Urban Issues & Challenges Paper 2

What is Urbanisation?

The increase in the amount of people living in urban areas e.g. Towns &

cities. From 2006 more then 50% of the world live in urban areas.

Where is Urbanisation happening?

Urbanisation is happening all over the world but rates in

LICs and NEEs are much faster than HICs. This is

mostly because of the rapid economic growth they are

experiencing.

Megacity An urban area with over 10 million people l

More than 2/3 of current megacities

are located in either NEEs & LICs.

The amount of megacities are

predicted to increase from 28 to 41 by 2030. Biggest

increase in Asia.

What causes Urbanisation?

Rural - urban migration (1)

The movement of people from rural to urban areas.

Push factors Pull factors

• Natural disasters • War and Conflict

• Mechanisation of farms • Drought

• Lack of employment

• More Jobs • Better education &

healthcare • Increased quality of life.

• Following family members.

Natural Increase (2) When the birth rate exceeds the

death rate.

Increase in birth rate (BR) Lower death rate (DR)

• High % of young population at child-bearing

age which leads to high fertility rate.

• Lack of contraception or education about family

planning.

• Higher life expectancy due to better living conditions

and diet. • Improved medical facilities

lower infant mortality rates.

Integrated Transport System Greenbelt Area

Linking different forms of transport within a city and the surrounding area. A zone of surrounding a city where new building is strictly controlled to prevent cities growing too much and too fast. (Urban Sprawl).

Brownfield Site Urban Regeneration

Areas of land or buildings that have been used, but have become vacant, derelict or contaminated.

The investment in the revival of old, urban areas by either improving what is there or clearing it away and rebuilding.

Sustainable Urban Living

This means being able to live in cities in ways that do not pollute the environment and using resources in ways that ensure future generations can use then. Economic,

social & environmental sustainability.

Water Conservation Energy Conservation

Reducing the amount of water used. • Collecting rainwater for gardens

and flushing toilets. • Installing water meters and toilets

that flush less water. • Educating people on using less.

Using less fossil fuels can reduce the rate of climate change. • Promoting renewable energy • Making homes more energy

efficient. • Encouraging people to use energy.

Creating Green Space Waste Recycling

Creating green spaces in urban areas can improve places for people who want to live there. • Provide natural areas for people. • Encourages people to exercise. • Reduces the risk of flooding from

surface runoff.

More recycling means fewer resources are used. Less waste reduces the amount that eventually goes to landfill. • Collection of household waste. • More local recycling facilities. • Greater awareness of the benefits

in recycling.

Sustainable Urban Living Example: Bedzed (South London UK)

Economic Sustainability Environmental sustainability

• ZAP cars can be re-charged for free by plugging in overnight. • Electric & heating bills are much lower due to natural light—south facing windows & the solar panels • No need to buy a car as cheap car sharing pool is provided

• Homes are powered through renewable energy e.g. Solar panelled roofs and windows. • ZAP (zero air pollution) electric cars are encouraged through car sharing schemes. • Built from locally available materials—low impact for carbon—no concrete. • Recycling is encouraged with kitchens fitted to support this.

Social Sustainability • Walking & cycling are encouraged through integrated transport which promotes healthy forms of transport & reduces illness from pollution e.g. Asthma. -Communal areas for residents encourage them to get to know one another.

Traffic Management

Urban areas are busy congested places with many people travelling by different modes of transport.

Environmental problems

• Traffic increases air pollution which releases greenhouse

gases that is leading to climate change.

Economic problems Social Problems

• Congestion can make people late for work and business deliveries take longer. This

can cause companies to loose money.

• There is a greater risk of accidents and congestion is a cause of frustration. Traffic can also lead to respiratory

health issues for pedestrians.

Congestion Solutions ?

• Widen roads to allow more traffic to flow easily.

• Build ring roads and bypasses to keep through traffic out of city centres.

• Introduce park and ride schemes to reduce car use.

• Encourage car-sharing schemes in work places.

• Bristol’s £34 Million biogas fueled Metrobus, bike lanes & cycle hire.

• Congestion charges discourage drivers from entering busy city centres at rush hour.

Traffic Management Example: Bristol

In 2012 Bristol was the most congested city in the UK. Now the

city aims to develop it’s integrated transport system to encourage more people to use

the public transport. The city has also invested in cycle routes and

hiring schemes.

Metrobus

Yo Bike

Urban Change in a Major UK City: Bristol Case Study

Location and Background City’s Importance

Bristol is a city in South West England. Its population is 428,000, making it the 8th largest in the UK. The city grew as a trading port & then as a manufacturing (e.g. tobacco, chocolate, airplanes) city. Located on the M4 corridor with easy access to London, Wales & The North.

• Two football teams, a cricket team & new international class sporting arenas.

• Green Capital of Europe 2015 • 8th most popular destination for tourists in UK. • Brunel and port heritage e.g. SS Great Britain. • 2 major UK universities popular with young students. • ‘Best place to live in UK’ (Sunday Times 2017). • International Airport • Avonmouth Docks – container port for world trade. • Cabot Circus & Cribbs Causeway – regional shopping

centres.

Impacts of National & International Migration to Bristol

Background to Migration

• Bristol’s population doubled from 1851 -1891 as people from across the UK came for work in the industrial revolution. • In recent years this trend has continued and around ½ of migrants now come from abroad as well as from the UK. • 50 countries are represented in Bristol’s population (2011 census). It is a multi-cultural city. • The largest number of international migrants to Bristol are currently from Poland and Somalia.

Benefits of Migration Problems of Migration

• Provides a hardworking and motivated workforce. E.g. In retail and hospitality sectors. • Improving the level of skills where there are shortages e.g. construction and healthcare. • The mainly young migrants help to balance out the ageing UK population and contribute to both the local and national economy e.g. paying council and income tax. • Enrichment of the city’s cultural life in terms of music, art, literature and food. The St Pauls carnival every year attracts 40 000.

• Bristol house prices rise (9.6% in 2016) as commuter migrants from London buy up properties. • Pressures on housing and employment. There is already a big shortage of housing in Bristol. • Challenge of integration into the wider community – ethnic segregation can become an issue. • The need to provide education for children whose first language is not English • Pressure on healthcare and education as many international migrants have larger families.

Bristol’s Opportunities

SOCIAL Cultural Mix - multicultural character has created a vibrant music and art scene. Internationally famous bands & artists e.g. Massive Attack / Banksy help make Bristol an international centre for street art. Bristol’s youthful population (more under 16s than pensioners) brings a booming nightlife economy). E.g. Bristol Arena is planned for the Temple Quarter regeneration a 12,000 capacity concert venue creating a wealth of employment opportunities. Leisure and Recreation – Bristol Sport and it’s redeveloped Ashton Gate Stadium brings a 27,000 capacity venue ready for top level football, rugby and basketball. Shopping and Retail - £500 million Cabot Circus covered shopping centre built on a brownfield site to compete with out of town shopping at Cribbs Causeway on the Rural Urban Fringe.

ECONOMIC Tourism – International events such as the Balloon fiesta & 300,000 visitors to the Harbourside festival every year boosting Bristol’s economy. High Tech Industry – 50 microelectronic and sillicon design businesses have located in Bristol – the largest outside of Silicon Valley California USA – they are attracted by an educated & skilled workforce & top research universities. Global Companies – Bristol is home to Airbus, Aardman Animations and Hewlett Packard. The Ministry of Defence created 10,000 jobs when it decided to locate its headquarters in Stoke Gifford on a greenfield site.

ENVIRON MENTAL

European Green Capital - In 2015 Bristol became the first UK city to be awarded the status. Plan by 2020 to: improve public transport, energy efficiency and development of renewable energy - 2015 Achievements:-175 businesses in Bristol created green action plans, 100 electric car charging points installed in the city, every primary pupil in Bristol planted a tree, Make Sunday special – major transport routes were closed throughout the year to make the city a space for people to enjoy on foot or by bike. Urban Greening: - More than 1/3 of Bristol is open space & over 90% of people live within 350 metres of a park. 300 parks in the city, a target for 30% of the city to be covered with trees. Queens square once a dual carriageway is now an open space with cycle routes. Brownfield Sites – 94% of new housing has been built on these to reduce urban sprawl. E.g. Wapping Wharf at Bristol’s Harbourside - built on an old jail site. Using recycled shipping containers for shops & restaurants & conserving the Dockside heritage. This has been very popular with residents & tourists but some say it has led to further gentrification of the inner city area of Bristol.

Bristol’s Challenges

SOCIO-ECONOMIC

Housing – There is a severe shortage in Bristol & rising house prices make ownership and rental too expensive for many essential workers e.g. Nurses. Bristol needs 30,000 new homes by 2026 to meet demand. Bristol has a good record of building 94% of new housing on brownfield sites to prevent urban sprawl. However, most developments don’t meet council quotas of 20% for affordable housing. Much urban regeneration (e.g. Harbourside) has priced locals out of the market a process called gentrification; new developments are focused on luxury housing for the rich to generate huge profits for developers. Social Inequality – Some areas of Bristol have high levels of social deprivation. For example, in Filwood (South Bristol) only 36% of students gain the highest grades at GCSE,cancer rates are above average, 1/3 of people aged 16-24 are unemployed & life expectancy is 78 years. Whereas, in Stoke Bishop (North West Bristol) 94% of students achieve top grades at GCSE, only 3% of people are unemployed & life expectancy is 83 years. Many areas in South Bristol have seen decline in employment, decay of the area and despair of young people through high crime rates, vandalism and high addiction (e.g. Drug & alcohol) rates.

ENVIRON MENTAL

Urban Sprawl - This is particularly a problem in North West Bristol e.g. Harry Stoke a greenfield site built on the urban rural fringe where great crested newts (endangered) were found to live. Urban sprawl can reduce habitats & open space, whilst increasing congestion, pollution & flood risk (impermeable surfaces). Waste Disposal - The city creates half a million tonnes of waste per year (This is 23% lower than the UK average)and is one of the worst cities for producing food waste. Bristol’s population has grown by 9% whilst reducing landfill by 18%. But Bristol could do more to generate income from recycled materials & generate more renewable fuel from waste e.g. Biogas. Transport – vehicle emissions are the main cause of air pollution in Bristol & it is the most congested city in the UK. An estimated 200 people a year die from respiratory illness cause by vehicle emissions. Bristol has plans to increase public transport & non polluting transports.

Urban Regeneration Project at Temple Quarter Enterprise Zone.

Why Regenerate? Main features of regeneration

• A run down area of Bristol giving a bad first impression to visitors (a gateway location by Temple Meads Station). • A large brownfield, ex-industrial site suffering dereliction. •3 main areas (Temple Gate - derelict buildings next to the railway station & main road, Temple Quay – canal side area developed for office use since 1990s and Arena Island – land contaminated as was a diesel depot.

• Enterprise Zone Status - incentives for businesses to move there e.g. Business rate relief & low rents. •Temple Gate – Encourage hi-tech firms through Engine Shed & make Temple Meads a modern transport hub. •Temple Quay – New business incubator hub to encourage entrepreneurs. •Arena Island – New bridge to access planned 12,000 capacity Arena

Successes of Temple Quarter Regeneration Problems of regeneration

-Engine Shed a successful high-tech Business hub is being extended to provide space for rapidly growing companies. -Bristol University are building a world class enterprise campus on land that was derelict for 17 years to build on Bristol’s reputation as a leading digital city. -2 Glass Wharf a £35 million office development. -Entrepreneurial Spark a new business incubator have 80 start up companies using office space for free for 18 months. -The Metrobus should make Temple Meads the hub of an integrated & low emissions public transport network for Bristol & the South West.

-Arena Island still doesn’t have an arena! The council have already invested millions in this project. But, it appears that it may be built on the edge of the city at Filton or even axed altogether. -The planned electrification of the line from London to speed up commuting times has been axed by the government – reducing the chances of increased rail use. -Clearing brownfield sites of contamination has been expensive. -The Metrobus is already over 6 months behind schedule of when it was supposed to open. It has created transport chaos across the city during construction.

Urban Change in a Major NEE City: Mumbai Case Study

Location and Background City’s Importance

Mumbia India’s wealthiest city. Located in Maharashtra state. On the West coast of India, facing the Arabian Sea. Dharavi is a slum area within Mumbai with over 1 million residents living in 1km2 of land. (Largest slum population in India) Dharavi is located right next to Mumbai’s financial hub which is home to some of the richest people in the world.

•Commercial and financial capital of India. •Nationally Mumbai contributes 33% of all income tax & US$10 billion in corporate taxes •60% of sea trade comes through Mumbai’s port •Its per-capita income is higher than the national average •The largest number of TNC headquarters in Asia including Walt Disney and Volkswagen. •Home to the Indian stock market, the busiest port and airports in India. •Hub for design, fashion, jewellery and tourism & home to Bollywood movies. •Transport hub with links to all industrial cities in India and world cities. •Highest % of internet access of any Indian city.

Causes of Mumbai’s Rapid Urban Growth

How has Urban Growth Created Opportunities?

SOCIAL • Access to education & healthcare is easier in Mumbai than in surrounding

rural areas.

• In poorer residential areas such as Dharavi there is considerable community

spirit & support “No one is lonely”.

• Dharavi residents help each other in constructing their houses.

• Many people in Dharavi have lived there 40 or more years & their homes are

built of bricks; they have electricity & running water.

• There are schools and community groups where people help each other

• Young slum dwellers have aspirations to be very successful in life e.g.

Lawyers & doctors.

• In some areas of Dharavi e.g. Kumbharwada there is virtually no crime!

ECONOMIC • Dharavi has fully functioning shops, where you can buy just about anything. • There are 15 thousand factories in Dharavi alone turning over $1 billion a year for the local economy. E.g. Clothing factories and the pottery sector of Kumbharwada. • The businesses are very competitive as there are few regulations, often no taxes paid & very cheap labour is available. • 85% of people in Mumbai are employed.

ENVIRONMENTAL • A recycling miracle! •Virtually everything in Mumbai is recycled – 1000s of people work recycling huge quantities of industrial waste – much of which is imported from abroad e.g. UK •Around 80% of all Mumbai’s plastic waste is recycled in the UK only 23%.

How has Urban Growth Created Challenges?

SOCIO-ECONOMIC

• 40% of the population of Mumbai live in poor quality housing or on the streets. • The slums are illegal (squatter settlements) so it is very difficult to provide services & infrastructure to these overcrowded areas. • 95% of households in 1 slum had very poor access to clean water (World Health Organisation). • Lack of housing means that around of 25% of factory workers sleep on factory floors. • There are 500 people per toilet in Dharavi & 21 people in one house is quite normal. • 4000 cases of water borne disease (e.g. Cholera) a day in Dharavi due to poor sanitation. •Water is only available for 2 hours every morning from a stand pipe! •The youthful population puts a massive strain on maternity services and schools. • Informal sector jobs pay low wages and often exploit the people working in them. No tax is paid so the local government cannot reinvest money into improving the area.

ENVIRONMENTAL Waste Disposal – recycling is a miracle in Mumbai but it is mostly done by people living in poverty often by child labourers working without any protective clothing at all. The very poorest people live on landfill sites (Compound 13) scavenging for recyclable materials to sell to survive. The City Council want to demolish Dharavi & with it the recycling industry! Air & Water Pollution –Dealing with increasing volumes of human & industrial waste is difficult & expensive The lack of sanitation (1 in 20 in Mumbai use the street for a toilet) means that rivers and streams are used to dispose of sewage leading to very high rates of disease and vermin (vectors that carry disease such as rats & mosquitoes). -The growth in unregulated industry & increasing vehicle numbers add to the problems of air and water pollution.

How do Urban Planners want to Redevelop Dharavi?

Mumbai has rapidly grown over the last 50 years and now has a population of 23 million. Rural to Urban Migration is the biggest cause... Migration rate of 1 person per minute! 70% of migrants are from the state of Maharashtra. Migrants average age was 20-21 and 64% are male. Push Factors: 50% of people in Maharahstra are farmers - Increased use of machinery on farms has forced people out of work. -Small scale farmers are vulnerable to bad harvests and poor weather. In bad years, they can end up forced to sell up and have to migrate. Pull Factors: In Mumbai there are job opportunities in service industries and the manufacturing industries which pay higher wages. -There are also more schools, health care facilities and entertainments in Mumbai than other parts of Maharashtra state. Natural increase also contributes to urban growth.

Slum Resettlement Scheme Sanitation & Electrification Project Incremental Housing Strategies

What is it? As part of the Mumbai Urban Transport Project (MUTP) a slum area alongside the railway line was cleared of residents who were moved to a new housing area in another part of the city. Advantages: Poor residents are supplied with a solid house with water supply & proper drainage – this reduces risk of diseases. Electricity supplied to the new housing. Disadvantages: - The land in Dharavi is wanted by developers – it is worth $2 billion. New housing is promised elsewhere but only to those who have lived on the ground floor for more than 10 years. So this kind of scheme will mostly help the more successful families & not the poorest Areas of industry such as Kumbharwada (pottery makers) will not be provided in the new tower blocks so people will lose their livelihoods. The recycling industry will be destroyed if developers get their way to demolish all of Dharavi and rebuild as glass skyscrapers of luxury apartments & offices. Many feel that this is gentrification of the area.

What is it? Aid projects e.g. Global Partnership set up to provide the basic services & infrastructure that local residents want. Advantages: Aim is to improve sanitation for up to 1 million slum dwellers – thereby improving health & reducing disease. To provide electricity supplies to those who rely on dangerous bottled gas for cooking & heating to reduce pollution in the city & improve health e.g. Reducing respiratory illness & accidents in the home. Disadvantages: Only 300 community toilet blocks have been built so far with 5100 toilets and only 10,000 slum dwellers have had electricity connections. So this has limited impact and relies on aid funding. More migrants will be attracted to move to the slum making solving the problems an even larger issue. Some houses will have to be cleared so that sanitation pipes can be installed.

What is it? A way of developing informal slums into permanent residential areas through self help & grants. Advantages: Residents are given the right to the land on which they live so it cannot be taken away. They are then given a grant (free money) to help them improve their house e.g. Proper building materials. Residents can take an exam to get on a building course where they can learn skills to renovate their own house & then use these to get a job to help rebuild others houses & pay for services such as water & electric supplies. This keeps communities together & increases employment opportunities rather then destroying them. Disadvantages: The improved houses will need significant investment in infrastructure e.g. Sewage pipes & electric cables provided by government. Some houses will have to be cleared to make way for wider roads if access e.g. For emergency services & waste disposal is to be provided. More migrants will be attracted to move to the slum.