University of Zimbabwe - Waternet · Ngungu, Ms. T. Silonda, Mr. B. Chigara and Mr. H. Nhongo for...

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G i

UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

Assessment of Metering and Billing as Water Demand Management

measures:

A Case study of the city of Bulawayo.

By

Annatoria Chinyama R951676G

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of

Masters Degree in Integrated Water Resources Management

Department of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

June 2007

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G ii

UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

Assessment of Metering and Billing as Water Demand Management

measures: A Case study of the city of Bulawayo.

Supervisors:

Eng. Z. Hoko

Dr. B. Gumbo

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of

Masters Degree in Integrated Water Resources Management

Department of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

June 2007

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G iii

ABSTRACT

Urban water supply sustainability is greatly affected by how the water resource is being

managed from the source of abstraction, the treatment facilities up to the distribution of

the treated water to the consumer. A typical water supply system loses water in

abstraction, treatment and distribution systems collectively referred to as unaccounted-

for-water (UFW). UFW is used as a crude measure of Water Demand Management

(WDM) performance of a water utility. Water losses due to metering and billing

inaccuracies also contribute to UFW. The metering and billing inaccuracies mostly result

from high levels of faulty metering and estimation of consumption for billing. Metering

and billing practices influence the levels of water consumption by different consumers.

This study assesses the impact of effective of metering and billing on water demand

management in the city of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe. The city gets its water from five dams

located in the Mzingwane catchment, which is generally a low rainfall area. The study

was carried out during the period beginning December 2006 up to April 2007. The water

losses due to metering and billing inaccuracies for consumers whose properties were

individually metered were estimated. Water consumption levels of consumers with

individually metered properties were compared with consumption levels of consumers

whose properties were not individually metered by monitoring a bulk meter and zone

meters. UFW, staff productivity, metering practice and consumer perceptions about

metering and billing services were used to analyse the current metering and billing

practice in the city. The study estimated that there was an overestimation of -54 litres per

connection per day due to metering and billing inaccuracies. Consumption per capita per

day of consumers whose properties were not individually metered was found to be 12

times higher than for consumers whose properties were individually metered. The study

concluded that no actual water losses could be established due to metering and billing

inaccuracies because of over estimation of consumption. It was also concluded that

individually metering and billing properties reduces the level of water consumption. The

impact of effective metering and billing on water demand management is that the water

losses (UFW) in the water system can be accurately estimated and water consumption

levels are reduced if consumers’ properties are individually metered and billed. It was

recommended that the council invest more manpower and time towards reading the

meters and also educate consumers on how to read their own meters so that they can

supply the council with readings when the council is unable to visit the particular areas. It

was also recommended that the water utility consider individually metering and billing

dwellings within bulk metered institutions such as police camp, so as to encourage water

use efficiency among these consumers.

Keywords: Water Demand Management, UFW, metering and billing, consumption,

effective

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my supervisors Eng. Z. Hoko and Dr. B. Gumbo, and my resource

person Mr. K. Danha, for guiding me throughout the course of this thesis.

I am also very grateful to the Bulawayo City Council personnel who were very

cooperative and willing to spare some time to help me out. Special mention goes to the

Acting Senior Engineer (Water) in the Engineering Services Department, Mr. N.

Khumalo and his team, Mr. Matare, Mr. Rwafa and Mr. B. Dube of the Revenue

Department and Mr. N. Ndlovu of the EDP section in the Revenue Department. My

thanks also go to the Engineering services Department Administrator, Mr. Hlongwane

and the Director of the Engineering Services Department, Eng. P. Sibanda for facilitating

my work with the city council. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the Bulawayo

City Councillors for granting me permission to carry out the research in the city.

I would also like to thank my colleagues from Bulawayo Polytechnic namely Ms. S.

Ngungu, Ms. T. Silonda, Mr. B. Chigara and Mr. H. Nhongo for the support they gave

me in various aspects of my research. My IWRM colleagues also deserve a mention for

peer reviewing my work at the various stages, namely Lazarus Phiri, Sangwani Khosa,

Geoffrey Mamba, Brenda Mwamba, Priscilla Sichone and Patience Makhado.

Last but not least my thanks also go to my sister Ms. C. Danha, my husband Thomas and

my children for the moral support during the course of the whole programme.

This research was made possible by funding from Waternet, facilitated by the

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Zimbabwe.

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G v

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... IV

TABLES ......................................................................................................................... VII

FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... VIII

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. IX

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................... 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................. 1

1.1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................... 3

1.1.1 Main Objective ................................................................................................... 3

1.1.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 4

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 4

2.1 WATER LOSSES IN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS ............................................................ 4

2.1.1 Water losses due to metering and billing inaccuracies ..................................... 5

2.1.2 Calculation of UFW and Water Loss Reduction Measures ............................... 5

2.2 THE IMPACT OF BULK METERING HOUSEHOLDS AND INDIVIDUAL METERING

HOUSEHOLDS ON WATER CONSUMPTION LEVELS. ............................................................. 7

2.2.1 Types of Meters in a Water Supply System ........................................................ 8

2.3 METERING AND BILLING PRACTICES .......................................................................... 9

CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................ 12

3.0 STUDY AREA ........................................................................................................... 12

3.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND .......................................................................................... 12

3.1.1 Water Resources for the City ........................................................................... 13

3.2 METERING AND BILLING PRACTICES IN BULAWAYO ................................................ 15

3.2.1 Institutional Setup of Bulawayo City Council .................................................. 15

3.2.2 Metering ........................................................................................................... 18

3.2.3 The Billing Process .......................................................................................... 19

3.3 SELECTED STUDY SITES ........................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................... 24

4.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................. 24

4.1 STUDY DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 24

4.2 DATA COLLECTION METHODS ................................................................................. 24

4.2.1 Estimation of water losses due to metering and billing ................................... 25

4.2.2 The impact of bulk metering households and individual metering households

on water consumption levels. .................................................................................... 25

4.2.3 Analysing the current metering and billing practices..................................... 26

4.3 DATA ANALYSIS METHODS ..................................................................................... 26

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G vi

4.3.1 Estimation of water losses due to metering and billing ................................... 26

4.3.2 The impact of bulk metering households and individual metering households

on water consumption levels. .................................................................................... 27

4.3.3 Testing the effectiveness of the current metering and billing practices ........... 28

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 29

5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................... 29

5.1 ESTIMATION OF WATER LOSSES DUE TO METERING AND BILLING INACCURACIES .... 29

5.2 THE IMPACT OF BULK METERING HOUSEHOLDS AND INDIVIDUAL METERING

HOUSEHOLDS ON WATER CONSUMPTION LEVELS ............................................................ 30

5.3 ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT METERING AND BILLING PRACTICES ........................... 31

5.3.1 Unaccounted for water .................................................................................... 31

5.3.2 Institutional Performance Indicators ............................................................... 34

5.3.3 Consumer Perceptions ..................................................................................... 34

5.3.4 Overall Analysis of the Current Metering and Billing Practices .................... 36

CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................... 38

6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................. 38

6.1 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................... 38

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................ 38

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 37

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G vii

TABLES

Table 2.1: Measures for Reduction of UFW ....................................................................... 6

Table 2.2: Performance Indicators .................................................................................... 10

Table 3.1: Surface Water Sources ..................................................................................... 13

Table 3.2: City of Bulawayo properties ............................................................................ 18

Table 5.1: Water losses due to metering and billing ......................................................... 29

Table 5.2: Average Per Capita Consumption in the Bulk metered and Individual metered

................................................................................................................................... 30

Table 5.3: Average Per Capita Consumption in the study zones ...................................... 30

Table 5.4 Average Losses and statistical results for Bulawayo (1996-2006) ................... 33

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G viii

FIGURES

Fig 2.1: Components of A Water Supply Water Balance ................................................... 4

Fig 3.1: Location of Bulawayo in Zimbabwe ................................................................... 12

Fig 3.2: The city of Bulawayo and its surface water sources ........................................... 13

Fig 3.3: Annual Water Demand for Bulawayo ................................................................. 14

Fig 3.4: Organisational Structure for the Engineering Services Department of Bulawayo

City ............................................................................................................................ 16

Fig 3.5: Organisational Structure for the Revenue Department ....................................... 17

Fig 3.6: The Interaction between the Two Departments Responsible for Metering and

Billing in the City Council ........................................................................................ 17

Fig 3.7: New Meter Connections installed in Bulawayo (1997-2003) ............................. 19

Fig3.8: Number of Meters Replaced or Tested (1997-2003) ............................................ 19

Fig 3.9: Block Tariffs for Bulawayo 2007 ........................................................................ 20

Fig 3.10: Layout the city of Bulawayo showing the selected zones ................................. 21

Fig 3.11: Layout of zone M12 .......................................................................................... 22

Fig 3.12: Layout of zone M33 .......................................................................................... 23

Fig 4.1: Schematic representation of the metering of the water supply system ............... 25

Fig 5.1: Average Annual water losses over the years 1996 to 2006 ................................. 32

Fig 5.2: Reported leaks in Bulawayo ................................................................................ 34

Fig 5.3: Number of jobs deferred to the following month ................................................ 34

Fig 5.4: Frequency of Meter Readings ............................................................................. 35

Fig 5.5: Consumer Complaints ......................................................................................... 36

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G ix

APPENDICES

A1. Comparison of Measured Consumption with billed consumption .......................... 41

A2. Statistical Comparison of Bulk metered and individual metered consumers .......... 43

A3. Zone Meter Measurements ....................................................................................... 44

A4. Billed Consumption in the meter zones .................................................................... 45

A5. List of Properties in the City of Bulawayo and their billing districts ....................... 46

A6. Bulawayo Water Tariffs for 2007 ............................................................................. 47

A7. Engineering Services Department Questionnaire ..................................................... 48

A8. City Treasurer’s Department Questionnaire ............................................................. 50

A9. Results of consumer questionnaire ........................................................................... 52

Masters in Integrated Water Resources Management Thesis 2006-2007 Annatoria Chinyama R951676G 1

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

As a result of the rapid rate of urbanization throughout Africa, many African cities face

mounting challenges of providing their increasing populations with adequate and

sustainable water services. Water Demand Management (WDM) offers a sustainable

solution to water woes experienced in most cities in the southern African region (Gumbo,

2004a). Water demand management has been defined as ‘the adaptation, development

and implementation of a strategy or strategies by a water institution to influence the water

demand and usage in order to meet any of the following objectives: economic efficiency,

social development, social equity, environmental protection, sustainability of water

supply and services and political acceptability’ ( Robinson, 2003; Savenije and Van der

Zaag, 2002; Rothert, 2000). By managing the volume of water that has to be delivered,

WDM in the short-run brings financial savings to the water supply utility through

reductions in treatment and pumping costs. According to Robinson (2003) for a given

stock of chemicals, reducing the volume of water to be supplied reduces the risk of under

treating the water and thereby avoiding water borne disease outbreaks. In the long run

demand management can sometimes obviate the need for physical or infrastructure

investments, providing real efficiency gains to society (GWP, 2003). Robinson (2003)

suggests that investing in WDM potentially provides a much cheaper source of water

than investing in a new source of supply.

Measures for implementation of WDM have been categorised in many different ways and

according to Robinson (2003), these categories can be generalized into utility level and

consumer level where the utility level has within it technical measures, institutional and

economic measures which involve consumer participation. Combinations of these

measures from the categories can be employed to develop a strategy for a water supply

system depending on the triggers for WDM. Mckenzie et al., (2002) highlight that each

water supply system is unique to some degree and the strategies selected for one system

will not necessarily be appropriate for another system. The technical measures include

leak detection and repair, pressure management, infrastructure replacement, wastewater

reuse, while institutional and economic measures involve civic education and public

awareness, metering and billing and water pricing.

Without proper metering WDM is un-attainable. WDM is based on the premise that “to

measure is to know” and without meters, there is no way of justifying any WDM

measures planned or at implementation stage (Gumbo et al., 2002). In order to provide

customers with a correct bill each month meters have to be maintained in good working

order. This ensures that the revenue is collected with the minimum inconvenience to the

utility and provides the necessary confidence to customers (Gumbo et al., 2002).

The Water Loss Reduction Plan was a WDM strategy that was recommended for the city

of Bulawayo by a consultancy report done by Norplan in 2001. This strategy was based

on the concept of an economic level where the marginal cost of intensifying the leakage

control effort equals the marginal cost of the water saved (Norplan et al., 2001). This


concept is heavily biased toward leakage control and the contribution of apparent losses

to the total losses is thus neglected. Chikasema (2005) also found that the Lilongwe

Water Board (Malawi) had a WDM strategy that gave very low priority to metering and

billing as WDM tools. Approximately 55% of water abstracted from Kafue River

(Zambia) is lost in the form of unaccounted for water whilst being supplied to Lusaka, yet

Lusaka Water and Sewerage Company (LWSC) is contemplating duplicating the 65km

pipeline from Iolanda to meet Lusaka’s ever-increasing water demands (Gumbo et al.,

2005). The capital costs are prohibitive so it has since been decided to first reduce

unaccounted for water and to implement other WDM measures such as metering before

duplication of the pipeline is considered (Gumbo et al., 2005).

Gumbo (2004a), states that gross unaccounted for water (UFW) is a crude measure of

good WDM practice. UFW can be defined as the difference between the volume of water

put into the supply system and the authorised volume used by the consumers

(Wallingford, 2001). UFW not only measures leakage but also takes cognizance of illegal

connections, administrative errors and unmetered connections (Marunga et al., 2006).

Haggarty et al., (2002) state that lack of metering makes it difficult to estimate UFW,

therefore the installation of flow measuring devices like meters and weirs is an integral

part of WDM and any monitoring and evaluation programme that is envisaged. For

urban water supplies, bulk metering, zone metering, district metering and consumer

metering is indispensable (Gumbo, 2004b). Water losses due to metering and billing

inaccuracies contribute to UFW.

To measure is to know, if you cannot measure you cannot manage and the reverse is also

true: If you cannot manage you cannot measure (Gumbo, 2004b). In Bulawayo,

residential households on government institutions such as police camps, schools,

hospitals and colleges are not individually metered and the institution has a bulk meter

which is used for billing the water consumed within the institution. These residents have

no direct control over the bill and are liable to ‘waste water’, since they are not

individually responsible for the water bill and are subsidised by the institution. On the

other hand, individually metered consumers bear the full bill payment and tend to use less

water in order to save their money. Chavula (2002) highlights that the other strategy for

improving domestic water use efficiency entails metering individual dwelling units. This

makes the concerned individuals become conscious of their water consumption levels as

reflected in the bills that they get.

From discussion with key Bulawayo city council personnel in the water supply division

(see also Appendix A7) and analysing internal reports by the water supply division, it

was established that 21% 0f the meters in the city had been found to be faulty. It was

also established that most bills were based on estimates because of the high level of

faulty metering and infrequent meter reading due to high staff turnover. Basing bills on

estimates creates room for errors, which could result in overstating or understating the

water demand in the city. Overstating water demand normally leads to over billing

consumers and destroys the customers’ confidence which Gumbo et al., (2002) have

highlighted is important in the successful implementation of a WDM programme.

Understating water demand culminates in water losses, as the water utility will not be


able to account for the water that would not have been billed and it undermines the

efficient use of water. There is need to analyse the current metering and billing practices

in Bulawayo in order to assess their contribution to WDM in the city.

1.1 Objectives

1.1.1 Main Objective

The main objective of this study is to assess the impact of effective metering and billing

on water demand management.

1.1.2 Specific Objectives

To estimate water losses due to metering and billing inaccuracies.

To investigate the impact of bulk metering households and individually metering

households on water consumption levels.

To analyse the current metering and billing practices in Bulawayo.


CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Water Losses in Water Supply Systems

Van der Zaag (2003) explains that an essential component of water demand for public

water supply may be the losses in transport, treatment and distribution systems. These

losses are normally called unaccounted for water (UFW) and can represent substantial

financial loss to any water undertaking (Van der Zaag, 2003). According to Wallingford

(2001) UFW is a very important component of a typical water balance of a water supply

system and reducing water losses often has a high priority in attempting to balance

demand with supply. Alcazar et al., (2002) qualifies UFW (or Non Revenue Water) by

stating that UFW represents losses due to leaks, theft and failure to register users.

According to Mckenzie et al., (2002), non-revenue water is becoming the standard term

replacing unaccounted-for water in many water balance calculations. Noll (2002) found

that the price of water strongly influences these so called water losses.

Wallingford (2001) describes UFW as being made up of the following as illustrated in

Fig. 2.1:

Authorised unmetered uses include fire fighting, main flushing, and process water

for water treatment plants and landscaping of public areas;

Unauthorised water losses from the water supply system that are caused by

leakage or illegal connections;

Meter reading and billing errors, such as meter error at various levels in the

supply system and accounting procedure errors.

Fig 2.1: Components of A Water Supply Water Balance

(After Lambert and Hirner, 2000)

Unbilled authorized consumption is described by Lambert and Hirner (2000) as water

used for watering parks, playing fields, fire fighting and other public uses and it may be

SYSTEM INPUT

VOLUME

Revenue Water

Unaccounted for

water

Billed consumption

(metered and

unmetered)

Unbilled authorized

consumption e.g.

fire fighting

Real Losses i.e

leakages

Apparent Losses e.g.

Meter reading and

billing errors

SYSTEM INPUT

VOLUME

Revenue Water

Unaccounted for

water

Billed consumption

(metered and

unmetered)

Unbilled authorized

consumption

Real Losses

Apparent Losses


metered or unmetered. Real Losses are physical water losses from the pressurised system,

up to the point of customer metering. The volume lost through all types of leaks, bursts

and overflows depends on frequencies, flow rates, and average durations of individual

leaks (Lambert and Hirner, 2000).

2.1.1 Water losses due to metering and billing inaccuracies

Apparent loss is a volume of water that is associated with the utility’s retail rate, because

a utility would have received compensation for the water had it been recorded (Texas

Water Development Board, 2005, Lambert and Hirner, 2000). Apparent losses consist of

unauthorized consumption (theft or illegal use), and all types of inaccuracies associated

with production metering and customer metering and billing (Lambert and Hirner, 2000).

These losses occur when potential revenue water is removed from the system either

through theft, meter inaccuracy, or billing procedures that prevent all water from being

included in the water loss calculation (Texas Water Development Board, 2005). Studies

by McKenzie et al., (2002) show that in a normal well-managed system the apparent

losses normally constitute between 10% and 20% of the total losses.

It is impossible to accurately determine water loss volume when there is not a meter on

that particular connection to verify volume of use (Texas Water Development Board,

2005). Not only is the utility unsure of the volume of water used by that customer, but

they are also unsure if any water loss is occurring between the point of connection with

the utility’s pipe and the customer’s pipe, thereby creating more inaccurate data (Texas

Water Development Board, 2005). Gumbo and Van der Zaag (2002), had problems

ascertaining water losses within the reticulation network of the city of Mutare,

(Zimbabwe) because none of the bulk meters (installed at the inlets and outlets of the 15

reservoirs) were functioning. Therefore no water balances could be made for specific

zones/sectors. They also found that many industries had non-functioning water meters

and were billed nominal quantities. The quantities billed were believed to be a fraction of

actual water consumption, but this fraction could not be ascertained. Marunga et al.,

(2006) used water audits to calculate UFW in Mutare by comparing the volume of water

supplied into some zones and the volume of the billed water from zones and found UFW

to be 57%. These high water losses were found to be due to an aged reticulation, faulty

metering of 25%, high pressure systems and illegal connections (Marunga et al., 2006).

2.1.2 Calculation of UFW and Water Loss Reduction Measures

Lambert and Hirner (2000) suggest the following steps of calculating UFW:

Step 1: Define System Input Volume

Step 2: Define Billed Metered Consumption and Billed Unmetered Consumption

Step 3: Calculate the volume of Non-Revenue Water as System Input Volume minus

Revenue Water

Step 4: Define Unbilled Metered Consumption and Unbilled Unmetered Consumption

Step 5: Add volumes of Billed Authorised Consumption and Unbilled Authorised

Consumption; enter sum as Authorised Consumption

Step 6: Calculate Water Losses as the difference between System Input Volume and


Authorised Consumption

Step 7: Assess components of Unauthorised Consumption and Metering Inaccuracies by

best means available, add these and enter sum in Apparent Losses

Step 8: Calculate Real Losses as Water Losses minus Apparent Losses

Step 9: Assess components of real losses by best means available (night flow analysis,

burst frequency/flow rate/duration calculations, modelling etc), add these and cross-check

with volume of Real Losses which was derived from Step 8.

The water loss (UFW) is then usually expressed as a percentage of the water supplied.

The Texas Water Development Board (2005) argue that the method used to determine

water loss as a percentage based on water sold to water billed is unable to show where in

the system the loss is occurring and/or how much the loss cost the utility for the year and

that ppercentages do not associate a volume or a cost to the lost amount, nor do they aid

the utility in determining where to focus their resources. The steps as suggested by

Lambert and Hirner (2000) define the different components of UFW and determine their

contribution to UFW hence addressing the issues highlighted by the Texas Water

Development Board (2005). The Texas Water Development Board (2005) stresses the

importance of identifying the water loss component and the water being lost so that the

water utility can direct the required resources towards reducing the loss and ultimately

UFW. Wallingford (2001) in Table 2.1 highlights some of the measures that can be taken

to reduce UFW according to the components contributing to UFW.

Table 2.1: Measures for Reduction of UFW Area

Issues

Actions

Metering

Unmetered connections

Faulty meters

Under registration of meters

Lack of confidence on billings

Meter installation

Meter replacement/repair

Bulk metering

Leakage

Leakage in reservoirs and

mains

Poor quality pipe material and

installation

Lack of information on pipe

network

Lack of maintenance

Systematic maintenance, detection, monitoring and

maintenance of old pipes

Standardisation of installation,material and control

Adequate pressure regulation

Operational

control

Deficient operational control

Monitoring indicators

Water distribution system automation

Designing operations control

Commercial

systems

Inefficient billing system

Low income consumers not

billed

Illegal/unregistered connections

Database of users

High level of accounts receivable

Design/implementation of better commercial

systems

Water pricing policies


From the beginning water schemes must be planned and designed to ensure that water

losses are minimised, that users understand the true value of water, operation and

maintenance costs are minimised and that adequate revenues are raised (Mwendera et al.,

2003).

2.2 The impact of bulk metering households and individual metering households on

water consumption levels.

Wallingford (2001) asserts that metering of water volumes supplied is an essential part of

a demand orientated management strategy and any programme to reduce the unaccounted

for water and increase the financial revenue should be based on it. The primary purpose

of customer meters is generating economic revenue based on metered consumption, but

the accuracy of these meters is also a key issue in water balance calculations. Customer

meters require careful management if representative and significant results are to be

obtained (Lambert and Hirner, 2000). Meter accuracy is therefore of great importance to

ensure accurate billing. It is also important to water conservation efforts and necessary

for accurately determining unaccounted-for water (Sykes et al., 2005).

Mckenzie et al., (2002) argue that without a reasonable level of payment for water, the

water supplier will eventually fail and the water supply system will fall into disrepair

leading to more serious problems. Consumers must therefore pay for water services to

ensure sustainable and equitable development, as well as efficient and effective

management (Mckenzie et al., 2002). The process of billing is letting the consumer know

how much they owe for the water consumed. Usage charges require metering, but since

metering is costly, it may not make sense to meter where the cost of usage is low (Shirley

and Menard, 2002).

Noll, (2002) highlights that an aspect of waste that is not widely recognized is that if

water is very inexpensive wasting water is perfectly rational. However Alcazar et al.,

(2002), argue that the tariff provides no incentive to curb usage for the consumers who

pay a flat rate regardless of volume. When consumers are metered, they can adjust the

size of their bills by curbing consumption. In Buenos Aires consumers had little incentive

to conserve water because not only were water prices low, but also nearly 99% of

consumption was unmetered, billing was based on factors with little relation to

consumption and only 80% of billed values were collected (Alcazar et al., 2002). Tariffs

for water use are only effective if linked to volumetric use, with means of measurement

such as meters or discrete volume measures (GWP, 2003). According to Wallingford,

(2001) out-of-house demands (e.g. garden watering, filling and livestock watering) are

dependent largely on climate and metering. In hot, dry climates where water usage is not

metered garden watering can increase the water demand of higher income groups by

some 30% to 50%. Chavula, 2002 suggests that the other strategy for improving domestic

water use efficiency entails metering individual dwelling units thereby reducing the

outdoor water demand which is elastic. This makes the concerned individuals become

conscious of their water consumption levels as reflected in the bills that they get. Studies

in Latin America and West Africa during the period 1996-2001 show that metering is

another device to increase regulator and consumer information and give consumers more


control over their bills. This encourages consumers to use less so that they pay less

(Shirley and Menard, 2002).

Metering is usually not considered worth the expense in cities with ample water and no

capacity or disposal problems (Shirley and Menard, 2002). This ignores the loss of

consumer control over the total bill when billing is based on consumption estimates as in

Lima or complex series of property characteristics as in Buenos Aires. Complex

unmetered billing also creates more opportunities for the utility or the consumer to

manipulate information (Shirley and Menard, 2002).

In Conakry, Guinea, metering significantly reduced the amount of water billed to the

government. Before 1989 the government was billed centrally and therefore individual

agencies within government had little reason to use water efficiently. Following reform

each agency became responsible for its own bill giving them reason to use water more

sparingly (Menard, Clarke, 2002).

In Lilongwe, Malawi multi family properties, apartments, industry and institutions like

secondary schools, which have staff houses within the compound, are no sub metered.

After the Kamuzu International Airport was sub metered , consumption dropped from an

average of 19596 m3/ month in 2004 to 11010m3/ month (44% drop) (Chikasema, 2005).

2.2.1 Types of Meters in a Water Supply System

Bulk meters: A water meter installed in the water supply system, either at the

point of ingress or at any other point, to measure the amount of water that passes

through that point (Gumbo et al., 2002). Typical types of bulk meters include

turbine water meter (Woltmann type), electromagnetic flow meter, insertion

meters, ultrasonic flow meter and volumetric or semi-positive displacement meter

(Mckenzie et al., 2002)

Zone meters: These are meters that record the flow into the various water

management zones which are typically smaller areas with up to 2 000 properties

compared to the bulk meters which often measure water supplied to more than 30

000 properties. With the bulk meters it is difficult if not impossible to identify

medium sized leaks from the analysis of the minimum night flows. With the zone

meters, however, it is often possible to identify an individual connection pipe

burst, which will often show up clearly as an increase in the Minimum Night

Flow. Zone meters are therefore very useful for analysing minimum night flows

and identifying zones with cross boundary connections (Mckenzie et al., 2002).

According to Wallingford, (2000) zone metering is also known as district

metering where separately defined areas, typically containing 2000 to 5000

properties, are metered continuously, and the total quantity of water entering the

district is recorded. The meters are read regularly and if supply is inexplicably

high, inspectors are sent into that district to locate leaks.


Consumer meters: These meters are placed at individual consumer connections to

measure the amount of water supplied to the consumer. They are required if

customers are being charged for the water used which is one of the key elements

of any WDM strategy. If consumers are not charged in accordance with their use,

there is little incentive to save water and in many parts of Africa it has been found

that the consumer will use two to three times the volume of water that they would

use under normal conditions. (Mckenzie et al., 2002)

2.3 Metering and Billing Practices

The most important part of determining how much water is being lost in a system is to

accurately quantify the volume of water, which is entering that system (Lambert and

Hirner, 2000). Metering of source meters for abstraction, treatment works production,

imported and exported water, input volumes and inflows to sectorised distribution

systems is essential for water balance calculations (Lambert and Hirner, 2000). Meters

are of vital importance in a water supply system both for operation of the primary system

and in leakage control operation (Norplan et al., 2001). Any water utility that wishes to

measure and reduce unaccounted for water must ensure reasonable meter accuracy

(Sykes et al., 2005).

It is important to clearly define certain key variables that can be used to measure

efficiency and effectiveness of WDM programmes (Gumbo, 2004a). Frequently

unaccounted for water (UFW) is used as an indicator for poor management (Noll, 2002).

The level of unaccounted for water is a measure of efficient service delivery by the water

utility to its customers (Gumbo, 2004b).

Chikasema (2005) argues that the reliability of UFW estimates hinges on both production

and consumption being reliably metered. In his study of assessing effective metering and

billing as WDM tools in Area 49, Lilongwe, Chikasema (2005),identified faulty meters

physically and either repaired or replaced them and then compared the consumption and

UFW before and after the repairing and replacement exercise and found that UFW was

less after replacing the faulty meters.

Accounting errors can present challenges for the utility. Examples of these challenges

include: non-billing or accounting of every connection; data incorrectly transferred on

meter readings; and customer water usage data being altered during the billing cycle

(Texas Water Development Board, 2005). Billing anomalies are factors that contribute to

a distorted picture of legitimate consumer usage due to the ineffectiveness of the water

utility’s billing system (Chikasema, 2005). In Abidjan (Cote D’Ivoire), metering was

almost universal; billing which was computerised was executed efficiently as

demonstrated by the low level of UFW (Menard, Clarke, 2002). Lack of metering makes

it difficult to estimate UFW (Menard, Clarke, 2002). Chikasema (2005) established that

there was a positive linear relationship between the number of estimated bills and UFW.

Gumbo, (2004a) supports this relationship by concluding that cities performing well in

terms of WDM implementation have also higher coverage figures, i.e. the majority of the

population has access to the minimum acceptable standard of service with at least 90% of

the population having individual or household connections and a higher percentage of


metered connections (see table 2.2). Table 2.2 shows some performance indicators

suggested by Gumbo, et al., 2002, that can be used as yardsticks in evaluating water

utility performance in WDM.

Table 2.2: Performance Indicators Indicator Bulawayo Mutare Maputo Windhoek

Managing institution Local

authority

Local

authority

AdeM

(Pvt)

Local

authority

Population served (1000’s) 1000 200 1700 250

Volume supplied (m3/day) 100 000 60 000 120 000 48 000

Per capita gross figure (l/cap.day) 100 300 70 190

Annual yield from sources (Mm3) 47.5 42.0 54.0 22.2

Average rainfall (mm/annum) 460 900 800 360

Altitude 1420 1550 300 1600

Level of service

% Coverage reticulated

% Coverage standposts & other

Number of connections

Length of distribution network

99

1

100 000

2 100

90

10

-

1 100

45

55

80 000

840

97

3

38 000

1 300

% Level of Unaccounted-for water 20 52 65 18

% Domestic 55 70 80 74

Revenue generated (National

currency per annum)

Z$600 M - - N$45 M

(Source: Gumbo et al., 2002)

Menard and Clarke (2002) also support this notion with the study they undertook in

Abidjan, where UFW was measured quite accurately because metering had been close to

100% well before 1988. They also found that UFW was low (less than 20%) by both

regional and international standards. In contrast, in another study by Menard and Clarke

(2002) carried out in Conakry, Guinea it was found that UFW was very high (60%) and

lack of metering made it difficult to estimate UFW.

Low tariffs for water services, lack of metering and low rates of bill collection had left

the water utility in Lima, Peru with neither incentive no resources to expand or maintain

the system and gave consumers little incentive to curb water consumption except during

rationing (Alcazar, 2002). Chikasema (2005) found that meter reading was not very

efficient in Lilongwe where 15 meter readers only read on average 24 000 meters per

month. In Mexico City, Haggarty et al., (2002) found that while 53% of registered

customers had meters installed most of them were not being read regularly. Manzungu

and Machiridza (2005) in a study on the possibility of implementing WDM at household

level in Harare, Zimbabwe, where they used communication means to collect data from

residents and council officials, found that the reading of meters was not consistent. The

infrequent meter reading was due to reduced numbers of meter readers, and not all meters

were read every month and it is possible that the city was charging sub- economical rates

for water. Chikasema (2005) also highlighted that the interface between metering and

billing in the city was not efficient because after installing or replacing a meter,

information was not passed to the billing department for updating of files. Management

information is clearly an important part of WDM in general especially loss control and

the operation and maintenance of the water distribution system (Gumbo et al., 2002).


Meters are cash registers, and it is in the best interest of the utility to implement programs

that are designed to maximize the efficiency of these meters (Texas Water Development

Board, 2005).


CHAPTER THREE

3.0 STUDY AREA

3.1 General Background

Bulawayo is the second largest city in Zimbabwe and in 2002 had a population of

approximately 0.7 million (CSO, 2002). The city lies on the watershed (Fig.3.1) between

the Southern catchments, which drain into the Limpopo River and Northern catchments,

which are part of the Zambezi River Basin. Its location near the water divide has

significantly contributed to its water ‘scarcity’ problems, as all rivers within easy reach

are small with small catchments (Sibanda, 2001).

Fig 3.1: Location of Bulawayo in Zimbabwe

(Adapted: Gumbo, 2004b)


3.1.1 Water Resources for the City

Bulawayo city gets its water from five dams namely Insiza, Inyakuni, Mzingwane, Lower

Ncema and Upper Ncema. Khami dam is currently not in use because of wastewater

pollution. Table 3.1 presents some of the characteristics of the dams and Fig. 3.2 shows

the location of the city of Bulawayo relative to the surface water sources.

Table 3.1: Surface Water Sources

Dam Date built Capacity (hm³) Yield Available for

City (Ml/d)

Khami 1928 3.44 0.8

Lower Ncema 1943 18.24 19.5

Umzingwane 1956 44.67 31.3

Inyankuni 1965 80.78 21.8

Upper Ncema 1974 45.46 42.1

Insiza stage 1 1975 94.00 51.0

Insiza stage 2 1992 79.50 9.2

Total 366.09 175.7

(Source: BCC, undated)

The total capacity of Bulawayo’s water supply dams is 333 million cubic metres

(Norplan et al., 2001) and the city, supplies 150 000m3 per day of treated water to its

consumers during a good wet year and 115 000m3 per day during a dry year (BCC,

2006).

Fig 3.2: The city of Bulawayo and its surface water sources

SupplyDams


Bulawayo city council follows the 21-month rule whereby the water supply dams should

hold at least 21 months supply by 31 March of each year (Norplan et al., 2001). If the

quantity of water stored is less than this, then water rationing must be introduced. Over

the years demand has increased due to population growth and urbanisation. Fig 3.3 gives

the general trend of demand over the last ten years based on billed consumption records.

The figure also shows that the demand has actually been declining in the last two years

due to recurrent droughts and the subsequent water rationing.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006

Year

Vo

lum

e M

m3 /

yea

r

Fig 3.3: Annual Water Demand for Bulawayo

In addition to the dams shown in table 3.1 and Fig. 3.2, Bulawayo also gets water from

the Nyamandhlovu aquifer. The groundwater supply from the Nyamandlovu aquifer

wells were established as an emergency drought relief project in 1992 to ease the supply

situation when the water supply sources was on the verge of drying up. Total installed

well capacity at Nyamandhlovu is 25,000 m3/d of underground water. However, later

assessment of the aquifer concludes that the abstractions from the current well field

should be restricted to 9000 – 12000 m3 per day to preserve its long term integrity

(Norplan et al., 2001). The council has adjusted the production from the well field to this

level and balance the input when abstraction from the Southern Catchment is low

(Norplan et al., 2001).

The city has two major treatment plants for raw water that is the Criterion waterworks

which is fed by Inyakuni, Insiza and Mzingwane dams and Ncema waterworks which is

fed by Lower and Upper Ncema dams. The water treatment plants Criterion and Ncema

have an estimated capacity of respectively 181,000 and 30,000 m3/d, making a total of

211.000 m3/d.


3.2 Metering and Billing Practices in Bulawayo

3.2.1 Institutional Setup of Bulawayo City Council

Legal Framework Governing Metering and Billing

The Bulawayo City Council operates under the Ministry of Local Government and Public

Construction and is thus governed by the Urban Councils Act of 1996. This Act

empowers and guides the Council in formulating bylaws pertaining to its operations

including provision of water and other related services. The Bulawayo (sewerage,

drainage and water) bylaws of 1980 statutory Instrument 390 of 1980 sections 14 to 27

cover these aspects of metering and billing (Norplan et al., 2001).

Part II of the Act which looks at supply of water, specifies that a person may make

application to council for the supply of water and only connect after approval is granted

and paid the prescribed charges/deposit. Council will install a communication pipe to the

applicant’s premises and thereafter maintain the said pipe. Council shall supply and

install a meter at the end of a communication pipe to any premises to which it has agreed

to supply water according to Part III of the Act. Council must have access to such meter

for reading, overhauling, removing or carrying out any such work on the meter as maybe

considered necessary. Meters installed by council would remain the property of the

council but a consumer has to ensure that the meter in his premises is safe and protected

and may be liable to council for any failure to keep the meter safe (Norplan et al., 2001).

For billing, provisions of the Urban Councils Act require that; the quantity of water

registered by the meter is deemed to be the quantity actually supplied, unless supplied by

a potable meter, and the consumer has to pay for such water at the prescribed rate unless

there is error in meter reading, calculation, error in applying fixed or appropriate scale of

charges (Norplan et al., 2001).

Institutional Actors Responsible for Metering and Billing in the City Council

The Engineering Services Department (ESD) through its Water and Sewage section is

responsible for water services provision in the council. The Department is responsible for

the installation, maintenance, treatment and supply of water. The Water and Sewage

section is divided into three distinct sub sections; the distribution section (water and

sewerage), water supply section (water treatment works and sewage treatment works) and

projects section. Fig. 3.4 presents the general structure of the department, indicating the

number of people in post for sections relevant to water supply.


Fig 3.4: Organisational Structure for the Engineering Services Department of Bulawayo

City

(Source: BCC, 2007)

The City Treasurer’s Department handles the meter reading and billing of water in the

city. Fig. 3.5 illustrates the sections directly involved in the meter reading and billing

processes. The number of meter readers in post is 28.

Director Engineering

Services

Deputy Director-

Urban planning and

Transport

Deputy Director –

Water and Sewage

Principal Engineers

(2)

Senior Engineers (1)

Engineers (4)

Senior Technical

Officer (1)

Technicians (2) and

Plumbers (8)


Fig 3.5: Organisational Structure for the Revenue Department of Bulawayo City

(Source: BCC, 2007)

Fig. 3.6 illustrates how the two departments exchange information about metering and

billing through the information system.

Fig 3.6: The Interaction between the Two Departments Responsible for Metering and

Billing in the City Council

City

Treasurer

Director -

City treasury

Other PAOs PAO -

Revenue

PAO – EDP

section

SAO- Rates

SAO-

Consumers

SAO -

Housing

Meter reading Superintende

nt

Credit

Controller

AAO 1

AAO 2

Clerks

Meter readers

(28)

System analyst

Computer operstos

Data capture

clerks

PAO- Principal Accounting Officer

SAO- Senior Accounting officer

AAO- Assistant Accounting Officer


(Source: Gumbo et al., 2002)

3.2.2 Metering

The city of Bulawayo has a total of 146192 properties distributed as shown in table 3.2

and the total number of metered connections is 160000.

Table 3.2: City of Bulawayo properties Category No. of Properties

Low Density Areas 23784

High Density Areas 117919

Industry and Commercial 4489

Total 146192

(Source: BCC, 2006)

All residential properties, which are connected to the water supply, are metered since a

water meter is a requirement before the property can be connected according to the

bylaws. Residential properties within institutions such as police camps, schools and

hospitals are however not individually metered but the institutions have bulk meter

installations. Fig. 3.7 shows the number of new metered connections that were installed

by the city council from 1997 to 2003. More meters were installed in residential areas as

there was a marked expansion of housing developments during this period. The city is

divided into fifty-three management meter zones for leakage control and pressure

management (Norplan et al., 2001).

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

1997-1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

Nu

mb

er

Commercial, Industrial & Eastern Areas

New meters on unmetered connections

Western Areas


Fig 3.7: New Meter Connections installed in Bulawayo (1997-2003)

(Source: BCC, 2004)

A meter replacement programme was started in 2006, with the objectives of replacing

those meters that would have stopped or would have been stolen and also to replace all

meters that were more than 10 years old since the design life of an ordinary water meter

is 8 to 10 years. After this period the accuracy of the meter is compromised (BCC, 2005).

Fig 3.8 shows that for the period 1997 to 2003, only a few stopped and stolen meters

were replaced, while the emphasis was on testing new meters for new connections.

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

1997-

1998

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

Nu

mb

er o

f M

ete

rs

Replaced (stopped & stolen)

Tested New

Fig3.8: Number of Meters Replaced or Tested (1997-2003)

(Source: BCC, 2004)

3.2.3 The Billing Process

For billing purposes the city is divided into twenty-three districts, which are a

combination of suburbs and these districts do not coincide with the meter zones. There

are 28 meter readers, each expected to read 250 meters a day in the high density areas and

110 a day in the low density areas and industry. Ideally meters are supposed to be read

once every month but due to staffing problems and other challenges the meters are

normally read once in two months. After the readings are taken they are captured into the

database and the information technology section will produce two reports:

For those readings that result in a consumption that has deviated more than 5%

from the average

For those accounts which did not have readings and therefore have to be

estimated.

These are handed over to the deviation section to check and make the necessary

corrections. A test run will then be conducted in which the tariffs will be applied on the

consumption for a particular month.


An exceptions report that consists of accounts that have zero and very high or negative

consumption will then be produced for the attention of the metering superintendent. A

due date will then be put and printing of bills can now be done. Once the printing is

complete, the bills are taken to the bill packing section for sorting and packing and

delivery to the consumers. Members of staff usually do the delivery on a door-to-door

basis. Customers are then required to make payments at the thirteen payment offices,

which are distributed thus; twelve in the high-density areas and one in the city centre for

industry, commerce and low-density areas. The consumers may also pay via a stop order

facility and direct banking. Council by laws empower council to cut off supply as a way

of enforcing payment and charging a reconnection fee for services to continue.

The Bulawayo city council uses the block tariff for its pricing where the users are

categorised as domestic and non domestic. The domestic is further classified into low

density, high density and peri urban. Appendix A7 provides details of the tariffs for 2007

and fig 3.9 illustrates the tariffs for the different classes of domestic users. Each class of

users has a fixed charge added to the consumption related charge. The figure shows that

the high density consumers have the lowest tariffs, followed by the low density

consumers. The peri urban consumers pay the highest tariffs because they are in a

position to make use of ground water as most of these consumers in this category live on

large plots of land (more than 3 acres).

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Monthly Consumption per connection (m3/month)

Ta

rif

f (Z

$(0

00

)/m

3)

Low Density Areas

High Density Areas

Peri-Urban Areas

Fig 3.9: Block Tariffs for Bulawayo 2007

(Source: BCC, 2006)

Bulawayo City Council has a computer based information system called the AS400.

Information about entities and persons is collected and held centrally as a shared resource

by the various subsystems. Billing for all services take place at the same time for rates,

water and other services once every month. Once an entity has been created in the

system, tariffs for the various services it enjoys and should be charged for and other

charges are attached to that entity or person, which would have been allocated an account

number. So an account number will have tariffs for rates, water (fixed and consumption),

sewerage and other charges attached to it. The tariff for water consumption that is

includes that of fixed charge and sewerage consumption is attached to the meter that

exists on a particular property and the meter is also attached to the account number.


PA RKL AN D S

EX TE NSION

SO

UT

HDAL

E

SELBO

RNE PAR

K

FORT UNE SGA TE

OL D

MAGWE GWE

HY D E PA R K

GWA B AL AND A

NO R TH

MAGWE GWE

WES T

PUMULA N O R TH

PUMU LA E A ST

OL D P UMU L A

HY D E\ PP AR K VILL \P UNIT 1

MAGWE GWE

HY D E PA R K V IL UNIT 2

PUMULA S O UT H

LU

VE

VE

NO

RTH

GL EN V IL

LE

MONT ROS E

THO RNGROV E IND

THORNGROO V E

NG UBOY ENJ A

B

ARBO

U

RFI E

LDS(EAST)

(EXT 4)

(EXT 3)

(WE ST)

LO BE NGUL A

(WE ST)

LOBE NGUL A

U

PPER

MPOPOMA \P SOUTH

WEST

DO

NNIN

GTON

KE LV IN NORT H

PE LA ND A BA

RIC HMOND

EMG ANWIN I

NE WTON WES T

BEL

LEV

UE

SOUTHWORL D

W

ES

T S

OM

ERTO

N

DON NINGTON

NKE TA

TS HA B AL AL A

SIZIND A

WES TGA TE

ST EE LD AL E

WES TOR ND A LE

KE LV IN E AS T

MPOPO

MA MASH

A

LLING

YAR

DS

MAT SHOBA NA

MPOPOMA

MAB UTWE N I

KE LV IN WE ST

IMINY EL A

NKULU MA NE

LO BE NGU L A

NJ UB E

LOBE NGUL A

LUVE V E

EN QO T S

H ENI

EMA KHA NDE NI

ENTUMB ANE

RICH

MO

ND

SO

UT

H

G

LEN

VIL

LE

WIN D

SOR

PAR K

TR ENA NC E

ROW

ENA

RA YL TON

ST AT E HOUS E

MOT OR

\ PR A CING \P CO

U RS E

QUE EN S\ P PA RK\ PWE ST

AS COT

PARKVIEW

WEST

BELM

O

NT E

AST

SUNNY S ID E

BRADFIELD

PA RKL AND S

SOUTHR ID IN G

TR ENA NC E

INT IN I

MUND A

NE

WTO

N

ELOA N A

FO

UR

WIN

DS

GR A NIT E PA R K

HIL LSID E S OUT HBU R NS IDE

HIL LSID E

MOR NINGS ID E

GR EE NHIL L

BE LMONT

FA MONA

HIL LC RE ST

MAL IND EL A

IL AND A

WOOD LA N DS

KUMA LO

PA DD ONHUR ST

SUBUR B S

ZITF G RO

UNDS

MAKOKOB A

CIT Y

MZILIKA ZI

NOR THE ND

KIL AL O

HAR

RIS

VALE

THE JUNGLE

HIG

HM

OUN

T

SAUERSTOWN

SAUERS

TOW

N

KEN

ILW

OR

TH

TEG

ELA

RO

MNE

Y P

AR

K

QU

EENS

PARK

EA S

T

NEW

MA

NSF

OR

D

NOR T

HG

ATE

LO BE NVA LE

NOR

TH L

YN

NE

FAGA D

OLA

KINGS

DALE

OR A NGE GR OVE

WAT ER LE A

QU E ENSD A LE

MQA B UKO HE IGHT S

BULA WA YO A IR P OR T

MONT GOME RY

WAT ER FOR D

DOUGL A SD AL E

NT AB A MOY O

RIV

ER

SID

E SO

UTH LA KE SID E

MANNINGD AL E

WIL LS GROV E

LOCHV IEW

MAR LA NDS

SUNNINGHIL L

GL ENC OE

RIV ER SID E NORT H

MAT SH E UMHLOP E

JAC

CA

RA

ND

A

WOO D VIL LE P A RK

WOOD VIL LE

NOR THLE A

MAHA TS HUL A NORT H

MAHA TS HUL A SO UT H

GL EN GAR R Y

KIL AR N EY

When readings for a particular meter are entered and processed, all tariffs attached to that

meter and account will automatically bill and charges produced.

Once billing has been done, the system will automatically post figures to the water

consumers’ debtors’ ledger, rates ledger and other sub ledgers and also make entries into

the main ledger. Posting to the customer account is broken down according to tariff or

service and a total given at the bottom of the page.

3.3 Selected Study Sites

The city of Bulawayo (fig 3.10) is divided into fifty-three meter zones. Inspection of all

the fifty-three zone meters revealed that there were twenty meters working. Four meter

zones; two covering low-density residential areas and two covering high-density

residential areas were identified so that they represent extent of the city. These sites all

have zone meters and individual consumer meters and so were analysed for the individual

metering scenario.

Fig 3.10: Layout the city of Bulawayo showing the selected zones

The zones are as described :

M24/6-2

M13/3-1

M12

M33


Suburbs is an old residential area built before independence and is a low-density

area located on the outskirts of the city centre to the east. It is in meter zone M12,

(see fig 3.10) which also covers Kumalo and Parklands residential areas and

comprises detached houses on an average of 2000m2 area plots. Besides domestic

users the area also has a stadium and a number of schools and churches. Some of

the residents in this area also have private boreholes which are not connected to

the main water supply as this would violate the by laws of the city council. Most

of the water from these boreholes is used to water lawns and gardens and support

horticultural activities.

Fig 3.11: Layout of zone M12

Matsheumhlophe is a low-density area built less than twenty-six years ago and is

located to the east of the city centre. The average size of plots is 4000m2 and the

residential homes are detached. The meter zone is M33.The non-domestic users in

this area are mainly schools. Most residents have private boreholes on their land

because of the large sizes of land; residents in this area are drawn to market

gardening.


Fig 3.12: Layout of zone M33

Mzilikazi is divided into two, meter zones; the meter zone of interest to this study

is M13/3-1. This zone covers the oldest high-density residential areas in the city,

namely, Makokoba, Mzilikazi and Barbourfields. This area is charaterised by

more than eight flats, and a mixture of semi detached and detached houses on

small plots of up to 200m2. This area is just on the out of the city centre to the

west. The area has a stadium, a major hospital, some schools and churches. The

major hospital Mpilo has several boreholes on site to augment council supply

during rationing periods.

Lobengula West is also divided into two zones and the zone chosen for this study

was zone M24/6-2 where the meter is functional. This high-density area was built

in the 1980s and is characterized by a mixture of semi-detached and detached

house on plots of 200m2 on average. It is located to the west of the city centre.

A police camp was identified to represent the bulk metered scenario. In a police camp

there are offices and residential dwellings and all are not individually metered. The camp

has a bulk meter, which the water utility uses to bill the police for the water consumed in

the camp. Ross Police Camp is the largest police camp in the city and the consumption is

only measured by one meter located outside the camp. The camp has a number of flats,

semidetached houses and detached houses. There are large vegetable gardens.


CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

4.1 Study Design

The major activities as outlined in table 4.1 were carried out during the period December

2006 and April 2007. Data collection was based on measurements and face-to-face

interviews with key personnel from the city council and consumers and collecting council

records.

Table 4.1: Summary of Study Design Activity Descriptors

Estimation of water losses due

to metering and billing

Data description Consumer meter readings and water bills

Period 22 January 2007- 22 March 2007

Frequency of reading Once every two weeks for six weeks

Location of data

collection

Suburbs

Matshemhlope

Mzilikazi

Total no. of data sets 6 meter readings per connection and 3

billed consumption

Comparing of Bulk metering

and billing and Individual

metering and billing

Data description Zone meter readings

Police camp bulk meter reading

Period 30 December 2006 –30 March 2007

Frequency of reading Once every month

Location of data

collection

Suburbs

Mzilikazi

Matshemhlope

Lobengula West

Ross Police camp

Total no. of data sets 6 meter readings for the period

Analysing the current metering

and billing practices

Data description BCC officials questionnaires

Consumer Questionnaires

Water statistics records and billed

consumption

Council annual and monthly reports

Period 22 January- 30 March 2007

Location of data

collection

Bulawayo city council

Suburbs

Mzilikazi

Matshemhlope

Lobengula West

Total no. of data sets 1 BCC Water dept, 1 BCC Revenue dept

100 consumer questionnaires

4.2 Data Collection Methods

The data for this study was collected from various sources. Primary data was obtained

from monitoring bulk, zone and consumer meters chosen randomly in the city. Zone


meter readings were taken for selected zones with the individually metered residential

areas, bulk meter readings were taken from a police camp and consumer meters were

read from randomly selected properties in the selected zones. Fig. 4.1 gives a schematic

diagram of the various meters and how they are linked. Key city council personnel were

interviewed based on questionnaires. Consumers were also interviewed based on

questionnaires.

Fig 4.1: Schematic representation of the metering of the water supply system

Secondary data for the desk study was collected from the city council offices. A summary

of water supplied and water billed was obtained from the city council for the ten years

starting September 1996 to August 2006. The consumers’ bills were also used to obtain

the billed consumption for the consumers whose meters were read.

4.2.1 Estimation of water losses due to metering and billing

Consumer meters were monitored to collect the meter readings which were used to

calculate the consumption. Secondary data in the form of the selected consumers’ water

bills corresponding to the period of measurement was also collected. This data was used

to estimate the water losses due metering and billing inaccuracies.

4.2.2 The impact of bulk metering households and individual metering households on


The police camp namely Ross Camp, was used to represent the bulk metering and billing

case. It has a similar residential setting in terms of the housing density to meter zone

M13/3-1, which comprises the high density areas of Mzilikazi, Makokoba and

Barbourfields, so this zone was used as the representative for individual metering. The

bulk meter and the zone meter were monitored over the study period from December

Water Treatment works meter

Clear water reservoir meter

Service Reservoir meter

Management zone meters

(M12, M13/3-1, M24/6-2, M33)

Bulk meters

(Police camp)

Unmetered consumers Individual consumer meters


2006 to March 2007. The readings obtained from the meters were used to calculate the

average daily consumption for the two areas.

The population for the meter zone was estimated from the number of connections in the

zone. The number of connections was as obtained from the city council. Population for

the police camp was estimated from the number of dwellings in the camp.

4.2.3 Analysing the current metering and billing practices

Secondary data was obtained from the city council records on the water statistics for ten

years dating from September 1996 to August 2006. The data used was that on the amount

of water supplied monthly and the monthly metered consumption during these years.

Records of reported bursts, the institutional set up, consumers’ perceptions and annual

reports were also used in this analysis.

There are other indicators such as staff productivity, coverage, financial performance and

metering practice which could be used to test the effectiveness of the metering and billing

practices (Gumbo et al., 2004a).

4.3 Data Analysis Methods

4.3.1 Estimation of water losses due to metering and billing

Meter readings from the consumers were used to calculate the average daily water

consumption of these households using the following formula;

Actual daily consumption = (R2-R1)/t.........................................................equation (4.1)

Where: R1 is the meter reading on day 1 in kilolitres

R2 is the meter reading on day 2 in kilolitres

t is the time in days

The monthly billed consumption of the same households was converted to daily

consumption using the following formula;

Billed daily consumption = (monthly consumption)/ 30 days of an average

month.........................................................equation (4.2)

A comparison of the actual daily consumption and the billed average daily consumption

was used to obtain water losses due to metering and billing in the households;

Water losses due to metering and billing = Measured daily consumption – billed

daily consumption. .........................................................equation (4.3)


The mean of the water losses was then calculated and a statistical analysis using the

student’s t test was carried out to determine whether the losses that had been estimated

were significant based on the null hypothesis that the mean will be equal to zero. The

hypothesis assumed that there was not much difference between the measured

consumption and the billed consumption. The formula for t test;

t= X/(S/√n) .........................................................equation (4.4)

Where: X is the mean

S is the standard deviation

n is the number of entries

For a confidence level of 95% the calculated t should fall within the range of +/- t as

given by the t distribution curve.

4.3.2 The impact of bulk metering households and individual metering households on


The consumption for the selected zone, which is representing individual metering and the

bulk metered police camp were determined using the meter readings taken for the

different sites and the average daily consumption was then determined using the

following;

R2-R1 = consumption for the time t1



Where: R is the meter reading

t is the period for consumption

The average daily consumption was then determined using the following relationship;

(R i+1-R i)/ti.........................................................equation (4.5)

Where R i+1-R I is the consumption during the period ti.

t1 – December 2006 to January 2007is the period before water rationing had been fully

instituted.

t2, t3- January 2007 to March 2007 is the period after water rationing had been fully

instituted.

An average of these consumptions was calculated for the selected bulk metered and

individual metered areas in order to balance out the effect of rationing.

The average daily per capita consumption for the areas was determined by;

Average daily per capita consumption = (Average daily consumption for the area)/

estimated population for the area.........................................................equation (4.6)


The population for the individually metered was approximated using an average figure of

9 people per connection, which was calculated from the number of people in a household

given when meter readings were taken for determining the water losses. For the bulk

metered the population was estimated by multiplying the number of dwellings in the

police camp by an average figure of 6 per dwelling.

The consumption levels of the bulk metered and the individually metered was compared

using the chi-square test. This test is used to determine whether there is any significant

difference between two samples and the null hypothesis in this case would be that the

consumption in the bulk metered area is the same as in the individually metered area.

4.3.3 Testing the effectiveness of the current metering and billing practices

Gumbo (2004a), states that gross unaccounted for water is a crude measure of good

WDM practice. This method was used to test the effectiveness of the current metering

and billing practices because these parameters involve the processes of metering and

billing. The water losses estimated actually represent the gross unaccounted for water

which includes other components such as leakages, but its significance can be used as a

measure of effectiveness of the metering and billing practices.

An analysis of the water statistics for the city for the years 1996 to 2006 was used to

calculate the global water losses in the city.

Unaccounted for water = water supplied – billed consumption

.........................................................equation (4.7)

The mean of the unaccounted for water was then calculated and a student’s t test done to

determine whether the losses that had been estimated were significant based on the null

hypothesis that the mean will be equal to zero. The formula for t test as in equation (4.4).

For a confidence level of 95% the calculated t should fall with the range of +/- t as given

by the t distribution curve.

Consumer questionnaires were analysed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and the

results were also used to assess effectiveness of the current metering and billing practices.

Annual reports of bursts were also analysed.


CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Estimation of Water losses due to metering and billing inaccuracies

Table 5.1 shows the average daily consumption as measured at the consumer meter and

the average billed daily consumption per connection of a sample of consumers randomly

selected from Matshemhlope, Makokoba, Mzilikazi and Suburbs. These consumers are

all individually metered and meters in Makokoba and Mzilikazi are vertically installed on

the walls of houses and the meters in Suburbs and Matshemhlope are installed

horizontally on the ground. The average daily consumption was derived from meter

readings taken by the researcher during the study period. All the billed consumption used

was for the same period as when the readings were taken. Appendix A1 gives the actual

readings taken during the study.

Table 5.1: Water losses due to metering and billing

Connection

Average Measured

(litres/connection/day)

Average Billed

(litres/

connection/day)

Water losses

(litres/connection/day)

1 784 673 111

2 20 86 -66

3 535 397 138

4 513 737 -223

5 453 712 -258

6 508 539 -31

7 1,668 1362 306

8 18 222 -204

9 36 137 -101

10 50 264 -214

Average - 54

Positive water losses under estimation

Negative water losses over estimation

The results of the statistical analysis show that the average over estimation of 54 litres per

connection per day is insignificant because the calculated t was within the range of the

critical t ((Student’s test) t Stat -0.916121286, t Critical 2.262157158). This over estimate

may be explained by the infrequent meter reading as it was observed during the meter

reading exercise where 30% of the read meters, were buried with soil and had to be

cleared before reading. Some meters could be under-registering or over registering

because they have outlived their design life. Since the meters are only tested, repaired or

replaced as per a consumer’s request, the number of under or over registering meters in

the city is unknown but as 90% of the meters were installed more than 10 years ago, there

is bound to be metering and billing inaccuracies. Total faulty and stolen meters was

found to be 33000 and with total connections in city of 160000 the percentage of faulty


meters citywide is 21%. The weakness in the city’s metering strategy is that meters are

only replaced when they are malfunctioning or are stolen.

5.2 The impact of bulk metering households and individual metering households on

water consumption levels

The results of the average daily consumption per capita per day of the bulk metered area

(Ross Camp) and the individually metered zone (Mzilikazi) are shown in table 5.2. The

average daily consumption for the areas was derived from measured consumptions as

presented in Appendix A3.

Table 5.2: Average Per Capita Consumption in the Bulk metered and Individual metered

Zone Name

Consumption per cap per day

(l/cap/day) Average

Consumption

per cap per day

(l/cap/day) Day 1 Day 2 Day 3

Mzilikazi (individual

metered) 7 6 7 6

Ross Camp (bulk metered) 248 232 237 239

Ross Camp had on average a per capita consumption of 239 litres per day and this was 40

times more than for Mzilikazi, which was on average 6 litres per capita per day. Other

zones with individual metering were also analysed, the results obtained are shown in

Table 5.3. The per capita consumption in all the individually metered zones put together

was on average 12 times less than for the per capita consumption at Ross Camp.

Table 5.3: Average Per Capita Consumption in the study zones

Meter

Zone

No Zone Name

No.of

Metered

Connections

Estimated

population

Consumption

(m3/day)

Consumption

per cap per

day

(l/cap/day)

M12 Suburbs 1640 11480 489.6 43

M13/3-1 Mzilikazi 6034 48272 324.8 6

M24/6-2 Lob. West 2642 21136 216.8 10

Ross Camp 1 3196 785.9 239

Table 5.3 also shows that per capita consumption in Suburbs which is a low density area

is on average 5 times more than in Mzilikazi and Lobengula West which are high density

areas. A statistical analysis was conducted to determine whether the difference between

the consumption in the bulk metered area and the individually metered area was

significant based on the null hypothesis that the consumption levels of the bulk metered

area are the same as the consumption levels of the individually metered area. For a 95%

confidence level, the calculated chi-square was found to be 0.999982 as compared to the


critical chi-square of 0.606536 and the probability value was found to be 0.39 which is

greater than 0.05.

The results show that consumption levels of the bulk metered area are significantly

greater than the consumption levels of the individually metered area. This is because of

the fact that the houses and dwellings in the police camp are not individually metered and

the government is billed for the water consumed, so users are not conscious of how much

they actually use. This scenario leads to excessive use of water especially for outdoor

activities such as vegetable gardening. This is supported by Alcazar et al. (2002), who

found that unmetered consumers in Lima Peru paid a flat rate regardless of what they

consumed and hence had no incentive to conserve water. Individually metering properties

helps to make the users accountable for the water they use and will be encouraged to use

the water efficiently, studies by Shirley and Menard in Latin America and West Africa

during the period 1996-2001 show that metering is another device to increase regulator

and consumer information and give consumers more control over their bills. This

encourages consumers to use less so that they pay less (Shirley and Menard, 2002). In

Bulawayo water rationing was instituted coincidentally at the start of the study period.

The individually metered consumers are individually and directly affected by the

rationing conditions which include hefty penalties for usage above the ration water

allocation. The consumers on the police camp however are not directly affected as the

government is the one responsible for the bills of the camp.

The difference in water consumption between the high density areas and the low density

areas was relatively less as compared to the police camp. The difference between the

consumption in the low density areas and the high density areas was due to factors other

than metering such as the fact that low density areas have large areas per dwelling

therefore there is more room for outdoor water uses such as gardening and the nature of

plumbing in these areas is different. In high density areas there is an outside tap

connected to the shower and toilet whilst there is a lot of underground plumbing in the

low density areas taking water to the kitchen, bathroom toilet over a considerable

distance. Underground plumbing leaks may go undetected whilst contributing to the

metered consumption hence the consumption levels in the low density are higher than in

the high density areas.

5.3 Analysis of the Current Metering and Billing Practices

5.3.1 Unaccounted for water

Estimated percentage level of UFW for the study period was 30%, based on the average

measured per capita consumption in the study zones and the police camp put together, of

115 litres per capita per day for a population of 0.7 million (The growth rate of 1.1% as

provided by CSO does not change the population significantly, hence the use of

population for 2002) compared to the water supplied of 115 000m3 per day. Fig 5.1

shows the annual water losses for the city of Bulawayo for the period 1996 to 2006

derived from comparing water supplied per year and the annual billed consumption.


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006

Year

Volu

me

Mm

3/y

ear

-15.0

-10.0

-5.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

Wate

r L

oss

es (

%)

Billed Consumption Water Supplied to System water losses

Fig 5.1: Average Annual water losses over the years 1996 to 2006

The results from a statistical analysis (Table 5.4) show that the majority of the annual

average water losses are significantly not different from zero meaning that the under

estimation and over estimations made during these years was compensatory and the under

estimation and over estimation cancelled out. Of note are the two periods of 1998-1999

and 2001-2002 where the annual average water losses were significantly different from

zero. In 1998-1999 there was significant under estimation and in 2001-2002 there was

significant over estimation of billed consumption.The average of -3.254 Mm3 per year

over the ten year period reflects a case of over estimation of billed consumption. In

comparison in Lilongwe, Malawi, Chikasema (2005) found that the estimations tended to

be understated resulting in the water utility incurring some water losses.

The overestimations reflected by the results of water losses over the ten year period make

it difficult to estimate UFW as it is determined conventionally by comparing the amount

of water supplied into the system and the water that was consumed as represented by the

water that was billed. Lambert and Hirner, (2000) state that however, a leak-free network

is not a realizable technical or economic objective, and a low level of water losses cannot

be avoided, even in the best operated and maintained systems, where water suppliers pay

a lot of attention to water loss control. Fig 5.2 provides evidence of real losses in the form

of leaks and bursts in the water supply network. These leaks and bursts are components

of UFW where water was lost from the system and was not consumed by the consumers

and because UFW cannot be determined due to the metering and billing inaccuracies, so

there are water losses which are not being estimated.


Table 5.4 Average Losses and statistical results for Bulawayo (1996-2006)

Year

Average losses

Mm3/year

Standard

deviation

Mm3/year t calculated

tcritical

1996-1997 -0.188 0.5

1.264021 2.200985

1997-1998 -0.102 0.5

0.075357

2.200985

1998-1999 0.22 0.21

-3.66727

2.200985*

1999-2000 0.094 0.3

-1.17168

2.200985

2000-2001 0.064 0.4

-0.58272

2.200985

2001-2002 -0.5 0.7

2.460403

2.200985*

2002-2003 -0.182 0.6

1.006976

2.200985

2003-2004 -0.425 1.1

1.3399

2.200985

2004-2005 -0.084 0.5

0.603315

2.200985

2005-2006 -0.154 0.5

1.07398 2.200985

Average -3.254 14.7

1.63961

2.262157

* tcalculated > tcritical therefore the average water loss is significant

positive water loss – under estimate

Negative water loss – over estimate

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1997-

1998

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2006

Year

Nu

mb

er o

f L

ea

ks


Fig 5.2: Reported leaks in Bulawayo

(Source: BCC, 2006)

5.3.2 Institutional Performance Indicators

Staff Productivity

There are 20 staff members in the Water and Sewerage section directly responsible for

water services provision and 28 meter readers from the Revenue Department, and there

are 160 000 connections in the city, therefore the staffing ratio for all staff involved in

water supply is 1 per 1000 connections. The recommended range is 4 to 10 per 1000

connections by world standards (Gumbo, 2004a).

Operation and Maintenance Issues

For the period of October 2006 to March 2007 an average 500 metering jobs are deferred

to the next month whilst for general maintenance of the water supply network 600 jobs

are deferred to the next month (Fig 5.3). The deferment of jobs means that the jobs

planned to be done during a particular month could not be carried out during that month

and therefore they have to be done during the following month.

0

200

400

600

800

Oct-06 Nov-06 Dec-06 Jan-07 Feb-07 Mar-07

Nu

mb

er o

f Jo

bs

General Maintenance Meter Section

Fig 5.3: Number of jobs deferred to the following month

(Source: BCC, 2007)

The fact that there is a constant deferment of jobs every month means that the every

month there is a backlog of work which are due to the high staff turnover the council is

currently experiencing as well as other economic factors including fuel shortages ( BCC,

2007).

5.3.3 Consumer Perceptions

Consumers were interviewed based on questionnaires and the detailed results are

presented in Appendix A9. The issues discussed which had direct bearing on assessing


the current metering and billing practices were frequency of meter reading and the major

complaints regarding metering and billing. The cost of water was discussed but due to the

inflationary conditions currently prevailing in the country, the relevance of the responses

is time dependent. Whether the water bills were high or otherwise also became difficult

to accept because by the end of the study period, the tariffs charged by the water utility

were already sub-economical because of the effects of inflation.

When the consumers were asked about the frequency of meter reading; 14% claimed that

meter readers came once every month, 58% of the consumers claimed that their meters

are read once every two months, 6% claimed that they only saw the meter readers once in

three months and 22% claimed that they rarely see the meter readers coming to read their

meters. These results are shown in fig 5.4. There are 28 meter readers and 160 000

connections. A meter reader is expected to read 5700 meters a month if the meters are

being read every month. This translates to 286 meters a day. For an eight-hour day 36

meters must be read every hour. The current practice however is that 250 meters can be

read per day in all high density areas where the meters are mounted on the walls of the

houses and in the low density areas and some high density areas where the meters are

installed horizontally, only 90 meters can be read per day. According to the current

practice therefore it is not possible for all meters to be read once every month as is

required by the billing process. The consumer must be billed for water consumption

every month as per the provisions of the city bylaws. The consumers’ perceptions that

generally meters are not read every month is confirmed.

14%

58%

6%

22%

monthly bi-monthly tri-monthly rarely

Fig 5.4: Frequency of Meter Readings

Regarding major complaints about metering and billing in general (Fig. 5.5); 40% felt

that the bills were inaccurate, 37% were of the opinion that meter reading was infrequent,


18% had no comment and 5% complained that the city council was slow in replacing

stolen or faulty meters.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Slow in replacing

meters

Meter readings

infrequent

Inaccurate bills No comment

Freq

uen

cy

Fig 5.5: Consumer Complaints

It is a general feeling amongst the interviewed consumers that there are inaccuracies due

to metering and billing that result in them paying unfairly high bills. The results of the

consumer survey show that there is agreement of the consumer perceptions about the

current metering and billing practices and the institutional analysis that there is need to

improve the current practices to improve the effectiveness of metering and billing.

5.3.4 Overall Analysis of the Current Metering and Billing Practices

UFW for the city was estimated to be 30% the recommended range for a developing

country is 15% -25% (Van der Zaag, 2003, Gumbo, 2004a), so UFW for the city is higher

than recommended. In 2004, Gumbo reported that the UFW for Bulawayo was 20%. The

methods of estimating the UFW used were very crude, since the conventional method

was shrouded by the over estimation of billed consumption and hence could not be used.

The high staff turnover has led to the disbanding of the leak detection unit that was

formed after recommendations of the Norplan study of 2001. The current practice as far

as leakage control is concerned is now reaction to reports. Therefore actual UFW could

be higher than the estimated. Due to the overestimated billed consumption a ‘water

surplus’ of 3.254 Mm3 per year (7%) was obtained over the ten year period and these

results paint an unrealistic picture of the water situation in the city where there are no

losses due treatment, distribution and administrative activities such as metering and

billing. This scenario affects the water balance, which is used to determine UFW by

distorting demand through overstating it. The major problems highlighted by consumers

and the institutional analysis are that of infrequent meter reading and estimated bills.

Therefore it can be concluded that the inaccuracies in metering and billing in Bulawayo

are related to estimations. The by laws regarding billing stipulate that if a meter fails to


register, an estimate of water consumed shall be made based on the average monthly

consumption during the two months prior to the last registering or consumption in the

corresponding period of the previous year or average consumption over a period of two

months after repair or replacement of meter. There are factors that affect the amount of

water consumed in a month such as restrictions (water rationing), and change in the

household population. Estimations based in historical consumption would not adequately

address these factors and hence the over estimations.

Over estimating consumption may bring in a lot of cash but it is detrimental to the

relationship between the consumer and the water utility and this relationship is very

important if the city council of Bulawayo is to successfully implement any WDM

programme to sustain its water supplies. It is also of paramount importance for the water

utility to be able to determine the water losses in the water supply network so that

measures can be put in place to reduce the water losses and ultimately save water for

future use. Gumbo et al., (2002), highlights the importance of accuracy in metering and

billing as a way of ensuring that the revenue is collected with the minimum

inconvenience to the utility and provides the necessary confidence to customers.


CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusions

No actual water losses established for consumption measured less billed

consumption at consumer meter however an over estimation of 54 litres per

connection per day was estimated on average.

Consumption per capita per day of consumers whose properties were not

individually metered was found to be 12 times higher than for consumers whose

properties were individually metered therefore individually metering and billing

properties reduces the level of water consumption.

The methods used to estimate consumption in the current metering and billing

practices in the city of Bulawayo are giving rise to inaccuracies which make it

difficult to determine the water losses in the water supply system.

The impact of effective metering and billing on water demand management is that

the water losses (UFW) in the water system can be accurately estimated and water

consumption levels are reduced if consumers’ properties are individually metered

and billed.

6.2 Recommendations

It is recommended that the council invest more manpower and time towards reading the

meters and also educate consumers on how to read their own meters so that they can

supply the council with readings when the council is unable to visit the particular areas.

In the long run, there is need to consider individually metering and billing dwellings

within bulk metered institutions such as police camp, so as to encourage water use

efficiency among these consumers. In the short term, the recommendation is that

resources should be channeled towards educating these consumers of the importance of

using water efficiently.

In light of improving effectiveness of the current metering and billing practices, it is

recommended that the methods of estimation be revisited to find out how accuracy can be

improved.


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Project Final Report, Vol1 Submitted to Bulawayo City Council

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to Applying Economic Solutions. , Zimconsult, Harare (Unpublished)

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University of Zimbabwe (unpublished)

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Africa: an untapped river’, Int. J.Water, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 118–144.

Savenije, H.H.G., 2003. Water Resources- Principles of Integrated Water Resources

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Shirley, M.M.(Ed.),Thirsting for Efficiency: The Economics of Urban Water


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Use, DFID.


APPENDICES


A1. COMPARISON OF MEASURED CONSUMPTION WITH BILLED

CONSUMPTION

Table A1.1 Measured Consumer Consumption

Property Date Reading Date Reading

Consumption

(litres)

Consumption

per day

(litres/day)

1 22/01/07 6655.67 29/01/07 11765.67 5110 730

2 22/01/07 3456.89 29/01/07 3589.89 133 19

3 22/01/07 4532.76 29/01/07 7542.76 3010 430

4 22/01/07 3354.89 29/01/07 7204.89 3850 550

5 22/01/07 2145.97 29/01/07 5085.97 2940 420

6 22/01/07 7765.32 29/01/07 11265.32 3500 500

7 22/01/07 8976.05 29/01/07 20176.05 11200 1600

8 22/01/07 4431.65 29/01/07 4571.65 140 20

9 22/01/07 3567.82 29/01/07 3819.82 252 36

10 22/01/07 5678.32 29/01/07 6021.32 343 49

Date Reading

Consumption

(litres)

Consumption

per day

(litres/day) Date Reading

Consumption

(litres)

Consumption

per day

(litres/day)

22/2/07 31765.67 20000 800 22/03/07 32515.67 750 822

22/2/07 4189.89 600 24 22/03/07 4969.89 780 16

22/2/07 21917.76 14375 575 22/03/07 22727.76 810 600

22/2/07 19454.89 12250 490 22/03/07 20294.89 840 500

22/2/07 16585.97 11500 460 22/03/07 17455.97 870 480

22/2/07 22890.32 11625 465 22/03/07 23790.32 900 560

22/2/07 58676.05 38500 1540 22/03/07 59606.05 930 1865

22/2/07 5021.65 450 18 22/03/07 5981.65 960 17

22/2/07 4819.82 1000 40 22/03/07 5809.82 990 32

22/2/07 7396.32 1375 55 22/03/07 8416.32 1020 45


Table A1.2: Billed Consumer Consumption

Property Jan-07 Feb-07 Mar-07

Consumption

(litres)

Consumption

per day

(litres/day)

Consumption

(litres)

Consumption

per day

(litres/day)

Consumption

(litres)

Consumption

per day

(litres/day)

1 19500 650 21000 700 20100 670

2 2700 90 2610 87.0 2400 80

3 12300 410 12000 400.0 11400 380

4 22200 740 20700 690.0 23400 780

5 20850 695 21300 710.0 21900 730

6 15600 520 16800 560 16110 537

7 45000 1500 37500 1,250.0 40080 1336

8 6000 200 7200 240.0 6810 227

9 4200 140 5100 170.0 3000 100

10 7800 260 9000 300.0 6960 232


A2. STATISTICAL COMPARISON OF BULK METERED AND

INDIVIDUAL METERED CONSUMERS

Expected

consumption(litres/

capita/ day)

Original

consumption(litres/

capita/ day)

Mzilikazi Day1 6.781225 7.099069

Mzilikazi Day2 6.332248 5.940543

Mzilikazi Day3 6.477397 6.55126

Ross camp Day1 247.897 247.5792

Ross camp Day1 231.4841 231.8758

Ross camp Day1 236.7902 236.7163

Statistical Analysis

Results

Chisq calculated 0.999982

df 2

Chisq critical 0.606536

p 0.393464


A3. ZONE METER MEASUREMENTS

Meter

Zone

No Zone Name

No.of

Metered

Connections Date Reading Date Reading

Consumption

(m3)

Consumption per

day (m3/day)

M12 Suburbs 1640 30/12/06 971387 10/1/2007 978341 6,953.8 632.2

M13/3-1 Mzilikazi 6034 30/12/06 703764 10/1/2007 NR

M24/6-2 Lob. West 2642 30/12/06 397049 10/1/2007 399177 2,127.7 193.4

M33 Matsheumhlophe 498 30/12/06 343179 10/1/2007 355071 11,892.3 1,081.1

Ross Camp 1 30/12/06 NR 10/1/2007 34929

Meter

Zone No Zone Name Date Reading

Consumpti

on (m3)

Consumptio

n per day

(m3/day) Date Reading

Consumpt

ion (m3)

Consumptio

n per day

(m3/day)

M12 Suburbs 29/01/07 985568 14,180.8 472.7 19\02\07 993118 14,777.0 369.4

M13/3-1 Mzilikazi 29/01/07 714045 10,280.6 342.7 19\02\07 720067 6,022.0 286.8

M24/6-2 Lob. West 29/01/07 403273 6,223.7 207.5 19\02\07

M33 Matsheumhlophe 29/01/07 365023 21,844.0 728.1 19\02\07 385976 30,904.7 772.6

Ross Camp 29/01/07 49963 15,034.0 791.3 19\02\07 64572 29,643.0 741.1

Meter Zone

No Zone Name Date Reading

Consumption

(m3)

Consumption

per day

(m3/day)

Average

Consumption

per day

(m3/day)

M12 Suburbs 2/3/2007 999811 14,243.0 431.6 489.6

M13/3-1 Mzilikazi 2/3/2007 724481 10,436.0 316.2 324.8

M24/6-2 Lob. West 25/04/07 422,941.5 19,668.5 228.7 216.8

M33 Matsheumhlophe 2/3/2007 398794 33,771.0 1,023.4 932.3

Ross Camp 2/3/2007 74929 24,966.0 756.5 785.9


A4. BILLED CONSUMPTION IN THE METER ZONES

November 2006

December 2006

January 2007

Meter

Zone No Zone Name

No.of

Metered

Connections

Consumption

(m3)

Consumption

per day

(m3/day)

Consumption

(m3)

Consumption

per day

(m3/day)

Consumption

(m3)

Consumption

per day

(m3/day)

M12 Suburbs 1640 158,588.1 5,286.3 85,066.9 2,744.1 84,184.4 2,715.6

M13/3-1 Mzilikazi 6034 80,658.3 2,688.6 79,688.7 2,570.6 75,598.1 2,438.6

M24/6-2 Lob. West 2642 44,302.4 1,476.7 44,888.2 1,448.0 45,043.7 1,453.0

M33 Matsheumhlope 498 21,796.8 726.6 18,962.0 611.7 13,333.8 430.1


A5. LIST OF PROPERTIES IN THE CITY OF BULAWAYO AND THEIR BILLING

DISTRICTS

District

Number

Location No. of

properties

10 Harrisvale/Trenace/Queendale/Northlea/Woodville/Kingsdale 1928

12 Bellevue/Hillside West/Newton West/Eloana Area 1351

14 Burnside/Fortunes Gate/Fourwinds/Matsheumhlope 3995

16 Famona/Barham Green/Greenhill/Hillcrest/Illanda/Malindela

/Montrose/Morningside/Southwold

4507

17 Aiselby Farm/Glenville/Norwwod/Inyamandlovu/Richmond 559

18 Highmount/Kenilworth/Northend/Queenspark/Sauerstown 2663

24 City Centre 2146

25 Mahatshula/Killarney/Suburbs/Khumalo/Glengarry/Romney

Park/Woodlands/Sunnyside

7571

28 Belmont/Donnington/Kelvin/Thorngrove/Steedale/Westgate 2343

29 Hillside South/Hillside Central 1146

30 Peri Urban/Ministry of Water 64

51 Mzilikazi/B/F/Makokoba/Nguboyenja/Thorngrove 7766

52 Entumbane/Emakhandeni 9427

53 Luveve/Gwabalanda 5593

54 Mpopoma/Pelandaba/Mabutweni/Iminyela 11786

55 All Lobengula Suburbs 7375

56 All Magwegwe Suburbs 7469

57 All Pumula Suburbs 13945

58 Tshabalala and Sizinda 5281

61 Nkulumane 14531

62 Nketa 7243

63 Emganwini 6255

70 Cowdray Park 21248

Total Properties 146192


A6. BULAWAYO WATER TARIFFS FOR 2007

Domestic Consumption Fixed Charge Unit Tariff

Z$ Z$/m3

City/Low Density Areas 5542.50

0-14 (m3/month/connection) 645.44

15-25 1656.50

26+ 4381.30

High Density Areas 2988.53

0-14 490.48

15-25 1258.82

26+ 3454.94

Peri-Urban Areas 22628.10

0-14 974.51

15-25 2320.11

26+ 4328.00


A7. ENGINEERING SERVICES DEPARTMENT QUESTIONNAIRE

Water utility…………………………………………………………………………

Department………………………………………………………………………..

Position of interviewee…………………………………………….…………………..

Date……………………………………………………..

GENERAL 1. How many metered connections are there in the city?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. How much water is treated per day on average?………………………………………m3 per day

3. Do you have a WDM policy or strategy in place?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. What WDM measures are in place?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Is there a WDM unit in place and if so how many people are in this unit?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

METERING 6. What is the department’s role in the metering process?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

7. Do you keep records on faulty meters? Yes No

8. Who is responsible for repairing faulty meters? ………………………………………………..

9. What are the strategies for improving the metering coverage as well as the effectiveness or

efficiency of metering?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………


………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

CUSTOMER COMMUNICATION 10. Does the department participate in any consumer awareness campaigns regarding metering and

billing?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11. What are the major consumer complaints as far as water services are concerned?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………..


A8. CITY TREASURER’S DEPARTMENT QUESTIONNAIRE

Water utility…………………………………………………………

Department………………………………………………………………………..

Position of interviewee…………………………………………….…………………..

Date……………………………………………………..

METERING 1. What is the number of metered connections in the city? ……………………………..

2. How often are meter readings taken?……………………………………………….

3. How many meter readers are there in the department? ……………………………..

4. How many meters is a meter reader expected to read per day? ………………………………

5. What is the recommended number of meter readers per 1000 connections? …………………..

6. How is consumption for properties with faulty meters ascertained?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

BILLING 7. Briefly explain the billing process from the time the meter reading is captured up to the point the

bill gets to the customer.

.………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8. Briefly describe the information system used in the billing process

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………


9. How many payment offices are in the city and how are they distributed?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. What other payment options are there for the customer, other than going to a payment office for

example via bank accounts or online banking?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11. On average what percentage of expected revenue is collected from billed customers per month?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

12. How do you enforce payment?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

CUSTOMER COMMUNICATION

13. What are the major consumer complaints as far as metering and billing is concerned?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

14. How are these costumer complaints (as highlighted in 12 above) dealt with?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

15. Are there any byelaws with sections that deal with metering and billing?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

16. Is there a Customer charter and awareness programmes or information on customer rights?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………


A9. RESULTS OF CONSUMER QUESTIONNAIRE

General issues Responses %

Property onwership

Owner 73

Tenant 27

Total 100

Interviewee sex

Male 43

Female 57

Total 100

Number of Households

1 55

2 27

3 17

>3 1

Total 100

Number of people

1-5 33

6-10 57

11-15 10

Total 100

Age of interviewee

<20 1

21-40 58

41-60 41

Total 100

Status in family

Father 38

Mother 46

Child 16

Total 100


Metering Responses %

Working Meter

Yes 92

No

No meter 8

Total 100

Able to read own meter

Yes 61

No 39

Total 100

Meter reading frequency

monthly 14

bi-monthly 58

tri-monthly 6

rarely 22

Total 100

Billing Responses %

Average water charges

<$5000 13

$5000-$10000 24

$11000-$15000 26

$16000-$20000 16

$21000-$25000 9

>$25000 8

Don’t know 4

Total 100

Perception on amount paid

Fair 46

Too much 54

Total 100

Format of bill

Informative and clear 8

Just clear 62

not clear 30

Total 100


Customer satisfaction Responses %

Frequency of water cuts

Never 15

Very rarely 14

at least once a month 71

Total 100

Distance from payment office

<100m 13

200-500m 14

500-1km 14

>1km 59

Total 100

Time spent in the queue

< 1hr 39

1-2hrs 61

Total 100

Problems

Slow in replacing meters 5

Meter readings infrequent 37

Inaccurate bills 40

No comment 18

Total 100

University of Zimbabwe - Waternet · Ngungu, Ms. T. Silonda, Mr. B. Chigara and Mr. H. Nhongo for...

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