) rectify with MOF permission, or d) close the premises. The MOHCW hasfound the latter action to be the most persuasive and there are many examples,including hospitals, where the MOHCWhave applied the regulations to temporarilyclose premises which violate the Public Health Act The support that the MOHCW hasreceivedfor theseactionsandthesubsequentremedialactiontakenhasto a largeextentshownhow theenforcementof regulationshasbeenpivotal in themaintenanceofsanitationstandards

Thereareno regulationsrequiringthat waterorwastewatertreatmentplantsareoperatedby qualifiedor trainedoperatorsTheactualstatusis unknownbut it issuspectedthat a largenumberof treatmentplantsarethereforebeing operatedbypoorly trainedor supervisedoperators.

The Water Act does allow for wastewater treatment plants to be required to monitor

thequality ofeffluent andto submitsuchinformationto therelevantministry Giventhat the PCBis sounderstaffed and pollution is such a problem, it is surprising thatthese powers have not been used

The casestudies showa lack of appreciation of environmentalissues by enforcementagencies and confusion in the Attorney General’s office as to function in upholdingregulations or protecting government and quasigovernmentagenciesTheexemption

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CASE STUDY 4

Problemdischargeof poorquality effluent to river.Duration 1982 -‘ 1996Key events1982 Problem identified but no exemptionpermit grantedas no firm proposalssubmittedby offenderfor controlofpollution1984 Problem continues and offender fails to address DWR recommendations1993 Pollution continues but consultant recruited by offender to review sewerageandwaterreticulation needs1994 Application for exeniption permit refused pending firm proposalsfor remedialaction1995 Exemptionpermitgrantedfor 3 monthsbut conditionsnot fulfilled.Dcc 1995 Constructionof morehousesby offenderwithout addressingseweragesystemFinalwarning by DWR1996 Applicationfor exemptionpermit refusedpendingproofof allocationof fundsfor remedialactionMarch 1996 Application to htghcourt for anorderagainsttheoffender1996 Attorneygeneral unwilling to progressasthe offenderis a local authority and thereforefallsundertheMinistry ofLGRUD and the Plaintiff and the accused are both seekingrepresentationfromtheAttorney generalOutcomeUnsatisfactoi in that pollutioncontinues;government(AG) unableto identif its regulatoryfunction, long delays beforeactiontaken

25


permit systemis a wayof legallygaining time in orderfor remedialactionto be takenby theoffender Howeverit is questionablewhetherit really servesany purposeasthelargenumberof agenciesreleasingunacceptableeffluentinto naturalwaterbodiesneitherhavean exemptionpermit noraretheybeingprosecutedThevery low numberof exemptionsbeinggrantedcould indicatethat it is difficult to get an exemptionwithout beginningremedialworksorsimply that offendersseeno incentiveto applyfor an exemption.A furtherpoint is the lackofanyfeefor apermit which, to beeffective, should penalise the offender and encourage remedial action without waitingfor prosecution.

Partoftheproblemmayrelateto thefact that centralgovernment(e.g. CRFandMPCNH) is an ownerand operatorandthereforenot in a positionto prosecuteitselfThemostcommonexamplesof this appearto havearisenwith local authoritieswhoarenot centralgovernmentbut havesoughtrepresentationfrom theAttorneyGeneral’soffice whenthreatenedwith prosecution.This hasbeenausefultacticindelayingprosecutionevenfurther.

HUMAN RESOURCES

Zimbabwedoesnot haveany regulationspertainingto thequalificationsofstaffoperatingwateror wastewatertreatmentplants Whilst theCity ofHararehasbeenofferingtrainingofwaterandwastewatertreatmentplant operatorson an informal

basisfor manyyearsthereare no regulationsrequiringthat treatmentplantshaveto beoperatedby qualifiedstaff Given theimportanceof thesetasks,bothin preventingepidemicsby ensuringpotablewateris supplied,and in protectingthewaterresourcesandgeneralenvironmentfrom harmfulpollution, aswell asthe largeamountofmoneyinvestedin the infrastructure,it is importantto ensurethe correctoperationandmaintenanceofthefacilities. The largerurbancentreshaveat leastatown engineerinchargeofworks and thereforethereis accessto qualifiedadviceand supervisionforthetreatmentworks.Thesmall urbancentresmaynot haveany staffwith technicalqualificationsandmayrely solelyon an untrainedlabourto managethewastewatertreatmentworks.PartoftheproblemofCheguturelatesto humanresources.Thereisno superintendentresponsiblefor thetreatmentworks andnon ofthelabourhavehadany formal training. GM hasatownshipsuperintendentundertheMILGRUD (CentralRatesFund).Underthis structuretherearetwo generalhandsto look afler thesewerageworksalthoughtheyhavenot receivedany formal training.

On theregulatorysidethecontrol ofpollution ofnaturalwateris managedby a staffofonly 5 peoplein theDWR. Theyareaboutto openawaterquality laboratoryto carryout thewaterexaminationsbutwithout any commitmentto the35 additional staff

requiredto manthelaboratory.Clearly it is virtually impossiblefor thesefewpeopletoeffectively controlwaterpollution in Zimbabweunderthepresentsystem.Theattentiongivento wastewatertreatmentis indirect, comingfrom theeffectsofdischargeon waterquality and thebreachoftheWater(Effluent andWasteWaterStandards)Regulations,1977. Thereis no clearregulatoryact governingtheperformance,standardofoperation,personnelqualifications,healthand safetystandardsfor wastewatertreatmentworks andthereforethereareno personnelabletosuperviseor assessthese.

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CONCLUSIONS

Coverage/technologyAccessto sanitationservicesin majorurbanareasofZimbabweis goodbyinternationalstandardsThetechnologyin useis governedby avarietyoflegislation andbye lawsand is mainly full seweragewith a small percentageofseptictank systems.Effluent is disposedofto wastestabilisationpondsand lessfrequentlyto furthertreatmentwith massactivatedsludgetreatment.Treatedeffluent is releasedinto river systemsorpartially recycledby applicationtopasture,woodlotsorotheragriculturalcrops

Thesituationin thesmallerurbancentresi e thegrowthpointsand service

centres,is lessclear Theresponsibleagencyfor sanitationservicesis not welldefinedandmorethanonemaybe presentThereareusuallysomepartsofgrowthpointswhich areservicedby afull seweragesystembut alsomanyareaswhich rely on traditionalor improvedpit latrines Thekey differencebetweenthelargeurbancentresandthesmall urbancentresis that different regulationsapply to thesanitationstandardsTownscities and municipalitieshavethesanitationstandardslaid down in theHousingStandardsAct whereasthegrowth points and service centres are governed by thePublicHealthActIn all urbancentres,especiallythetownsandcities, thereis a rapidgrowthratewhich is placingvery severestrainson thecapacityoftheseweragesystemThedensificationofalreadymediumand high density areas with theestablishmentof backyardshackscreatesoverloadingofthe sewagereticulationsystemwhichis not easyto addressandadditionally,the sharingoflimited householdsanitationfacilities is likely to be very prevalentandleadtonegativehealthimpactsunlessaddressedsoon

Operation and maintenanceissuesBlockagesofsewerscausedby overloadingarefrequentin high densityareasofmosttowns andcities This requiresthe commitmentof increasedmanpowerto addresstheseproblemsalthoughon occasiontheymaytakeoveraweektorepair Thriving growthpointssuchasGokwe,Gutu MupandawanaandEpworthhavepondsystemswhich arein different states~Gokweis poorlymaintainedaswell asunderutilised,Gutu hasbeendesignedfor a largerpopulationthanat presentthereforeis underutilisedalthoughwell maintained,and Epworth hasapondsystemandtrunk sewersbut residentshavenotconnectedto thesystemsinceit wasconstructedfive yearsago

it is clear from thedataavailablethat a largeproportionofseweragesystemsinurbancentresarenotbeing well maintained,effluent beingreleasedis notof anacceptable standard and significantpollution of surfaceandgroundwaterisoccurring

LegislationEnvironmentallegislationis currentlyunderreviewby theMinistry ofNaturalResourcesand Tourismbut this is likely to takeoneor two moreyears Thescatteringof legislationrelatedto sanitationthroughseveralresponsible

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ministries is severelyproblematic The typesof sanitationservicefor urbanareasaredefinedby legislationundertheMinistry of Mines, theMinistry ofHealthandChild Welfare,MLGRUD aswell as localauthoritybylaws Thedischargeanduseoftreatedwastewateraregovernedby legislationwithin theMOHCW andMILWR. Whilst agenciesimplementingsanitationservicesandsubjectto the legislationincludetheprivate sector,local authoritiesandministriesthemselvesMLGRUD, MPCNH

Undoubtedlytherelativelyhigh standardofsanitationserviceprovision in largeurbanareashasbeenmaintainedby MOHCW insistenceon enforcingthelegislation Thecontinuedbut limited successin controllingenvironmentaleffects of wastedisposalcanbe creditedto thediligent effortsof anundermannedpollution control branchwithin theDWR aidedby theWPAB

Thecontrol over pollution is relatively ineffective relying on too few staffandpenaltieswhich are not related to the damage caused or costsincurred Thereisa needfor a review of the legislation to ensure that there areestablishedcontrolsystemsspecificallyfor wastewatertreatmentplantswhich definehealthandsafetyproceduresfor staff, operationalparameters,effluent quality; testingrequirementsandreportingrequirementsAdditionally, the pollution controlregulationsshould statethepenaltiesto be incurred,which, in conformity withproposedchangesin theWaterAct, shouldbe relatedto the benefitsaccruedandthedamagecaused.

Unfortunatelyeffectiveuseis not beingmadeofexisting legislation Noattemptis beingmadeto forcepotentialpollutersto assumeresponsibilityformonitoringeffluent quality andreportingtheseresultsto theDWR Exemptionpermitsshouldbegrantedmorereadily but chargedat aweeklyormonthly ratewhich encouragesremedialactionto be taken Greaterefforts shouldbe madeto bringoffendersspeedilybeforethecourts.

Managementof pollutionThe presentmanagementsystemfor controllingpollution placestheonusentirelyon governmentfor identifying who is dischargingwastes,assessingthequality of the waste and financing themonitoringprogrammeAn alternativesystemfor implementinga pollution control programme is proposed in the

following box which is self financingandplacesthe onusfor monitoringon theagency discharging the effluent Any revised systemadoptedby governmentmuSt1. address these issues;2. recognise that pollution is an inevitable part of our development, whilst

3 creating the incentives to reduce pollution; and4. promotea progressiveimprovementin allowablestandards

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A REVISED WATER QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM

Given thedirncultiesof theexistingwaterPollution ControlBranchin carryingout theirresponsibilitiesandthe currentreformof thewatersector, it is appropriateto considerwhetheralternativeapproachesto waterqualitymonitoring in Zimbabwemay itot be timely The newsystemshouldemphastsethe responsibilityof thepolluter ratherthan theresponsibilityof governmentThis couldoperateunderthe following schemewhich is similar to that being implementedin otherpartsof theworld

Theprinciplesof this revisedapproachare.1 All agencies/authonties/

private individuals wishing to

_______________________________________________ dischargeany liquid into atialural water body (directly orindirectly) shouldhavea

__________________ permit issued by the PCB.2 Thereis an administration

chargefor thepermitbutascaleof chargesiull be

__________________ establishedwhich increaseswith thedecreasein effluentdischargequality. Thus

_______________________________________ penalisingpollutersandencouragingimprovementineffluent quality.

3 The dischargingagencyhastosubmitperiodic reportson thequality of theeffluent Thusremovingtheburdenofinspectionfrom thePCB andplacing it on thedischarging

agency4 The PCBchecksthe accuracyof thereportsand imposespenaltiesfor non compliancewhere

necessary

The advantagesof suchanapproachare that it will• reducetheneedfor prosecution.• createthe incentivefor effective wastewatertreatment,and• financethepollution control branch• allow for a progressi~eimprovementin standards

Much or the legal framework for this approachis alread~in placeand the remainingissuesregardinglevies.theapplication,and the role of thepollution controlbranchcouldbe specifiedin supportingregulations

Investmentand flnancingFinancingmechanismsfor largeurbancentreshavebeenprovidedthrough theWorld Bank UrbanII projectand manymunicipalities aretaking advantageof

this to improve thesanitationsystem Theservicechargesfor sanitationdo notreflect the full operationalcostsof the serviceand will requireadjustment,

InstituteofW,iter and SanitationDevelopment

Opens file, evaluates, issuespermit and registers, setsreport tag re~uirements

DISCHARGEAUTHORITY POLLUTION CONTROLBRANCH

RequestsdischargepermitI ______________________

Receivespermit, pays ~ Ilevies (scale according to

a,:port on _________________

1 p ___

Receivescommunicationso1result~rnayclaim

Registers levies collection,analyses quality reports andupdateslevies

Verifies compliance withobligations, detect irregularusers, imposes sanctions

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especiallyin view ofthe newloansbeingincurred Investmentin sanitation

servicestendsto be ‘lumpy’ in that high investmentis infrequentbut of largemagnitudeWith thedrying up ofcapitalinvestmentfundsfrom CRFthe smallurbancentrescurrently havelittle opportunityto accessmoneyforinfrastructure.

Governmentshouldendeavourto removeitself asaproviderof cheapsanitationservicesfor small urban communities. Thefailure oftheseservicesundoubtedlyservesto reduceinvestmentin thesecommunities.Regulationsshouldstatethestandardsofsanitationservicesfor eachcategoryof urbancentrebut in all casestheresponsibilityfor theprovisionof theservicesho~ildrestwith the localauthorityandbebaseduponafull costrecoveryfor theservice provided. Government maydetermine specificcategoriesofcentrerequiringgrantsor other capital supportfor investmentin sanitationservicesbut operatingcostsshouldbe on afill costrecoverybasis.

Thereis urgentneedfor a reviewofthemanagementsystemfor urbansanitationwhich would emphasisecostrecovery,investmentto caterforgrowth,and effectivemaintenanceof existinginfrastructure.

Environmental and health concerns

Poorly maintained infrastructure may contribute to a health and environmentalrisk but evenwell maintainedseweragesystemshavenegativeeffects Theoverloadingof manyoftheexisting treatmentsystems,especiallyin thetownsand cities, resultsin thereleaseofinadequatelytreatedeffluent To a largeextentthis problemhasnotbeenignored ThePCB oftheDWR is very activeand takesappropriatemeasureswherenecessaryandthemunicipalitiesthemselvesreactto the problemby disposingof poorqualitywasteonto farmland.Howevertheeutrophicationoflakesanddamsandtheintermittentreleaseof poorly treatedwastewaterinto rivers continueson alargescale.Thereis inadequateinformationon industrialpollutantsin wastewaterandhowthesemayaffect theenvironmentThe eutrophication ofLake Chivero as an exampleresults in considerablyincreased water treatment costs for Harare and a significant negative socialimpact on theconsumers.Thelackof consumerconfidencein Harare’swatersupplyhasled to thesignificantgrowth in thebottled water industry whichwasalmost non existent6 yearsago.

Human resourcesissuesThetownsandcities aresupportedby qualifiedengineersableto providetechnicalsupportand supervisionto sanitation services.Otherurbancentresarelessfortunateand the growthpoints andservicecentres only haveaccesstomanagementstaffbut rarely anytrained technicalpersonnel.The situationatthepresenttime is that both water andwastewatertreatment plant systemsdonot haveto be staffed with qualifiedpersonnel.This lackoftrainingplus a lackof technicalsupervisionmeansthat wastewatertreatment plants may or maynot be functioning asplanned but thereis little wayofknowing. Thereis aneedfor increasedaccessto training for treatment plant operatorsandalsoa

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requirementthatoperatorsbe certified In addition,thetreatmentsystemsscatteredthroughout the countryundertheCRFrequireanewmanagementsystemwheretheyaresupervisedby qualifiedpersonnelThelackofany clearministry responsiblefor sanitationcomplicatesthe issueofwhereto assignthisresponsibilityLargeurbancentreshaveaccessto thenecessaryskills for theeffectivemanagementofsanitationservicesbut lack thenecessaryincentives.Thedevelopmentof an effectiveregulatorysystemwill providethoseincentivesThesmallurbancentreson theotherhandsufferfrom alackofaccesstotechnicalexpertise.Governmentdoesnothaveany agencytaskedwith theresponsibilityfor overseeingurbansanitationservicedevelopmentandprovidingtechnicalandadvisorysupport Considerationshould be given toaddressingthis needwhich couldbe achievedthroughavarietyofapproaches:• capacitybuilding oftheRDC,• establishingthetechnicalskills within e.g.ZINWA orDDF, to actin an

advisorycapacityto the localauthority,• promotingtheconceptofcontractingout eg to ZINWA, DDF or the

privatesector,

Institutional issuesOutstandingpointsnot dealtwith aboverelate to the role of the localauthoritiesandtheoperationofawaterandsewerageaccount.All large urbancentresoperateawaterandsewerageaccountbut the revenuefrom theservicesgoesinto thegeneralrevenueofthemunicipality Thecurrentdebateaboutprivatisationofwaterservicesis not stronglysupportedin Zimbabweandotherstudieshavealsoindicatedthatthereareexampleswherelocal authoritiescan provide reliableservices.Waysof improving thedelivery and performanceofwaterand sanitationserviceswhilst retainingthecontrolandresponsibilitywithin the local authority shouldbe explored.Oneof theseis for theseparationof thewater andsewerageservicesinto an autonomousbranchwithin the localauthority This would serveto keepratescloselytied to theserviceprovision.to make the branch more accountable,andyet allow for thesocialand politicalobjectivesofthe localauthorityto be addressed

TheRDCsarecurrentlyembarkingon acapacitybuilding programmeto enablethem to assumethe wide rangingresponsibilitiestheyhavebeengiven. Oneoftheseresponsibilitiesis for the provisionof sanitationservices.The CentralRatesFund shouldresumetherole of afund andtransferthe assetsofsanitation systems to the RDCswho are responsible for the urban areas wherethesefacilitiesoccur This maytake sometime but aboutonethird of theRDCsarebelievedby theMLGRUD alreadyto havethecapacityto manageservicesEven thosewith little capacityarelikely to havemorecapacitythantheseverelydepletedCRF. To bring theseservicesup to an acceptableoperatingstandard.islikely to requirea significantincreasein sanitationchargesand toreducethe problemsassociatedwith this increase,theRDCsshouldnot beburdenedwith loanrepaymentson transferof the assets

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TI-rE RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

REFERENCES

CSO, I 993a Census1 992 ProvincialProfile,Bulawayo, Central StatisticalOflice,Harare,Zimbabwe.CSO, 1993b Census1992 ProvincialProfile, Harare,CentralStatisticalOffice,Harare,ZimbabweCSO, 1993c Census1992. ProvincialProfile, Midlands, CentralStatisticalOffice,Harare,ZimbabweCSO, 1993d Census1992 ProvincialProfile, Masvingo,Central StatisticalOffice,Harare,ZimbabweCSO, 1993e Census1992 Provincial Profile, Matabeleland South, Central StatisticalOffice, Harare,ZimbabweCSO, 1993f Census1992.Provincial Profile, MatabelelandNorth, CentralStatisticalOffice, Harare,ZimbabweCSO, 1993g Census1992 ProvincialProfile, MashonalandEast,CentralStatisticalOffice, Harare,ZimbabweCSO, 1993h.Census1992 Provincial Profile,MashonalandWest, CentralStatisticalOffice, Harare,Zimbabwe.CSO, 19931 Census1992 Provincial Profile, MashonalandCentral,CentralStatisticalOffice, Harare,Zimbabwe.CSO, 1993j Census1992 ProvincialProfile, Manicaland,CentralStatisticalOffice,Harare,ZimbabweCSO, 1995 Zimbabwe Demographic andHealthSurvey 1994, CentralStatisticalOffice, Harare,ZimbabweBecker,C M. C N deBodisco& A R Morrison 1986 UrbanAfrica inMacroeconomicandMicroeconomicPerspective.IssuesandOptions.Discussionpaper1.JDD-97, World Bank 236pp)Christmas.J & C de Rooy, 1991 The Decade and Beyond at aGlance WaterInternational,16, 127-134)

Habitat, 1989 Urbanisationandsustainabledevelopmentin the third world: anunrecognisedglobal issue 78ppHabitat, 1996 An UrbanisingWorld GlobalReporton HumanSettlements1996UnitednationsCentrefor HumanSettlements,558ppLenneiye,N M 1989 Towardsthedevelopmentofa revenuecollectionsystemingazettedDistrict ServiceCentres,Zimbabwe MILGRUD, UNDP- World Bank, ZikenInternationalLock. R R 1994 WaterPollution Control in Zimbabweandtherole of theWaterPollution AdvisoryBoard Paperpresentedto Workshopon WaterResourcesProtectionandWater Economicsin Zimbabwe 17-20Oct 1994.Maya.R S (ed) 1996 Perspectiveson waterquality andconservationin Zimbabwe’surbancentres,SouthernCentrefor EnergyandEnvironmentMining (Healthand Sanitation)Regulations,1995 StatutoryInstrument182 of 1995NordbergE & Winblad,U, 1992 Urbanenvironmentalhealthandhygienein sub-SaharanAfrica SIDA 31ppRossi-Espagnet.A 1984 Primary healthcarein urbanareas- reachingtheurbanpoorin developingcountriesWHO, GenevaWaterAid, 1996. ThirstyCities Water,SanitationandtheUrbanPoor,WaterAid,l5pp.

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Watson.G 1995 Good sewerscheap7 Agencycustomerinteractionsin Low-CostUrbansanitationin Brazil CurrentsUNDP-WorldBank Water and SanitationProgram 7Opp(323 08)World Bank, 1992 World DevelopmentReport1992 DevelopmentandtheEnvironment, Oxford University Press, 3O8ppWorld Bank, 1996 African DevelopmentIndicators World Bank, 431ppWorld DevelopmentReport1994WRC, 1993 UrbanSanitationEvaluation WaterResearchCommissionWRC ReportNo 385/1/93WRC, 1994 Waterand Sanitationin UrbanAreas.FinancialandInstitutionalReview6 SummaryReport WaterResearchCommission,WRC reportNo 571/6/94)Zaranyika.M F & R Goredema,1996,(in preparation)ConcentrationofCd, Cu, Ni,PbandZn in bream,Oreochrornisrnachroc/iir, during the 1 996 massfish deathsinLakeChivero,ZimbabweZimconsult,1997 Personalcommunication

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The Institute

IWSD is a nonprofit, non-governmentalorganisation The instituteaimsto assistin theachievementof sustainabledevelopmentof waterresourcesandwastemanagementthroughthe provisionof supportto developmentagenciesin ZimbabweandtheSouthernAfrica region In particular,theInstitute ~ ill addressissueshtndcnngaccessof thepoor to servicesandthesustainabilityof services

Specifically theInstitulewtII~

• build capacitythroughtrainingandeducationprogrammes.

• act asan informationcentreandendeavorto providestateof theartinformationon request.

• providetechnicalandadvisorysupportto sectoragenciesanddevelopmentinstitutions,and

• developa strongappliedresearchprogrammeto supportdecisionmakingandpolicy formulationin the sector

‘I

Instituteof WaterandSanitationDevelopment7 MaasdorpAvenue,AlexandraPark,Harare(or Box MIP 422, Mount Pleasant,Harare)Tel (263-4-)738120Fax (263-4-)738120email admin~iwsdicon co.zw

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