University of Nigeria / Research Publications

ONUNWA, Udobata Rufus A

utho

r

PG/ Ph.D/81/1284

Title

The Study of West African Traditional Religion in

Time-Perspective

Facu

lty

Social Sciences

Dep

artm

ent

Religion

Dat

e

November, 1984

Sign

atur

e

THE STUDY OF WEST AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

L

QNUNWA, UDOBATA R U F U S ( R E V , ) B.A. ( H a d ) , M.A. ( ~ i g . 1 , Dip,Th. (London)

PG/Ph, D / 8 l / l 2 8 4

A T h e s i s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e Depa r tmen t of R e l i g i o n University of N i g e r i a , Nsukka, f o r t h e degree of D o c t o r of Philosophy i n

Religion.

NOVEMBER 1984

D E D I C A T I O N

+ To Dorothy,

For a l l she has b e e n and done i n the family.

ABSTRACT

European c o n t a c t w i t h West A f r i c a s t a r t e d a f e w

c e n t u r i e s ago, Love o f a d v e n t u r e and commsrcial

i n t e r e s t s wore among t h e p r i n c i p a l m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r s

t h a t p rompted t h e d e s i r e t o t r ave l . N o n e t h e l e s s ,

m i s s i o n a r y i n t e r e s t was i n c l u d e d i n t h e scheme,

The e a r l y European e x p l o r e r s , t r a v e l l e r s ,

m i s s i o n s r i c s , m e r c h a n t s , c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s m - t a f o rm o f r e l i q i o n i n West A f r i c a - o n e which had b cAn i n p r n c t i c c l o n g b c f o r c t h e i r a r r i v a l ,

b

They d i d n o t b o t h e r to u n d e r t z k ? a f o r m a l s t u d y of t h e

s y s t e m i m m e d i a t e l y , b u t mad .A t h c i r r e m a r k s and impressions

known. A s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y of tlw f a i t h i s t h e r e f o r e

f a i r l y nt:w,

The e a r l y s t u d i z s p i o n c e r c d by t h o s e e a r l y European

( v i s i t o r s , t r a v e l l e r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s ) e i t h c r m i s r e p r e s e n t e d ,

m i s u n d e r s t o o d o r m i s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e r e l i g i o n , Some i n d i -

g e n o u s West A f r i c a n s c h o l a r s who j o i n e d them l a t e r , ove r -

r e a c t e d i n t h e i r d e f e n c e o f t h e r e l i g i o n b y b e i n g too

p o l e m i c n l , O t h e r s saw i t as a means t h r o u g h w h i c h a n

e f fec t ive e v a n g e l i z a t i o n of f e l l o w A f r i c a n s c o u l d be made.

When a f o r m a l s t u d y b e g a n , e a c h i n t e r e s t g r o u p p u r s u e d

i t w i t h i t s own p r e s u p p o s i t i o n and g o a l i n v i ew , The

iii

p r e s e n t w r i t e r h a s c o n s i d e r e d a s t u d y o f t h e v a r i o u s

a t t e m p t s ( b y E u r o p e a n s and A f r i c a n s ) t o e x p l a i n t h e West

A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n as a v i a b l e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t

f o r a d o c t o r a l t h e s i s . The c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e o f t h e

v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s s i n c e t h e p e r i o d o f e a r l y c o n t a c t

b r i n g s i n t h e c o n c e p t o f 'time p e r s p e c t i v e l . It h a s

w i t h i n t h i s volume c o n d c n s c d t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e v a r i o u s

a t t e m p t s by s c h o l a r s ( f r o m t h e e a r l y p e r i o d of European

c o n t a c t w i t h Africa t o t h e p r c s ; i n t t i m e ) t o e x p l a i n ,

i n t e r p r e t and s t u d y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n of West

b Rf r i c a n p e o p l e .

The f i r s t f i v e c h a p t e r s of t h i s work (wh ich fo rm

t h e f i r s t p a r t ) f o c u s s c d a t t e n t i o n on t h e v a r i o u s

a p p r o a c h e s by wh ich s c h o l a r s h a v e p u r s u e d t h e s t u d y of

t h c West A f r i c a n T r s d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n , a n a l y s i n g the

v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s 2nd p i t f a l l s of each, A t t h e

c l o s i n g p a r t of t h i s s e c t i o n , we h a v e p o s i t e d o u r own

c h o i c e methodology as a ncw way f o r w a r d t o t h e s t u d y of

West A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n . The new a p p r o a c h i s

c h r i s t e n e d t h e ' C u l t u r e - A r e a and Phcnomeno loq i ca l A p p r o a c h t ,

T h i s new a p p r o a c h h a s enriched the

c u r r e n t s t u d y w i t h a w e a l t h o f s c h o l a r s h i p a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g

and avai lable i n t h e p r e v i o u s a p p r o a c h e s , i n c o r p o r a t i n g

+ - - - - - - - - - - -j;v- - - - - - - - - - - -

h i s t o r i c a l , a n k h f o p o l o g i c a l , and t h e o l o g i c a l m e t h o d s v

The m a t e r i a l s h a v e come f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e d works o f

p a s t and r e c e n t s c h o l a r s and o l d o f f i c i a l r e c o r d s . They

h a v e b e e n f u l l y s u p ~ l c m e n t e d w i t h o r a l e v i d e n c e c o l l e c t e d

f r o m v a r i o u s p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d , e s p e c i a l l y t h e l i v i n g

p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h c f a i t h -

Thc new a p p r o x h i s a p p l i e d i n a c a s e s t u d y o f two

s e l e c t e d themes i n Igbo r c l i q i o n t o t e s t i t s v i a b i l i t y as

a means t o c o r r e c t t h z c r r o r s i n e a r l i e r s t u d i e s . T h i s

forms t h e ~ * > ~ q n d p a r t of t h c work c o n t s i n c d i n c h a p t e r s + six and s c v e n ,

I t i s concluded t h a t i n t h c l i q h t o f p r e v i o u s m i s -

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h c t r l d i t i o n a l r c l i g i o n t h e c u l t u r e -

n r s a and phr-?nomenological a p p r o a c h s o l v e s t h e p r o b l e m o f

o v e r - g c n e r ? t i o n s and m i s i n t e r p r c t a t i o n , I t i s t h e r e f o r e

recommended a s a new way f o r w a r d t o t h e s t u d y o f West

A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n ,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I was f o r t u n a t e t o meet a good number of p e o p l e a t

t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s of t h i s work who w i l l i n g l y and

g r a c i o u s l y r e n d e r e d some h e l p , A l t h o u g h i t i s n o t

p o s s i b l e t o p u t down a l l t h e i r names h e r e , I r e m a i n

g r a t e f u l t o them a l l . However, a few names mus t be

m e n t i o n e d ,

I a m d e c p l y awarc of t h c p r i v i l c g e o f f e r e d t o m e b y

H i s L o r d s h i p , t h e l?to Rev. E, C. Nwank i t i t o c n j o y u n i -

v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n , H c g r a n t e d mc an u n i n t e r r u p t e d s t u d y

l e a v e and a l s o s u p p o r t c d m d w i t h h i s p r a y e r s ,

My s i n c e r e t h a n k s gn t o P r o f e s s o r Ogbu U. Ka lu , It

was a p r i v i l e g e t o work u n d e r P r o f e s s o r Kalu. H e h a s

n o t o n l y s u p e r v i s e d t h i s work , b u t h a s a l s o e x p o s e d m e t o

h i s own t y p e o f a cademic l i f e - s t y l e wh ich I a m now

commi t t ed t o e m u l a t e . We h a v e worked c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r

f rom my u n d e r g r a d u a t e d a y s t o t h i s s t a g e . T h e r e i s n b

' p r o t o c o l 1 i n s e e i n g him. E v e r y a v a i l a b l e s p a c e i s a

c l a s s - room. Any s t u d e n t o f h i s , c a n mect him anywhere

and any t ime . H e i n t r o d u c e d m e t o a good number of

s c h o l a r s i n t h e r e l a t e d d i s c i p l i n e s who h e l p e d m e t h r o u g h

p e r s o n a l d i s c u s s i o n s , l e n d i n q of j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s and

r e k v s n k hooks, H i s own personal l i b r a r y was a t my

d i s p o s a l .

v i

H e f o l l o w e d u p t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h i s work t o

B r i t a i n when h e f l e w i n f r o m Canada t o see how I was

g e t t i n g on. H e w a n t e d t o make s u r e t h a t I g o t t h e

r e l e v a n t d o c u m e n t s , u s e d good l i b r a r i e s and c o n s u l t e d

somc o t h e r s c h o l a r s , tIis g e n e r o u s g i f t s t o m e i n

London h e l p c d t o s u s t n i n m e a t a time when t h i n g s were

h a r d , I-ie h a s p a t i l . ! n t l y anil c r i t i c a l l y s u p e r v i s e d t h i s

work , a l w a y s p o i n t i n g o u t t o m c t h a t i t i s n o t enough

t o g e t n d o c t o r a t < : d q r m , bu t a l s o to ' r e m a i n a c a d e m i c '

a t a l l times, +

The l e c t u r e r s i n t h c D e p a r t m e n t of R e l i g i o n h e l p e d

i n v a r i o u s ways , Rev, D r . Ma E. G l s s s w e l i made s e v e r a l

a t t e m p t s t o s c c u r e a i d f o r me f r o m t h c Diocese o f O w e r r i

t o e n a b l e m e t o t r a v e l o v e r s e a s f o r my r e s e a r c h work.

D r . R o s a l i n d Shaw g a v c m c a d d r e s s e s o f some s c h o l a r s whom

I c o n t a c t e d i n B r i t a i n , Rev, F r , ( D r . ) E. I. I f e s i e h w a s

k i n d t o i n v i t e m e t o j o i n him i n a f i e l d t r i p . The

e x p e r i e n c e was v c x y r e w a r d i n g a n d h e l p f u l , Rev. D r .

P. Mathcw r e a d t h r o u g h my s y n o p s i s s e v e r a l times and

g a v e h i s s u g g e s t i o n s . Rev. D r . G. E, Okeke s u p p l i e d m e

w i t h s t a t i o n e r i e s . D r , (Mrs.) R. L, Okonkwo o f t h e

D i v i s i o n of G e n e r a l S t u d i e s , Enugu Campus, s u p p l i e d mc

l~' .Lh h i s t o r i c - l m ~ t c ? r ? rlls on t h e Af r i c n n ' N a t i o n b s t s ' . v i i

My c o l l e a g u ~ s i n t h e d e p a r t m e n t h a v e i n n o small

measure c h a l l e n g e d my t h o u g h t - p a t t e r n , I had s e v e r a l

u s e f u l d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h Rev. D r . N , Qnwy, Rev. D . J . I .

Ebo, Messrs S, C, C h u t a , G o o d w i l l C. Ukwuoma, Emma,C.

I l o g u , Rev. F a t h e r s C, I, Ejizu and Anthony Ekwuni fe ,

They r e a d t h r o u g h some of t h c c h a p t e r s , s u g g e s t e d some

corrections and l c n t some hooks and j o u r n l l s , The Rev.

& Mrs. C, C, Anyanwu, o f C h r i s t Chu rch C h a p e l of t h e

U n i v e r s i t y a l l o w e d m e t h e c o m f o r t o f t h c i r h o u s e a t a 1 1

times, M r , A, Chukwu and h i s w i f e Nornnso, o f f e r e d m e + accommodcztion i n t h c i r house . They a l s o h ~ l p c d t o read

t h r o u g h t h e t y p e d d r a f t of t h i s t h e s i s ,

Some s t u d e n t s i n t h e Depa r tmen t o f R e l i g i o n h e l p e d

m e immcnsc ly d u r i n g t h e f i e l d t r i p s , Som2 a c t e d as

i n t e r p r e t e r s and o t h e r s d i d t h e o r a l i n t e r v i e w on my

b e h a l f and b r o u g h t m e back th2 t a p e s , Among them are

Humphrey Eze, Revds. E. E, Odo, A, C. Okenwa, Mr. Godson

Nzeadu, A u g u s t i n e E k e o p a r a , Rcvds, J, C. Akubueze and

E. C, Nwangwu, F i d o l i a Munonye, C a t h e r i n e O k o s i s i and

Emmanuel Inyama,

P r o f e s s o r s A. E. AEigbo and C. C, Iferncsia b o t h

f o r m e r l y of t h z Dc2partment of H i s t o r y of t h i s U n i v e r s i t y

b u t now Cornrnissioncr f o r E d u c ~ t i o n i n Imo S t a t e and

P r o v o s t o f Anzmbra S t a t e C o l l e g e of E d u c a t i o n , ;wka

v i i i

r e s p e c t i v e l y , showed i n t e r e s t i n t h i s work and h e l p e d

m e much a t t h e e a r l y s t a g e s t o c l a r i f y t h e o u t l i n e I

w a n t e d t o u s e , Two o f my former t e a c h e r s h a v e c o n t i n u e d

t o show i n t e r e s t i n my p r o g r e s s , They are P r o f e s s o r

E.C.O. I l o y u , n o w Commis s ione r , P u b l i c C o m p l a i n t s

Commiss ion , Enugu and Mr, E, 0, Nwankwo, # a t p r e s e n t ,

P r i n c i p a l of i 1nq l i c :~n Gr;~rnmar School, Nsukka, The

f o r m e r made i t p o s s i b l - f o r m? t o u n d ~ r s t x d methods of

c o n d u c t i n g f ic : ld r e s c z r c h i n R e l i g i o n , Through t h e l a te r ,

I l e a r n t t h c v i r t u ? of p a . t i c n c c a n 3 h a r d work,

Many t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e r s ? p r i e s t s? medicinemcn and

d i v i n e r s t a u g h t m e some f a c t s a b o u t t h e i r work as

r e l i g i o u s l e n d e r s i n thi..i.r c a r . , . ~ u n i t i c s , Somc h a v e

c h o s e n t o r e m a i n anonymous? b ~ t I t h a n k them a 1 1 f o r

a l l o w i n g m e t o scc them a t w o r k , They showed g e n u i n e

i n t e r e s t i n t h i s work when I e x p l a i n e d i t s aim t o them

e s p e c i a l l y when t h e y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t I w a s n o t a s p y b u t

o n e who came o u t f o r g e n u i n e e n q u i r y and i n v e s t i g a t i o n

i n t o t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s , I t h a n k

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e members o f t h e masque rade g r o u p wh ich

g a v e m e free i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e i r S o c i e t y b e f o r e I was

a l l o w e d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h c i r b e l i e f s and

p r a c t i c e s . I was warned n o t t o d i v u l g e a n y of t h e

secrzts t h a t w i l l d i s c r e d i t t h e S o c i e t y to

i x

t t n o n - i n i t i a t e s 8 , Th roughou t t h i s work, I h a v e

r e s p e c t e d them b y n o t b e t r a y i n g t h ? t r u s t t h e y r e p o s e d

i n me,

I am g r a t c f u l t~ my p a r e n t s , M r . R. E, Onunwa and

M r s . I r c n c 0. Onunwa f o r t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . They d i d

n o t b o t h ~ r w i t h f a r~ : i l y responsibilities a l l t h e s e

l o n g y e a r s o f s t u d y . My b r o t h e r s h a v e been p a r t i c u l a r l y

h e l p f u l t o m e and t o my own f a m i l y ; R ~ p h a e l , C h a r l e s ,

'Mezie and Ikcchukwu have dona a l o t f o r me a l o n g t h i s

l i n e , My s i s t c r - i n - l a w , J o s e p h i n e A j a e l o has c o n t i n u e d b

t o s u p p o r t m e w i t h h e r p r a y e r s and a t a time t o o k o v e r

t h e management of o u r home when I was away i n Eng l and ,

My p a r c n t s - i n - l a w Rev, Canon and Mrs. V, N, A j a e l o

have l o n g e d t o see t h i s work come t h r o u g h , T h e i r c o n c e r n

and s u p p o r t have a l s o e n c o u r a g e d m e a l o t , B e s i d e s , my

b r o t h e r s - i n - l a w , A m b r o s e C , Ajaelo and A u g u s t i n e h i s

b r o t h e r have c o n t i n u o u s l y h e l p e d m e f i n a n c i a l l y , They

s e n t m e s u b s t a n t i a l amount of money f r o m t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s o f America when I was i n London, My c o u s i n ,

H.O.D. R luz iwe was r e s p o n s i b l - f o r my s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l . .

e d u c a t i o n . I s t i l l owe him a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e .

F u r t h e r m o r e , my c o u s i n , M r . D . U , J , C h i k e z i e showed a l o t

of i n t e r e s t i n my f i e l d t r i p s and s u p p o r t mc f i n a n c i a l l y ,

I n E n g l a n d , I e n j o y e d t h e f r i e n d s h i p of many

famil ies, D r , Pcti;r and M r s , Hope Green , Warden of

t h e M e d i c a l M i s s i o n a r y A s s o c i a t i o n Hostel were v e r y

k i n d t o m c t h r o u q h o u t my s t a y i n London,

I a m d e z p l y g r z t c f u l t o P r o f e s s o r E. G o P a r r i n d e r

u n d e r whom I worked f o r t h r e c months , We m c t s c v c r a l

t i m c s a t K i n g v s C o l l c g c , London t o d i s c u s s t h e c o n t e n t

o f t h i s work. H:b l:?.t~:;r rc2ad t h e m a n u s c r i p t and made

several u s e f u l suc: . j r t s t ions , Hc d i r e c t e d m e t o some

l i b r a r i e s i n P.?itt~.i.n whcri: I g s t m a t e r i a l s on A f r i c a n

6 R e l i q i o n . I was p a r t i c u l a r l y e n c o u r a g e d by t h e i n v i t a -

t i o n h e e x t e n d e d t o rn2 t o a Semina r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

Oxford on v ~ P c r s p e c t i v c s on t h e S t u d y o f R e l i g i o n s " .

T h e r e I m e t some s c h o l a r s from o t h e r p a r t s of t h e w o r l d

w i t h whom I had p r i v a t c d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o

t h e s t u d y of r e l i g i o n , I a m r z a l l y g r a t e f u l t o him f o r

c u t t i n g s h o r t h i s t r i p t o I t a l y t o r e t u r n t o meet m e i n

London t o d i s c u s s my work.

I am a l so g r a t e f u l t o t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a f f o f t h e

S c h o o l o f O r i c n t s l 2nd A f r i c m S t u d i e s : P r o f e s s o r s

J. F?i,chnrd Grzy , D3vi.d J, P a r k i n , M r . F.D.D. Wins ton and

t h e S e c r e t a r y t o t h c D i r e c t o r of t h e S c h o o l . R i c h a r d Gray

o f H i s t o r y D c p 7 r L m n t read t h r o u g h t h e f i r s t t h r l ? c p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - -

c K z p t c r s and m z d c v ; 7 l u a b l c suljcjcs t i o n s , H e a l ~ o h e l d

x .i.

t h r e e t u t o r i a l s f o r me, David P a r l t i n , Head of t h e

D e p a r t m e n t of A n t h r o p o l o y y , on two o c c a s i o n s , h e l d

d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h m e on t h e c o n t e n t s of c h a p t e r s two and

t h r e e . H e a l s o a 1 1 0 w ~ d m e t l j p a r t i c i p a t e i n two d e p a r t -

m e n t a l s e m i n a r s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1984 s e s s i o n .

M r , W i n s t o n o f . > i f r i c q l l e p a r t m ~ n t r 2 a d t h r o u g h t h e f i r s t

f o u r c h a p t d r s and had t h r e e t u t o r i a l s f o r m e i n h i s

o f f i c e . H i s knnwlcdgc ~f I g b o , Yorub;i a n d E f i k l a n g u a g e s

h e l p e d him t o a s s e s s t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e s e m a n t i c

e x p r e s s i o n s and e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e Supreme Be ing i n * I g b o R e 1 i g i o n ,

The S e c r e t a r y t o t h e Director, M i s s N. V. Morris,

p e r s o n a l l y h e l p e d m e w i t h r e g i s t r a t i o n i n t h e L i b r a r y of

t h e S c h o o l , S h e i n t r o d u c e d m e t o t h e s e c t i o n a l h e a d s of

t h e L i b r a r y .

The C,M.S, A r c h i v i s t , Miss Rosemary Keen; t h e

L i b r a r i a n , J e a n Woods and h e r a s s i s t a n t , L o u i s a B l a i r ,

were a l l f r i e n d l y and h e l p f u l t o m e , They made a v a i l a b l e

t o m e a l l t h e r e l e v a n t d o c u m e n t s t h a t I needed . They

a l s o f a c i l i t a t e d my t r i p t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Birmingham

w h e r e I w e n t t o c o n s u l t o t h e r d o c u m e n t s o f t h e C.M.S.

t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h a t L i b r a r y , T h e r e i n Birmingham, I was

g r e a t l y h e l p e d by t h e s t a f f of t h e L i b r a r y , e s p e c i a l l y

t h o s e i n t h e r e f e r e n c e room, The w o r k e r s a t t h e r e f e r e n c e

x i i

room o f t h e B r i t i s h L i b r a r y a n d Museum, M e t h o d i s t ~ r c h i v e s

a t M a r y l e b o u r n e Road, and t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l a n d

A f r i c a n S t u d i e s w e r e h e l p f u l , I was d i r e c t e d t o t h e

r i g h t m a t e r i a l s w i t h o u t . a n y w a s t e of t i m e , I p h o t o c o p i e d

t h e u s e f u l d o c u m e n t s w i t h o u t d i f f i c u l t i e s , I am g r a t e f u l

t o a l l of them,

I e x t e n d my w a r m e s t r e g a r d s t o my f r i e n d s ,

L a w r e n c e L. N, Amaeshi ( S n r . ) of t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S u r r e y

a n d Ben, C , Obiekwe, a C o n s u l t a n t S u r g e o n a t t h e

U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e H o s p i t a l , London who e n r i c h e d my l i f e b

w i t h t h e i r g e n e r o s i t y and h o s p i t a l i t y ,

Numerous s c h o l a r s whose w o r k s w e r e c o n s u l t e d w i l l

b e a p p r o p r i a t e l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . The e x t e n t of t h e

b i b l i o g r a p h y reflects t h e d e p t h o f o u r i n d e b t e d n e s s ,

F i n a l l y , I t h a n k my f r i e n d M r , E z e k i e l C, O b o c h i who

t y p e d t h i s work.

D e p a r t m e n t of R e l i g i o n U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a Nsukka, N i g e r i a .

November, 1984.

x i i i

N s ?LO K O

R. co PI-

S. Mo A.

ABBREVIATIONS

C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y

I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e

J o u r n a l of

J o u r n a l of of N i g e r i a

J o u r n a l of

A f r i c a n S o c i e t y

His tor ica l S o c i e t y

R e l i g i o n i n A f r i c a

PJa t i o n 2 1 m c h i v e s , Lnugu #

N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s , I b a d a n

N a t i o n a l , ; r c h i v e s , Kaduna

Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n

S o c i e t y of A f r i c a n M i s s i o n s

TABLE OF CONTENTS

P a g e

. . ii

a a iii

. . v i

. . x i v

a . x v i i i

D e d i c a t i o n a e

Abstract o a

Acknowledgement

A b b r e v i a t i o n s .. I l l u s t r a t i o n s ..

- 0 . 0

0 . 0 .

. . . .

. 0 . .

. I 0

PART ONE

C h a p t e r One

I n t r o d u c t i o n a - - I a *

A i m . D 0 0 - I a I . . Methodoloqy *

0 . 0 D I . . S c o p e . a .- a 0 0 0 a . L i t e r a t u r e Review a . . . .

C h a p t e r Two: t i n q s on T r a d i t i o n a l o f West A f r i c a

A c c o u n t s o f E a r l y T r a v e l l e r s , E x p l o r e r s , etc. .., a O 0 a . a

E t h n o g r a p h e r s . . .. o m a a

C h a p t e r T h r e e : C o l o n i a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and

I. Data f o r G o v e r n a n c e . . . a

11. S c i e n t i f i c S t u d i e s b y P r o f e s s i o n a l A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a CJ O D D o

111. The F r e n c h and German S c h o l a r s o n West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n - a . rn

I V . C o n t r i b u t i o n s a n d P i t f a l l s of A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n

Paqe

C h a p t e r F o u r : West q f r i c a n R e l i g i o n i n -I - C h r i s t i a n S c h o l a r s h i p --a .-

I. E u r o p e a n A c c o u n t s . , . e a a

( a ) E a r l y a t t c n l p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d o r d e s t r o y A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n O m . . . .,

( b ) C h r i s t i a n A p o l o g i s t s a n d " P r a e p a r a t i o E v a n g e l i c a i s . D

11, I n d i g e n o u s A f r i c a n Writers a . ( a ) E a r l y ' N a t i o n a l L s t s ~ a t t e m p t

t o d e f e n d t h e r e l i g i o n a *

( b ) P r + i n d e p e n d c n c e l s e c u l a r f wri ters a e . . . .

( c ) I n d i g e n o u s C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s i n s e a r c h o f s 4 l f h o o d a n d i d e n t i t y . . c. a CJ

Summary and C o n c l u s i o n m a . e e . C h a p t e r F i v e : Modern T r e n d s -

I. R e l i g i o u s F a c t o r D O . . . . 11. S o c i a l S c i e n c e F a c t o r . . . .

111. P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l and C u l t u r e - Area Approach a s a C h o i c e M e t h o d o l o g y . . . . . .

I V . Resume . . . . . a . . PART TWO

C h a p t e r S i x : A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e C u l t u r e - A r e a and P h c n o m e n o l o q i c a l Approach i n -as....".- - a C a s e S t u d v o f I a b o R e l i a i o n

I n t r o d u c t i o n n <. -, a a 0 a a

I. The I g b o and T h c i r P e r c e p t i o n o f t h e IrJor1t-i - D <7 <, rn a

11. The B e l i e f i n God , , rn . , o

(a) Names and T i t l e s o f God . - (b) A t t r i b u t e s o f God o m . . (c) I g b o Ideas of God: O r i g i n a l o r

a new d e v e l o p m e n t ? . . . 111. The Worsh ip o f God ., . . ,

( a ) Meaning of w o r s h i p . . . f b ) Direct w o r s h i p .. . a . (c) I n d i r e c t w o r s h i p , . a

C h a p t e r Seven : The D i v i n i t i e s A s God ' s A g e n t s

( a ) D c f i n i t i o ~ of Terms ., O ,

(b) C u l t o f t h e E a r t h - g o d d e s s . rn

(c) The C u l t of Amadigha . . ( d l T h e c u l t of t h e Sun .

Summary and C o n c l u s i o n , t, . . Appendices: A n a l y s e s of Sample E x t r a c t s

From Field Notes o ,

- - ~

x v i i

Page

149

149

153

ILLUSTRATIONS

Between Pages

Map of West Africa s h o w i n g some e t h n i c g r o u p s o a a a . , a m

A C u l t u r e - A r e a Map of I g b o l a n d .. An Old Mask u s e d by t h e G k p k 9 S e c r e t S o c i e t y . , a * m e

Qny Chukwu ( A S h r i n e o f t h e Supreme - - - -.-

& i n g ) a t Umugoji . o a a

An Mbari House a t Eke-Nguru, M b a i s c - A P r i e s t a b o u t t o p o u r L i b a t i o n from qlCow-horn v v , , . a o e

An E f f i g y of A m a d i ~ h a D e i t y a t Qzyz ;

Gny Anyanwy ( s h r i n e ) a t I m i l i k e n u

x v i i i

x v i i i & 1

THE STUDY OF hEST AFRICAN 'TRADITIONAL R E L I G I O N I N TIME-P LKSPECTIVE

CHAPTLK O N E

A s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o f West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n i s f a i r l y

new d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s t h e o l d e s t f o r m o f

r e l i g i o n i n t h e s u b - r e g i o n , E a r l y s t u d i e s w e r e p i o n e e r e d

by European t r a v e l l e r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s , c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a -

to r s and a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . A f r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s s c h o l a r s

joined l a t e r b u t t h e v o t a r i e s t o whom t h e r e l i g i o n b

p r o v i d e s w i t h an i n c l u s i v e a n d commanding s y s t e m o f

p e r s o n a l and c o s m i c v a l u e s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s h a v e

s c a r c e l y done a n y t h i n g . ' T h i s m i g h t stem f r o m t h e f a c t

t h a t t h e y w e r e m o s t l y i l l i t e r a t e s , c o n s e r v a t i v e and

e ~ n f i n e d to t h e r u r a l a r e a s , Most s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e

been d o n e o n the r e l i g i o n were b y t h o s e who d i d n o t

b e l e n g t o i t n o r w a n t e d t o d o so,

The s t u d y , t h e r e f o r e , h a s b e e n b e s e t w i t h s e v e r a l

p r o b l e m s . T h e r e h a s b e e n t h a t a g e - l o n g p a u c i t y o f s t u d y

m a t e r i a l s : n o r e f e r e n c e w r i t t e n s o u r c e f r o m w i t h i n t h e

b e l i g i o n f o r t h o s e who p i o n e e r e d t h e s t u d y , T h u s , t h e y

r e s o r t e d t o s p e c u l a t i o n s and l u r i d t a l e s , C o n s e q u e n t l y

t h e r e were d i s t o r t i o n and m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f a c t s

a b o u t t h e r e l i g i o n ,

T h i s w a s w o r s e n e d b y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l i g i o n

i t s e l f - a c o m b i n a t i o n o f u n i t y a n d e x t r e m e d i v e r s i t y !

T h u s t h e r e seems to be n o c e n t r e s o f o r t h o d o x y i n w h a t

w e i d e n t i f y as West A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n .

N a t u r a l l y , b e c a u s e a s y s t s m d t i c s t u d y o f t h e

r e l i g i o n i s f a i r l y ncw, ~ c h o o l s d i d n o t t e a c h i t , U n t i l

r e c e n t l y , i n s t i t u t ; o n s o r h i g h ~ r l c a r n i n ~ i n West A f r i c a

d i d n o t i n c l u d e i t i n t h e i r c u r r i c u l , F o r i n s t a n c e ,

F o u r a h Bay C o l l e g e which h a d e x i s t e d a- ;: C h u r c h i n s t i t u -

t i o n s i n c e 1 8 2 7 ( a n d w a s a f f i l i a t e d , t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

Durham i n 1876) e s t a b l i s h e d a s t r o n g D e p a r t m e n t o f

C h r i s t i a n T h e o l o g y l i k e D u r h a n , S i m i l a r l y , i n t h e o t h e r

two p r e m i e r u n i v e r s i t y c o l l - g e s i n t h e f o r m e r 1 3 r i t i s h

c o l o n i e s i n West A f r i c a , Legon i n Ghana a n d I b a d a n i n

N i g e r i a , t h e e m p h a s i s i n i t i a l l y was o n C h r i s t i a n T h e o l o g y ,

f o l l o w i n g t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e i r m o t h e r - u n i v e r s i t y - ( t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f London ) , T h i s p a t t e r n c o n t i n u e d u n t i l

e a r l y 1 9 5 0 1 s when n a t i o n a l i s m a n d t h e p o l i t i c s o f

i n d e p e n d e n c e c r e a t e d a new c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d a c o n s e q u e n t

s h i f t of e m p h a s i s ,

In pursuit o f t h i s new emphasis, Professor C. G.

Baeta and D r . S. G, W i l l i a m s o n i n t r o d u c e d and develeped

i n t h e University C o l l e g e , Legon, t h e Study of A f r i c a n

T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n , a f t e r a hectic s t r u g g l e . It was

o f f e r e d a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e s p e c i a l p a p e r b y t h e s t u d e n t s

t a k i n g t h e t h e o l o g y d e g r e e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y of London.

W h i l e t h o s e i n London w e r e made t o o f f e r C o m p a r a t i v e

R e l i g i o n or H i s t o r y o f L i t u r g y a s S p e c i a l P a p e r , t h o s e

i n Legon o f f e r e d t h e n e w l y i n t r o d u c e d A f r i c a n

T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n .

S i m i l a r l y , I b a d a n a d o p t e d a programme i n w h i c h f o r

t h e same d e g r e e of London , t h e i r s t u d e n t s were made t o

s t u d y A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n s e r i o u s l y , b 2 c a u s e i t was u n d e r -

s t o o d t h e r e a s t h e s o l i d g r o u n d s t r u c t u r e o n w h i c h #

C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d I s l a r n w o r k e d o P r o f e s s o r E. G.

P a r r i n d e r t s e f f o r t , among o t h e r s , i n d e v e l o p i n g t h i s

s t u d y i n I b a d a n i s w o r t h y o f m e n t i o n , The g a u n t l e t was

p i c k e d u p by E. i3, I d o w and o t h e r members o f t h e

d e p a r t m e n t . M e a n w h i l e , P r o f e s s o r H a r r y S a w y e r r s t i m u -

l a t e d a n d n o u r i s h e d t h e s t u d y a t F o u r a h Bay C o l l e g e

w h e r e t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f T h e o l o g y had e x i s t e d f o r l o n g ,

I t w a s not u n t i l 1963, t h a t M a k e r e r e i n Uganda ( w h i c h

had grown i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f t h e B r i t i s h

U n i v e r s i t y s y s t e m l i k e Legon a n d Ibadan ) i n t r o d u c e d t h e

s t u d y of A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n i n t h e i r c u r r i c u l u r n e 2 The

same s p i r i t of n a t i o n a l i s m p u s h e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

N i g e r i a , Nsukka, i n t h e e a r l y 1960 's t o name h e r

r e l i g i o n d e p a r t m e n t , C r o w t h e r C o l l e g e of R e l i g i o n i n

w h i c h t h e s t u d y o f t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n was g i v e n a p r i d e

o f place a l o n g s i d e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n a n d Islam.

T h e f a t e o f t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n i n a c a d e m i c s t u d y

h a s b e e n f u r t h e r b e d e v i l l e d b y a welter o f o t h e r f a c t o r s :

mass i l l i t e r a c y of t h e v o t a r i e s ( a s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d ) ,

p r o b l e m s of^ i o g i s t i c s a n d o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h b e s e t

f i e l d work - f o r i n s t : z n c e , l a n g u a g e ? s e l f - i n t e r e s t a n d

p r e c o n c e i v e d g o a l s I e , g o s t a t u s , p o l i t i c a l p o w e r ,

e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t , etc, ) ,. I n a d d i t i o n , g o v e r n m e n t s a n d ocher a g e n c i e s c a p a b l e

of p r o v i d i n q f i n a n c i 2 , l a i d f o r r e s e a r c h have n o t b e e n

l i b e r a l e n o u g h w i t h g r a n t s f o r t h e s t u d y o f A f r i c a n

T r a d i t i o n a l Reli . l ior , a s t h e y h a v e b e e n d o i n g f o r o t h e r

d ' q c i p l i n e s i n many i n s t i t u t i o n s of h i g h e r l e a r n i n g .

The T h e o l o g i c a l E d u c a t i o n Fund (T.E.F.) f o r i n s t a n c e ,

s p o n s o r e d p r o g r a m m e s i n D e p a r t m e n t s o f R e l i g i o u s

S t u d i e s and T h e o l o g i c a l s e m i n a r i e s w i t h e m p h a s i s o n

B i b l i c a l S t u d i e s e

The p r e s e n t s t u d y i s a l s o beset w i t h two m a j o r

?roblems. I n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , i t s h a r e s i n t h e

g e n e r a l p r o b l e m s e n u n c i a t e d a b o v e . S e c o n d l y , t h e l a s t

c i v i l war i n ~ \ j l g e r i a d e s t r o y e d a l o t of s t u d y materials ~ ~

i n - t h e -South--t-7zlstern p a r t o f Niger'ia, P a r t i c u l a r l y

T ~ b o l a n d , Some o l d c u l t objects , r e c o r d s a n d a r c h i v a l

d o c u m e n t s were d e s t r o y e d o H i t h e r t o , some u s e f u l w o r k s

o n Igbo r e l i g i o n w e r e s t o c k e d away i n l i b ra r i e s a n d

a r c h i v e s overseas. Some o f t h e d a t a f o r a n y i n d e p t h

s t u d y are, t h e r e f o r e , i n a c c e s s i b l e -

T h i s work a i m s a t s a t i s f y i n g t w o needs, It w i l l i n

t h e first p a r t e x a m i n e t h e v a r i o u s m e t h o d o l o g i e s a l r e a d y

a d o p t e d in t h e s t u d y of West A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n .

S e c o n d l y , i t w i l l a t t e m p t t o d e m o n s t r a t e how t h e #

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a n d c u l t u r e - a r e a a p p r o a c h ( w h i c h is i t s

awn c h o i c e m e t h o d o l o g y ) c a n b e u s e d a s a n a d e q u a t e

a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e 'Vest A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l

R e l i g i o n .

KLSEAXCH MLTHODOLOGY

The m a t e r i a l s f o r t h i s work were c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h

t w o m a i n s o u r c e s . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , p u b l i s h e d w o r k s

a n t h e s u b j e c t b y p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s were c o n s u l t e d .

T h i s i n v o l v e d i n t e n s i v e l i b r a r y r e s e a r c h b o t h i n N i g e r i a

a n d i n E n g l a n d , Some r e c o r d s o f t h e c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t

o f f i c i a l s were c o n s u l t e d a t t h e N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s a t

Enugu and I b a d a n . R e l e v a n t d o c u m e n t s w e r e a l so c o n s u l t e d

a t t h e C.M. S . a n d t h e M e t h o d i s t A r c h i v e s i n London. I

T h e s e w e r e , h o w e v e r , s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h o r a l e v i d e n c e

c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h e l i v i n g p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e I g b o

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , Materials f rom t h e l a t t e r s o u r c e

were c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h o r a l i n t e r v i e w s , p a r t i c i p a n t

o b s e r v a t i o n a l me thod , w h i c h R, a g d o n a n d S. J. T a y l o r

d e s c r i b e d as r e s e a r c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a p e r i o d o f

i n t e n s e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e s e a r c h e r and

t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e m i l i e u of t h e l a t t e r u m 3 The

p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r w i t n e s s e s dnd p a r t i c i p a t e s i n e v e n t s

as t h e y happen and r e c o r d s them as o b j e c t i v e l y a s

p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t " a d o p t i n g a n a p r i o r i c a t e g o r i e s t o

e v a l u a t e t h e s u b j e c t b e i n g s t u d i e d f s , H e acts b o t h l i k e

an o b s e r v e r a n d a p a r t i c i p a n t , t h u s s e e i n g t h i n g s

f f t h r o u g h t h e ' n a t i v e f e y e s w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y becoming

a ' n a t i v e ' . l f 4 T h i s i s w h a t t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r h a s t r i e d

t o d o i n t h e p r o c e s s o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n . The u s e o f

f i e l d a s s i s t a n t s , l o c a l g u i d e s and i n t e r p r e t e r s

f a c i l i t a t e d t h e f i e l d w o r k i n some c u l t u r e a r e a s w h e r e

local d i a l e c t s were d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d D Materials

f r o m t h e l a t t e r s o u r c e h a v e b e e n u s e d t o t h r o w more

l i g h t on t h o s e a s p e c t s OF I g h o r e l i g i o n w h e r e w r i t t e n

r e c o r d s a r e e i t h e r s i l e n t , s c a n t y , m i s l e a d i n g o r

u n r e l i a b l e .

SCOPE 1_1_

The r a n g e o f w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s h a s b e e n d r a w n f r o m

s t u d i e s o n v a r i o u s s o c i e t i e s i n West A f r i c a , The

societies i n c l u d e t h e :do, =,fik, I g b o , Nupe, T i v ,

Yoruba ( N i g e r i a ) , Fon o f Dahorney ( R e p u b l i c o f I3enin ),

t h e E w e , i n Togo a n d Ghana , t h e G a , A s h a n t i a n d Akan

o f Ghana , O t h e r s a r e t h e K p e l l e a n d B a s s a ( L i b e r i a ) ,

t h e Nende a n d Kono o f S i e r r a L e o n e , T h e ma te r i a l s d a t e

f r o m t h e p e r i o d of e a r l y E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t w i t h West

Af r i ca t i l l t h e r e c e n t times, t

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , o r a l s o u r c e s u sed i n t h e s e c o n d

p a r t o f t h e work come f r o m t h e I g b o of S o u t h - e a s t e r n

N i g e r i a , The c h o i c e o f t h e I g b o i s n o t a r b i t r a r y , I n

t h e f i r s t p l a c e , i t i s o n e of t h e l a r g e s t e t h n i c g r o u p s

i n West A f r i c a a n d c o u l d t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t

b r o a d - b a s e d d a t a , S e c o n d l y , t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r h a s a

f i r s t hand e x p e r i e n c e a n d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c u l t u r e o f

t h e p e o p l e , The f a c t t h a t h e i s a n I g b o a n d s p e a k s t h e

l a n g u a g e f a c i l i t a t e d h i s f i e l d work among them,

F o r c l a r i t y a n d a n i n d e p t h a n a l y s i s , two t h e m e s - C o n c e p t of God and d e i t i e s i n I g b o r e l i g i o n - h a v e been

s e l e c t e d t o d e m o n : s t r a t c t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f a p p l y i n g t h e

c u l t u r e - a r e a a n d p h . : ~ n o m c n o l o q i c a l a p p r o a c h i n t h e s t u d y

o f West A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n ,

LITERATUKC R E V I E W

A l t h o u g h t h e s t u d y of t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n o f West

A f r i c a i s f a i r l y new, t h e r e is a n i m p r e s s i v e q u a n t i t y

o f p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s o n t h e s u b j e c t c o v e r i n g a p e r i o d

o f over a h u n d r e d y e a r s and i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r e n t writers,

w h i t e and b l a c k O 5 We s h a l l , t h e r e f o r e , pick a f e w w o r k s

f r o m e a c h c l a s s of w r i t i n g f o r a c r i t i c a l r e v i e w , & h e r

w o r k s u t i l i z e d i n t h e m a i n b o d y o f t h i s t h e s i s w i l l be

f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d a t t h e end .

P u b l i s h e d w o r k s o n t h e r e l i g i o n b e t w e e n 1 8 5 0 a n d t

1 9 0 0 w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s , b o o k s a n d

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s f r o m e x p l o r e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,

m i s s i o n a r i e s , etc, Between 1 9 0 0 a n d 1914, a new spate

of l i t e r a t u r e came o u t f r o m a m a t e u r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s among

t h e m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s who c a r r i e d o u t

e t h n o g r a p h i c f i e l d work w h i c h was e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e

c o l o n i a l o f f i c e , However , t h e r a t e d e c l i n e d a t t h e

i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e F i r s t World War, The p a c e w a s

i n c r e a s e d again i n t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s when a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

i n t e r e s t s w e r e r e v i v e d a n d o f f icers i n t h e c o l o n i e s

w e r e e n c o u r a g e d t o s t u d y a n d write o n t h e ' n a t i v e s ' .

Monographs b y p r o f e s s i o n a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a l so came

o u t i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o From thr? 1950ss, w i t h t h e i n t r o -

d u c t i o n o f t h e s t u d y o f A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n i n t h e s c h e m e of

some i n s t i t u t i o n s of h i g h e r l e a r n i n g , a new i n t e r e s t i n

t h e d i s c i p l i n e g e n e r a t e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f j o u r n a l

a r t i c l e s a n d b o o k s b y b o t h A f r i c a n s a n d C u r o p e a n s .

From t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s t h e r a t e o f p r o d u c t i o n of a r t i c les

i n l e a r n e d j o u r n a l s o u t s t r i p p e d t h a t o f b o o k s , T h i s h a s

b e e n s u s t a i n e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s b y some a s s o c i a t i o n s

i n v o l v e d i n t h e s t u d y o f r e l i g i o n ( t h e ~ l o g y ) ~ F o r

i n s t a n c e , v a r i o u s d e p a r t m e n t s o f r e l i g i o n i n u n i v e r s i t i e s ,

I n s t i t u t e s of A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s l i k e

t h e N i g e r i a n A s s o c i a t i o n < o r t h e S t u d y o f R e l i g i o n s

(N.A.S,R.) a n d s u b r e g i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s l i k e t h e West

A f r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n of T h e o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t i o n s

( W . A . A o T e I , ) p r o d u c e j o u r n a l s w i t h n u m e r o u s a r t i c l e s o n

r e l i g i o n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n h a s b e e n

i n c l u d e d i n t h e s y l l a b u s o f West A f r i c a n E x a m i n a t i o n s

C o u n c i l f o r t h e G e n e r a l C e r t i f i c a t e o f L d u c a t i o n a t t h e

Advanced L e v e l a s w e l l a s a t t h e H i g h e r S c h o o l

C e r t i f i c a t e e x a m i n a t i o n s . Some t h e o l o g i c a l c o l l e g e s ,

s e m i n a r i e s a n d T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e s h a v e a l s o

i n c l u d e d i t i n t h ? i r s y l l a b u s e s , C o n s e q u e n t l y s t u d y

a i d s o f v a r y i n g q u a l i t i e s f o r s t u d e n t s p r e p a r i n g for

s u c h e x a m i n a t i o n s h a v e f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d t h e a m o u n t of

l i t e r a t u r e a n d i n t e r e s t i n t h e r e l i g i o n ,

Aylward S h o r t e r h a s i d e n t i f i e d a number o f

a p p r o a c h e s a d o p t e d a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s i n t i m e i n t h e

s t u d y o f A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l ~ e l i ~ i o n .6 They i n c l u d e

t h e P a r t i c u l a r i s t Approach , t h e E n u m e r a t i v e , H y p o t h e s i s

o f U n i t y Approach, H i s t o r i c a l , L i m i t e d C o m p a r a t i v e ,

C a t e g o r i c a l , Thema t i c and t h e M u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l Approach,

Each o f t h e s e v e r a l a p p r o a c h e s i d e n t i f i e d b y S h o r t e r h a s

been u s e d i n many o f t h e p u b l i s h e d works on A f r i c a n

r e l i g i o n , We s h a l l now t u r n t o l ook a t t h e l i t e r a t u r e

more c l o s e l y , b

PORTRAIT 3Y ETHNOGRAPHERS AldD ADMINISTRATORS -

T u r n i n g t o t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d , w e s h a l l now p i c k a

few p u b l i s h e d works t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e u n d e r g i r d i n g

i d e o l o g y and me thodo logyo I n t h i s p e r i o d d o m i n a t e d by

e x p l o r e r s and t r a v c l l e r s , t h e works o f R , F, Uurton and

A, 13. E l l i s a p t l y speak f o r o t h e r s i n t h a t c a t e g o r y ,

P e r h a p s , t h e f i r s t s u s t a i n e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n o f !?lest A f r i c a was by R , F, Bur ton .

H e w a s 'I c o m p l e t c man: a p r o l i f i c wri ter , b o t h i n p r o s e

and v e r s e , an a d m i n i s t r a t o r , a c r i t i c o f European

e x p a n s i o n and t h z c l a i m s o f s u c c e s s and e f f o r t s o f t h e ,

C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n s , H e m i g h t p o s s i b l y b e an a t h e i s t a s

w e l e a r n f rom R i c h a r d West who d e s c r i b e d him as : L

Itan a t h e i s t a n d a T o r y who q u a r r e l l e d s e n s a t i o n a l l y w i t h t h e a rmy , t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e a n d fe l low e x p l o r e r s ... d e r i d e d t h o s e w e l l - m e a n i n g c h r i s t i a n s who t o o k s e n s a t i o n a l v i e w o f t h e A f r i c a n s , " 7

I t i s l i k e l y t h a t B u r t o n q s h a t r e d o f t h e n e g r o e s

was b a s e d o n the r a c i a l i s t p r e j u d i c e o f t h e p e r i o d w h i c h

was s u s t a i n e d b y D a r w i n P s e v o l u t i o n a r y t h ( . o r y c u r r e n t

t h e n , I n v a r i a b l y , t h i s was rcf l ~ ~ t ( ? d i n B u r t o n s

w r i t i n c j s ( a n d t h o s i ? o l h i s c o n t e m p o r u i e s ) o n t h e

negrocs of iest d r . i c a . ,

I n h i s R b e o k u t a and thc? Cameroun M o u n t a i n , V o l . 1 .-~. -YI- + (1863) , S u r t o n c a s t aspersion o n t h e r e l i g i o n of t h e

n e g r o e s h e m e t i n tnc? c o u r s e o f h i s c o n s u l a r work . H e

d e n i e d them a n y be l i e f i n God, a n y s e n s e o r c o n c e p t of

m o r a l i t y . I n t h e same v e i n , h e p u b l i s h e d i n 1864

A M i s s i o n to Gelele, King of Dahome i n w h i c h h e c o u l d - _ -

o n l y c r e d i t t h e n e g r o e s ( h e m e t ) w i t h a c r u d e a n d

i g n o b l e r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . To h im,

" t h e n e g r o i s s t i l l a t t h a t r u d e dawn o f f a i t h - f e t i s h i s m - and h e h a s b a r e l y a d v a n c e d t o i d o l a t r y , , 118

T h e p r e v a i l i n g r a c i a l i s t i d e o l o g y was s u s t a i n e d b y

a random p i c k i n g o f ma te r i a l s f r o m d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of

West Africa, p r i m a r i l y t o show how b a c k w a r d a n d

" p r i m i t i v e s ' t h e A f r i c a n s were. I n terms o f s c h o l a r s h i p , I ,

t h i s g r o u p o f w r i t i n y s was m a r r e d b y i t s s u b j e c t i v e and

r a c i a l i s t a t t i t u d e . B o t h i n o r d e r of t i m e a n d

m e t h o d o l o g y , we m i g h t i n c l u d e t h e w o r k s of 'To L.

H u t c h i n s o n i n t h i s g r o u p , L i k e 3 u r t o n , H u t c h i n s o n h a d

a v a r i e d e x p e r i e n c e i n West Africa - a n e x p l o r e r who

s a i l e d t h r o u g h t h c G u l f o f G u i n e a , c o v e r i n g a n e x t e n s i v e

a rea f r o m S e n e g a l t o a s f a r a s Gabon i n t h e C e n t r a l

A f r i c a n s u b - r e g i o n , He s a i l e d i n t o t h e h i n t e r l a n d s

a r o u n d t h e B i g h t s o f i3enin a n d B i a f r a . Y e t , h i s d e s -

c r i p t i o n o f thr: n c g r o e s i n Nest A f r i c a w a s t h a t of

i r r a t i o n a l pawns a n d " f e t i s h s t men a n d women d e e p l y b

e n g r o s s e d i n s u p e r s t i t i o n , O t h e r i d e a s a r e c l e a r l y

g l e a n e d from h i s I m p r e s s i o n s of West Afr ica (1858) a n d

f r o m S e n e g a l t o -

Gabon (1861 1. - R e i n f o r c i n g t h e p o p u l a r p r e j u d i c e s of t h e p e r i o d w a s

t h e r e p o r t of a n o t h e r w e l l - k n o w n e x p l o r e r , S i r Samue l

B a k e r w h i c h h e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e E t h n o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y of

London i n 1867 o n t h e Nilotes of t h e S o u t h e r n S u d a n whom

h e d e s c r i b e d a s

" w i t h o u t a n y e x c e p t i o n , t h e y a re w i t h o u t a b e l i e f i n a S u p r e m e B e i n g , n e i t h e r h a v e t h e y a n y f o r m o f w o r s h i p ; n o r i s t h e d a r k n e s s o f t h e i r minc: e n l i g h t e n e d b y e v e n a r a y of s u p e r s t i t i o n , "9

B e f o r e t h d enc; o f t h c c e n t u r y , g r q u p of c o l o n i a l

c l f f i c e r s h a d c a r r i e d o u t s o m c f i , l c i w o r k , < , i t h e r o n

t h e i r own, o u t o f c u r i o s i t y or on t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s o f

t h e i r m e n t o r s a t home, %me o f t h e a m a t e u r e t h n o g r a p h e r s

among t h e c o l o n i a l m i l i t a r y and c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

i n c l u d e d S i r A, Be E l l i s , who w a s a C o l o n e l i n t h e army

and s e r v e d b o t h i n N i g e r i a and Gold C o a s t ( G h a n a ) ,

Among h i s numerous w r i t i n g s a r e The T ' i - Z g e a k i n q P e o p l e s

The Ewe-Speakinq P e o p l e s - and The -

E t h n o g r a p h i c f i e l d work was e n c o u r a g e d a t t h i s t i m e

p r o b a b l y f o r h i s t o r i c a l r e a s o p s - to r e c o r d f o r p o s t e r i t y

t h e l a s t v e s t i g e s of t h e l v p r i m i t i v e i ' c u l t u r e s wh ich t h e

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y was a b o u t to e n g u l f and f o r a d m i n i s t r a -

t i v e p u r p o s e s , Those o f f i c e r s w r o t e "unde r t h e

i n s p i r a t i o n o f t h e i r a r m - c h a i r m e n t o r s a t home and t r i e d

to e l u c i d a t e t h e s ' n a t i v e t s i ' i d e a a b o u t r e l i g i o n and

magic, an a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l . ! s u b j e c t t o t a c k l e t h r o u g h

i n t e r p r e t e r s . 10

T h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s o b s e r v e d i n A. B. E l l i s ' h a n d l i n g

of t h e hupreme d e i n g i n h i s book , The Twi -Speak in9

P H e s t a t e d t h d t t h e Akan Supreme Being i s a

r e c e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n by i u r o p e a n s , To him, t h e Akan

Supreme Being (Onyame) i s a iv loan-Godw i n t r o d u c e d by t h e

European m i s s i o n a r i e s , T h i s v i ew h a s been q u e s t i o n e d by

l a t e r Ghana ian s c h o l a r s l i k e Kof i A. Opoku, i n s p i t e

o f t h e v e s t i g e s o f p r e j u d i c e i n t h e u s e o f d e r o g a t o r y

terms f o r West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , t h e w o r k s w e r e a n

a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e ' n a t i v e s t . E x c e p t i n t h e

d e g r e e o f u s e o f v a l u e j u d g e m e n t s , t h e b u l k o f t h e

w o r k s o f t h e p e r i o d c o n c e n t r a t e d p u r e l y o n e t h n o g r a p h i c

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e l i v e s o f t h e p e o p l e s . T h i s i s c l e a r l y

shown i n Mary K i n g s l e y ' s West A f r i c a n S t u d i e s ( 1 8 9 9 ) ,

C h a r l e s P a r t r i d g e ' s C r o s s R i v e r N a t i v e s , F l o r a Shaw s

( ~ a d y ~ u q a r d ) - A Tr_opical Dependency ( 1 9 0 6 1; Maj. A. Go

L e o n a r d I s The Lower N i q e r a n d I ts T r i b e s ( 1 9 0 6 1.

P r o f e s s o r A, Eo A f i y b o h a s s t a t e d t h a t i t w a s f r o m

a b o u t 1 9 0 8 t h a t t h e C o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t t o o k a more

d e f i n i t e s t e p t o a p p o i n t o f f i c i a l g o v e r n m e n t a n t h r o p o l o -

g i s t s who wou ld p r o v i d e s t u d i e d a d v i c e t o t h e u r g e n t

1 2 p r o b l e m s f a c i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , I n N i g e r i a , f o r

i n s t a n c e , N o W. Thomas w a s a p p o i n t e d t o p e r f o r m s u c h

d u t y , b u t h i s a p p r o a c h d i d n o t seem t o s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e s

of s u p p l y i n g p r a c t i c a l s u g g e s t i o n s t o t h e c o l o n i a l

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The i d e a o f e m p l o y i n q p r o f e s s i o n a l l y

t r a i n e d a c a d e m i c a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w a s l a t e r d r o p p e d i n

p r e f e r e n c e to t h e a m a t e u r o n e s who i g n o r e d c o m p l i c a t e d

t h e o r e t i c a l h y p o t - h e s i s b u t p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n

and s o l u t i o n n e e d e d f o r o n t h e s p o t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

R . S u t h e r l a n d ( o f t e n c a l l e d C a p t a i n R a t t r a y ) had

a v a r i e d e x p e r i e n c e i n West A f r i c a . H e j o i n e d t h e

Gold C o a s t Customs S e r v i c e i n 1906 and w a s l a t e r t r a n s -

f e r r e d t o t h e P o l i t i c a l Sc-?rvice , H e c o m p l e t e d h i s

d e g r e e i n 1 9 1 1 w h i c h h e t o o k u n d e r I?. R, Marret who had

set u p a n a c a d e m i c d e g r e e programme i n a n t h r o p o l o g y a t

E x e t e r C o l l e g e , O x f o r d , f o r o f f i c e r s w o r k i n g i n t h e

t e r r i t o r i e s u n d e r B r i t i s h r u l e , S e r v i n g o f f i c e r s i n t h e

f i e l d b e n e f i t t e d f r o m t h i s prograrnme w h i c h many o f them

a t t e n d e d when on l e a v e a t home. On c o m p l e t i o n of t h e #

d e g r e e c o u r s e i n a n t h r o p o l o g y , R a t t r a y was a p p o i n t e d

A s s i s t a n t District C o m m i s s i o n e r i n A s h a n t i , Meanwhi le ,

h e w a s a p p o i n t e d t h e h e a d o f a newly c r e a t e d

A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l D e p a r t m e n t , Through t h i s o f f i c e ,

R a t t r a y 'Pbecarne a n o f f i c i a l p o w e r t o o l o f c o l o n i a l

H e c a r r i e d o u t a d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e

b e l i e f s and c u s t o m s of t h e A s h a n t i - u s i n g p r o b a b l y a

method w h i c h c a n be c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r Aylward S h o r t e r ' s

P a r t i c u l a r i s t Approach , T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n e n a b l e d him

t o c o m p l e t e a two-volume c o l l . e c t i o n o f The Hausa

F o l k - l o r e , Customs and P r o v e r b s ( 1 9 1 3 ) w i t h a p a r a l l e l

t e x t i n Hausa and E n q l i s h , He a l s o s k u d i e d t h e Mole

and Twi l o c a l l a n g u a g e s a n 3 i n 1.916, p u b l i s h e d A s h a n t i

P r o v e r b s , i n s p i t e of t h e F i r s t World War t h a t was

g o i n g on,

H e e n g a g e d i n a b r i e f c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t t h e Germans

i n Togo a t t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e F i r s t World War, h e n c e

t h e t i t l e ' C a p t a i n f b y w h i c h many knew him. I n 1 9 2 3 ,

s o o n a f t e r t h e F i r s t World Mar , R a t t r a y p u b l i s h e d

The A s h a n t i i n w h i c h h e c l a i m e d t h 3 t h e

s t a p p r o a c h e d t h e o l d p e o p l e ?-n t h e s p i r i t o f o n e who came t o them as a seeker o f t r u t h , t h e key t o w h i c h I t o l d them, t h e y a l o n e p o s s e s s e d , w h i c h a l l t h e l e a r n i n g o v e r a l l t h e ,books o f t h e w h i t e man c o u l d n e v e r g i v e meOv '14

I n h i s R c l i q i o n a n d A r t i n A s h a n t i ( 1 9 2 7 ) , R a t t r a y

e x p l a i n e d t h a t h e d i s c o v e r e d e n o r m o u s w e a l t h o f c u l t u r a l

h e r i t a g e i n A s h a n t i and c o n s e q u e n t l y w a r n e d t h e Akan

p e o p l e t o g u a r d t h e s t n a t i o n a l s o u l s ' o f t h e i r race and

n e v e r be t e m p t e d t o d e s p i s e t h e i r p a s t . He b r o u g h t o u t

i n a s u b t l e way, t h e close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e

p e o p l e ' s f a i t h and t h e i r c u l t i c s y m b o l s ,

L i k e t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r h e was, t h e

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t u d y o f t h e a r e a w h i c h R a t t r a y c a r r i e d

o u t , was o s t e n s i b l y o f t h e g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t t o t h e

g o v e r n m e n t and t h i s was t h e l a s t series of t h e A s h a n t i

monographs w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 2 9 - The A s h a n t i Law

a n d C o n s t i t u t i o n .

R a t t r a y v s s t u d y of t h c A s h a n t i was p e n e t r a t i n g a n d

s t i m u l a t i n g . H i s i n f o r m a n t s m i g h t n o t h a v e t o l d h im

a l l t h a t t h e y knew, b u t h e saw much of t h e l i f e a n d

s p o k e t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e p e o p l e . H i s s t u d y was

p r i m a r i l y a i m e d a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e loca l p e o p l e f o r

e f f i c i e n t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e I n d i r e c t R u l e s y s t e m

t h a t w a s i n t r o d u c e d t h e n as a n a f t e r - t h o u g h t . No

d o u b t , h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of some of t h e d a t a w a s

t i l t e d t o w a r d s e f f i c i z n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e programme i n

t h e c o l o n y . b

I n S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a , t h e District O f f i c e r , P , A.

T a l b o t , a v e t e r a n a m a t e u r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t l i k e R a t t r a y ,

was u s e d by t h e C o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t t o co l lcc t i n f o r m a -

t i o n a b o u t t h e c o u n t r y . Me came t o West Afr ica i n 1 9 0 2

as a S u r v e y o r a n d s e r v e d 2s a n . ? s s i s t a n t C o m m i s s i o n e r

on t h e A n g l o - L i b e r i a n F ' l o l m l x y Commiss ion . H e l a t e r

j o i n e d t h e N i g e r i a n A d m i n i s t r a t i v e S e r v i c e i n 1 9 0 5 a n d

r e m a i n c d i n i t t i l l 1 9 3 1 when h e r e t i r ed .

D u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , h c p r o d u c e d severa l w o r k s on

S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a , Amonq them are I n t h e Shadow o f t h e

Bush ( t h e E k o i o f O h m D i v i s i o n ) 1 9 1 2 , L i f e i n S o u t h e r n - N i q e r i a ( 2 9 2 6 ) i n f o u r v o l u m e s , f u l l of e t h n o g r a p h i c

m a t e r i a l s c d l e c t e - d ?acheen 4 9 M md-lSfli6F - - - -

I n 1 9 2 1 , T a l b o t was a p p o i n t e d as C e n s u s O f f i c e r t o

c o v e r t h e S o u t h e r n P r o v i n c e s o f N i q e r i a and a t t h e same

t i m e , was r e q u e s t e d t o w r i t e a r e p o r t on t h e s t a t i s t i c s

a n d t o i n c o r p o r a t e i n t h i s s k e t c h t h e e t h n o l o g y o f t h e

i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e S o u t h e r n P r o v i n c e , I n The P e p p l e s

. of S o u t h c r n N i g e r i a Vol.111, w h i c h m a i n l y d e a l t on t h e

r e l i g i o n of d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c g r o u p s , T a l b o t was able t o

a p p l y w h a t m i g h t bc d e s c r i b e d as t h e " L i m i t e d

C o m p a r a t i v e Methodu t o snow i n a s u b t l , c way, t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p betwem t h e Supreme Be ing and o t h e r minor

d i v i n i t i e s . T h e r e i s an z x t c n s i v c d a t a o n a number of

t o p i c s i n t h i s vo lume, r a n g i n g f r o m b e l i e f s y s t e m s ,

i n i t i a t i o n s , p r a c t i c e o f m c d i c i n c s and c h a r m s , t o

m o r t u a r y r i tes , e t c , , a l l described i n a n e t h n o g r a p h i c

p r e s c n t ,

The s t r e n g t h o f t h c m n t e r i z l s i n T z l b o t ' s w o r k s ,

l i e s i n h i s s e r i o u s e f f o r t s t o r e a c h o u t f o r d e t a i l s .

T h e r e i s , howcver , 7 dsnqer o f i n n c c u r - i c y i n t h e

e x p l a n a t i o n o f some o f thc d z t n o b t a i n e d , f o r instance,

t r a c i n g t h u a n c e s t o r s of t h e Edo, ?we and I g b o

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Semi-qantu p e o p l e . The i n a c c u r a c y i n

i n t ~ r p r e t a t i o n i s o n e of t h o s e e x a m p l e s of t h e r e s u l t

o f a s k i n g q u ~ s t i o n s i n t h e f i e l d t h r o u g h i n t c r p r e t e r s

whose k n o w l e d g e of E n g l i s h i s i n a d e q u a t e .

/INTHROPOLOGICAL IMAGES

Two handy e x a m p l e s c o u l d b s u s e d t o r e p r e s m t t h i s

g r o u p . They are K e n n e t h L i t t l e and Mcyer F o r t e s , The

l a t t e r d i d e x t e n s i v e f i c l d work i n Ghana. H i s

p a r t i c u l a r i n t c r c s t i n t h e T a l l e n s i m o t i v a t e d h i s

s t u d y o f t h e l a n g u a g e , The c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

c o m m i s s i o n e d him i n t h e m i d - f o r t i e s t o s t u d y t h e

c u s t o m a r y l i f e '2nd p r x t i c c s of t h e T a l l e n s i ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e i r m a r r i a g e p a t t e r n . H e on h i s own, * s u r v c y c d t h z s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n h i s

w o r k , The Dynamics o f C l a n s h i p Amony t h e T a l l e n s i

(1945) a n d Th? Wsb o f K i n s h i p anonq t h e T a l l e n s i

(l949), Ten y d a r s l z t c r , h e p r o d u c e d h i s O e d i p u s

a n d Job i n West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n (1959), w h i c h i s a

s p e c i f i c work o n the i m p a c t o f th': c o s m o l o g i c a l

e x p l a n a t i o n s on t h c r e l i g i o u s belief a n d p r a c t i c e o f

t h c p e o p l e , Bascd 01-1 h i s clos,? p a r t i c u l a r i s t me thod ,

F o r k e s s u b t l y u s e d t h e f i q u r c s o f O e d i p u s of t h e Greek

m y t h o l o g y and t h e B i b l i c a l J o b 3s s c h e m e s i n a

. d i s c u s s i o n of t h ? m o r a l s o f p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p

as a p i v o t o f t h e T a l l e n s i r i t u a l b e l i e f and a c t i o n .

H c showed a c l e a r u n d c r s t m d i n g of t h e West A f r i c a n

m o r a l and p h i l o s o p h i c ~ l t h o u g h t i n t h i s s t u d y , B u t

when i t i s a p p l i e d i n a w i d e r c o m p a r a t i v e d i m e n s i o n ,

many o t h e r West A f r i c a n societies w i t h d i f f e r e n t soc ia l

s t r u c t u r e s may n o t p r o p s r l y f i t i n . I n t h i s case, t h e

H y p o t h e s i s o f U n i t y Approach may n o t a p p l y i n a l l

c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Fo r i n s t a n c e , w i d e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of

t h e scheme h a s been s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e d b y Robin

Hor ton e s p e c i a l l y as i t r e l a t e s t o t h e K a l a b a r i o f t h e

N i g e r D e l t a , Hor ton a r g u e s t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n

c u l t u r a l and s t r u c t u r a l emphases i n t h e t w o societies - t h e T a l l c n s i m d t h e K a l q b a r i - o b s t r u c t s t h e

e x i s t e n c e of s imi lar p a t t e r n i n b o t h soc is t ies b e c a u s e : b

s t i n K a l a b a r i s o c i e t i e s , s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e s u c h t h a t t h e p e o p l e m o s t l y i n v o l v e d i n s t a t u s r i v a l r y a t any t i m e , a r e n e v e r i n a n y set r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o n e a n o t h e r ,.. C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , K a l a b a r i p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r y f e a t u r e s an aggressive c o n s c i o u s and a t i m i d u n c o n s c i o u s , I n T a l l c n s i communities .,. s t a t u s advancemen t c a n o n l y t a k e p l a c e a t t h e e x p e n s e of a specially-related F i g u r e - t h e f a t h e r . " 16

I n effect, F o r t e s t d i s c u s s i o n on t h e T a l l e n s i may n o t

w i d e l y a p p l y to a l l communities i n West A f r i c a , None-

t h e l e s s , i t i s 3 c a r e f u l and s t i m u l a t i n g a n a l y s i s .

Kenne th L i t t l e ' s w r i t i n g s on t h e Mende of S i e r r a

Leonc h a v e b e e n d e p n d e n t o n h i s own f i e l d work

e x p e r i e n c e s l i k e t h o s e o f F o r t e s i n Ghana. I n The - Mende of S i e r r a Leone ( l95l), an o u t s t a n d i n g monograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

by L i t t l e , h e made a v i v i d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e l i f e and

c h a r a c t e r of t h e p c o p l e i n a n e t h n o g r a p h i c p r e s e n t .

It i s w i t h i n t h i s l a r g e r e t h n o g r a p h i c s e t t i n g t h a t

L i t t l e b r i n g s i n t h e p r c s ~ n c c of r 6 l i g i o n i n t h e l i f e

and work o f t h e p e o p l c . A1t:hough L i t t l c ( l i k e o t h e r

a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l writers on r e l i g i o n ) t r ies t o p u t t h e

r e l i g i o n i n i t s s o c i ~ l c o n t e x t , h e p r e s e n t s t h e Supreme

Be ing of t h e Mend3 (Ngcwo) as a d i s t a n t b e i n g , an e r r o r

w h i c h earl ier o b s e r v c r s p e r s i s t e n t l y c o m m i t t e d , H e

p r e s e n t s God a s t h e d i s t a n t B e i n g who i s i n c o n t a c t w i t h

man o n l y t h r o u g h t h e medium o f ' 9 p i r i t ' w h i c h c a n b e

s p e c i f i e d b r o a d l y i n terms o f f o u r c a t e g o r i e s , It i s

t h r o u g h e a c h of t h c f o u r c l a s s e s o f t h e Msnde s p i r i t s

t h a t man g e t s i n t o u c h w i t h t h e Ngewo, L a t e r S i e r r a

Leonean writers l i k e H a r r y S a w y e r r h a v e t r a c e d t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n man a n d t h e Supreme B e i n g i n a

more d i r e c t and p e r s o n a l f o r m , S e c r e t societies among

t h e Mende a r c d i s c u s s e d b y L i t t l e w i t h g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s

on t h e i r s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a n on t h e i r r e l i g i o u s

roles.

MISSIONARIES AND T R A D I T I O N A L RELIGION - . - - .

Thus f a r , wc h a v e c o n c e n t r ~ t c d on w o r k s f r o m

s e c u l a r s o u r c e s , A f z w e x a m p l e s c o u l d be p i c k e d f r o m

t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e e s r l y 3nd l a t e r C h r i s t i a n

m i s s i o n a r i e s . T h e i r w r i t i n g s c o u l d be c o n v e n i e n t l y

c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t w o b r o a d g r o u p s , A t f i r s t , t h e y

f o u g h t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n w i t h t h e h o p e t o

d e s t r o y i t , L a t e r , when t h e o n s l a u g h t f a i l e d , t h e y

e n d e w o u r c d t o b a p t i s e t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s of t h e

r e l i g i o n a s a f o r m o f e v a n g e l i c a l s t r a t z g y . Thus a s

p o l i c i e s t o w a r d s o t h e r r e l i g i o n s c h a n g e d , l i t e r a t u r e s

a l so c h a n g e d ,

T, J. Bowen was a n Amer ican B a p t i s t m i s s i o n a r y who

was i n t h e coas t of West ? i f r i c a i n t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s . H i s #

v i e w s i n 1851 were t y p i c a l of t h e p o p u l a r n o t i o n s o f

t h e t i m e . F o r o n c e , h c r e c o r d e d h i s e n c o u n t e r w i t h

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s s t 3 t i n g t h a t :

" t o p r e a c h a g a i n s t t h c i r e x e c u t i v e g o d s , i s more t h a n you d a r e t o d o .., t h e f u r y o f t h e heathen s o u l would e x p l o d e l i k e gunpowder . " l7

S i x y e a r s l a t e r , a f t e r 2 g l i m m e r i n g o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e Yoruba r e l i g i o n , 3owen w r o t c A d v e n t u r e s and

M i s s i o n a r y L a b o u r ( 1 8 6 7 ) i n w h i c h h e o b s e r v e d t h a t :

"many of t h d n o t i o n s w h i c h t h e p e o p l e e n t ~ r t a i n o f God nr: r c m a r k q b l y correct. They mak,d h i ~ n t h e e f f i c i e n t t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c r e a t o r . They had some n o t i o n of h i s j u s t i c e a n d h o l i n e s s a n d .,, They may e x t o l t h e power and d e f e n d t h ~ : w o r s h i p o f t h e i r i d o l s whom t h e y r e g a r d a s m i g h t y b e i n g s , b u t t h e y w i l l n o t c o m p a r e t h e g r e a t e s t i d o l t o ~ o d , ' 9 1 8

I n t h e same t o n e o f r e l i g i o u s p r i d e , Noel Baudin ,

another m i s s i o n a r y w r i t e r e d i t c d F e t i s h i s m and F e t i s h

W o r s h i p p e r s ( 1 8 8 5 ) wh ich was o u t t o show t h e a b s u r d i t y

and f o l l y of t h ? r ~ l i g i o n of t h e n c g r o e s o f ' d e s t A f r i c a ,

The f i r s t g r o u p of m i s s i o n a r y w r i t i n g s on West

A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n which a p p e a r e d 7 s TL m c m s of

e v a n g c l i c ? . l s t r a t e g y ( f rom t h e Protestant M i s s i o n s )

began i n t h e l a t e 1 9 9 Q V s and m r l y 1 9 0 0 ' s . Two handy

examplc s a r e t h e works of S , S, F w r o w and G o T. Basden.

Thc f o r m e r w a s a m i s s i o n - l r y t~ Y o r u b a l m d who d i d I b

& d o c t o r a l t h e s i s on t h z r u l i a i o n w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l s h e >

c o l l e c t e d i n West , t f r i c a bc twecn 1390's and e a r l y

3 , 1 9 0 0 ' s . The t h e s i s was l a t d r p u b l i s h e d a s a book w i t h

t h e t i t l e : F a i t h , F a n c i c s and F e t i s h o r Yoruba

Paqan ism (19241 , I n i t , Fa r row t r i e d t o g i v e a

c o m p r e h e n s i v e a c c o u n t o f Yoruba r e l i g i o n . D e s p i t e h i s

a t t e m p t s t o b e o b j e c t i v e , he was s t i l l a c h i l d of h i s

age . H c c o n t i n u e d t o u s e t h e same o l d p e r j o r a t i v e

terms f o r t h e r e l i g i o n no mz~tter how v a l u e - f r e e t h e

terms were.

G , To Basden l i v e d and worked i n Awka - O n i t s h a

as a CoM.So M i s s i o n a r y t o I g b o l a n d f o r o v e r t h i r t y - f i v e

y e a r s . H i s Among t h e I q b o s o f N i q e r i a ( 1 9 2 1 ) w a s b a s e d

on t h e d a t a wh ich he c o l l e c t e d b e f o r e t h c F i r s t World

War. It w a s an a t t e m p t a t an e t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y of

many p h a s e s of I g b o l i f e a t a t i m e t h e effects of

c o l o n i a l r u l e had n o t t o t a l l y o b l i t e r a t e d t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s . T h e r e i s n o s p e c i a l i n s i g h t

i n t o t h e i n t e r n a l dynamics of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n

and t h e r e i s n o a t t e m p t a t a f o r m a l p r e s e n t a t i o n of

t h e s y s t e m ,

The m a t e r i a l s were c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h p e r s o n a l

c o n t a c t b u t n o t f u l l y free f r o m t h e r e l i g i o u s p r e -

j u d i c e s of t h e t i m e . M r . G. T . Manley , r e v i e w i n g t h a t

book, m a n i f e s t e d t h e same s p i r i t o f r e l i g i o u s a r r o g a n c e 1

i n a more a n n o y i n g way t h a n t h c book i tself . Commend-

i n g B a s d e n ' s e f f o r t s , Manlcy rcmarkdd t h a t :

" t h e p i c t u r e g i v e n of t h e p e o p l e i s v e r y objective and t h e i r c u s t o m s and h a b i t s were s t a t e d p l a i n l y w i t h b u t l i t t l e comment, They show a t y p e of l i f e wh ich w e are accus tomed t o f i n d among p r i m i t i v e A f r i c a n p e o p l e ; a p e o p l c w i t h whom a n i m a l a p p e t i t e s are p r e d o m i n a n t who are e x p o s e d t o t h e f r a u d m d c o v e t o u s n e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h pagan ism . . .1119

I n 1938, Basdcn p u b l i s h e d The Niger Ibos wh ich i s

a m o d i f i e d e d i t i o n of h i s 1 9 2 1 p u b l i c a t i o n .

The m i s s i o n a r y w r i t i n g s a p p e a r e d more f r e q u e n t l y

i n j o u r n a l s , c o r r e s p o r d e n c e s , a n n u a l r e p o r t s and

r e v i e w s , etc. I n them, t h e v a r i o u s m i s s i o n a r y b o d i e s

were able t o communica te t h s i r v i e w s , i m p r e s s i o n s and

s t r a t e g i e s t o o t h e r members o f t h c g r o u p - Such

p e r i o d i c a l s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o i n t e r e s t t h e s u p p o r t e r s

of t h e m i s s i o n ~ r y - s o c i e t i e s a s w c l l as t h ? c h u r c h e s

i n t h e m i s s i o n f i e l d s ,

The P r o c e e d i n q s of t h e CaMeSe w a s a n a n n b a l

magazine, w h i c h c o n t a i n e d t h e r e p o r t of t h e G e n e r a l

S e c r e t a r y , t h e s t a t e of t h e m i s s i o n s , a n d g a v e a c c o u n t

of t h e f i n a n c i a l c o m m i t m ~ ~ n t s , It was t h e C h u r c h

M i s s i - o n a r y R e c o r d w h i c h k z p t e v e r y mcmber a t home i n

t o u c h w i t h t h e l a tes t d e v e l p p m e n t s i n t h e m i s s i o n

f i e l d s , E x t r a c t s of le t ters a n d j o u r n a l s of m i s s i o n a -

r ies and some s h o r t e d i t o r i a l comments were a l so f o u n d

i n it. The C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y I n t e l l i q e n c e r seemed t o

be a more a d v a n c e d p u b l i c a t i o n w h i c h c o n t a i n e d a r t i -

cles on g e o g r a p h y , r e l i g i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s m i s s i o n

f i e l d s , i m p o r t a n t m i s s i o n a r y letters, e t h n o l o g y , etc.

I n t h e C.M,S. M i s s i o n a r y G l e a n e r , o n e c o u l d f i n d

p u b l i c a t i o n s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t e a c h e r s i n t h e

f i e l d , Sunday S c h o o l i n s t r u c t o r s , ctc,

The P r i m i t i v e M e t h o d i s t M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y had

m a g a z i n e s and j o u r n a l s w h i c h s e r v c d s i m i l a r p u r p o s e s .

For i n s t a n c e , M i n u t c s of tht: M z t h o d i s t C o n f e r e n c e ,

T h e Wesleynn M e t h o d i s t M i s s i o n a r y N o t i c e s a n d The

M e t h o d i s t Maqaz ine , wcrc r d j u l x p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t

d i s c r e d i t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n .

O t h e r p r i n c i p a l p u b l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e , t h e U n i t e d

P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y R e c o r d , M i n u t e s o f t h e

F o r e i g n M i s s i o n C o m m i t t e e , ctc, V a r i o u s Roman

C a t h o l i c O r g m i z a t i o n s p u b l i s h e d a r t i c les on t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . The S o c i e t y of A f r i c a n M i s s i o n s ,

f o r i n s t a n c e , had a number o f s u c h p u b l i c a t i o n s

i n c l u d i n g R n n z l s of t h d P r o p s - g a t i o n of t h c F a i t h ,

L e s M i s s i o n s C a t h o l i q u c s , e t c , , a11 s c r v i n g t h e

s i n g u l a r p u r p o s e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m i s s i o n s . t

The Holy G h o s t F a t h e r s had t h e C o n g r 2 g a t i o n ' s Annua l

B u l l e t i n , as o n e of t t w i r l e a d i n g m a g a z i n e s ,

T h e s e and o t h e r s i m i l a r p u b l i c a t i n n s came o u t

more r e g u l a r l y t h a n b o o k s and were e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d

i n t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m i s s i o n a r y

l a b o u r s i n A f r i c 2 , c h a n g i n g i n c o n t e n t a s t h e p o l i c i e s

c h a n g e d i n t h e f i e l d ,

I n t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s E u r o p e a n C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s

( m o u n t i n g n c o u n t e r a t t a c k on t h e e a r l y E u r o p e a n non-

be l i evers ) and o t h e r m i s s i o n a r i e s who "wan t o d d i a l o g u e

w i t h animism" s t a r t e d t o p r o d u c e s t u d i e s o n t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n b a s e d on f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e s a t a

f e w c e n t r e s . Among t h o s e s c h o l a r s t r a i n e d i n C h r i s t i a n

t h e o l o g y who d i r e c t e d t h e i r w o r k s p r i m a r i l y a g a i n s t

W e s t e r n s c h o l a r s who had m i s r e p r e s e n t e d r e l i g i o n i n

g e n e r a l a n d A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s

P r o f e s s o r E , G , P a r r i n d e r , whom w e h a v e m e n t i o n e d i n

p a s s i n g e a r l i e r on , Some o t h c r C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s

a t t h i s p e r i o d whose p r i m a r y a i m w a s t o win t h e h e a r t s

o f new A f r i c a n e l i t e s f o r t h c C h r i s t i a n God b y t r y i n g

t o f i n d s i m i l a r i t i e s b 2 t w e e n C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d t h e

t r l d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , i n c l u d e P l a c i d e Temples ,

Edwin W, S m i t h , J, V. T a y l o r .

~ a r r i n d e r p i o n e e r e d a new g r o u p of s c h o l a r s +

( t r a i n e d i n c h r i s t i m t h e o l o g y ) who s t u d i e d A f r i c a n

r e l i g i o n m e t h o d i c a l l y , Among h i s numerous w o r k s are

West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n ( 1 3 4 9 ) , w i t h m a t e r i a l s drawn

f r o m t h e Akan, Ewe, Yoruba a n d i g b o p c o p l e s ; t h e

West A f r i c a n P s y c h o l o q ( 1 9 5 3 ) ; A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l

R e l i q i o n ( 1 9 5 4 1 ,

I n a p p r o a c h , P a r r i n d e r h a s c l o s e l y f o l l o w e d

S i r J, G o F r a z e r i n w h a t c a n be c a l l z d E n u m e r a t i v e

Approach, H e h a s t h r o u g h t h i s method b r o u g h t i n t o

f o c u s , many r z l i g i n u s phenomcnz f r o m d i f f e r e n t p a r t s

o f t h e c o n t i n e n t , Hc d o c s n o t o n l y g i v e a d e s c r i p t i v e

p r e s e n t a t i o n b u t a l s o 2 t h e o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n of h i s

t h e m e s , u s i n g h i s w c s t c r n c h r i s t i m t h e o l o g i c a l

c o n c e p t s a n d f o r m u l a t i o n s ,

B e s i d e s , some anthropologically-trained s c h o l a r s

h a v e v e h e m e n t l y c r i t i c i s c d P a r r i n d e r D s a p p r o a c h ,

Ben jamin Rqy, f o r i n s t a n c e , a c c u s e s him o f t r y i n g t o

b e s v e x h a u s t i v e , c o v e r i n g t o o many s o c i e t i e s and t o o

many t y p e s o f r e l i g i o u s p h c n o m e n ~ - t e n d i n g t o w a r d s

a b s t r a c t i o n , . , l a c k i n g i n t e r p r c t a t i v c d e p t h s . . , a n d

a t times r e v e a l a n o t i c e a b l e w e s t e r n t h c o l o g i c a l

o r i e n t a t i o n o w 20 T h i s a c c u s a t i o n d i d n o t f u l l y c o n s i d e r

P a r r i n d e r ' s g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t , aim, and t i m e , 21

INDIGENOUS RFRICiiN SCHOLARS A N D nFRICAN RELIGIONS

C o n t r i b u t i o n s o f A f r i c a n s t o t h c s t u d y o f A f r i c a n

r e l i g i o n are immensc, The f i r s t g r o u p were n a t i o n a l i s t

writers who r e a c t e d a g 3 i n s t :Jc?stern a t t i t u d e t o t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , T h i s d - i t c s as f ~ r b a c k a s t h e

l a t c 1 8 0 0 ' s . They bec7rn~ t h e p i o n e e r s of t h e

n a t i ~ n ~ a l i s t s t r u g g l d s f x i n d e p e n d m c c w h i c h came u p

much l a t e r . Th2 o t h a g r o u p i s made u p o f c h r i s t i a n

s c h o l a r s o f A f r i c a n d e s c c n t who l i k e t h e i r E u r o p e a n

m e n t o r s a n d c o l l e a g u e s u s c d t h c i r k n o w l e d g e o f A f r i c a n

r e l i g i o n t o m;>ko t h e C h r i s t i a n g o s p e l m e a n i n g f u l t o

t h c i r A f r i c a n p c o p l z , Thcy r c j e c t e d t h e d e r o g a t o r y

terms w h i c h t h e W e s t e r n s c h o l a r s had p e r s i s t e n t l y u s e d

f o r t h c t r a d i t i o n s 1 r e l i g i o n , T h e i r p r e s u p p o s i t i o n

c o u l d i n a way b e c h r i s t e n e d q9praeparatio-evangelicas' .

The e a r l i e s t g r o u p o f n a t i o n a l i s t w r i t e r s i n c l u d e d

among o t h e r s , Edward W i l m o t B l y d e n , J o E. C a s e l y H a y f o r d ,

J o h n K. S a r b a h , e tc , , who u s e d t h e W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n

t h e y r e c e i v e d t o p r e s e n t a d c f c n c e fc:r t h c m i s r e p r e -

s e n t e d A f r i c a n c :u l tu rc~ and t(-. d e f z n d thL2 c a u s e o f t h e

n e g r o e s ,

E , W , B lydcn was n b r i l l i a n t Wes t - Ind ian-born

L i b e r i a n s t a t c s m a ~ ? , fi0i-n i n 3.832 h,: cmiL]rz.tt:d t o L i b e r i a

a t t h e a g e o f e i g h t c z n , T h 2 r e i n f i o n ~ o v i ? , h e a t t e n d e d

A l e x a n d r i a n High S c h o o l rmd t r - i i n e d a s a t c a c h e r and

c l e r g y m a n u n d e r i t s p r i n c i p a l , Rev. D, A. W i l s o n , a

g r a d u a t e o f P r i n c e t o n T h , . : o l o g i c ~ l C o l l e g z , H e s t u d i e d

t h e o l o g y , c l a s s i c s , g e o g r a p h y and m a t h e m a t i c s , H e

became a Lay P r e a c h e r i n 1 5 5 3 , t u t o r i n 1 8 5 4 a n d w a s

o r d a i n e d a P r e s b y t e r i a n M i n i s t e r i n 1858 , and l a t e r

s u c c e e d e d Rev, Wi l son . H e became a well-known a u t h o r

( o v e r n i n e t y w o r k s i n c l u d i n g f i f t e e n b o o k s and p m p h l e t s )

and d i e d i n S i e r r a Leone w h e r e h e s p e n t h i s l a s t y e a r s . 22

H i s p r i m a r y c o n c e r n was t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h e

f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m o f h i s r a c e - how t o d i s p e l t h e

l i n g e r i n g myth of E u r o p e a n p c o p l e ' s i d e a o f t h e

i n f e r i o r i t y of t h e n z g r o e s , By t h e e a r l y 1870's it

became a l m o s t clear t o B l y d e n t h a t t h e modern

t r a n s - t r i b a l West A f r i c a n n a t i o n w h i c h h e e n v i s a g e d

w o u l d n o t come o u t t h r o u g h a n y l a r g e scale NGW Wor ld

B l z c k e m i g r a t i o n t o Wcst / l f r i c ~ . H e t h i l r e f o r e s o u g h t

to make b l a c k R f r i c 2 a respected a n d i m p o r t a n t

p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e w o r l d of cc;mmunity of n a t i o n s ,

d e v o t i n g h i s l i f c tc) f u l l - t i m e e n l i g h t e n m e n t o f t h e

B l a c k . An i m p o r t a n t mcms b y w h i c h B l y d c n s o u g h t t o create

t h e c c n s c i o u s n e s s of b e l o n g i n g t o o n c West African

communi ty o n t h e p a r t o f t h z E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g West b

A f r i c a n s w a s b y f o s t e r i n g p r i d e i n t h e h i s t o r y a n d

c u l t u r e o f t h e n e g r o race,

So i n 1 8 7 2 , h e f o u n d e d i n F r e e t o w n , The N e g r o - a Weekly Newspaper a n d i n 1 8 7 4 , T h e West A f r i c a n

R e p o r t e r , T h r o u g h t h e s z , he d i s s e m i n a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n

a b o u t t h e q u a l i t i e s of t h e Negro race. H i s w r i t i n g s

t h e r e f o r e were b o t h c r i t i c a l a n d c o n s t r u c t i v e .

I n 1 8 8 7 , B l y d e n w r o t e C h r i s t i a n i t y , Islam and t h e

N e g r o Race i n w h i c h h e a d v a n c e d t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l

t h e s i s t h a t I s l a m had an c l c v a t i n g a n d u n i f y i n g

i n f l u e n c e - w h i c h d i d n o t d i s r u p t t h c A f r i c a n s o c i a l

f a b r i c . H c w e n t o n t,:j a r g u e t h a t I s l a m had b r o u g h t

A f r i c a n s t h e b e n e f i t s o f 3. major x o r l d c i v i l i z a t i o n

w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g i n them -3 s e n s e o f i n f i - ? r i o r i t y , I n

1908, h e p u b l i s h e d t h e A f r i c a n L i f e a n d Cus toms i n

w h i c h 1-12 s o u g h t t o show t h a t t h e r e e x i s t e d a n A f r i c a n

s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c s y s t e m w h i c h i n n o way c o u l d be

d e s c r i b e d a s i n f z r i o r v t o a n y o t h c x s y s t e m . H i s

o v e r - r e a c t i o n s as a champion o f t h e Negro c a u s e were

c o n s e q u e n t upon t h e c x t r c m e w h i t c d e v a s t a t i n g r e m a r k s

o n t h e A f r i c a n s o f h i s t i n e o

J, E, C a s c l y Mayfarc? was br:rn i n Ghana t o a

c l e r g y m a n , Rcv, J o s z p n d ~ Grift H a y f o r d , H e a t t e n d e d

t h e F o u r a h Say C o l l e g c b e f o r e r c t p r n i n q t o Cape C o a s t

as a t e a c h e r , L a t e r , h e w c n t t o E n g l a n d and s t u d i e d

Law, L i k e B l y d c n , Hayf i>~-d b t c a m e o n e o f t h e ea r l i es t

A f r i c a n j o u r n a l i s t s , H3 U S C A h i s p r i v i l e g e a s a

member of t h e Gold C o a s t L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l i n 1916

t o p r o j e c t ' A f r i c a n p e r s o n a l i t y v .

I n h i s E t h i o p i a Unbound: S t u d i e s i n Race

E m a n c i p a t i o n (1911) H a y f o r d , a r g u e d t h a t t h e way t o v -

p r o j e c t A f r i c a n p e r s o n a l i t y was t h r o u g h t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n

of t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n . H e t h e r e f o r e a d v o c a t e d

t h a t A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s s h o u l d be s t u d i e d d i l i g e n t l y ,

H e w e n t on t o d e s c r i b e F a n t e r e l i g i o n as an e p i t o m e of

A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n . T h e s e a n d s imi la r o t h e r

w o r k s i n t h i s g r o u p were n o t s y s t e m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n

of West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n b u t a n a p o l o g e t i c d e f e n c e of

Abraham, K , A. B u s i a , and E. B. Idowu, f o r l ' c l o t h i n g

A f r i c a n d e i t i e s i n awkward h c l l e n i c g a r m e n t s t 1 ,

S e v e r a l f a c t o r s d e t c r m i n e d and g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d

t h e s t u d i e s o f A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n c a r r i e d

o u t b y many i n d i g e n o u s C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s . The

q u e s t i o n s b e i n g r a i s e d by E u r o p e a n s as w c l l a s o t h e r

A f r i c a n C h r i s t ims prompted t h e t y p e o f s t u d y c a r r i e d

o u t b y one C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n 3r t h e o t h e r . For

i n s t a n c e , J. 8 , Danquah i n t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s was r e a c t i n g

a g a i n s t t h e European d e n i a l OF t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e

Supreme God i n A f r i c a n l i f e , The q u e s t i o n o f t h e

p l a c e o f God made Danqunh i n h i s Akan D o c t r i n e of God

( 1 9 4 4 ) e m p h a s i z e t h e m o n o t h e i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s and

s t r u c t u r e o f h i s p e o p l e ' s r c l i g i o n as a g a i n s t t h e

p o l y t h e i s m w h i c h Wes t c rn s c h o l a r s had daubed it.

I n n b i d t o make t h i s s t a n d c l c a r , Danquah a d o p t e d

a me thodo logy wh ich t e n d e d t o b e b o t h p o l c m i c and

a p o l o g e t i c and came t o a c c m c l u s i o n w h i c h l ooked " t o o

a r t i f i c i a l " : t h a t of making Akan names and c o n c e p t s

of God a k i n t o t h o s e o f t h e A n c i e n t Near E a s t ,

P r o f e s s o r E, B, Idowu p i c k e d up t h c same theme of

t h e Supreme Be ing i n a d o c t o r a l r e s e a r c h w h i c h he

p r e s e n t e d t o t h c U n i v e r s i t y of London i n 1955 , The

Yoruba s c h o l a r , l a t e r p u b l i s h e d t h ~ z work i n 1962 w i t h

t h e t i t l e , Olodumare: God i n Yoruba B e l i e f . Idowu,

l i k e Danquah b e f o r e him p r o j e c t s t h e b a s i c Yoruba

belief i n t h e Supremc Be ing and s t r u g g l c s t o make h i s

r e a d e r s se? Yoruba b e l i e f a s m o n o t h e i s t i c o r a t w o r s t

as " d i f f u s e d monothe i smsf . H e e x p l o r e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

be tween t h e Supreme and o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e d e i t i e s i n

Yoruba p a n t h e o n ,

- When t h e v a r i o u s C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n s saw t h a t i t

was n o l o n g e r r e a s o n a b l e t o c u t o f f A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n s

b e f o r e p l a n t i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h z i r p o l i c y t o w a r d s

" o t h e r n o n - C h r i s t i a n r c l i g i o n s w t r e m e n d o u s l y changed ,

They d e c i d e d t o s t u d y v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e t r a d i -

t i o n n l r e l i g i o n . Fo r i n s t a n c e , a good number o f Roman

C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s u n d e r t o o k t h e s t u d y o f s u c h a s p e c t s

l i k e t h e p l a c e and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f A f r i c a n names,

t i t l e s , p r o v e r b s , t r a d i t i o n a l m a r r i a g e , s a c r i f i c e ,

f u n e r a l r i tes , t h e p l a c e o f a n c e s t o r s and w o r l d v i e w s ,

etc. as a b a s e f o r m e a n i n g f u l d i a l o g u e be tween

C h r i s t i a n i t y and t h c t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . (We s h a l l

l a t e r come t o t h i s i n a g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n c h a p t e r f o u r ) .

It i s t h e samc c o n c e r n fc>r a m c m i n g f u l and

c o n t e x t u a l c x i s t c n c e of C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t P r o f e s s o r

H a r r y Sawye r r h a s s t u d i e d s - mc ~ s p c c t s of t h e t r a d i -

t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . P r o f e s s o r Zawyer r , n Canon 2f t h c

A n g l i c a n C h u r c h , a v e t e r m t e a c h e r

a d m i n i s t r a t o r , i s a t h e o l o g i a n who

u n i v e r s i t y

b e e n w o r k i n g

f o r t h e " i n d i g e n i z a t i o n of C h r i s t i m i t y Q g t h r o u g h a

d e e p k n o w l e d g e of A f r i c a n re1 i g i o n ,

I n o n e o f h i s numerous w o r k s , God: A n c e s t o r or

C r e a t o r ? ( 1 9 7 0 ) , Canon S a w y e r r p r o v i d e s a new

a p p r o a c h - t h e T h c m z t i c i i p p r o a c h i n t h e s t u d y o f God

i n t h r e e West A f r i c m societies - t h e Akan, Mende a n d

Yoruba , u s i n g m a t e r i q l s o f scme p r e v i o u s s c h o l a r s i n

t h e f i e l d . H e made c o p i o u 9 u s e o f t h e m a t e r i a l s i n

t h e l a n g u a g e , l i t e r a t u r e , s o c i a l l i f e and i n s t i t u t i o n s

of e a c h of t h e t h r e e e t h n i c g r o u p s .

I n The 9 r i n q s o f Mende Belief a n d C o n d u c t j o i n t l y -

p u b l i s h e d w i t h W. T. Harris ( 1 9 6 8 1 , S a w y e r r makes a

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e r n s of t h e Mendc

w i t h s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s on t h e m o r a l i t y a n d s t a b i l i t y

of t h e s o c i e t y . H e e x p l o r e s how C h r i s t i a n i t y c o u l d

u t i l i z c t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f d i s c i p l i n e

a n d m o r a l i t y i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t s of

means of s o c i a l c o n t r o l ,

Canon S a w y e r r ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n i n p r c s c n t i n g A f r i c a n

r e l i g i o n as r e l i g i o n p e r sc h a s b e e n b o t h s t i m u l a t i n g

a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i v e b u t h i s e v a n g e l i c a l zt:zl, l i k e o t h e r

m i s s i o n - o r i z n t c d s c h o l a r s , smms t o o v e r s h a d o w h i s

d e s i r e t o a l l o w t h e r e l i g i o n t o c o - e x i s t w i t h

C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

As a n ovcr -v iew t o t h z v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s of w o r k s

a n d a p p r o a c h e s , o n e c a n i d e n t i f y more r e c e n t w o r k s

w h i c h p o i n t t o a new d i r e c t i o n i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d

i n t e r p r e t i n g A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l beliefs and

p r a c t i c e s . T h i s h a s t a k e n d i f f e r m t f o r m s . Among

them i s t h e c u l t u r c - a r e a s t u d y w h i c h h a s n o t b e e n f u l l y

e x p l o r c d and u t i l i z e d by g c h o l a r s .

However, P r o f e s s o r C. Gaba h a s t r i c d i t w h i l e

c o l l e c t i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e A n l o t r a d i t i o n a l

believers ' c o n c e p t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e

"Holyv - t h u s s h a r i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l m e t h o d s i n t h e s t u d y of p r i m a l

r e l i g i o n s , Some i n s p i r a t i o n c a n be drawn from w h a t

D r . E. Ikcnga-Mctuh h a s r e c e n t l y d o n e on t h e I g b o - t r y i n g t o p r e s e n t some f a c t s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i -

g i o n f rom t h e v i e w - p o i n t o f t h e o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n of

a n t h r o p o l o g y o r s o c i o l o g y b u t a l s c i n c o r p o r a t i n g them. 23

The o t h e r i s t h z s o - c a l l 4 ' m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l '

s t a n c e of Aylward S h o r t c r and B c n j m i n Ray. Both d i d

n o t sct out t o s t u d y $:?st i f r i c r l n I%?l ig ion p e r sc,

b u t t h e i r c a l l f o r a n a d c q u q t e m e t h o d o l o g y h ~ s b e e n

r e n e w e d b y H. W, T u r n e r i n a r e c e n t a r t ic le . 24

P r o f e s s o r B. C. Ray i n 1976 p u b l i s h e d A f r i c a n

R e l i g i o n s : Symbols , R i t u a l s and Community, I n i t h e

b e g m w i t h a r e v i e w o f v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s w h i c h had

b e e n u s e d t o s t u d y i n i f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s , H e f i n a l l y

a d o p t e d w h a t m i g h t be c a l l e d a " u n i f i e d f ' o r ' m u l t i -

d i m e n s i o n a l ' a p p r o a c h ,

The s t r e n g t h o f t h i s work l i e s i n t h e way Ray

p r e s e n t e d t h e r e l i g i o n i n r c l a . t i o n t o t h e s o c i a l con-

t e x t and t r i e d t o i n t e r p r e : i t a s a s y s t e m o f t h o u g h t

and p r a c t i c e s i n i t s own r i g h t , However, t h e r e l i g i o u s 1 I

s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h z s y s t e m i s n ~ ~ t f u l l y b r o u g h t o u t ,

p o s s i b l y d u c t o a b i a s tc>wards h i s own a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

i n t e r e s t s . H e c a r e f u l l y a v o i d e d o v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

w h i c h h a s b e c n t h e b a n 2 of m o s t w o r k s on A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n .

One o t h e r p r o b l c m gf t h z work l ids i n t h e a u t h o r ' s

c h o i c e o f materials on w h i c h t h c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w e r e

b a s e d . Some o f t h c r i t u a l s h e f m a l y s e d a r c u n i q u e t o

t h e v e r y s o c i e t i e s t h , ? t h a v e them, Th? c o n c l u s i o n s

c o u l d t h e r e f o r e n o t w i d e l y a p p l y .

S e v e r a l o t h e r w o r k s f r o m t h c v a r i o u s g r o u p s o f

l i t e r a t u r e a l r e n d y i d e n t i f i e d and h a v e b e c n u s e d i n t h e

main body of t h i s work, w i l l be a p p r o p r i a t e l y acknow-

l e d g e d ,

1, J,F.Fi, A j a y i m d E , A. Ay-mdele , 7 rEmcrg ing Themes i n N i g e r i a n and Wcst A f r i c a n R c l i g i o u s H i s t o r y " , J o u r n a l o f r i f r i c a n S t u d i e s , 1, 1 ( 1 9 7 4 1 28.

2, N o Q. K i n q , "The Quccn of t h e S c i e n c e s as a Modern /if r icm P r o f e s s i - o n a l Womanu, A M a k e r e r e I n a u q u r a l L e c t u r e ( ~ u l y 1 4 , 19661 , pp, 11 & f5,

-7

Robert Boqdon and S t c v e n J, T a y l o r . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o ~ u a l i t , < t i v e -- R e s e a r c h ~ e t h o d s : ~ k e n o r n e n o l o ~ i c a l & r o a c h t o S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , (New York: J o h n W i l e y Co,, 1 9 7 5 1, p - 5 ,

4, J.O.K. O l u p o n a , "A ~ h ~ n o r n e n o l o g i c a l / ~ n t h r o p o l o g i c a l A n a l y s i s of t h e R e l . i g i o n o f Ondo-Yoruba o f N i g e r i a s s ( P h o D o T h e s i s , Univ, , o f B o s t o n , 1 9 8 3 1 , p.6.

C

5 , J,F.A, A j a y i a n d E , ;io ,Zyandele , I b i d .

6. Aylward S h o r t e r , A f r i c a n C h r i s t i a n T h e o l o g ( G r e a t B r i t a i n : G e o f f r e y Chapman, 19751, 3

7. R i c h a r d West, B a c k t o Afr ica: k H i s t o r y o f S i e r r a Leone a n d ~ibe&i, , [London: J o n a t h a n C a p e , l 9 7 O ) ,

0

8, R , F. B u r t o n , M i s s i o n to Gelele, King of ~ a h o r n e , V o l , I I , (London: T i r i S 1 - e y ~ B r o t h e r s , 1 8 6 0 , 199,

9 , Quoted b y E, E, E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , T h e o r i e s o f P r i m i t i v e R e l i q i o n , ( O x f o r d : The C l a r e n d o n P r e s s ,

6% p.19-

10. G. I. J o n e s , " S o c i a l A n t h r o p o l o q y i n N i q e r i a .- - d u r i n g ~ o l o n i a l P c r i c d u A F R I C ~ ~ 44 , 3 T J U ~ Y 1 9 7 4 ) ,

9 - 9 281.

11, Kofi A, Opc;ku, West A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i q i o n , ( ~ c c r a : P,E.B,, 1 9 m 7 2 -

T h e o d o r e H, Van L a u e , s t R n t h r c p o l o q y a n d Power : - - R o So R a t t r a y among t h e A s h a n t i n , AFRICAN AFFAIRS, 75 , 298 ( J a n . 1 9 7 6 1 , 3 3 ,

R e S. R a t t r h y , J i s h a n t C , (Lcmdon, 1 9 2 3 1 , p.11; C f . - .- AeF, R o b i n s o n , q s 2 m t h r ~ ~ p o l o g y a n d Government i n

Po A. T a l b o t , ThL> Peoplcs of S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a , Vol.1, (London , 1 9 2 6 1 , p.V.

Robin H o r t o n , ? l D d s t i n y a n d t h c U n c r m s c i o u s i n West A f r i c a s y , AFRICA, 3 1 , 2 (19611, 114 .

To J. B o w ~ n , 'sRowdn P s p z r s ? ' ( U n i v e r s i t y of I b a d a n L i b r m y , J u l y 1 0 , l 8 S l ) ,

To J . Bowen, r i c ~ v c n t u r c s m d M i s s i m a r y L a b o u r , (London , l 8 5 7 T ~ e ~ r i n t z d , F rahk C a s s , 29681, 1 7 6 .

G. To M m l e y , R a r i e w of Basden : Rmonq t h e I b o s o f N i q e r i a i n C h u r c h M i s s i m a r y Rev iew, 1920-1923.

B. C. Ray, s ' R c c c n t S t u d i e s i n A f r i c , m R e l i g i o n t f , H i s t o r y of H z - l i q i o n s , 1 2 , 1 ( ~ u g u s t 1 9 7 2 ) , 8 2 .

I n a p r i v a t e d i s c u s s i o n w i t h t h c p r e s e n t writer i n O c t o b e r 1 9 8 3 , P r o f e s s o r P a r r i n d e r e x p l a i n e d t h a t h i s ma in i n t e r z s t a 1 1 t h e time h a s b e e n t o g i v e f u l l t h e o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e l i g i o n o f a n y p e o p l e as a r h l i g i o n . S u b s e q u e n t s c h o l a r s c o u l d make a n y t h i n g o u t of h i s d e s c r i p t i o n .

M e Yu F r a n k c l . qtEdward Blyden a n d t h e C o n c e p t of A f r i c a n ~ c r s o n n l i t ~ " , ~ f r i c a n A f f a i r s , 72 , 292 ( J u l y 1 9 7 4 ) , 277; H o l l i s R. Lynch , B l a c k Statesman: S e l c c t e d P u b l i s h e d W r i t i n q s .o f E, W. B l y d e n , (London: F r a n k CSss & Co. L td . , l 9 7 l ) , paXIff, ; P. O l i s a n w u c h e E s e d e b e , 9 t W i l m o t ~ l y d e n 1532-1913 a s a P a n - A f r i c a n T h e o r i s t n ,

23. C h r i s t i a n Gabn, Scriptures o f a n A f r i c a n P e o p l e : T h e Sacred U t t e r a n c e s o f t h e A n l o , (New York : N.O.K, P u b l i s h e r s , 1973); E. Ikenga Metuh , God a n d Man i n A f r i c a n ~ e l i q i o n , ond don: Geoffrey -Ch5pman, 2m1,

24. H. W. T u r n e r . ?'The Wav F o r w a r d i n t h e S t u d y of - ~ ~- -

A f r i c a n p r i m a l ~ e l i ~ i o n s " , J o u r n a l of ~ e l i g i o n i n Africa, 1 2 , 1 ( 1 9 8 1 1 , 10%.

CHAPTER TWO

EARLY WRITINGS ON TRADITIONAL RELIGION OF WEST AFRICii U_

1. ACCOUNTS OF EI LRLY TR!'iVELLL'RS, TRADERS, EXPLORERS, ZTC,

I b n B a t t u t a l s j o u r n e y f r o m N o r t h A f r i c a t o t h e Old

Empires o f Wes te rn S u d m d i d n o t , i n t h e m a i n , e m b r a c e

t h e coas ta l West R f r i c a n c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t t h e f i f t e e n t h

a n d s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s Z u r o p e a n s v i s i t e d , Y e t , t h e

p e o p l e met by e i t h e r t h e Arab t r a v e l l e r s f r o m t h e N o r t h

o r t h e E u r o p e a n s a l o n g t h e C o a s t , were b l a c k . ' Thomas

Hodgkin h a s h a i l e d t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e Arab t r a v e l l e r s a n d

g e o g r a p h e r s b e c a u s e t h e y :

"cover a p e r i o d r o u g h l y f r o m t h e e i g h t h t o t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s - d u r i n g w h i c h Europe had v i r t u a l l y n o k n o w l e d g e o f and n o c o n t a c t w i t h West ~ f r i c a , " 2

The a c c o u n t o f t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e " u n b e l i e v i n g

b l a c k s f i w a s c o n c e n t r a t e d o n c a n n i b a l i s m t h a t w a s s a i d t o

be common t h e n . F o r i n s t a n c e I b n B a t t u t a r e p o r t e d o f a

v i s i t o f a g r o u p of b l a c k s t o S u l t a n Mansa S u l e i m a n ( i n

t h e W e s t e r n ~ u d a n ) who d e m o n s t r a t e d h i s h o s p i t a l i t y t o

them b y o f f e r i n g them a s l a v e woman whom t h e y s l a u g h t e r e d

and ate. Some o f the b l a c k s t o l d him ( h e c l a i m e d 1, t h a t

t h e tas t ies t m e a t i n t h e f l e s h o f women i s t h e p a l m and

t h e b r e a s t . 3

The c a n n i b a l - m y t h seemed t o h a v e b e e n w i d e s p r e a d .

One o u t s t a n d i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t l e n t c r e d e n c e to t h e view

t h a t b l a c k A f r i c a n s a t e human f l e s h f r o m t a s t e a n d p r e -

f e r e n c e i s C a v a z z i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Kingdom of t h e

Congo, Motemba a n d A n g o l a . The a r t i s t o f t h a t f i n e

q u a r t o vo lume w h i c h was p u b l i s h e d i n B a l o g n a i n 1 6 7 8

g a v e a v i v i d e x p r e s s i o n to t h i s p o p u l a r belief i n Europe .

H e o f f e r e d a s p l e n d i d l y cjraph)ic l i n e - e n g r a v i n g of a

c a n n i b a l s c e n e i n w h i c h severa l A n g o l a n s w e r e b u t c h e r i n g

human l i m b s a n d c o o k i n g them i n g r i d i r o n , 4

I r o n i c a l l y , A f r i c a n s o n t h e i r own p a r t h e l d s imilar

view of c a n n i b a l i s m a g a i n s t t h e E u r o p e a n s . T h e u n p r e -

c e d e n t e d b r u t a l i t y w h i c h t h e s l a v e s s u f f e r e d c o n f i r m e d

t h e i r s u s p i c i o n a n d fears . J o h n D a r b o t who was a n A g e n t

of t h e Royal Company o f A f r i c a n w h i c h s h i p p e d s l a v e s to

t h e New Wor ld , h a d o n c e r e m a r k e d i n 1 6 3 3 , t h a t among t h e

s l a v e s t h a t t h e y c a r r i e d t o A m e r i c a ,

t t . o , w e r e many .., who were p o s i t i v e l y p r e p o s s e s s e d w i t h t h e o p i n i o n t h a t w e t r a n s p o r t them i n t o o u r c o u n t r y i n o r d e r t o k i l l a n d e a t them ... and b e l i e v e d t h e E u r o p e a n s t o b e g r e a t a n d i r r e d e e m a b l e c a n n i b a l s . "5

O l a u d a h E q u i a n o , a n Igbo e x - s l a v e who l a t e r l i v e d i n

EnglanQ as a f r e e m a n ( w i t h t h e name G u s t a v u s V a s s a l

wrote i n h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y a v i v i d a c c o u n t o f h i s

e x p e r i e n c e s , H e c l e a r l y n a r r a t e d how h e c o n c l u d e d

t h a t t h e s t e w p o t w a s h i s f a t e when h e saw a l a r g e

f u r n a c e o r c o p p e r b o i l i n g i n t h e s h i p , H e o b s e r v e d h e

was n o t a l o n e i n t h i s v i e w b e c a u s e a m u l t i t u d e o f b l a c k

p e o p l e of e v e r y d e s c r i p t i o n c h a i n e d t o g e t h e r w i t h

c o u n t e n a n c e s e x p r e s s i n g d e j e c t i o n and sorrows, a l s o

c o n c l u d e d i n t h e i r m i n d s t h a t t h e y would e n d u p i n t h e

s t e w p o t of t h e i r w h i t e c a p t o r s . , C a p t a i n T h e o d o r e C a n o t , a n o u t s t a n d i n g s l a v e t r a d e r

h a s c l e a r l y d e s c r i b e d t h e b r u t a l t r e a t m e n t which t h e

s l a v e s r e c e i v e d 6 w h i c h w a s s u f f i c i e n t to m a k e them con-

e l u d e t h a t t h e i r w h i t e c a p t o r s were g r o s s l y inhuman and

c a n n i b a l i s t i c .

T h e s e e a r l y a c c o u n t s were a d o r n e d w i t h p i c t u r e s q u e

e l e m e n t s d e s i g n e d t o t i t i l l a t e r e a d e r s e a g e r for e x o t i c

- a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e m i l i e u i n w h i c h t h e t r a v e l l e r s and

a d v e n t u r e r s l i v e d . A f e w e x a m p l e s o f t h e s e r e m a r k s

w e u l d s u f f i c e to i l l u s t r a t e t h e i r i n a c c u r a c y , b i a s a n d

p r e j u d i c e ,

D u a r t e P e c h e c o P e r e i r a ( l S O 5 - l S 2 O ) s p e a k i n g o n t h e

r e l i g i o n of t h e N e g r o e s a r o u n d Rio Formosa a l o n g t h e

G u i n e a C o a s t r e m a r k e d , among o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t :

"There are l o t s o f w r o n g f u l u s a g e s i n t h e way t h e y l i v e ,,, I s h a l l n o t s p e a k on t h e i r f e t i s h and i d o l s ,,. The N e g r o e s are i d o l a t r o u s . W e s h a l l a v o i d m e n t i o n i n g them , , , "7

D e B a r r o s , c o n s i d e r e d t h e g r e a t e s t a u t h o r i t y o n

P o r t u g u e s e , A f r i c a n a n d A s i a t i c t r a v e l s o f h i s t i m e ,

w r i t i n g a b o u t 1 5 3 9 l e f t n o o b j e c t i v e i m p r e s s i o n s e i t h e r .

I n R. H a k l u y t l s P r i n c i p a l N a v i q a t i o n s , w e hav-5 a l i s t of

E u r o p e a n t r a v e l l e r s who were b y mid 1 5 5 0 ' s a s close a s

t o t h e E l Mina and Yenin , They a l s o l e f t a w f u l

i m p r e s s i o n s on t h e r e l i g i o n 09 t h e N e g r o e s o f West

Africa. They i n c l u d e t h e unknown Dutchman, D o K O ,

P e t e r D, Marees, De Bry P i n t e a d o , etc. 8

About a c e n t u r y l a t e r , came D r , Flammond D I O l f a r t

Dapper (1668). From t h e n o n w a r d s , when g r e a t d i s c o v e r i e s

b e g a n t o be made i n s c i e n c e , a new set o f r i d i c u l o u s

r e m a r k s o n t h e n e g r o e s o f West Africa and t h e i r r e l i g i o n

came up ; t h o u g h b a s i c a l l y w i t h o u t a n y s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e

from t h o s e g i v e n ea r l i e r o n , The s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y

p e r i o d w a s o n e of g r e a t r u s h f o r new areas o f c o m m e r c i a l

i n t e r e s t s i n E u r o p e - To them, t h e n e g r o e s h a v e

c o n f u s e d mass of r i d i c u l o u s s u p e r s t i t i o n s ~ ' ( d 9 E l b e 1; ' a world of s u p e r s t i t i o u s c u s t o m s t t ( S n e l g r a v e ) ; "a k i n d of i d o l a t r y o f a n u n b e l i e v a b l e a b s u r d i t y 1 # ( P r u n l a u d e ~ o m m e r g e o r g e ) .

F o r David N y e n d a e l , i t was ' so r i d i c u l o u s a n d s u c h a mess, t h e y p r o f e s s t o w o r s h i p b o t h god and d e v i l i n human and b r u t a l i m a g e s ,9

J o h n B a r b o t v s i n v o l v e m e n t i n s l a v e t r a d e p r o b a b l y

i n f l u e n c e d h i s d e r o g a t o r y v i e w s o f t h e n e g r o e s and t h e i r

r e l i g i o n , To him t h e r e l i g i o n

"is a g r o s s s u p e r s t i t i o u s p a g a n i s m , t h o u g h mos t , , . a c k n o w l e d g e a Supreme Being b u t i n a v e r y e r r o n e o u s manner ., , b e i n g t h u s p r e p o s s e s s e d t h e y t u r n t h e i r t h o u g h t s a n d p r a c t i c e s t o t h o s e a b s u r d i n f e r i o r g o d s i n whom t h e y p u t a l l t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e o s l 1 0

The n e g r o e s t h e m s e l v e s t o him were,

I 8 e x t r e m e l y s e n s u a l , k n a v i s h , r e v e n g e f u l , i m p u d e n t l i a r s , i m p e r t i n e n t , g l u t t o n o u s , e x t r a v a g a n t .,, s o i n t e m p e r a t e t h a t t h e y d r i n k b r a n d y as if i t w e r e water; d e c e i t f u l i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h E u r o p e a n s ... r o b a n d c o m m i t m u r d e r s on t h e h i g h w a y s . , . the b l a c k s a r e s o d e x t r o u s and e x p e r t i n s t e a l i n g t h a t t h e y w i l l rob a n European b e f o r e h i s face, w i t h o u t b e i n g g e r c e i v ' d b y him , , , 1 I

11

An e x p l o r e r , C a p t a i n J. Welsh was i n Ben in a t t h e

same t i m e w i t h Dapper ( 1 6 6 8 1 , H i s a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e

n e g r o e s and t h e i r r e l i g i o n was t h a t t h e y were men and

women o f

' ! b e a s t l y l i v i n g , w i t h o u t a God, laws, r e l i g i o n o r Commonwealth, 12

C a p t a i n Welsh d e n i e d t h e N e g r o e s a n y f a r m o f r e l i g i o n o r

k n o w l e d g e of God, H e f o r g o t t h a t e a r l i e r , P o r t u g u e s e

m i s s i o n a r i e s t o Benin saw a w e l l - o r g a n i s e d Kingdom r u l e d

by a m o n a r c h who w a s so p o w e r f u l t h a t when t h e y t o o k

t h e news t o K i n g J o h n I1 of P o r t u g a l , (1481-1495 ), h e

s o u g h t to o p e n a f r i e n d l y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a n d c o n t a c t

w i t h t h e B e n i n m o n a r c h . T h e y s a w t h e Oba a s o n e who

o c c u p i e d a h i g h e r p o s t i n h i s d o m a i n t h a n t h e P o p e d i d

i n C a t h o l i c E u r o p e , b e c a u s e h e w a s s e e n by h i s s u b j e c t s

n o t o n l y a s God I s V i c e r e g e n t o n e a r t h b u t a l s o a s a g o d

h i m s e l f ,

W i l l i a m Basman who w a s d e s c r i b e d a s t h e C h i e f

F a c t o r of t h e D u t c h Company a t lC1 Mina h a d a n a w f u l

i m p r e s s i o n of t h e B l a c k s a s d i d John Barhot. An a s t u t e

t r a d e r , h e was s u r p r i s e d t o f i n d some d i s h o n e s t n e g r o e s

who c h e a t e d h im, C o n s e q u e n t l y h e c o n c l u d e d t h a t :

" t h e N e g r o e s are w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , c r a f t y , v i l l a i n o u s a n d f r a u d u l e n t a n d v e r y seldom t o be t r u s t e d , b e i n g s u r e t o s l i p n o o p p o r t u n i t y o f c h e a t i n g a n y E u r o p e a n o r i n d e e d o n e a n o t h e r . A man of i n t e r g r i t y is as r a r e among them a s a w h i t e f a l c o n .,, f o r t h e y seem i n d e e d t o be h o r n a n d b r e d a s v i l l a i n s . 0f13

On t h e r e l i g i o n p r o p e r , Bos rnan t s v i e w s , m o d e l l e d o n t h e

e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n t h e o l o g i c a l t h o u g h t ,

s a w n o t h i n g b u t a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h ,

I f t h e n e g r o e s i d o l i z e s u c h w o r t h l e s s n o t h i n g s b y r e a s o n t h a t s e v e r a l a m o n g s t t hem h a v e n o , , . i d e a of t h e D e i t y . "

On t h e c u l t i c s y m b o l s , Bosman, b o r r o w i n g t h e l a n g u a g e o f

the ear l i e r P o r t u g u e s e v i s i t o r s s a i d t h a t t h e West

A f r i c a n s i n t h e i r o b t u s e s t a t e o f m i n d ,

f q . O . c r y , l e t u s make F e t i c h e , By w h i c h t h e y e x p r e s s a s much a s l e t u s p e r f o r m o u r r e l i g i o u s w o r s h i p o "

1 4

E u r o p e a n s who f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s i n o t h e r p a r t s o f

A f r i c a l e f t s imi lar d e r o g a t o r y r e m a r k s on t h e t y p e o f

r e l i g i o n t h e y f o u n d , F o r i n s t a n c e , H e r b e r t Thomas,

u n d e r t h e s p e l l o f t h e same i n t e l l e c t u a l m i l i e u ,

b e t r a y s t h e w e a k n e s s o f t h e c u r s o r y method o f t h e

p e r i o d - mere o b s e r v a t i o n : l a 8 k o f f i e l d w o r k , n o

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e l o c a l l a n g u a g e , etc. W r i t i n g o n

t h e H o t t e n t o s o f S o u t h Afr ica , h e c l a i m e d t h a t :

"1 h a v e made a l l s i g n s t o d i s c o v e r some s p a r k s o f r e l i g i o n , o f k n o w l e d g e o f Godly h e a v e n , h e l l o r i m m o r t a l i t y , I c o u l d n o t f i n d a n y t h i n g t h a t way; no p l a c e o f w o r s h i p , n o d a y o f rest , no o r d e r i n n a t u r e , no b l a m e , n o t r u t h , no c e r e m o n y i n b i r t h o r b u r i a l s , mere b r u t i s h n e s s a n d s t u p i d n e s s o v e r s h a d o w i n g themot '15

O u t o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' s g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t i n

i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d c u l t u r a l p r o g r e s s , came a more s p e c i a l i z e d

c o n c e r n w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f human d e v e l o p m e n t ; t h a t i s t h e

s u c c e s s i v e s t e p s o r s t a g e s t h r o u g h w h i c h mankind had

p a s s e d t o r e a c h i t s p r e s e n t e m i n e n c e , T h i s m i g h t h a v e

m o t i v a t e d C h a r l e s d e B r o s s e s t o p i c k up s e v e r a l I I I

1

d e s p i c a b l e r e m a r k s made b y ::uropeans o f t h e p r e c e e d i n g

c e n t u r i e s o n t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e n e g r o e s a n d p u b l i s h e d

C u l t o f t h e F e t i s h Gods i n 1 7 4 0 . I n i t , h e wrote among

o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t :

~ l t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f F e t i s h i s m a s p r a c t i s e d i n J u d a h (Whydah?) a l i t t l e Kingdom a l o n g t h e G u i n e a C o a s t w i l l s e r v e a s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f s imi lar phenomenon w h e r e v e r t h e y o c c u r t h r o u g h o u t t h e rest of A f r i c a ... t h e N e g r o e s l i k e t h e m a j o r i t y o f s a v a g e p e o p l e d o n o t know t h e i d o l a t r y o f d e i f i e d men ,,. among t h e m t h e s u n or t h e f e t i s h e s are t h e t r u e d i v i n i t i e s . "17

In d e Urosses v i e w ' f e t i s h i s m ' , a t y p e f o u n d a l o n g

t h e West A f r i c a n C o a s t was t h q ! o r i g i n t o f r e l i g i o n .

The p r i m a r y c o n c e r n of t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s of t h e c lass ica l

age and t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a l i k e w a s t o l o o k

i m a g i n a t i v e l y b a c k t o t h e ' o r i g i n s of t h i n g s , I t was

t h o u g h t t h a t t h i n g s i n t h e i r s u p p o s e d p r i m a r y s t a t e ,

m i g h t revea l t h e i r t r u e essence a n d real n a t u r e .

E, E, E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d h a s c r i t i c i z e d t h i s t r e n d of

t h o u g h t as an u n s c i e n t i f i c q u e s t . No m a t t e r w h i c h v i e w

of ' o r i g i n 1 t h e y t o o k , e i t h e r a s ' ea r l i e s t i n t i m e ' o r

l s i m p l e s t i n s t r u c t u r e ' , t h e bas ic a s s u m p t i o n i n t h e

a r g u m e n t was t h a t ' i n t h e s i m p l e s t formD m u s t h a v e b e e n

t h e b a s i s from w h i c h m o r e d e v e l o p e d a n d c o m p l i c a t e d f o r m s

e v o l v e d .

T h i s t r e n d o f t h o u g h t w h i c h c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t h e

e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

t r e m e n d o u s l y b u t t r e s s e d r a c i s m a t t h e t i m e and w a s

r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a c c o u n t s g i v e n o n West A f r i c a n

R e l i g i o n b y European t r a v e l l e r s o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f

t h e p e r i o d ,

S i r R e F o a u r t o n q s a c c o u n t o f West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n

w h i c h w a s p e r h a p s t h e f i r s t s u s t a i n e d e f f o r t w a s

o b v i o u s l y p a t t e r n e d o n e v o l u t i o n a r y t h o u g h t , When

a p p o i n t e d a Vice-Consul i n 1 8 6 1 , B u r t o n was e x p e c t e d t o

l i v e in F e r n a n d o Po - t h e n u s e d a s t h e C o n s u l a r Head-

q u a r t e r s , U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h e was 'mos t o f t h e t i m e away

i n E n g l a n d b e c a u s e o f h i s d i s l i k e o f t h e p l a c e . H e was

s a i d t o b e c o m p l a i n i n g o f h i s b e i n g p o s t e d t o F e r n a n d o

Po. His a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e r e l i g i o n t o o k e v o l u t i o n a r y

trend, To him,

"The n e g r o i s s t i l l a t t h a t r u d e dawn o f f a i t h - f e t i s h i s m and h a s r a r e l y a d v a n c e d t o i d o l a t r y ... H e h a s n e v e r g r a s p e d i d e a s o f p e r s o n a l d e i t y , a d u t y i n l i f e , a moral c o d e o r a shame o f l y i n g , H e r a r e l y b e l i e v e s i n a f u t u r e s t a t e o f r e w a r d s and p u n i s h m e n t w h i c h w h e t h e r t r u e o r n o t , a re i n f a l l i b l e i n d i c e s of human p r o g r e s s , 1118

H i s h a r d e x p e r i e n c e i n l i f e , p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d

h i s c h a r a c t e r w h i c h i n t u r n a f f e c t e d h i s i m p r e s s i o n s o f

t h e N e g r o e s whom h e d i s l i k e d , H e was d e s c r i b e d a s o n e

who

"at t h e b e s t o f times i h c l i n e d to b e c a n t e r k e r o u s . Fame, w e a l t h and p e r s o n a l h a p p i n e s s w e r e s t i l l e l u d i n g him , , . A l i n g u i s t u n e q u a l l e d i n B r i t a i n , a r e l e n t l e s s c o l l e c t o r o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l f a c t s , a w i t t y i f c r a b b e d writer i n p r o s e and v e r s e a n d a man of demonic p e r s o n a l f a s c i n a t i o n ,,, t h e n e g r o e s were n o t t h e o n l y p e o p l e whom Yur ton h a t e d o r d e s p i s e d 0 0 . u 1 9

H i s h a t r e d o f t h e n c g r o e s o f t e n r i c s u l t e d i n s a v a g e

c a r i c a t u r e o f t h e Freetoi . in CreolesD I'o him, t h e

A f r i c a n d i d n o t ha.vc: t h o s e l a t e n t m e n t a l c a p a b i l i t i e s

a s c r i b e d t o him by t h e p h i l a n t h r o p i s t s a n d m i s s i o n a r i e s . +

When B u r t o n v i s i t e d Dahomey, w h a t a c t u a l l y s t r u c k him

was human s a c r i f i c e w h i c h h e g a v e a r e l i g i o u s i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n , t o j u s t i f y h i s s t a n d t h a t t h e n e g r o e s w e r e

s t i l l a t t h a t s t a g e o f r u d e dawn o f f a i t h o H e was

g e n e r a l l y s e e n as a n e x p l o r e r who " t o o k A f r i c a a s h i s

p l a y g r o u n d b u t u n i q u e l y p l a c e d i t w i t h i n a l a r g e r

g l o b a l f r amework o f h i s ~ r e a t i o n ' ~ , 20 1What was i m p l i c i t

i n t h e v i e w s a n d a t t i t u d e s o f e a r l y European v i s i t o r s

t o West A f r i c a i n t h e f i r s t t w o c e n t u r i e s o f c o n t a c t ,

became e x p l i c i t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . F o r i n s t a n c e ,

-::e image o f ? ' D a r k e s t A f r i c a f 1 e i t h e r as an e x p r e s s i o n o f

g e o g r a p h i c a l i g n o r a n c e o r as o n e o f c u l t u r a l p r e j u d i c e ,

was a n i n e t w n t h c e n t l l r y i n v e n t i o n e 2 ' I t was a r o u n d

t h a t p e r i o d t h a t c u l t u r a l p r e j u d i c e and q s c i e n t i f i c l

racism became o b v i o u s i n t h e E u r o p e a n a t t i t u d e t o ~ f r i c a ,

A s i n d i c a t e d a l r e a d y , the c o n t e m p o r a r i e s of B u r t o n

u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e s of the same e v o l u t i o n a r y f r a m e o f

mind p r o d u c e d w o r k s f u l l of r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e - T. J.

H u t c h i n s o n ' s Ir&xessions of West A f r i c a (1858) w a s a

collection of v i e w s w h i c h t h e e x p l o r e r claimed were

what h e o b s e r v e d . A s p e c t s of n o g r o life which p o r t r a y e d

them a s r a t i o n a l human b e i n g s w e r e n o t of i n t e r e s t to

H u k c h i n s o n . His c a s t i g a t i o n of t h e n e g r o e s w a s l a t e r #

a m p l i f i e d in h i s Ten Yearsq W a n d e r i n g s amonq t h e

E t h i o u f r o r n - Senegal t o Gabon p u b l i s h e d i n 1861, H e

showed interest i n t h o s e a s p e c t s of n e g r o c u l t u r e w h i c h ,

judged from t h e s t a n d p o i n t r of E u r o p e a n c u l t u r a l

a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e e s p e c i a l l y o d d , r i d i c u l o u s o r r e p e l l e n t .

ETHNOGRRPHLR5 ' ACCOUNTS

Contemporaries of t h e e a r l y t r a v e l l e r s t o West

Africa who showed i n t e r e s t i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e l i v e s o f

t h e n e g r o e s were men of v a r i o u s b a c k g r o u n d s a n d p r o -

f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g who s e r v e d as ' a m a t e u r e t h n o g r a p h e r s ' .

T h i s t y p e of ' D e s c r i p t i v e E t h n o g r a p h y 9 was p a r t of

natura l h i s t o r y - which was at first-of- i n t e res t to the

t r a v e l l e r s of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s .

F i n a l l y , d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e i n t e r e s t

was e x t e n d e d t o t h e i n t e l l x t u a l s o f t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d ,

t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t s and c o l o n i a l a g e n t s ,

The i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e o f t h e p e r i o d c o n t r o l l e d

and a f f e c t e d t h e t r a v e l l e r s who were i n t e r e s t e d i n

c o l l e c t i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c d a t a . B e s i d e s b e i n g a m a t e u r ,

t h e y had a p u r p o s e t o s e r v e and w e r e e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e

i n s p i r a t i o n of t h e i r a r m - c h a i r m e n t o r s a t home, They

t h e r e f o r e t r i e d t o ' e l u c i d a t e t t h e i d e a s o f t h e ' n a t i v e '

races a b o u t r e l i g i o n , and mag ic , d s i n g some t h e o r e t i c a l

f ramework p r o p o s e d b y t h o s e a r m - c h a i r t h e o r i s t s .

B e s i d e s u n c o n n e c t e d s k e t c h y r e m a r k s on a s p e c t s o f

l i f e o f a few Negroes i n t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n t u r i e s , S i r A. B, E l l i s , a m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r , was

among t h e f i rs t t o a t t e m p t a d e s c r i p t i v e s u r v e y o f some

West A f r i c a n p e o p l e s . W e h a v e a l r e a d y c i t e d t h r e e o f h i s

works , The Twi-Speaking P e o p l e s - (1887 1, The Ewe-Speaking, -

P e o p l e ( 1 8 9 0 ) and The Yoruba-Speakiny P e o p l e s ( 1 8 9 4 ) .

V e s t i g e s o f e v o l u t i o n i s m were s t i l l found i n t h e

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f a c t s p a r t i c u l a r l y a b o u t t h e p l a c e o f

t h e Supreme God o r m o r a l i t y , T h i s e v o l u t i o n a r y f r a m e

of t h o u g h t i n f l u e n c e d E l l i s q d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p be tween m o r a l i t y and r e l i g i o n as h e found i t among

t h e E w e , Yoruba and Tsh i -bpeak inq p e o p l e s . H e a r g u e d t h a t :

" r e l i g i o n a t t h e s t a g e o f g r o w t h i n w h i c h we f i n d i t among t h e E w e , Yoruba a n d t h e T s h i - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s , h a s n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m o r a l i t y , Murder , t h e f t , a n d a l l offences a g a i n s t t h e p e r s o n and a g a i n s t p r o p e r t y are m a t t e r i n w h i c h t h e g o d s h a v e n o i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n a n d i n w h i c h t h e y t a k e n o i n t e r e s t , "22

D r . Ikenga-Metuh h a s e l s e w h e r e s o u g h t t o s y n t h e s i z e

t h e v i e w p o i n t s of s c h o l a r s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

r e l i g i o n and m o r a l i t y i n A f r i c a w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y

t a k i n g them t o t a s k on t h e i r c o n t r a d i c t o r y v i e w s a b o u t

r e l i g i o n and m o r a l i t y i n A f r i c a , 23

#

Mary K i n g s l e y , who p e r h a p s , c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d as a

g r e a t A f r i c a n i s t , b e l i e v e d t h a t many A f r i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s

had n o t b e e n p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d o r i n t e r p r e t e d b y a good

number o f t h e s e a m a t e u r e t h n o g r a p h e r s s t i l l u n d e r t h e

f l u e n c e of t h o s e t h e o r i s t s a t home. I n h e r own v i e w ,

many A f r i c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s c o u l d n o t be p r o p e r l y u n d e r -

s t o o d b e c a u s e o f

l l t h e f a l s e a n d e x a g g e r a t e d v i e w s g i v e n o f t h e m b y s t r a y - t r a v e l l e r s , m i s s i o n a r i e s and o f f i c i a l s who f o r th i3 i r a g g r a n d i s e m e n t . . . made t h e s t a y - a t home s t a t e s m e n t h i n k t h a t A f r i c a n s a r e s t i l l a w f u l s a v a g e s o r s i l l y c h i l d r e n . "24

S h e s t r o n g l y c o n f e s s e d t h a t t h i s was n o t h e r own v i e w

3r t h a t of t h e v e r y s m a l l p a r t y - t h e s c i e n t i f i c

e t h n o l o g i s t s - who d e a l t w i t h A f r i c a n s . A good number I

I

t h o s e a m a t e u r e t h n o g r a p h e r s o f t h e p e r i o d who p a i n t e d V

a w f u l p i c t u r e s o f t h e A f r i c a n s i n c l u d e R o b e r t H. Nassau,

Dudley Kidd, The Savage C h i l d h o o d (London Robert

H. M i l l i g e n : The J u n g l e F o l k of West A f r i c a (1908) a n d

T h e F e t i s h F o l k o f Nest A f r i c a (1912 1; C h a r l e s

P a r t r i d g e : C r o s s R i v e r N a t i v e s (1905 ) ; A. G. L e o n a r d : -111

'The Lower N i q c r and Its T r i b e s (1906 1, C h a r l e s P a r t r i d g e ,

was a o n e time c o l o n i a l D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r i n O g o j a ,

S o u t h - E a s t e r n N i g e r i a b u t g o t i n v o l v e d i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e

people i n t h e a r e a h e a d r n i n i s t c r c d , fle d e s c r i b e d h i s b

j o u r n e y t o some of t h e p l a c e s w i t h i n t h e a r e a t h r o u g h

t h e sea, His s t y l e w a s s u c h t h a t would i m p r e s s h i s

m e n t o r s a t home, O f t h e l i f e o f the p e o p l e i n t h e C r o s s I

/

River a r e a , P a r t r i d g e showed s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n Secret I

S o c i e t i e s - t h e 1u-2 Oracle, t h e EKPO a n d ( E K P E ? ) wh i ch

h e d e s c r i b e d as a s o r t of Frccrnzsonry, among t h e Ekang ,

of t h e Yako, H e p r e s e n t e d them a s t h e s o u r c e s of strength I

ef t h e Local c o m m u n i t i e s i n w h i c h t h e y e x i s t e d , H e

p r e s e n t e d t h e I b n Ukpabi Oracle i n a way t h a t p o r t r a y e d I I

i t as a l i v e l y c e n t r e f o r r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s e v e n

after the 1901/02 m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s a t the s h r i n e .

I H e , t h e r e f o r e , recommended a close s u p e r v i s i o n a n d c h e c k I

r

o n t h e o r a c l e b y t h e c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t , 25

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

~ o b e r t H. N a s s a u i n F e t i s h i s m i n West A f r i c a (1904)

made a c a r i c a t u r e of t h e r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m of t h e Negroes.

S u r p r i s i n g l y , h e d i d n o t show a n y c lear u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

the r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m a n d h a n d l e d b e l i e f and r i t u a l

s y s t e m s i n s u c h a way t h a t h e f u m b l e d w i t h t h e i d e a s o f

God, S p i r i t s and c u l t o b j e c t s o H e s a w t h e r e l i g i o n

c o n t r o l l i n g a l l a s p e c t s o f l i f e ,

The a c c o u n t s o f t h e t r a v e l l e r s , t r a d e r s , a d v e n t u r e r s

a n d t h e e t h n o g r a p h e r s , w e r e to s a y t h e l e a s t , s k e t c h y ,

u n c o n n x t e d and o f t e n based o n i n a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n ,

Even t h ? e x t e n d e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f '/Jest A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n

w h i c h came o u t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e v g a l t h e c u l -

t u r a l bias of t h e wr i t e r s and t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c f o r

whom t h e y w e r e i n t e n d e d , From t h e p o i n t of v i e w of

s c h o l a r s h i p , t h e e a r l y a c c o u n t s o f Yuropean v i s i t o r s

would n o t b e t a k e n a s r e l i a b l e and o b j e c t i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n

of West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n , For t h e most p a r t , t h e y were

n o t s y s t e m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f a c t s , T h e i r e f f o r t

was less a r e a l a t t e m p t a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h c phenomenon

of r e l i g i o n t h a n an intellectual s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r

W e s t e r n r a t i o n a l i s m ,

NOTES - 1. So klamdum a n d N, King , I b n B a t t u t a i n B l a c k A f r i c a , ,

( L o n d o n : Rex ~ o l l i n s , lmf, 6-7 ,

2. Thomas Hodgki r ip eri,a P e r s p e c t i v e , (London s O o U o P ~ , 1 9 7 5 ) ~ p See J. P a r r y , * ~ u r o e a n d A Wide r ! i o r l d 1 4 1 5 - 1 7 1 5 , (London : H u t c T--- i n s o n -ity L i b r a r y , T 9 4 9 , R e i s s u e d 1 9 6 0 ) , p .33 , ( T h e T r e a t y o f ~ ~ l a c a c o v u s i n 1 4 7 9 c o n f i r m e d t o P o r t u g a l t h e m o n o p o l y o f t h e t r a d e s e t t l e m e n t s a n d e x p l o r a t i o n s o f t h e West A f r i c a n C o a s t s a n d t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f a l l t h e known l l t l a n t i c I s l a n d s e x c e p t t h e C a n a r i e s w h i c h r e m a i n e d t o S p a i n ).

3 . s a i d ttamdum a n d N. K i n g , ED, 5 1 ,

4, B a s i l D a v i d s o n , B l a c k N o t h e r , (London : Longmans, 1 9 6 1 ) , p , lOOo

5, J o h n B a r b o t , A D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h c C o a s t s , o f N o r t h - a n d S o u t h ~uinea-173- A C o l l e c t i o n o f V o y a ~ z ~ r a v e l s V o l , V , (London : M a f f i e u r s C h u r c h i l l , I P r i n t e d f o r H e n r y L i n t o t a n d J o h n O s b o r n , 1 3 4 6 1 , p.10. See a l s o ~ a i i l D a v i d s o n , $ b i d , , 1000

6 T h e o d o r e C a n o t , Memories of A S l a v e T r a d e r ( S e t down b y B l a n t z Mayer , e d i t e d by A. W, L a w r e n c e , Lendon : G e o r g e Newness L td . , a b r i d g e d e d i t i o n , 1835 ), pp. 54-58, S e e F l o r a Lo Shaw ( ~ a d y L u g a r d ) , A Tropical D e p e n d e n c x , ( London : N e s b i t & Coo , '2"9d6 J , 3 ~ n .

T o Hina H o Roth . G r e a t B e n i n : Its Cus toms . A r t a n d ~ o r ; o r s , ( ~ a i i - n ~ l a ~ d : F. K i n g s & ' ;ens, 1 9 0 2 ) , m, cf. " A f r i c a ' s Godstf i n A n t h r o p o l o q i c a l Series, ( B o s t o n E B o s t o n C o l l e a e o f G r a d u a t e S c h o o l .

3 ( 1 9 3 6 ) 192-193, ~ i & r e V e r g e r , "The Yoruba H i g h God - A Review o f S o u r c e s s s , $)JJ 2 , 2 ( J a n . 1 9 6 6 ) , 21-22,

8. R. H a k l u y t , P r i n c ~ v i q a t i o n s , 1 5 9 9 E d i t i o n , -_C -

V o l 0 2 , p t . 2 , p o l 2 f f .

9 , H o H e R o t h , 9 L29ff0

1 0 . J o h n B s r b o t , so ci_t_., 352.

John B a r b o t , 2, Go, 34,

K. H a k l u y t , I b i d 1 9 , C f , A, C D Burns , of N i g e r i a , ( ~ f w ' l o r k : B a r n e s and Noble , R e p r i n t e d 1 9 4 4 ) , p.57,

Wi l l i am Bosman, New I'iccqun,t an0 A c c o u n t s D f s s c r i p t i o n o", t m ~ u i n e a , ( U t r e t c h 1705 T r a n s l a t e d from ~ u t c h and ~ e ~ x n t e d , B l a n t y r e 1 9 0 7 ) , p.454,

klalter H i n s c h b e r g , Monuments E t h n o g r a p h i c a BD I, ( ~ c h w a r z - A f r i c a , G r a t z / A u s t r i c a 1 9 6 2 1, Quoted b y Ce U, PI, Zzekwugo, s P C h i ' i n I g b o R e l i g i o n (Ph,D, T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f I n n s b r u c k , 1 9 7 3 1, p.8,

R o b e r t A, N i s b e t , S o c i a l Change and h i s t o r y , (London: 0 , U.P, 1 9 6 9 1, 139.

Charles d e Brosses. C u l t of the F e t i s h Gods. 1 7 6 0 1 - - - -

~ w i s e d a s C u l t of t h e F e t i s h God or ~ a r a l l G l s of A n c i e n t Eqyptss R e l i q i o n and A c t u a l R e l i q i o n of

( P a r i s : 1960), p . 8 ,

R o F. B u r t o n , R M i s s i o n t o G e l e l e , Kinq of Dahome, Vol, 11, (London- in-y Brottiers, ~ n - 8 ~ d i t i o n r

R i c h a r d N e s t , Back t o Africa: A H i s t o r y of S i e r r a Leone. (London: JonaThan C a w . 1970r '188-190.

R o t b e r g I. R o t b e r g , A f r i c a and I t s E x p l o r e r s : Mo t ive , Methods and Impact, (Cambr idge Mass. 1 9 7 0 ) ,

See Joseph E, H a r r i s (ed. 1, Africa and A f r i c a n s a s s e e n by C ssical &i ters, m n g t o n

Howard U n i v e r s i press, 1 9 m -

Cf ., R i c h a r d Back to A f r i c a ,

P , D. C u r t i n , The I m a e o f , , -Er ica , 3 r i t i s h Ideas and .:ction 17-~cbnsin , U n i v e r s i t y Press, .m4"fO- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

H, E l l i s , - T h e Y o r u b a - S p e a Peoples of t h e S lave C o a s t : 'The i r i;clicyio Cu :, toms_, ( London : ~ p , , ~ 9 ~ 0

23. E, Ikenga-Metuh, " R e l i g i o n and M o r a l i t y i n Traditional ~f r i c a n Beliefs : Assessment of View P o i n t s u , hbst A f r i c a n R e l i . . 18, 2&3, (1979)~ 99.

24, Mary He K i n g s l e y , West ~ i f r i c a n S t u d i e s ( 3 r d e d i t i o n , London: r a n k Cass & coo 0 7 6 4 . ~ntroductor~ Notes to the second e d i t i o n ) , PPXVII,

25. Charles Partridge. Cross River Ncdt ive? , (London : H u t c h i n s o n , 1905 1, pL56,

CQLONI, ,L IIDMINISTR~ITION ,AID 'JEST AFRIC, ,N . TRixDI TIONI"~L R LLIGION

C o n s e q u e n t upon t h e g r a d u a l d e c l i n e o f e v o l u t i o n i s m

and t h e r i se o f c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , was t h e u n p r e -

c e d e n t e d i n t e r e s t i a t h e systematic s t u d i e s on v a r i o u s

a s p e c t s o f ~ i f r i c a n l i f e , ,wm-cha i r s p e c u l a t i o n s w h i c h

c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d s i n

q u e s t o f t h e o r i g i n s of c u l t u r e , g a v e way t o d e f i n i t e

a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e ways o f l i f e o f t h e 2 i f r i c a n s

a s d e d u c e d f r o m t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a ,

I n a b r o a d c o n t e x t , G , I, J o n e s h a s i d e n t i f i e d t w o

m a j o r t y p e s of a n t h r o p o l o g y g o i n g on i n West Yi f r i ca

b e f o r e t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . 1 The f i r s t was t h e

u D e s c r i p t i v e E t h n o g r a p h y i s w h i c h was o f i n t e r e s t a t f i r s t

to t h e t r a v e l l e r s , g e o g r a p h e r s , etc.,, and l a t e r i n t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e i n t e r e s t was e x t e n d e d t o t h e

i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f t h e X e s t e r n w o r l d , t h t g o v e r n m e n t s

and c o l o n i a l a g e n t s .

The o t h e r t y p e was t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and s p ~ ? c u l a t i v e

a n t h r o p o l o g y - t h e a n t h r o p o l o q y o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s and

5 9

p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s w h i c h ended u p i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y as C u l t u r a l A n t h r o p o l o g y , Y e t i n a s p e c i f i c

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c

s t u d y , P r o f e s s o r F., E, Tif igbo h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e

m a i n p e r i o d s o f s t u d y of i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r e , They are:

t i m e o f s c a n t y work o f t r a v e l l e r - e t h n o g r a p h e r s o f e a r l y a n d mid- n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , j u s t b e f o r e 1908, - a p c r i o d o f a m a t e u r i s t w o r k ,

The s e c o n d p h a s e f e l l b c t w c c n 1 9 0 8 a n d 1 3 2 0 , From

1930 on when a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n tercsts i n t h ( - c o l o n i e s

2 w e r e r e v i v e d , t h e t h i r d b e g a n , Some p f o f e s s i o n a l s came

o u t d u r i n g t h a p e r i o d , a n d u n d e r t o o k p u r e l y s c i e n t i f i c

e t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y s o f meas o f v a r i o u s s i z e s w i t h o u t

a n y a t t a c h m e n t w i t h e i t h e r t h e c o l o n i a l o r m i s s i o n a r y

a u t h o r i t i e s ,

F o l l o w i n g t h e p o s t F i r s t Wor ld War s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d

work r e s e a r c h a p p r o a c h o f M a l i n o w s k i a n d t h e socia l -

f u n c t i o n a l i s t t h e o r y o f R a d c l i f f e -Brown , a new d i m e n s i o n

w a s a d d e d b y B r i t i s h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i n t h e i r s t u d y o f

' p r i m i t i v e ' socie t ies , Two d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s e s w h i c h

e m e r g e d became d e v e l o p e d a l o n g " n a t i o n a l l i n e s i i or

' s c h o o l s t - o n e B r i t i s h a n d t h e o t h e r F r e n c h . Adam Kuper

h a s d i s c u s s e d how t h e v a r i o u s c h a n g e s i n a n t h r o p o l o g y i n

E u r o p e a f f e c t e d t h c m e t h o d o l o g i e s a p p l i e d b y d i f f e r e n t

' s c h o o l s ' i n t h e f i e l d o

U n t i l r e c e n t l y , B r i t i s h S c h o o l c o u l d be sa id t o be

Prac t i ca l w h i l e t h e F r e n c h w a s P h i l o s o p h i c a l and

C o s m o ~ i c a l a T h e p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e r e l i g i o n

e n g a g e d t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n of t h e B r i t i s h s c h o l a r s .

They s a w t h e r e l i g i o n i n terms o f i t s u t i l i t y t o t h e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w h o l e s o c i e t y , Thus t h e y s u r v e y e d

how r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s c o u l d s u p p o r t and v a l i d a t e s o c i a l

p o s i t i o n . I ' n c e s t o r - w o r s h i p , f o r i n s t a n c e , became s o

f a s c i n a t i n g t o them t h a t t h e y e m p h a s i z e d i t t o t h e

e x t e n t t h a t i t w a s made t h e s o l i d r o c k o n w h i c h t h e

a u t h o r i t y o f t h e o l d p e o p l e r e s t e d ,

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e F r e n c h s c h o l a r s f o c u s s e d

a t t e n t i o n on t h e n e e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s

o n s y m b o l i c - p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r d e r , T h i s e m p h a s i s saw t h e

r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m a s a fo rm o f c o h e r e n t and i n d e p e n d e n t

s y s t e m o f t h o u g h t and a c t i o n w h i c h w a s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y

a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s o c i o - c c o n o m i c s y s t e m . T h i s l e d t o

t h e q u e s t f o r thL2 c o s m o l o g i e s o f many A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s

w h e r e F r e n c h s c h o l a r s f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s , N o m a t t e r t h e

s t r e n g t h o r w e a k n e s s o f e a c h perspective, i t was j u s t o f

l a t e t h a t t h e i r c o m p l e m e n t a r y r o l e s and i n t e r - d e p e n d e n c e

h a v e b e e n r e a l i z e d .

The h i n t t h a t a n y v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n g o t f r o m t h e

f i e l d would h e l p t h e c o l o n i a l o f f i c e t o f o r m u l a t e p o l i c i e s

f o r e f f e c t i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a d b e e n g i v e n b y Mary

K i n g s l e y e a r l i e r o n , S h e d i r e c t e d i n 1899 t h a t c o m p r e -

h e n s i v e s t u d i e s of A f r i c a n societies were n e c e s s a r y i f

t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p e o p l e wou ld be made. I n

h e r o p i n i o n ,

"of t h e g r c a t human i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s t u d y o f r e l i g i o n , l a w s a n d soc ia l s t a t u s o f 1 1 f r i c a n n a t i v e , i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r m e to s p e a k , i t i s too s e l f - e v i d e n t t h C l t i t i s a d u t y to know t h e true? n a t u r e o f t h o s e p e o p l e w i t h whom w e a r c now d e a l i n g i n t e n s o f t h o u s a n d , so t h a t b y t h i s k n o w l c d g e , w e may be e n a b l e d t o r u l e t hem ~ i s e l y , ~ ~ 3

b

I n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n , ?Jest A f r i c a n

c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t s a n d t h e i r o f f i c e r s became s t r o n g l y

i n f a v o u r of c o u r s e s i n a n t h r o p o l o g y a t O x f o r d , C a m b r i d g e

a n d London U n i v e r s i t i e s f o r s e r v i n g o f f i c e r s o n l e a v e e t

home, T h i s w a s a d o p t e d when t h e C o l o n i a l G o v e r n m e n t h a d

g i v e n u p e n g a g i n g t h e s e r v i c e s of s p e c i a l i s t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s

i n p r e f e r e n c e t o g i v i n g c o u r s e s i n a n t h r o p o l o g y t o s e r v i n g

off icers . T h u s , R, S o R a t t r a y a n d P o 11, T a l b o t w e r e among

t h e f i rs t t o b e n e f i t from s u c h t r a i n i n g w h i l e o n l e a v e i n

~ n g l a n d . ~ 'Phc p r a c t i c a l n e e d s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as

o p p o s e d t o t h e d e t a i l e d a n d s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s of

e n q u i r y i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e became t h e m a j o r f o c u s o f t h e

c o l o n i a l g o v e r r , m e n t , Hence t h c c o n t r a c t s o f some ea r l i e r

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s anri c t h ~ o q r a p h e r s who c o u l d n o t s e r v e t h e

i m m e d i a t e purposes w e r e t e r m i n a t e d or n o t r enewed , when

t h e y e x p i r e d . 5

I n N i g e r i a , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n 1920, s u c h d a t a were

c o m p i l e d i n t o a series o f vo lumes of booklets ( a s w a s

o r d e r e d by t h e Gove rno r , S o u t h e r n ~ r o v i n c e s ) f o r t h e

b e n e f i t o f young a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r s i n t h e f i e l d o

The books w e r e c a p t i o n e d , S o u t h e r n P r o v i n c e s : -Tribal

C u s t o m s , _ a _ n d S _ u p c r s t i t l o n s o m Reports o f

District Officers 1 9 2 2 , p o p u l a r l y c a l l e d The Pagan Creed. +

The document , according to the Gove rno r ,

w i l l n o t o n l y c o n t a i n v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n far t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f j u n i o r o f f i c e r s o f t h e 1 Z d r n i n i s t r a t i v e S e r v i c e and f o r t h e s t u d y and r e f e r e n c e b y a l l o f f i c e r s b u t w i l l a l s o s e r v e to b r i n g t o n o t i c e b o t h c u s t o m s wh ich s h o u l d be d i s c o u r a g e d b y t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and c u s t o m s wh ich tend t o w a r d s p r o g r e s s and may t h e r e f o r e r e c e i v e encouragemen t a 6

E a r l i e r o n , E, S o H a r t l a n d had commended t h e work of

N o W. Thomas b e c a u s e ,

h i s r e s e a r c h e s i n N i g e r i a h a v e p roduced v a l u a b l e r e s u l t s , O n e a t l e a s t ,.. must h a v e b e e n a s s i s t a n c e t o gove rnmen t i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e and g e n e r a l l y o f t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f t h e p r o t e c t o r a t e .,, f r om t h c v i e w o f govcrnrnent on whose b e h a l f t h e enquiries h a v e b e e n made, t h i s i s a most p r a c t i c a l q u e s t i o n , 7 p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- -

T h i s does n o t s u g g e s t , however , t h a t a l l

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s were p r i m a r i l y o u t t o s e r v e a s a g e n t s

,f c o l o n i a l o f f i c e . iidam K u p r is a l i t t l e reticent i n

d i s c u s s i n g t h e e x t e n t of i n v o l v e m e n t o f s o c i a l

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f c o l o n i e s ,

A l t h o u g h some m a t e r i a l s of t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s were

u s e d by t h e c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t when t h e y were con-

s i d e r e d h e l p f u l , t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s were n o t most o f

t h e t i m e , o u t to s e r v e c o l o n i a l i n t e r e s t . Kuper s t a t e s

t h a t as t h e t r e n d i n a n t h r o p o l o g y c h a n g e d i n Europe

( a f t e r World War I and f o l l o w i n g M a l i n o w s k i f s emphases

on f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e ) t h u s a f f e c t i n g t h e m e t h o d o l o g y i n

t h e s t u d y , some a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s became p h r t o f t h e

c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Some d i d t h i s on p a r t - t i m e

b a s i s , y e t o t h e r s d i d n o t g e t i n v o l v e d a t a l l , F o r

a n t h r o p o l o g y t o d e p e n d f u l l y on t h c p a t r o n a g e o f c o l o n i a l

g o v e r n m e n t would s u g g e s t i t s i t d e a t h " a t t h e end o f

c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , H e g a v e a n i n s t a n c e when t h e

g o v e r n m e n t made u s e o f t h e m a t e r i a l s c o l l e c t e d b y a n t h r o -

p o l o g i s t s and f i n a n c e d t h e i r r e s e a r c h e s , T h e r e w e r e

o c c a s i o n s w h e n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s worked i n d e p e n d e n t l y and

d i d n o t ag ree w i t h t h e c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t s . 8

What i s o b v i o u s i s t h a t modern s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y

h a s p a s s e d t h r o u g h s e v e r a l :' i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t s ,

f u n c t i o n a l i s t s , s y m b o l i s t s , s o c i a l p r o c e s s a n a l y s e s , w i t h

c h a n g e s i n m e t h o d o l o g y a f f e c t i n g t h e themes w h i c h e n g a g e d

t h e a t t e n t i o n o f e a c h g r o u p , Common to a l l was t h e

s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t shown i n t h e r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and

p r a c t i c e s , a l t h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l s c h o l a r s i n t h e f i e l d

came u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l

p o s i t i o n s o f ' v a r i o u s s c h o o l s f c u r r e n t i n s o c i a l

a n t h r o p o l o g y i n t h e 1 9 2 0 ' s and 1 9 3 0 ' s . F o r i n s t a n c e t h e

i m p a c t o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n i s t t h e o r y o f O x f o r d S c h o o l

was s e e n i n t h e w o r k s o f T a l b o t and l a t e r FI,L).W. J e f f r e y s ,

M a l i n o w s k i p s f u n c t i o n a l i s m on N e y e r F o r t e s , J a c k Goody, etc.

It was R o c k f e l l e r s t u d e n t s of t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s t o g e t h e r

w i t h E. E, ~ v a n s - P r i t c h a r d who managed t o g e t Sudan and + o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t g r a n t s and D d r y l l F'orde who w e n t t o t h e

C r o s s R i v e r a r e a i n N i y e r i d b y a n o t h e r r o u t e t h a t

d e v e l o p e d t h e new f u n c t i o n a l / s t r u c t u r a 1 a p p r o a c h o f

c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o q y a n d g a v e i t a n A f r i c a n

s l a n t ,

With t h e r e v i v a l o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n t e r e s t i n t h e

1 9 3 0 t s , many o f f i c i a l s were s p e c i f i c a l l y s e c o n d e d t o

l a n g u a g e work. Some a t t e m p t s a t s t u d y i n g t h e l o c a l

l a n g u a g e s had b e e n g o i n g on e a r l i e r o n , a t least on

i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e , b u t when t h e c o l o n i a l o f f i c e

u n d e r s t o o d i t s a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t s , a n o r g a n i z e d work

was b e g u n , I n N i g e r i a , f o r i n s t a n c e , K,F.G, Adams w e n t

to t h e S o u t h e r n P r o v i n c e s , w h i l e C a p t a i n R o Abrahams was

s e n t t o the N o r t h , w i t h d e f i n i t e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o

c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e T i v a n d Idoma, T h i s was p robab ly a

c o n t i n u a t i o n and c o n s o l i d a t i o n of w h a t N, W, Thomas, who

came a s a l i n g u i s t i c e x p e r t d i d i n Edo-speak ing a r e a i n

1910 a n d t h e I g b o i n 1913/14.

B e s i d e s , of q u o 1 if not g r s n t e r i - n p o r t a n c e a t t h i s

t i m e w a s t h e c o l l a t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e r e c o r d s w h i c h

l a t e r g a v e r i s e t o t h e much p u b l i c i s e d I n t e l l i g e n c e

R e o r t s o n t h e ' n a t i v e s 1 , The r e p o r t s s o d e s i g n a t e d _P-

were g l e a n e d f r o m v a r i o u s q u a r t e r l y and a n n u a l r e p o r t s

of D i v i s i o n a l O f f i c e r s , The reports ' c o v e r e d many a s p e c t s

of l i f e o f t h e c l a n s and d i v i s i o n s f r o m w h e r e t h e y were

c o l l e c t e d o

C. K. Meek a n d o t h e r c o l l e a g u e s o f h i s who " i n t h e

1930's s t u c k t o s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d i n t e l l i g e n c e i s work g a v e

d i r e c t i v e s t o t h e i r j u n i o r o f f i c e r s i n t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s

o f t h e p r o v i n c e w h i c h s h o u l d s e r v e a s o p e r a t i o n a l g u i d e s ,

I n s i s t i n g t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h e s s h o u l d b e

d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o t h e p r a c t i c a l t a s k o f a s s i s t i n g

t h e g o v e r n m e n t , Meek ( a o n e t i m e l A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

Of f ice r ' ) wrote M.D,LJ, J e f f r e y s s o o n a f t e r t h e l a t t e r

w a s s e n t t o Awka a s t h e D i v i s i o n a l O f f i c e r , P a r t o f t h e

l e n g t h y le t ter r e a d s n

"While I d o n o t w i s h to t i e y o u r h a n d s b y l i m i t i n g t h e scope o f y o u r e n q u i r i e s , 1 would r e m i n d you t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h m u s t be d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o t h e p r a c t i c a l t a s k of a s s i s t i n c j t h e g o v e r n m e n t s i n t h e w o r k o f b u i l d i n g u p N a t i v e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f N a t i v e I n s t i t u t i o n s .,, i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o s t u d y t h e m a q i c o - r e l i g i o u s s y s t e r n s o f f 1 0

I n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s s e a r c h f o r materials f o r

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e work , r e l i g i o u s and c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s

c o n s i d e r e d i n i m i c a l t o t h e c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t were

e i t h e r recommended f o r d e s t r u c t i o n w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n o r

commended when t h e a c t i o n had b e e n carriecj o u t . One

mf f i c i a l who was commending t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s u s e o f

f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e O g b u n o r i e Oracle i n 1 9 1 0 s t a t e d t h a t :

" a t Ogbunorie Ezemogha i n 1 9 1 0 ,.. t h e O g b u n o r i e s h r i n e and Oracle : b o t h t h e Umunoha a l so c a l l e d Igwe J u j u a n d t h e Ezemagha O g b u n o r i e e x e r c i s e d i v i n i n g f u n c t i o n - t h i s e x p l a i n s t h e a c t i o n o f b o t h f o r b i d d i n g t h e p e o p l e t o t a k e t h e i r c a s e s t o t h e District o r N a t i v e C o u r t s i n b o t h O w e r r i and Okigwe Districts. ssll

The above e x a m p l e s t h o u g h l o c a l i z e d to o n e

p a r t i c u l a r g e e g r a p h i c a l a r e a , r e f l e c t t h e same e x p e r i e n c e

of l i f e i n many o t h e r te r r i tor ies u n d e r t h e c o l o n i a l r u l e .

R e p o r t s from o t h e r p l a c e s , t h e r e f o r e , d o n o t show

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . S i r J o h n Pope Hennesy, t h e

A d m i n i s t r a t o r - i n - C h i e f o f a r i t i s h West A f r i c a n S e t t l e m e n t s

d i d n o t escape t h e t e m p t a t i o n of u s i n g force t o s t o p t h e

a g i t a t i o n s of some of t h e S e t t l e m e n t s i n S i e r r a Leone,

Customs c o n s i d e r e d o b s t a c l e s t o t h e c o m p l e t e sub j u g a t i o n

of t h e S e t t l e m e n t were d e s t r o y e d w i t h f o r c e . The move-

ment a g a i n s t t h e c o l o n i a l i c o n o c l a s m , w a s p a r t o f t h e

c a m p a i g n f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e ' n a t i v e s 1 who w a n t e d t o

s a v e t h e i r local c u s t o m s and r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s f r o m

t h e d e s t r u c t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f c o l o n i a l and m i s s i o n a r y

a c t i v i t i e s . 12

One o f t h e a w f u l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t

a p p r o a c h ( a n d c o l o n i a l o f f i c e r s 1 q u e s t f o r " d a t a f o r

g o v e r n a n c e s ' ) t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r e s o f

West Africa was t h e a r b i t r a r y r i g h t s claimed b y W e s t e r n

s c h o l a r s t o d e t e r m i n e f o r t h e o w n e r s o f t h e c u l t u r e ,

a s p e c t s t h a t s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d t o c o n t i n u e and w h a t t o

d i s c o n t i n u e . A l t h o u y h t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s who worked a t

t h e same p e r i o d as t h e c o l o n i a l o f f i c i a l s , d i d n o t c a r r y

o u t l a r g e scale m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s on t h e i r own a g a i n s t

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , t h e r e were i n s t a n c e s t h a t t h e y

b e n e f i t t e d f r o m s u c h e x p l o i t s w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e d t h e i r

p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e h i n t e r l a n d s -

SCIENTIFIC STUDIES BY PROFESSIONAL ANTHROPOLOGISTS

J u s t as f u n c t i o n a l i s m was a t work a t t h e r ise o f

c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and i n t e n s i f i e d when a d m i n i s t r a -

t i v e i n t e r e s t s were r e v i v e d i n t h e 1 9 3 0 1 s , a new s h i f t

o f e m p h a s i s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e h a n d s o f a f e w p r o f e s s i o n a l +

soc ia l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . By t r y i n g to g i v e t h e new

f u n c t i o n a l / s t r u c t u r a 1 a p p r o a c h of c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i a l

a n t h r o p o l o g y a n A f r i c a n s l a n t , E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , D a r y l l

F o r d e , among o t h e r s , p a i d less a t t e n t i o n t o t h e sqsocio-

l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s u of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e y a n a l y s e d i n

t h e i r e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s - t h a n t o t h e i r mean ings .

B e f o r e E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d f s s t u d y on t h e Zande was p u b l i s h e d

i n 1 9 3 7 , h i s w o r k s had e a r l i e r b e e n a p p e a r i n g i n j o u r n a l s ,

e s p e c i a l l y AFRICA - t h e J o u r n a l o f Royal A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

I n s t i t u t e , f r o m a s f a r b a c k a s 1929 . I n h i s a p p r o a c h , h e

s o u g h t to e x p l a i n t h e Zande b e h a v i o u r a s a s y s t e m o f i d e a s

w i t h i n t h e i r own u n i v e r s e . I t was an a t t e m p t t o u n d e r - p p p p p p p - p - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

s t a n d t h e c o n c e p t s a n d b e l i e f s t h r o u g h a n a n a l y s i s o f

t h e i r own l o g i c a l p a t t e r n s .

Some of t h e s t u d i e s c o n c e n t r a t e d on c o m m u n i t i e s o f

v a r i o u s s i z e s , D a r y l l F o r d e , w h i l e w o r k i n g a s t h e

Director o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e p r o d u c e d

a number o f s t u d i e s o n t h e Y a k o , p a r t i c u l a r l y M a r r i a q e

a n d t h e F a m i l y o f t h e Yako i n S o u t h - E a s t e r n N i g e r i a

( m o n o g r a p h s o n S o c i a l A n t h r o p o l o g y No.5, London, 1 9 4 1 )

and Yako S t u d i e s , ( 0 . U, P., 1 9 6 4 ) . P o s s i b l y , t h e i n c r e a s e d

e m p h a s i s o n f i e l d work l e d most o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l

B r i t i s h s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t o move f r o m e m p h a s i s i n g

' f u n c t i o n ' t o ' m e a n i n g & m e worked o n v i l l a g e - g r o u p s ,

e , g , M a r g a r e t iYo G r e e n , I q b o V i l l a g e A f f a i r s ( 1 9 4 7 ) w h i l e

S o F, N a d e l , K e n n e t h L i t t l e , M. F o r t e s worked on t r i b e s .

I n N a d e l l s Nupe R e l l A i o n ( 1 9 5 4 1 , h e g a b e a f i r s t hand

k n o w l e d g e a c c o u n t of s o c i a l . c o n d i t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l and

e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e , r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s and

a t t h e same t i m e , e l a b o r a t e d t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s

ef Nupe r e l i g i o n w h i c h h e s u r v e y e d w i t h i n i t s s o c i a l

c o n t e x t .

I n The Mende o f S i e r r a Leone , Professor K e n n e t h

L i t t l e g a v e t h e f i r s t hand f u l l a c c o u n t o f t h e day- to-day

l i f e of t h e communi ty , H e s u r v e y e d t h e e c o n o m i c ,

p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , i m p a c t o f e x t e r n a l

c h a n g e a g e n t s on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e p e o p l e , t h e p l a c e

of P o r o a n d Sande S e c r e t S o c i e t i e s a s s o c i a l a r b i t e r s .

S y l v a L e i t h - R o s s had i n 1 9 3 9 p u b l i s h e d h e r A f r i c a n Women,

c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n t h e d a t a s h e c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h e Mbaise-

I g b o women o n t h e i r roles d u r i n g t h e 1 9 2 9 Women's R i o t

i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a , She a t t he same t i m e e x a m i n e d t h e

g e n e r a l I g b o a t t i t u d e t o p r o g r e s s and s u c c e s s ,

Meanwhi le , t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e had

begun t o p u b l i s h s e v e r a l monographs w h i c h were

E t h n o g r a p h i c s u r v e y s a imed a t p r e s e n t i n g a c o n c i s e b u t

c r i t i ca l and a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t r i b a l g r o u p i n g s ,

d i s t r i b u t i o n , s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l and economic

s t r u c t u r e , and r e l k g i o u s b e l i e f s o f v a r i o u s A f r i c a n

p e o p l e s . I n West A f r i c a , s u c h s u r v e y s i n c l u d e The Akan

and Ga--Adangme P e o ~ l e s - b y M r , Manbukin; Merra McCul loch,

-1es o f Sierra Leone ; D a r y l l F o r d e and G, I. J o n e s ,

The Ibo and I b i b m e a k i n q P e o p l e s o f S o u t h - E a s t e r n -

N i q e r i a ; P a u l W h a n n a n , The T i v o f C e n t r a l N i q e r i a ;

13, E, B r a d b u r y , h e Benin Kinqdom and t h e Edo-Speakinq

Sou t h - W e s t e r n ;

The Wolof of Senegambia , -

and David Gamble,

The s t u d y o f t h e r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r s o f t h e g r o u p s

m e n t i o n e d a b o v e was made w i t h i n t h e t o t a l c o n t e x t o f

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f t h e l i v e s o f t h e g r o u p s ,

Yet, s u c h t r e a t m e n t w a s , i n most c a s e s , c u r s o r y . I t w a s

when some o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s s t u d i e d s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s

of t h e r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r t h z t i n d e p t h a n a l y s i s was made.

H. E. B r a d b u r y c a r r i e d o u t a s y s t e m a t i c work on t h e

Ed0 ( o f t h e a n c i e n t Benin Kingdom i n N i g e r i a ) a n d came

o u t w i t h an analysis of t h e r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m w h i c h h e

d e s c r i b e d a s a r e p o s i t o r y of m e a n i n g f u l p h i l o s o p h y

and knowledge . 14

J I R. Goody s t u d i e d a n c e s t o r among t h e Lo-Daga

of t h e N o r t h e r n Ghana and i n h i s Deathl P r o p e r t y and

t h e Ancestors- , o b s e r v e d t h a t w i t h i n an a r e a o f common

, s p e e c h and c u l t u r e , v a r i e t i e s i n the a n c e s t o r - c u l t c a n

b e shown t o c o r r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y w i t h t h e d i f f e r i n g

f o r m s o f p r o p e r t y i n h e r i t a n c e , Many o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s

p r o d u c e d numerous monographs on s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f t h e #

r e l i g i o u s s t r u c t u r e i n c l u d i n q f a t e and m o r a l i t y ,

p r a y e r s , l i b z t i o n , and w i t c h c r a f t i n p u r e l y a n t h r o -

p o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , It l o o k s a s i f t h e d o m i n a n c e

of a n t h r o p o l a g i c a l m o d e l s i n t h e s t u d y o f r e l i g i o u s

s t r u c t u r e i s g r a d u a l l y d e s t r o y i n ? t h e r e l i g i o u s e l e m e n t ,

However, o n e can s t i l l d e c i p h e r some p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u -

t i o n s a s w e l l as p i t f a l l s o f t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

s t u d i e s t o the s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y o f West A f r i c a n

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n ,

I n A f r i c a n s t u d i e s , t h e a p p r o a c h e s w e r e l a r g e l y

d i v i d e d a l o n g n a t i o n a l l i n e s , u s u a l l y u n d e r s t o o d a s

1 , ~ c h o o l s I , ' N o p r o m i n c n t l i n e s o f a p p r o a c h were

i n i t i a l l y B r i t i s h and F r e n c h , W e seem t o h a v e d i s c u s s e d

t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of s c h o l a r s f r o m t h e B r i t i s h S c h o o l 1

a s if o t h e r s d i d n o t h i n g a t a l l , A s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d ,

t h e B r i t i s h S c h o o l employed a s o c i a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t

a p p r o a c h , The F r e n c h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , on th,e o t h e r

hand , a d o p t e d a r a t h e r o p p o s i t e s t a n c e , T h e i r s l o o k e d

a t A f r i c a n S o c i e t y f r o m a s y m b o l i c - p h i l o s o p h i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e , C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y h a v e made g r e a t

a d v a n c e s i n e l u c i d a t i n g A f r i c a n c o s m o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s

- .- A p h i l o s o p h i e s . A p a r t f r o m t h e c u r r e n t s t u d i e s o f

G e o f f r e y L i n h a r d t , V i c t o r T u r n e r , Mary Douglas and

John M i d d l e t o n , t h e d u a l c o g n i t i v e / f u n c t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e

w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e w o r k s o f F r e n c h s c h o l a r s , had

h a r d l y g a i n e d g r o u n d among t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e E n g l i s h -

s p e a k i n g A f r i c a n i s t s , Most o f t h e B r i t i s h a n t h r o p o l o -

%is t s who w r o t e o n A f r i c a n s o c i ~ t i c s and r e l i g i o n t e n d e d

t o h a v e f o l l o w e d Hobbes, p a r t i c u l a r l y rwritcrs l i k e T y l o r ,

F r a z e r and M a r e t t , Thcy would hz.rdly b e l i e v e t h a t t h e

' p r i m i t i v e t man w a s t h e p h i l o s o p h e r some p s y c h o l o g i c a l

i n t e r p r e t e r s o f r e l i g i o n had made him. R, 3 , M a r e t t ,

f o r i n s t a n c e , would s a y t h a t i t was n o t i d e a s w h i c h

g a v e r i se t o t h e a c t i o n o f t h e ' p r i m i t i v e s man b u t

r a t h e r i t was a c t i o n w h i c h g a v e r i se t o i d e a s .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , F r e n c h s c h o l a r s and a f e w

Germans a c t e d on t h e i n f l u e n c e o f R o u s s e a u , P r o m i n e n t

among them w e r e men l i k e W, S c h m i d t , L e v i - S t r a u s s ,

Marcel G r i a u l e , Germane l ~ i e t e r l n , P l a c i d e T e m p l e s ,

P i e r r e V e r g e r a n d P a u l Mcrcier. +

The a p p r o a c h o f t h e ' F r e n c h S c h o o l ' i s c l e a r l y

e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h c work o f Marcel G r i a u l e o n t h e

Dogon o f Mal i . H e p e n e t r a t e d , as i t w e r e , t h e w o r l d

o f t h e West A f r i c a n p e o p l e i n a s t i m u l a t i n g s t u d y h e

made o n t h e Dogon, H e d i s c o v e r e d w h c t m i g h t be c a l l e d

t h e Dogon w o r l d v i e w , H e d i s c o v e r e d t h i s d u r i n g a n

e n c o u n t e r w i t h o n e Dogon t r a d i t i o n a l p r i e s t - Ogoternmeli

- a v e r i t a b l e and k n o w l e d g e a b l e o l d man, Through a

p e r i o d o f t h i r t y - t h r e e successive d a y s o f s e r i o u s

c o n v e r s a t i o n , and d i s c u s s i o n w i t h Ogotemmel i , G r i a u l e

d i s c o v e r e d t h i s u n d e r g i r d i n c j c o s m o l o g y b e h i n d t h e

A f r i c a n b e l i e f s and a c t i o n s . l5 G r i a u l e t h u s c o n c l u d e d

t h a t A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m s a r e n o t m e r e l y a

r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s b u t a u t o n o m o u s

a n d s y s t e m a t i c s p h e r e s of t h o u g h t and a c t i o n .

The u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Dogon c u l t u r e t h r o u g h

t h i s a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n u n d e r l i n e d b y G. D i e t e r l n - a

member of G r i a u l e t s t e a m , Cornmc2nting o n how t h e

a p p r o a c h h a s hi3lped t o r e v e a l the Dogon c o s m o l o g y ,

' ! r e l i g i o u s g e s t u r e s , ~ , , lhe thc . r s p c . c t ; ; c u l . x - o r secret and y c n e r a l l y u n c o m p r e h ~ i n d e d b y o u t s i d e r s , show t h c m s c l v e s u n d e r a n a l y s i s to be of a n ext reme: s u b t l e t y i n t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s , The s m a l l c s - t ev;-2ryday o b j e c t ma.y revc.s.1 i n i t s f o r m o r + d e c o r a t i o n a c o n s c i o u s r e f l e c t i o n o f a c o m p l e x cosmoyony , ' l l6

One d e f e c t oE t h i s a p p r o r i c h i s t h e a p p a r e n t n e g l e c t

ef t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n w h i c h t h c t h o u g h t -

p a t t e r n s were modelled, T h i s , t h e r e f o r e , p r e s e n t e d a

s t a t i c a n d a h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t of t h e r e l i g i o n .

A s i m i l a r i n t e r e s t i n A f r i c a n c o s m o l o g y i s shown b y

Domin ique Zahan i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l F r e n c h m e t h o d , I n

h i s book, The R e l i g i o n , S p i r i t u a l i t y a n d T h o u q h t of

T r a d i t i o n a l Africa, Zahan s t a t e d t h a t h i s a i m i s t o

p e n e t r a t e t h e A f r i c a n s o u l d e e p l y i n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r

t h e a n i m a t i n g p r i n c i p l e of " l i f e i i , I n a n a t t e m p t t o

show a n A f r i c a n t h e o l o g y , h e a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f t o t h e

a t t i t u d e of t h e A f r i c a n t o w a r d s t h e "numinouss ' t o w h i c h

he d i r e c t s h i s a c t i o n s , T h u s , Zahan h a s s o u q h t t o

u n d e r s t a n d t h e n u a n c e s and s u b t l e t i e s o f A f r i c a n

t h o u g h t . It i s perhaps a way t o c h a l l e n g e a n y o n e who

p e r s i s t s o n r e l e g a t i n g A f r i c a n t h o u g h t t o a n y t h i n g

o t h e r t h a n a p r o f o u n d r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e human c o n d i -

t i o n .

The German s c h o l a r s h a v e , i n n o small m e a s u r e ,

made t h e i r i m p a c t f e l t i n t h e s t u d y o f A f r i c a n c u l t u r e

a n d r e l i g i o n , A s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d o l o g y w a s d e v e l o p e d -

However, t h r e e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e c u l t u r e - + h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d . At f i r s t ,

c u l t u r e - h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h b e g a n w i t h F r i e d r i c h

R a t z e l l s m i g r a t i o n t h e o r y , S e c o n d l y , Leo F r o b e n i u s

d e v e l o p e d i t t o t h e l K u l t u r k r e i s l , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

b a s i s w h i c h w a s c r e a t e d b y F r i t z G r a e b n e r a n d to a

lesser d e g r e e b y B e r n h a r d Ankermann, F i n a l l y , t h i s

w a s i m p r o v e d b y F a t h e r W i l h e i m S c h m i d t a n d h i s

a s s o c i a t e , F a t h e r W i l h e i m K o p p e r s ,

Leo F r o b e n i u s t a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f A f r i c a n

c u l t u r e h a s h e l p e d a l o t to correct some o f t h e

e r r o n e o u s i d e a s a b o u t A f r i c a w h i c h c i r c u l a t e d i n

E u r o p e a t t h e t i m e , H e b e l i e v e s t h a t t h ; ~ a p r i o r i

n o t i o n a b o u t A f r i c a c a n n o t 'b~? c o r r c c t c d ~ . i i t h o u t v a l i d

d a t a c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h f i e l d work, A f t e r h i s v i s i t s

t o Afr ica and h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , w e h e a r F r o b e n i u s

say :

"1 h a v e g o n e t o t h e A t l a n t i c a g a i n and a g a i n , . . But 1 h a v e f a i l e d t o f i n d i t g o v e r n e d b y t h e P i n s e n s i b l : : f e t i s h ' .*,

I d i s c o v e r e d t h e s o u l s o f t h e s e p e o p l e s and found t h a t t h e y were more t h a n h u m a n i t y ' s b u r n t o u t h u s k s O u l 7

T h e r e i s < _ v e r y r -v idencc t h ? t I r o b e n i u s ' book on

Africa, Thc Vo ice - o f n f r i c a -- ( w h i c h a p p c a r e d i n two

vo lumes i n 1 9 1 3 ) i s d r c a c t i o n a g a i n s t wrong i m p r c s s i o n s

a b o u t A f r i c a c i rcu1 ; l t in : ; t h ~ n i n : h ropc \ , H e s a i d t h a t

b e f o r e h e v i s i t e d iifricrl, hi? had r s a d m a r t i c l e i n a

B e r l i n newspape r whir.h s t a t e d , among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h a t

", . , i n examin ing thi: pre-Muhammedan c o n d i t i o n o f t h e n c q r o r a c e s , ,, c o n f i n e o u r s e l v e s t o t h e d c s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i r c r u d e f e t i s h i s m , t h e i r b r u t a l and o f t e n c a n n i b a l i s t i c c u s t o m s , t h e i r v u l g a r and r e p u l s i v e i d o l s ,,, None b u t t h e mos t r e p u l s i v e i n s t i n c t s d e t e r m i n e t h e l i v e s and c o n d u c t o f t h e n e g r o e s , who l a c k e v e r y k i n d o f e t h i c a l i n s p i r a t i o n . "18

One o t h e r German w r i t e r on A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n w a s

D i e d r i c h Westermann, A well-known m i s s i o n a r y t o

Eweland who had i n t i m a t e knowledge o f t h e E w e ,

Westermann became a foundation member o f t h e

I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e , when i t was s t a r t e d .

D e s p i t e h i s w i d e e x p e r i e n c e i n West A f r i c a ,

Westermann 1s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t of t h e

Supreme God was muddled up , H e s a w God i n A f r i c a n

t h o u g h t as a ' d e u s O t i o s u s t o r a "wi thdrawn Godu.

Thus w e h e a r him comment:

"The high-god i s as a r u l e , n o t t h e o b j e c t o f a r e l i g i o u s c u l t , and i s o f s m a l l o r a l m o s t no s i g n i f i c a n c e i n p r a c t i c a l r e l i g i o n . P e o p l e acknowledge him, t h e i r f e e l i n g t o w a r d s him, b e i n g a t t h e h i g h e s t , t h a t o f a d im a w e o f r e f e r e n c e . "19

Herman Baumann i s d e s c r i b e d as b e l o n g i n g t o a b

g r o u p o f s econd g e n e r a t i o n German s c h o l a r s who showed

i n t e r e s t i n A f r i c a n c u l t u r e . O t h e r s i n c l u d e men l i k e

W, S c h i l d e and H i r s chbe rg . Baumannss d e f i n i t e c o n t r i b u -

t i o n i s h i s a n a l y s i s o f a b o u t two t h o u s a n d , f i v e hund red

A f r i c a n myths as a g u i d e t o i n t e r p r e t A f r i c a n t h e o l o g y

and cosmology , T h i s s t a n c e f a l l s i n l i n e w i t h t h e

'French S c h o o l t o

CONTRIBUTIONS 2'LNB PITF~LLLS OF ~!LNTHROPOLOGICAL - INTERPKET/LTIOI\IS OF WEST I;FRICIJ.N RELIGION -

A l t h o u g h t h e s t u d y o f t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n d i d n o t

t a k e o f f a s an i n d e p e n d e n t work, t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

s t u d i e s which i n c o r p o r a t e d i t h a s made s i g n i f i c a n t

c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h r o u g h s y s t e m a t i c e n q u i r y i n t o t h e

7 3

s y s t e m s o f b e l i e f and p r a c t i c e , A l a s t i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n

o f t h o a n t h r o p o l o g i s t l i e s i n h i n s c i e n t i f i c methods .

He p a y s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and p o s i t s

e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r w i t h i n t h ? s o c i a l

c o n t e x t . A p u r e l y phenornenoloy ica l method ( a d o p t e d by

many t h e o l o g i a n s ) t e n d s t o l o s e c o g n i s m c e o f t h e s o c i a l

d y n a m i c s wh ich i n f l u e n c e be l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s . The

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ha.s s u p p l i e d t h e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l f a b r i c

w i t h i n wh ich t h e b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s a r e embedded,

B e s i d e s , t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t s t a n c e o f t h e a ~ t h r o p o l o g i s t

h a s p r e s e n t e d t h e r e l i g i o n as a mechanism o f s o c i a l

c o n t r o l .

I n d e e d , a good number o f p i t f a l l s a re o b s e r v e d i n

t h e u s e o f t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e l i g i o n .

F i r s t , t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t works w i t h a model and a p r e -

c o n c e i v e d h y p o t h e s i s , Thus , h e selects h i s e v i d e n c e t o

f i t and p r o v e t h e v i a b i l i t y o f t h e model , H e , t h e r e f o r e ,

d o e s n o t t e l l a f u l l s t o r y , n o r d o e s h e s t u d y a re l i -

g i o u s phenomenon i n i t s e n t i r e t y . Fo r an A f r i c a n who may

be c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e t h r e a t o f l o s i n g t h e d e t a i l s o f h i s

r e l i g i o u s p a . s t , t h e a n t l ? r o p o l o g i s t ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i v e

a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t o f f e r him much h e l p ,

One o t h e r d e f e c t i n t h y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s s i n t e r p r e t a -

t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n n l r L l i q i o n i s h i s i n a b i l i t y t o

80

i n v e s t i g a t e thi, c a p a c i t y o f A f r i c a n s f o r a b s t r a c t

p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h o u g h t e H e d o e s n o t , t h e r e f o r e , con-

s i d e r t h e s p i r i t u a l i n s i g h t and m o r a l wisdom embedded

i n t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l i d e a s o f t h e r e l i g i o n , One, who

t h e r e f o r e , sees t h e r e l i g i o n i n p u r e l y f u n c t i o n a l

terms, misses a good d e a l o f t h e r e l i g i o u s , p h i l o s o -

p h i c a l and moral s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s y s t e m ,

F i n a l l y and p r o b a b l y t h e most s e r i o u s d e f e c t o f

t h e an th ropo1oc ; j i ca l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e l i g i o n i s i t s + a p p r o a c h w h i c h i s o f t e n a h i s t o r i c a l , I ts a h i s t o r i c a l

s t a n c e i s b e c a u s e i t d o e s n o t p o s s e s s t i m e p e r s p e c t i v e .

The s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f

E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , Robin H o r t o n and o f l a t e a f e w o t h e r

20 s c h o l a r s , p o r t r a y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n a s a

p e t r i f i e d and s t a t i c phcnorncnon, T h i s s t a t i c s t a n c e

i s o n l y a m e a s u r e o f o u r i g n o r a n c e o f t h e c h a n g i n g

n a t u r e o f t h e r e l i g i o n n o t o n l y i n t h e v a s t s p a c e o f

West A f r i c a b u t a l s o o v e r a l l h i s t o r i c a l t i m e ,

G. Ia J o n e s , "Socic.1 m t h r o p o l o q y i n N i q e r i n

A, E, t i f i g b o , w ~ ~ n t l ? r o p o l o y y and C o l o n i a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n S o u t h E a s t e r n N i q e r i a 1891-19391', J o u r n a l o f H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f l\liqeria -9 8 , 1 m9 19-35, See a l s o 0 , U, Kalu. l s F o r m u l a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l P o l i c y i n C o l o n i a l ~ i g e r i a " i n E:. Ihekwazu ( e d . ) , R c a d i n q s i n ( i f r i c a n H u m a n i t i e s , V o l e 2 , (Enugu N ige r i r l : F o u r t h Dimension P u b l i s h e r s , 19811 , C h a p t z r 9.

Mary H, Kincjs ley , West i i f r i c a n S t u d i s s , ( 3 r d E d i t i o n , London r Frank Cass & Coo , 1 9 6 4 ) , 414,

b

Theodo re H o Van Laue, vvAn t h r o p o l o q y and Power : - - R o So R a t t r a y Imong t h e , i s h a n t i r f , A f r i c a n ~ f f a i r s , 75 , 298 ( J a n . 1 9 7 6 1 , 34,

G. I. J o n e s , S o c i a l An th ropo logy i n N i g e r i a " , OJ. _c_it,, 284, A. F, R o b e r t s o n , ~ f A n t h r o p o l o g y and Government i n G h a n a m f , A f r i c a n A f f a i r s , 74 , 294 ( J a n . 1 9 7 5 ) , 54 , E. E. E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , s lf?rpplied k n t h r o p o l o g y w , AFRICA, X V I (1946 1 , . v, 93 ,

A. E, Af igbo , i f A n t h r o p o l o g y and C o l o n i a l A d m i n i ~ t r a t i o n ~ ~ , I b i d . , 19-35 .,

CSE 36 /1 /14 N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s , Enugu, CSE 36/1/11-14 c o n t a i n a s p e c t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n e n t h e r e l i g i o n c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y f o r young o f f i c e r s .

E, S i d n e y H a r t l a n d , " Ibo-Speakinq P e o p l e s o f s o u t h e r n N i g e r i a " , ~ o u r n a l - o f . \ f ; ican S o c m , X I V , LV (1914-15) , 273-3740

S o u t h e r n N i g e r i a u , oq, 273-276.- Lucy Mair, "An t h r o p o l o y y and C o l o n i a l P o l i c y n , A f r i c a n A f f a i r s 71 , 292 ( A p r i l 13781 , 194. 0, U. Kalu , mulati la ti on o f C u l t u r a l P o l i c y u , 2. Go

9 , Raymond F i r t h , . I n t e r n a t i o n s 1 Encyclopaedia o n S o c i a l L x i e n c e s - , 'JQ.~, I Y m 5 E d i t i o n ) , 352.

1 0 , OP 5 4 3 / 1 9 2 7 , ONP itOl' 7 / 1 4 2 2 0 N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s Enugu ( N i S ) . The r e p o r t i s b r i e f b u t s p e a k s c l e a r l y o f t h c s i t u a t i o n a s i t c x i s t e d ,

11, OKIdIdT, 1 2 / 1 / 1 0 N a t i o n a l 2 i r c h i v e s Lnugu, 1908-1930,

1 2 , P, 0, E s e d e b e , "Th,? I n d e p c n d c n c t ? Plovement i n S i e r r a Lconcl i 9 9 T?KiK 4 , 1 ( 1 9 7 1 1 , 18,

1 3 , See Memo b y H. R, P a l m c r , L t , G o v e r n o r , N o r t h e r n P r o v i n c e s (LGNP) d a t e d 2 8 / 9 / 2 1 i n t h e f i l e o f t h e Any l i c a n D i o c e s a n Synod o f Lagos . M o t i o n s p a s s e d i n 1 9 2 0 C o n f e r e n c e No, 8 0 / 1 9 2 0 i n l o o s e s h e e t s i n C. M. S, : ' c c h i v e s : London; p h o t o c o p i e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l d o c u m e n t a t t h e N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s , Kaduna ( N A K ) , C f , A, E, A f i g b o l s r e a c t i o n : i sThe M i s s i o n a r i e s , and the? ;ire E x p e d i t i o n 1901-1902 ' s , West A f r i c a n Religion-, No,9, ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 13-27,

1 4 . R. E a B r a d b u r y , The B e n i n K 1 3 d o m o f t h e Edo- e a k i n q P e o p l e s o f S o u t h W e s t e r n N i g e r i a , o n d o n : IAI, 1 9 5 7 ) - " F a t h e r s , E l d e r s a n d

G h o s t s i n Edo Kingdomf1 i n M. P I Ban ton ( e d , ) , l o q i c a l ~ p ~ r o a c h t o t h e S t u d y o f ~ e l i ~ i o n ,

1 5 . M a r c e l G r i a u l e , C o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h O q o t e m m e l i , ondo don: O,UoP. f o r . I , A . I o 1951, R e v i s e d E d i t i o n ,

16. G, D i e t e r l e n , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Marcel G r i a u l e , c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h Ogoternrnel i , (London : O,U.P. -e I n t e r n a t i o n a l ' l f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 6 5 1, pp, x i i - x i v ,

1 7 , Leo F r o b e n i u s , The V o i c e o f A f r i c a Vol , 1, ondo don: o,u.P~~T?),<xF~I~.

20. See Robin H o r t o n , " A f r i c a n C o n v e r s i o n AFRICA 2, ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 'On t h e r a t i o n a l i t y of - C o n v e r s i o n ' , P a r t I, AFRICA, 4 5 , 4 (1975 ), 373-399, J,D. Y. P e e l , " R e l i g i o u s Change i n Y o r u b a l a n d M , AFRICA, 37 , 1 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , 292-306. C, I f e k a - H o l l e r , W h i t e - P o w e r : S o c i a l S t r u c t i o n a l F e a t u r e s i n C o n v e r s i o n t o C h r i s t i a n i t y i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a 1921-1966u , C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l of A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , 8. 1 ( 1 9 7 4 ) . 55-72. g.aDI=lj7-~?1< and liobi; H o r t o n , ' P C o n v e r s i o n and C o n f u s i o n : R e j o i n d e r On C h r i s t i , m i t y i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a " , C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l of A f r i c a n S t u d i e s - 9 1 0 , 3 (19-481-493. m ~ a l u , " rods i n R e t r e a t : : Models of R e l i g i o u s Change i n , \ f r i c - 1 ', N i g c r i m J o u r n a l --- o f Humanities, 1, 1 ( b e p t o 1 9 7 7 ) ~ 55-72,

CHAPTER FOUR

WEST AFRICAN RELIGION I N CHRISTIAN SCHOLARSHIP -

INTRODUCTION -

The n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Churchman i n E n g l a n d saw

h i m s e l f a s t h e p o s s e s s o r of t h e t r u e k n o w l e d g e of God,

' T h e S , i r i t o f E n l i g h t e n m e n t had dawned on him w h i l e t h e

' p a g a n s s a f ~ r off were ski l l b e n i g h t e d and ? r o p e d i n

t h e d a r k .

It i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t e v e n d u r i n q t h e #

Age of E n l i g h t e n m ~ n t , r e l i g i o u s s c e p t i c i s m had a f f e c t e d

o n l y a f e w i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e s . F o r t h e m a s s e s t h e n ,

as now, r e l i g i o n i n some f o r m o r t h e o t h e r was t h e most

m e a n i n g f u l p a r t of e x i s t e n c e . The c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t

was l a t e r t o g row more m a t e r i a l i s t i c d i d n o t l a c k

m i s s i o n a r y e n t h u s i a s m . A f t e r a b r i e f p e r i o d of a p p a r e n t

s u c c e s s of s e c u l a r i s m , t h e la ter p a r t of t h e e i g h t e e n t h

a n d t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s saw a

new r e l i g i o u s a w a k e n i n g s p r e a d t h r o u g h W e s t e r n a n d

C e n t r a l Europe . T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e b e g i n n i n g and s p r e a d

of r e l i g i o u s movements l i k e p i e t i s m , Q u a r t e r i s m , a n d

Methodism.

The V i c t o r i a n E n g l i s h Churchman, b e l i e v i n g t h a t

E u r o p e had r e a c h e d t h e apex of human d e v e l o p m e n t i n

84

c u l t u r a , r e l i g i o n a n d s c i e n c e , f e l t m o r a l l y o b l i g e d

t o s p r e a d t h e same t o t h o s c i n ' u t t e r d a r k n e s s and

i g n o r a n c e ' , I n a s u b t l e way, t h e m i s s i o n a r y a t t i t u d e

t o racism was a n a s s u m p t i o n o f a s e n s e o f d u t y t o w a r d s

t h e ' h e a t h e n ' who g r o p e d i n t h e d a r k . T h i s v i e w was

c h r i s t e n e d t h e w h i t e m a n ' s I3urden o r M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y t o

s p r e a d t h e w h i t e m a n ' s r e l i g i o n , l e a r n i n g a n d c i v i l i z a -

t i o n . W i t h t h i s u n d e r g i r d i n g p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , a n y o t h e r

form of r e l i g i o n b e s i d e t h e i r s , was c o n s i d e r e d v p r i m i t i v e t ,

' i d o l a t r o u s ' , ' i n f e r i o r ' , a n d s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d . Thus

" t h e m i s s i o n a r y image of non-Europeans b l e n d e d w i t h t h e

e x i s t i n g c u l t u r a l a r r o g a n c e a n d w i t h t h e pseudo-

s c i e n t i f i c a r g u m e n t s f o r r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y . " 1

O f t e n t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s s t a y e d l o n g e r a t a p l a c e

t h a n t h e o t h e r E u r o p e a n v i s i t o r s , T h i s g a v e them t h e

o p p o r t u n i t y t o o b s e r v e A f r i c a n l i f e a t a c l o s e r r a n g e

t h a n t h o s e who made a c u r s o r y o b s e r v a t i o n a t f e w c e n t r e s

a n d d rew h a s t y c o n c l u s i o n s . A l o n g e r s t a y m i g h t h a v e

b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e g r e a t e r amount o f l i t e r a t u r e

a n d more s y m p a t h e t i c a c c o u n t f r o m some m i s s i o n a r y

s o u r c e s t h a n f r o m o t h e r Z u r o p c a n wr i t e r s , I n a d d i t i o n ,

t h e rate o f f l o w o f l i t e r a t u r e m i q h t h a v e b e e n d u e t o

t h e n a t u r e of t h e m i s s i o n a r y work ; t h c i r s p o n s o r s h i p

a n d a t t i t u d e a t t h e home h a s c .

The m i s s i o n a r i e s l i v e d on t h e v o l u n t a r y

c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m t h e m i s s i o n a r y s o c i e t i e s a t t h e

home base, I f t h o s c i n t h e m i s s i o n f i e l d s o v e r s e a s

w e r e t o c o n t i n u e t o c a r r y on w i t h t h e i r a s s i g n m e n t s ,

t h c y had t o be i n c l o s e t o u c h w i t h t h e p a r e n t b o d y a t

home. Hence, a c o n t i n u o u s f l o w o f i n f o r m a t i o n became

n e c e s s a r y , Some o f t h e lc t tcrs , and d i a r i e s , w e r e

p r i n t e d i n j o u r n a l s w i t h w i d c c i r c u l a t i o n , t o s t i m u l a t e

s t e a d y c o n t r i b u t i o n s . To a t t r a c t s y m p a t h y , some of t h e

m i s s i o n a r i e s would e x a g g e r a t e how t h e y w e r 8 b a t t l i n g

w i t h t h e demons i n t h e ' p a g a n v l a n d s , P h i l i p D, C u r t i n

h a s a c c u s e d some of thcm of t r y i n g t o e x a g g e r a t e some

stories o r e x p e r i e n c e s e s p e c i a l l y when t h e y w e n t t o :

" t h e p a g a n s i n t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s of ,,, t h e y w r o t e back . , , t o t h e home s o c i e t y , T h e s e let ters w e r e c o l l e c t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d i n j o u r n a l s ,., as a means o f s t i m u l a t i n g m i s s i o n a r y s u b s c r i p t i o n s , s t2

Each c o n t r i b u t o r , a f t e r r e a d i n g s u c h a p a t h e t i c a p p e a l

f o r a i d f o r t h o s e i n t h z ' p a g a n t l a n d s would h a v e a

s e n s e of v i c a r i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e r i g h t i n g of

w r o n g s a n d t o t a l e r a d i c a t i o n o f i ' p a g a n i s r ~ f v ,

EARLY EUROPEAN MISSIONARY ii'l":'EMPTS TO UNDEXSTAND A N D DESTROY THC TRADITIONAL RELIGION - - -

Some m i s s i o n a r i e s made some r i d i c u l o u s r e m a r k s a b o u t

t h e West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , l i k e t h e o t h e r e a r l y v i s i t o r s

of t h c i r t i m e - t r a v e l l e r s , e x p l o r e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

However, t h o m i s s i o n a r i e s s t a y e d i n a p l a c e much l o n g e r

t h a n t h e i r o t h e r contemporaries. One p o s i t i v e effect

of a l o n g e r s t a y was a s e r i o u s e f f o r t by some o f them

t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , T h i s i s p a r t i c u -

l a r l y t r u e of Thomas J. Bowen, a S o u t h American B a p t i s t t

M i s s i o n a r y who compi l ed a d i c t i o n a r y of t h e Yoruba

l a n g u a g e i n t h e mid 1 8 5 0 1 s , Through s u c h c a r e f u l

s t u d y , h e o b s e r v e d some c e r t a i n ' p o s i t i v e 1 and ' h i g h e r 1

a s p e c t s o f t h e Yoruba r e l i g i o n , T h i s d o e s n o t i n a n y

way s u g g e s t t h a t '3owcn s f i w t h c t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n as

a v a l i d f a i t h i n i t s e n t i r e t y , H i s l o n g e r s t a y i n

Yoruba l and p o s s i b l y added t o h i s c o n c l u d i n g t h a t

' f e t i s h e s ' u s u a l l y d e p i c t c d a s t h c sum t o t a l o f West

A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n we rz n o t h i n g more t h a n mere symbo l s ,

P e r h a p s , b e c a u s e o f t h e same d e c p c r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

t h e o l o g y and professional s k i l l i n l a n g u a g e , Abbe

P i c r r c Bouche, a F r e n c h Roman C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r y i n

Dahomsy a t t h e same t i m e w i t h S i r R, F, Bur ton made a

more c a r e f u l o b s e r v a t i o n of t h c r e l i g i o n t h a n h i s

' s e c u l a r ' c o n t e m p o r a r i z s . b l r i t i n g on t h e c u l t i c

s y m b o l s , w e h e a r him say among o t h e r t h i n g s t h a t ,

i n f a c t , i t i s n o t :

"mere m a t e r i a l t h a t r e c c i v c d t h e r e s p e c t s o f t h e b l a c k ; h e d i r e c t s them t o w a r d s a h i g h e r powcr , h e n c e i t c a n n o t be s a i d t h e Dahomean and Nago ( N e g r o ? ) ... r e l i g i o n i s r e a l l y f e t i s h i s m a s t h z term i s g e n e r a l l y m e a n t O s ' 3

The v a r i o u s a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s a l i e n t

a s p e c t s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e s w e r e b a s e d , t o some

e x t e n t , o n a n i n d i v i d u a l m i s s i o n a r y l s , e f f o r t and d i s p o s i -

t i o n . W h i l e Bowcn a n d Bouchc showed some g l i m m e r i n g s o f

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , Rev, P, Baudin wrote a d e v a s t a t i n g I

a c c o u n t o f t h e r e l i g i o n w h i c h h e saw a s ' t o t a l d a r k n e s s ' I

h o s t i l e t o t h e l i g h t o f C h r i s t i a n g o s p e l . Rev. P,

B a u d i n , a F r e n c h Roman C a t h o l i c P r i c s t who s o j o u r n e d i n i

many p a r t s o f West A f r i c a betwel:n 1 8 5 1 a n d 1 8 9 0 e d i t e d

t h e M i s s i o n a r y on t h e S l a v e C o a s t o f A f r i c a ( 1 8 8 5 ) .

The book i s r e p l e t e w i t h m a t e r i a l s f r o m d i f f e r e n t e

m i s s i o n a r i e s who c n c o u n t c r e d o n e d i f f i c u l t y o r t h e

o t h e r a t d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e ' S l a v e C o a s t ' , The

h o r r i b l e p i c t u r e p a i n t e d o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n

made t h e writer and h i s c o l l e a g u e s s o o p t i m i s t i c t h a t

t h e y d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o p r o n o u n c e i t s ' o b i t u a r y ' l o n g

b c f o r e t i m e , One F a t h e r L e j e u n c had c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i r

uncompromis ing a t t i t u d e to t h i ~ t r a d i t i o n a l f a i t h had

h e l p e d them e n o u g h i n n o t o n l y making q u i c k c o n v e r t s

b u t a l so r e t a i n i n ? them. E x p l a i n i n g t o h i s Director

why t h e y t o o k s u c h h o s t i l z s t a n d a g l i n s t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

c u l t u r e , h e s t a t e d t h a t t h e y d i d so b e c a u s e :

"we f e a r t h z i r n m e n s ~ s c a n d a l w h i c h h a s b e e n p r o d u c e d among P r o t e s t a n t s : t h e r e t u r n t o Pagan i sm b e t w e e n t w o - t h i r d s or o n c h a l f o f t h e i r c 0 n v c r t s , ~ ~ 4

F r , L e j c u n e i s t h u s i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e i r r i g i d s t a n d

a g a i n s t t h ~ ? t r a d i t i o n a l r c l i g i o n was i n s t r u m e n t a l t o + t h e i r p h c n o m e n l l s p r e a d a n d i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f

c o n v e r t s , However, t h c s c c o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a

w e l t e r o f o t h e r f ac tors , Most m i s s i o n a r y s o c i e t i e s

w e r e however , f o n d o f d i s s e m i n a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t

t e n d e d to m i s r e p r e s e n t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e s , Some

of t h e p a s s a g e s c u l l e d f r o m t h e e p i s t o l a r y e f f u s i o n s

p u b l i s h c d from t i m e t o t i m e i n t h e o r g a n s o f t h e

m i s s i o n a r y societies showed e v i d e n c e s o f ca lumny and h a t e .

The C h r o n i q u e s d e s les M i s s i o n , B u l l e t i n d e l a

C o n q r e q a t i o n -=- (1885-1912 ) ; P r c f a c t u r c A p o s t o l i q u e d u

Bas-Niqer f r o m t h e rfomnn C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s c o n t a i n e d ---.

m a t e r i a l s d e s c r i b i n q t h s h o r r o r s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n and t h c nohlL: c f f o r t s of th2 r n i s s i o n a r i c s .

I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e lv,.~or!r o f k i . - ~ < ~ Socj.ci:tv o f A f r i c a n

M i s s i o n (S,M,A,) a: ,cared i n t h e -- ? i n n a l e s d u e l a

P r o p a q a t i o n d e la f o i o r i n i t s l a t e r E n g l i s h v e r s i o n

A n n a l s of t h e P r o p a g a t i o n of t h e F a i t h ( i n c i d e n t a l l y n o t

a l w a y s i d e n t i c a l ) as w o l l as i n L e s M i s s i o n C a t h o l i q u e .

The f o r m e r s u p p l i e d a n n u a l r e p o r t s and summar ies of

i m p o r t a n t p o l i c y d z c i s i o n s , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r was a w e e k l y

p u b l i c a t i o n of c u r r e n t e v e n t s , The CSE documents were - among t11c p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e Holy Ghos t F a t h e r s i n P a r i s .

O t h e r P r o t z s t a n t m i s s i o n a r y s o c i c k i e : ; hid some

l e a d i n g m a g a z i n e s ; infj journ3.l:; i n wh ich t h e y communicated

i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i o work. T,he Church

M i s s i o n a r y I n t e l l i c j c n c e r ((:.Ma S o ) and t h e M e t h o d i s t

Maqazine were h i g h l y advanced p u b l i c a t i o n s on t h c

g e o g r a p h y , e t h n o l o g y , r z l i q i o n s , i n t h e m i s s i o n f i e l d s

d e s i g n e d fo r c d u c a t c d membcrs o f t h e p u b l i c ,

The -s o f t h e C,M.S,, M i n u t e s o f t h e

M e t h o d i s t C o n f e r e n c e M i s s i o n a r y R e c o r d s and M i n u t e s of

t h e F o r e i q n M i s s i o n s Commit tee ( b o t h o f t h e U n i t e d - P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h ) s u p p l i e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s t a t e

of m i s s i o n s , a n n u a l estimates, e x p e n d i t u r e , The

M i s s i o n a r y G l e a n e r of t h e C.M.S. s u p p l i e d t e a c h i n g a i d s - -

and o u t l i n e s o f t h e d o c t r i n e s fo r use in t h e m i s s i o n

field. T h e s e w e r e o f t e n i n t o n e i n t h e i r condemna t ion

of some a s p e c t s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e ,

It i s p e r t i n e n t , however. , t o s t a t e h e r e t h c

a t t i t u d e of t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s who w e r e A f r i c a n b y

d e s c e n t b u t W e s t e r n i n o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

C U ~ ~ U P ~ . Two o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r s h e r e are Samuel

Adjayi C r o w t h e r of t h e C,M.S. and T. B, Freeman of t h e

. Wesleyan M e t h o d i s t M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , They i n t h e i r

w r i t i n g d e p i c t e d r e a l p e o p l e w i t h a c o m p r e h e n s i v e way

of l i f e i n p l a c e of t h z c a r d b o a r d s c v n g e s i n t h e a c c o u n t s

of s t r a y - t r a v e l l e r s . T h e i r a t t i t u d e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l + c u l t u r e p a r t i c u l a r l y t h q t of C r o w t h e r c o u l d be

s a i d t o be somewhat ambjvc21en t . H i s p o l e m i c a l se rmon

i n Yoruba was f e l t t o be more damaging t o t h e t r a d i -

t i o n a l r e l i g i o n t h m t h o s e p r c a c h c d b y t h e ' w h i t e s i n

E n g l i s h . Y e t ,

", , , d e s p i t e hi-s n e g > . t i v c p o s i t i o n , C r o w t h c r was l L ? , r n i n g much d u r i n g h i s t i m e i n B a d a g r y .,, a b o u t t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , H c d i s c o v c r c d , f o r i n s t m c c , how t r a d i t i o n a l s h r i n e s a f f o r d e d a r 3 f u g e f o r f u g i t i v c s lavcsOff5

The p r a c t i c c d i d n o t o n l y i m p r e s s him b u t a l so

r e m i n d e d him of s imi lar p r a c t i m s i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t

w h e r e t h e g H o r n ' of thi: A l t a r ( I K i n g s 2:28), a f f o r d e d

a f u g i t i v e f r e e d o m from n t k a c k 3 y a n a s s a i l m t . Over

a n d a g a i n s t some o t h e r Zurope , -ms , C r o w t h c r a n d h i s o t h e r

A f r i c a n colleagues would sometimes s i d e w i t h t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , For i n s t a n c e , a g a i n s t B i s h o p

Weeks whose p o l i c y was t o deny b a p t i s m t o t h e o w n e r s o f

h o u s e h o l d s l a v c s , and a s w e l l a s t o a n y woman i n a

po lygamous m a r r i a g e , C r o w t i x r e m p h a t i c a l l y r e m i n d e d

him t h a t

Itwhat m i g h t make s e n s e i n ' B r i t i s h c o l o n y 1 d i d n o t n c c e s s x i l y h o l d f o r Y o r u b a l a n d , sv6

The b i a s a 3 a i n s t t h s t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n was a l s o

shown b y t h e i n d i y c n o u s I ' i f r i c a n members o f t h e m i s s i o n s , +

A p x t from some o c c a s i o n a l show of u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,

C r o w t h e r o f t e n e x h i b i t e d t h a t d i s d a i n and s p i t e f o r t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n t y p i c a l o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s o f h i s

a g e , H e saw t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n a s a phenomenon

t h a t would s o o n be r e p l a c e d b y C h r i s t i a n i t y . A s h e

r e v i e w e d t h e p r o g r e s s a n d p r o b l e m s of t h ? o r i g i n o f t h e

N i g e r M i s s i o n , C r o w t h e r o n c e r e m a r k e d t h a t :

"we m e t t h e p e o p l e i n t h e d e e p e s t s t a t e o f i g n o r a n c e , a n d d e g r a d a t i o n , and i n most a b o m i n a b l e p r a c t i c e s of i d o l a t r y and s u p e r s t i t i o n : w o r s h i p p i n g s u p p o s e d s p i r i t s r e p r e s e n t e d b y u n d e s c r i b a b l c s h a p e l e s s p i e c e s o f b l o c k s o f wood t o w h i c h s a c r i f i c e s a r c made o f ~ n i m a l s a n d human b e i n g s . , , 9 v 7

By t h e t u r n o f thr: c e n t u r y , i t bccfimc clear to some

m i s s i o n a r i e s t h a t t h c i r p r e d e c e s s o r s had c o m m i t t e d some

errors by n o t seelcincj t o u n d c r s t - m d the t r - l d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n b e f o r e pro!louncin.,r i t s o b i t u a r y , T h u s ,

S t e p h e n S , Far row began i n t h e l a t e 1890's t o c o l l e c t

d a t a on Yoruba r e l i g i o n . A s a m i s s i o n a r y t o Y o r u b a l a n d ,

h e c a u t i o u s l y made a s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o f t h e basic

r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s an13 p r a c t i c e s o f t h e a r e a . H e was so

f a s c i n a t e d t h a t a few y e x s a f t e r t h c World War I ,

Fa r row u s e d t h e m a t e r i a l s f o r a d o c t o r < ~ l t h e s i s wh ich

l a t e r c u l m i n a t e d i n th:: book, F a i t h , F a n c i e s and F e t i s h

o r Yoruba Heathenism (L,ondon, 1924), The t i t l e o f t h e

book o v e r t l y shows Far row a c h i l d of h i s a g e and b e t r a y s

h i s b i a s and r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e , howcvzr v l l u e - f r e e t h e * terms were . H e was , howcvcr , t h e F i r s t Zuropcan t o

c o n s i d e r A f r i c a n R e l i q i o n TI l e g i t i m a t e and v a l i d s u b j e c t

f o r a d o c t o r a l t h e s i s .

CHRISTIAN-APOLOGISTS AND ' PRIXPI'LRATIO EVANGELICA'

F o l l o w i n g t h e g r a d u ~ l b u t s t s a d y c h a n g e i n t h e

p a t t e r n o f C h r i s t i a n Theo logy i n Eu rope , C h r i s t i a n

writers on A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n d e v e l o p c d a new a t t i t u d e t o

t h e r e l i g i o n , T h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f o t h e r n o n - C h r i s t i a n

r e l i g i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , became subsumed i n t h e C h u r c h ' s

new v i s i o n o f i t s m i s s i o n t o t h e w o r l d .

C o n s e q u e n t on i t s r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e w o r l d ' s r i c h

c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y and @saware t h a t i t c a n no l o n g e r be a

' W e s t e r n ' Church t h a n i t c o u l d e v e r h ~ v e b e e n o r

8 r e m a i n e d a J ewi sh Churchvv , t h e v a r i o u s m i s s i o n a r y

b o d i e s g r a d u a l l y changed t h e i r p r e v i o u s h o s t i l e

a t t i t u d e s and p o l i c i c s t o w x d s o t h e r n o n - C h r i s t i a n

r e l i g i o n s , I n a number o f c o n f e r e n c e s t h a t f o l l o w e d ,

new p o l i c i e s were a d o p t e d and a new t h e o l o g y o f m i s s i o n

came i n vogue , Thus a spf? . te o f l i t e r a t u r e on s y s t e m a t i c

d e s c r i p t i o n s of s p t x i f i c beliefs ?nd p r x t i c e s - t h e

Supreme God, A n c e s t o r - w o r s h i p , sacrifice, m a r r i a g e ,

d e a t h , and m o r a l i t y , o u t s t r i p p e d t h e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a l

a s s e s s m e n t of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n .

On a small s c a l e , s u c h s t u d i e s b e an i n t h e 1 9 2 0 ' s ? when some m i s s i o n a r i e s e i t h e r on t h e i r own or u n d e r t h e

a u s p i c e s of t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s u n d e r t o o k some on- the-

s p o t s u r v e y o f some a s p e c t s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n

o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w h e r e t h e y worked. The Roman

C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s h a d , however , d o n e more t h a n o t h e r s

a l o n g t h i s l i n e , I n s p i t e o f t h e a p p a r e n t f a v o u r a b l e

c h z n g i n g a t t i t u d e s of the? m i s s i o n a r i e s , t h e same n o t i o n

of n s u p c r i o r i t y v of Christ ian.!- ty o v c r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l k g i o n p r e v a i l e d i n t h z minds o f t h e a p o l o g i s t s .

From t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s European C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s who

r e a l i z e d t h e errors of e a r l y European n o n - b e l i e v e r s and

m i s s i o n a r i e s i n t r y i n q t o d e s t r o y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n , intensified 2 f f o r . t ~ to I n v e s t i g . ? t e ways on how

some e l e m e n t s o f t h c t r ~ . d i t i o n q l c z l i g i o n c o u l d be u s e d

as a means o f p r o p a g a t i n g thc: G o s p c l . T h i s

e v a n g e l i c a l z e a l was m a n i f e s t e d i n s e v e r a l w o r k s t h a t

a p p e a r e d a t th,.? t i m e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h a t o f P r o f e s s o r

H c n d r i c k Kraemer , I n s u g g e s t i n g ways o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g

t h e G o s p e l t o p e o p l e of n o n - C h r i s t i a n r ~ l i g i o u s back-

g r o u n d , Kracmer e m p h a s i z e d w h a t h c described as a

p r i n c i p l e o f ' c o n t i n u i t y 2nd d i s c o n t i n u i t y v .

The s u g g e s t i o n r a i s c d a l o t o f c o n t r o v e r s y a t t h e

I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n a r y C o n f e r e n c e i n Tambaran, n e a r

Madras I n d i a , i n 1938. T h i s was c a u s c d b y t h e v 3 g u e * m e a n i n g s o f t h e terms F P c o n t i n u i t y u a n d t l d i s c o n t i n u i t y q s ,

H e a r g u e d t h a t w h a t h e m e a n t b y s ' c o n t i n u i t y s t was !'the

c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s o f n o n - C h r i s t i a n

r e l i g i o n s a n d t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o s t r i v e f o r t h e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n o f t h e C h r i s t i m t r u t h i n terms a n d modes o f

e x p r e s s i o n t h a t makes i t s c h a l l e n g ? i n t e l l i g i b l e a n d

r e l a t e d t o t h e p c c u l i x q u 2 l i t y of r e a l i t y i n w h i c h t h e

C h u r c h e s i n t h c m i s s i o n f i ? l d l i v e . " 9

On ' d i s c o n t i n u i t y , h ~ : cmph?siz:?d t h a t

"pbaq>nism ~ n d prophetic r c v c l a t i i o o f B i b l i c ~ l r ' ? c J i s m , a r e n o t c o n t i n u o u s w i t h e7.ch o t h c r , " l O

T h u s Kraemer , would n o t h c s i t ? t e t o r ~ c o n i m m d a

d e s t r u c t i o n of Tny a s p e c t o f t h 2 t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n

t h ~ t d o e s n o t y e i l d i t s e l f t o t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e

Gospe l , I n h i s own words :

" t h e m i s s i o n a r y i s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y , and h a s t o be s o , f o r t o p r e a c h and p l a n t C h r i s t i a n i t y means t o mnkc f r o n t a l a t t a c k on b e l i e f s and cus toms , , . , The m i s s i o n a r y c n t c r p r i s e need n o t be ashnmcd o f t h i s ,.. M i s s i o n s , however , i m p l y a w e l l - c o n s i d e r e d a p p e a l t o a11 p e o p l e s t o t r a n s p l a n t and t r a n s f m t h e i r l i f e - f o u n d a t i o n s i n t o a t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t s p i r i t u a l s o i l and s o mus t b c r e v o l u t i o n a r y s f . 11

The a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t o r y ( o r r a t h e r comp lemen ta ry? )

s t a n c e of Kramcr h a s g r c z t l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e

p o l i c i e s of t h e P r o t c s t a n t as w e l l a s t h c Roman C a t h o l i c

m i s s i o n s i n s e e k i n g ways t o u s e some e l e m e n t s of t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n a s a t o o l of e v a n g e l i c a l s t r ~ t e g y ,

The i n t c l l c c t u a l and p a s t o r a l c o n c e r n s of t h e p e r i o d

l e d t o a number of o t h e r C o n f e r e n c e s on t h e A f r i c a n High

God. Thus S m i t h i n 1 9 5 0 e d i t e d The A f r i c a n I d e a s

o f God - a c o l l e c t i o n of s t u d i e s on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of

A f r i c a n c o n c e p t s of God - c a r e f u l l y w r i t t e n f rom

m i s s i o n a r y s t a n d p o i n t b y t h o s s whose o r i e n t a t i o n w a s on

C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y a

E. W, S m i t h was s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n A f r i c a n

c o n c e p t s of God, (wh ich many E u r o p e a n s had b e e n s c e p t i c a l

o f ) and d i d a l o t ? l o n g t h i s l i n e . Fo r i n s t a n c e , by

1 9 3 6 , h e had p u b l i s h e d A f r i c a n B c l i e f s and C h r i s t i a n

F a i t h , The c o n c e p t of God became a d o m i n a n t theme and - a l l o t h c r c o n c e p t s o f A f r i c a n l i f e and r e l i g i o n - w e r e

p r e s e n t e d o n l y a s t h e y wEre r e l e v a n t t o t h i s c o n c e p t i o n .

A l t h o u g h S m i t h ' s w o r k s w c r e n o t p r i m a r i l y c e n t r e d on

Wcst A f r i c a , h i s d i s c o v c r i c s h z v e i n no s rn3 l l m e a s u r e s

f o s t e r e d a c h m g e i n m i s s i o n x y a t t i t u d e . F o r i n s t a n c e ,

h e was ab l i ? t o show t h z t A f r i c a n High God was n o t a mere

p h i l o s o p h i c f i l h y p o t h e s i s conceived o f o n l y by i n t e l l e c t .

H e showed t h c Supreme God i n A f r i c x as a p r e s e n t

r e a l i t y , n o t t h e ui?cmctz or w i t h d r a w n Godu i n i t i a l l y

c o n c e i v e d b y some e a r l i e r wr i t e r s , I n d e e d , E. G.

P a r r i n d e r h e s d e s c r i h c d S m i t h 2 s ' ? t h e g r e a e e s t e x p e r t

on A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n t f , l2 Aclcnowli~dging S m i t h ' s c o n t r i b u -

t i o n s a l s o w e r e F o r t e s a n d Die tc2r len who s t a t e d t h a t

h e h a s p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t rc le i n a l t e r i n g m i s s i o n a r y

a t t i t u d e s t o A f r i c o . 1 3 H i s work i n 1 9 2 6 , The C h r i s t i a n

M i s s i o n i n A f r i c s b a s e d on t h e ou tcome o f t h c C o n f c r e n c e

o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n a r y C o u n c i l i n Belgium became

a s o l i d b e d r o c k on which s u b s e q u e n t a t t i t u d e s o f

m i s s i o n a r i e s t o t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e r c s t e d , Thcy became

c o n v i n c e d a f t e r t h e 1 9 2 6 C o n f c r e n c e t h a t some a s p e c t s o f

A f r i c a n c u l t u r e c o u l d e n h a n c e m i s s i o n a r y work i n ~ i f r i c a .

The ' P r a e p a r a t i o E v a n g c l i c a ' a p p r o a c h o f t h e C h r i s t i a n

a p o l o g i s t s c o n t i n u e d t i l l o f l a t e and h a s m a n i f e s t e d

i t s e l f i n t h e works o f some i n d i g e n o u s A f r i c a n s c h o l a r s

whom w e s h a l l presently d i s c u s s .

An o u t s t a n d i n g C h r i s t i - m a p o l o g i s t who n o t o n l y

pioneered b u t a l s o p o p u l x i z e d t h e e x p l o r a t i o n i n t o t h e

t h c o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t t a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n

was E. G. P a r r i n d c r . U n l i k e 5 r n i t h a n d K r z c m e r ,

P a r r i n d e r ' s a t t i t u d e was n o t t h a t o f u s i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n as a n e v a n g e l i c a l t o o l , H i s was a s y s t e m a t i c

t h c o l o g i c a l p r e s e n t l t i o n of t h e r e l i g i o n - a s t a n c e t h a t

h a s g r e a t l y i n f l u c n c c d a number o f indigenous West

A f r i c a n C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i m s . H i s Wcst A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n

(1349) i s an a t t e m p t a t g i v i n g t h a t s y s t e m a t i c @ p r e s e n t a -

t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to t h e r i t u a l s , b e l i e f s 2nd

e t h i c s o f f o u r West A f r i c a n e t h n i c g r o u p s . H e p r o b a b l y

p i c k e d t h o f o u r societies as ' p a r a d i g m s ' f o r o t h e r

s t u d i e s . H e restricts h i m s e l f w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f w h a t

c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d as v v r e l i g i o u s ~ a n d a v o i d s d r a w i n g

c o n c l u s i o n s b u t r a t h e r d e s c r i b e s t h e f a c t s as h e f i n d s

them.

H i s s y s t e m o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n ( b y d i r e c t c o n t a c t

w i t h few c e n t r e s a n d t h r o u g h t h c h e l p o f f i e l d a s s i s t a n t s

i n many o t h e r p l a c e s ) 1 c d t o c o m p a r i s o n s o f items f r o m

v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h ~ : c o n t i n e n t , T h i s c r e a t e d t h e p r o b l e m

of e n u m e r a t i o n of i t e m s t : ~ h e csmpclrcd. jli. have? a l r e a d y

a n a l y s c d P a r r i n d z r ' s mcthoc lo logy a t t h c e v l - v s t a g e s of

t h i s work. S u f f i c e i t , t h a r e f o r c , t r s l y n,t t h i s

p o i n t , t h a t f o r P a r r i n d e r ' s p u r p o s e s t h e n , h i s ~ p p r o a c h

p r o v c d h e l p f u l t o a g c n c r ~ ~ l r e a d e r who w a n t e d t o u n d e r -

s t a n d t h e g e n e r n l f c ? . t u r s s o f t h e r e l i g i o n e s p e c i a l l y t h e

t h e o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n .

Onc m a j o r criticism l e v e l l e d a g a i n s t t h e C h r i s t i a n

a p o l o g i s t s , i s t h e i r c o n s i s t e n t n e g l e c t o f h i s t o r y .

T h i s may he d u e t o t h e i r p r i m x y i n t e r e s t - t h e u r g e n c y

t o p r e s e n t a s o u n d t h e o l o g i c a l e x p l a n z t i o n o f t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r z l i g i o n w h i c h had h i t h e r t o s u f f e r e d much f n

t h e h a n d s o f many E u r o p e a n m i s s i o n a r i e s , t r a v e l l e r s a n d

o t h e r s e c u l a r w r i t c r s who d i d n o t w a i t t o u n d e r s t a n d

the b a s i c t h e o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r g i r d i n g t h e

r e l i g i o n before d e s c r i b i n q i t .

B e s i d e s ' t h e a p o l o g c t i c t o r f P r a e p a r a t i o E v a n g e l f c a t

s t a n c e , a c h a n g e o f a t t i t u d e of t h e C h u r c h t o w a r d s o t h e r

n o n - C h r i s t i a n r s l i g i o n s h a s g a i n e d c u r r e n c y i n r e c e n t

p n s t . The new s h i f t of e m p h a s i s i s n c l o n g e r on t h e

' C h u r c h 1 o r on ' C h r i s t f b u t on 'God1 - as t h e c e n t r e of

s a l v - : t i o n , Thus , t h e h i s t o r y o f th;. a t t i t u d e o f t h e

C a t h o l i c C h u r c h t o o t h c r r c l . i y i o n s . sc,ms t o h a v ~ moved

from i t s e a r l y ~ e c c l ~ s i o c e n t r i s m t o C h r i s t o c e n t r i s m and

most r c c c n t l y t o t h c o c e n t r i s m " . l5 The Second V a t i c a n

C o u n c i l (1962-1965) c o n t i n w d t h e ' i n c l u s i v e

e c c l e s i o c e n t r i s m ' o f t h e p e r i o d , w h i c h h e l d t h a t t h e r e

was no s a l v a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e Church , Y c t t h e c o u n c i l

F a t h e r s , w h i l e r e ~ f f i r m i n g t h a t t h ~ Church i s n c c c s s a r y

f o r s a l v a t i o n , e x t e n d e d a s i t w c r ~ ? , t h e u n i v e r s a l

p o s s i b i l i t y of S a l v a t i o n - s t a t i n g t h a t even " a t h e i s t s

c o u l d be s avcd" , l6 T h i s v i e w was i n i t i a l l y a r t i c u l a t e d

by Karl Rahner whose r a d i c a l t h o u g h t s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d

t h e d e l i b e r a t i o n s o f t h e C o u n c i l . H i s s h i f t f r o m

~ e c c l e s i o c e n t r i s m t t o ' C h r i s t o c e n t r i s m t made him c o n c l u d e

t h a t o t h e r n o n - C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n s " a r e o r c a n be g r a c e -

f i l l e d ways of s a l v , a t i o n and are p o s i t i v e l y i n c l u d e d i n

God ' s p l a n o f s a l v ~ t i o n . " 17

The new a t t i t u d e h a s c u l m i n a t e d i n a phenomenon w e

c a l l l D i a l o g u e t . T h i s term was made known t o t h e Church

by Pope P a u l V I i n t h e e n c y c l i c a l l f E c c l c s i a n SuamH

( 6 Augus t 19641, A s m i n s t i t u t i o n a l s i g n o f t h i s d e s i r e

t o meet and re la te t o t h c f o l l o w e r s o f o t h e r r e l i g i o u s

t r a d i t i o n s of t h c w c r l d , t h c s l m e Dope P a u l V I b egan on

P e n t e c o s t , 1961, i n t h e S p i r i t o f t h c Second V a t i c a n

C o u n c i l t h e S e c r e t s r i ~ t f o r n o n - C h r i s t i n n s , d i f f e r e n t

f r o m t h e S a c r c d C o n g r e g a t i o n f o r t h d E v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f

p ~ o p b . l8 The t h e o l o g i m s who came o u t t h e n t o s t u d y

A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n became more c a u t i o u s and o b j e c t i v e t h a n

t h 2 i r p r c d c c e s s o r s ,

The World C o u n c i l of C h u r c h s s h a s i n t h e same v e i n

s t a r t e d ( w i t h i n t h e a r m - p i t o f i t s U n i t I on I F 3 i t h and

W i t n e s s ' 1 a s u b - u n i t f o r vvDialoguL: w i t h P e o p l e o f

L i v i n g F a i t h s and I d c o l o g i e ~ ' ~ , 19

I1

F o r p u r p o s e s of h i s t o r i c a l s e q u c n c e and a n a l y s i s ,

w e h a v e c a t e g o r i z e d t h r c e g r o u p s of ' n f i t i o n ~ l i s t l w r i t e r s ,

Thc f i r s t g r o u p a p p e a r e d i n t h c l a t z 1 8 0 0 ' s and e a r l y

1 9 0 0 1 s , l e d b y e d u c a t e d Wzst A f r i c a n s who r e c e i v e d

W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n t h r o u g h t h c i r c o n t a c t w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

They t h u s u s e d t h c i r p r i v i l e g e s as e d u c a t e d A f r i c a n s t o

correct t h e p e r s i s t e n t E u r o p e a n d i s t o r t e d image and m i s -

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e i r race, I n p o i n t o f t i m e , t h e y

w e r e t h e f i r s t i n d i g e n o u s writers t o r e a c t a g a i n s t w h a t

t h e y c o n s i d e r e d E u r o p e a n o n s l a u g h t a g a i n s t t h e West

A f r i c a n c u l t u r e and r e l i g i o n .

The o t h e r g r o u p o f n a t i o n a l i s t s , i n c l u d e s t h e

l l s e c u l a r a g i t a t o r s q 1 f ~ r p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l e m a n c i p a -

t i o n of t h c i r p ~ o p l e , They were i n s p i r e d by t h c i r e a r l y

p r e d e c e s s o r s . I t was a t t h , i dawn of s t r u g g l e f o r

n a t i o n a l i n d c p c n d c n c c t h a t m o s t o f th(;sz men wrote.

They t h e m s e l v e s w c r c p r o d u c t s ~f ' r o i s z i ,n s c ! ~ o o l s I .

Y e t a t h i r d g r o u p i s made up o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s

C h r i s t i a n writers and t h e o l o g i a n s , who t h r o u g h t h e i r

s t u d y o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y a n d p h i l o s o p h y s o u g h t t o

d i s m i s s a11 e r r o n e o u s i m p r e s s i o n s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n and c u l t u r e g i v e n by \ J e s t e r n s c h o l a r s . W e see

them as n a t i o n a l i s t s i n t h e s e n s e th?. t t h z y s o u g h t t h e

i d e n t i t y and s e l f h o o d of t h e A f r i c m p e r s o n a l i t y t h r o u g h

t h e s t r u g g l e f o r i n d i g c n i z a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y . L i k e

t h a W e s t e r n missionaries whc' s o u q h t t o u s e C h r i s t i m i t y

as an e v a n g e l i c a l k o o l , t h e s c s c h o 1 s . r ~ : - a n t e d gn i i f r i c n n

f o r m o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , u s i n g t r s d i t i o n ~ l lnodels as i n t e r -

p r e t a t i v e c a t e g o r y , Thcy were t c o n f e s s i o n a l s c h o l a r s ' ,

who w h i l e r e m a i n i n g A f r i c a n s , w a n t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y t o be

i n t e r p r e t e d t o s u i t A f r i c a n ways o f l i f e . They, t h u s

i n d i r e c t l y , a c c e p t e d t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y over

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n ,

Harris W. Mobley h a s c l a s s i f i e d w r i t i n g s f r o m

j n d i y e n o u s West A f r i c a n s c h o l a r s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y from

Ghana) i n t o two b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s , The f i r s t h e c a l l e d

" l i t e r a t u r e o f t u t e l a g e M i n which t h e A f r i c a n wr i t e r s

p r e s e n t e d t h e v i e w s t h a t would p l e a s e t h e i r E u r o p e a n

m e n t o r s . The o t h e r h e c a l l e d ' t h e c r i t i q u e t w r i t t e n by

t h o s e A f r i c a n s , c o n s i d e r e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of r e s p o n s i b l e

l e a d e r s h i p i n b o t h communi ty and s t a t e , who d e m o n s t r a t e d

c o n c e r n f o r b o t h t h c f a u l t s a n d merits o f t h e

m i s s i o n a r i e s , 20

It i s t h i s l a t t e r g r o u p t h a t

p r e s e n t e d a m o r e b a l a n c e d v i e w o f E u r o p e a n i d e a s

o f A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n a n d c u l t u r e .

The p i o n e e r i n d i g e n o u s W e s t A f r i c a n c r i t i c s o f t h e

C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s b e g a n t h e i r d e f e n c e o f A f r i c a n

way o f l i f e i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e n i n e t ~ e n t h c e n t u r y .

They i n c l u d e d men l i k e Edward W i l m o t B l y d e n , J o h n M e +

S a r b a h , James E. C a s e l y H a y f o r d , Samuel L e w i s , J. B.

H o r t o n , J, Abayomi C o l e , P , J. M e f f r e a n d M o j o l a ~ g b e b i ,

W e h a v e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d a f e w o f them i n t h e f i r s t

c h a p t e r o f t h i s work (see C h a p t e r One) .

J o h n Mensah S a r b a h , was t h e f i r s t G h a n a i a n t o b e

c a l l e d t o t h e E n g l i s h b a r , 21 B3rn i n 1 8 6 4 , h e d i e d a t

a n e a r l y a g e o f f o r t y - s i x o n November 2 8 , 1 9 1 0 .

H i s r e s e a r c h among h i s F a n t e p e o p l e b e g a n w i t h

c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e i r o r a l t r a d i t i o n , p r o v e r b s a n d c u s t o m a r y

l a w s . The r e s e a r c h e v e n t u a l l y f o r m e d t h e b a s i s o f S a r b a h g s

b o o k s , F a n t e C u s t o m a r y --.- .- Laws - ( 1 8 9 7 ) a n d F a n t e N a t i o n a l

C o n s t i t u t i o n ( 1 9 0 6 ), H i s cr i t icism o f t h e m i s s i o n a r y

i d e a s o f A f r i c a was n o t 3s r a d i c a l as t h o s e o f B l y d e n

a n d C a s e l y Hayforci : ~ u t was ; i r . ' : icuia t e a n d c o n s i s t e n t .

As h e o n c e remarl-e. ' .

"one mus t a d m i t t h a t m i s s i o n a r y me thods were n o t p e r f c c t - t h e a t t c m p t t o t u r n t h e Rf r i c a n i n t o s p u r i o u s Eu ropean , h a s b e e n d e s e r v e d l y u n s u c c e s s f u l , ~ 2 ~

L i k e h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , S a r b a h was a g a i n s t t h e

p e r s i s t e n t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of A f r i c a n ways o f l i f e

and cus tom b y w h i t e writers, Mary K i n g s l e y ' s i n f l u e n c e

o n him p o s s i b l y made him t h i n k t h a t many Engl i shmen

would r e s p e c t t h e c u s t o m a r y l a w s and i n s t i t u t i o n s i f

t h e y knew wha t t h e y w e r c and mcmt t o t h e A f r i c a n s ,

H e a g r e e d c o m p l e t e l y w i t h Miss Kings Jey t h a t b l a n k e t

condcrnna t ion o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e s mus t c e a s e ,

One m i g h t i n c l u d e t h e works o f D r , J, B, Danquah i n

t h i s g roup . H i s e w l i x p u b l i c a t i o n s t o o k t h e same

p a t t e r n b u t came much l z t c r t h a n t h o s e of Blyden , Hayford

or Sarbah,

Danquah s e c u r e d an employment a s LI l ~ w c l e r k on

c o m p l e t i n g h i s p r i m a r y e d u c c ~ . t i o n a t t h z a g c o f s e v e n t e e n .

The f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e F i r s t i i o r l d War e r u p t e d and he

e n l i s t e d i n the Gold C o a s t V o l u n t e e r Co rps , A t t h e e n d

o f t h e War, Danquah met C a s e l y H;lyford who had t r emendous

influence on him. H e a c c e p t e d a j o b a s a r e p o r t e r and

w r i t e r Gn &ha staff af- t h e € o n c ~ r c s s P a p e r - T h e Gold

C o a s t L e a d e r f o r a brief p e r i o d o f t h r x y e a r s . 7 - -

W i t h o u t f o r m a l s x o n d a r y s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n , b u t w i t h

a s e r i o u s p r i v a t e s t u d y and p e r s o n a l e f f o r t , Danquah l e f t

f o r London U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 3 2 1 t h r o u g h t h e h e l p of a

b r o t h e r . A f t e r a s p e l l o f s i x y e a r s ' h a r d work , h e

o b t a i n e d a d o c t o r a t e d e g r e e i n P h i l o s o p h y and Law and

r e t u r n e d t o Ghana.

H e t o o k i t upon h i m s e l f t o i n t e r p r e t W e s t e r n

t r a d i t i o n and t h o u g h t t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l e l i t e and

c l a r i f i e d t r a d i t i o n a l c u s t o m s a n d p r o b l e m s t o t h e y o u n g e r

g e n e r a t i o n s o f h i s p c o p l c . Wh?n h e p u b l i s h e d Akan Laws

a n d Cus toms i n 1 9 2 8 , h e i n s i s t e d t h a t i t was w r i t t e n

f r o m t h e p u r e l y A f r i c a n v i e w p o i n t , W h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g

t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f c a r l i ~ r writers on t h e A s h a n t i

( R a t t r a y and kilesterrnann) h e m a i n t a i n e d t h ~ t t h e y w e r e

y c t t o master t h e p e o p l e ' s i d e a s a b o u t m a r r i a g e ,

d i v o r c e , l a n d t e n u r e , s o c i l l , p o l i t i c a l a n d j u d i c i a l

i n s t i t u t i o n s , H e r l t h z r a p p l a u d e d t h ? e f f o r t s and w o r k s

b y h i s p r ~ d e c e s s o r s - S a r b x h a n d C a s e l y Hayford , a n d

a d d e d t h z t h i s own w o r k s w c r s p l a i n and s i m p l e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n o f Akan c u s t o m s b y on? f r o m w i t h i n ,

When t h s theme o f t h c Suprsrnt? Be ing d o m i n a t e d

E u r o p e a n d i s c u s s i o n s o n A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , Danquah

p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 4 4 , h i s i i k m D o c t r i n e o f God. R e a c t i n g = _II-LI-

a g a i n s t t h e m i s s i o n C 2 r y t e a c h i n g a b o u t A f r i c a n c o n c e p t

106

o f God, Danquah emphas i zed t h e m o n o t h e i s t i c b e l i e f o f

t h e Akan p e o p l e . I n a b i d t o make h i s s t a n d c l e a r , h e

d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o p o l e m i c s and a p o l o g e t i c s which t e n d e d

t o be i i a r t i f i c i a l ; ? . H e t r i e d t o r e l a t e Akan names a n d

c o n c e p t s o f God t o t h o s e of t h e A n c i e n t Near E a s t .

H i s i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e p o l i t i c s OF Ghana made him

form h i s own p o l i t i c a l p a r t y i n 1949. He was l a t e r

d e t a i n e d by the Government anil d i e d i n 1964 i n p r i s o n .

H i s n a t i o n a l i s t i c z e a l was m a n i f e s t e d i n b o t h Church +

and S t a t e a f f a i r s .

A new c r o p o f n a t i o n a l i s t writers emerged i n t h e

l a t e 1930 's and e a r l y 13401s, They a l s o r e c e i v e d Wes t e rn

e d u c a t i o n o v e r s e a s and on coming home became p r e o c c u p i e d

w i t h t h e s t r u g g l e f o r t o t a l e m a n c i p a t i o n of t h e i r p e o p l e I

f r o m a l l f o r m s of f o r e i g n d o m i n a t i o n , I n s p i r e d by the

e f f o r t s of t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s , t h e y s t a r t e d t o p u b l i s h

c h a l l e n g i n g and s t i m u l a t i n g a r t i c l e s and books s o l i c i t i n g

f o r t h e i r p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . T h e i r

c r i t i q u e s of C h r i s t i a n i t y and m i s s i o n a r i e s began i n

t h e i r u n i v e r s i t i e s i n B r i t a i n -1nd t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f

America.

Among n u m e r o u s A f r i c a n h u m a n i s t s o f t h e t i m e w e r e

N i g e r i a t s D r . Nnamdi Az ik i rde , K e n y a t s Jomo K e n y a t t a ,

G h a n a ' s Kwame Nkrumah, a n d M a z i Mbonu O j i k e of

N i g e r i a . T h e i r criticism o f . j e s t e r n a t t i t u d e t o

A f r i c a n c u l t u r e was v i l ? o r o u s , They n o t o n l y c r i t i c i z e d

t h e E u r o p e a n s , b u t a l so e n c o u r a g e d t h e i r f e l l o w A f r i c a n s

t o r e c a p t u r e t h e b e a u t y a n d m e a n i n g o f t h e i r a g e - l o n g

t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f D r . Nnamdi

A z i k i w e ' s p u n q e n t R e n a s c e n t Afr ica , 1937 (among h i s --- #

n u m e r o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s ) a n d K e n y a t t a t s F a c i n q Mount

A l t h o u g h K e n y a t t a d i d n o t show i n h i s book a n y

s i g n of h o t r e s e n t m e n t or w a r p e d j u d g m e n t , h e b r o u g h t

o u t h i s views a n d l a i d them g r a v e l y , as i t were, a t a

c o u r t of p u b l i c o p i n i o n . H e d i s c u s s e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

view of l a n d t e n u r e v i s - a - v i s E u r o p e a n m a n n e r of c o n t r o l ,

t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s of t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n a n d

how t h e o r d e r h a s b e e n t h w a r t e d b y f o r e i g n s y s t e m w h i c h

; ' v a l u e d mater ia l k n o w l e d g e and l e f t p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n -

s h i p s o u t i n t h e c o l d , ' P H e c r i t i c i z e d w h a t h e d e s c r i b e d

a s t h e ' d e n u r t u r i n g e f f e c t o f m i s s i o n a r y t e a c h i n g 1 a n d

g l o r i f i e d w h a t t h e y u n d e r s t o o d t o b e t h e ; 7 s p i r i t u a l

. ,23 a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e p a s t ,

I n t h e same v e i n , Mazi Mbonu O j i k e , an I g b o

(who r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f America t o

N i g e r i a i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 4 3 ' ~ ) ~ i n an e x t r e m e l y n a t i o n a l i s t

zeal p ropounded a p h i l o s o p h y o f F f b o y c o t t ( ' , Thus , h e

emphas i zed t h e t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f l i f e and i n s i s t e d

t h a t whe re p o s s i b l e , a11 f o r e i g n a c c r e t i o n s t o A f r i c a n

l i f e s h o u l d b e d ropped , T h i s p h i l o s o p h y which h e m e t i c u -

l o u s l y a p p l i e d t o h i s way o f l i f e e a r n e d him t h e n ickname

7 t B o y c o t t KingH from h i s a d m i r e r s , When h e p u b l i s h e d

My Africa i n 1946 , h e o u t l i n e d t h e p a s t e v i l s o f W e s t e r n

a t t i t u d e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e and l i f e and expanded

ways t h r o u g h wh ich t h e A f r i c a n n o b l e p a s t c o u l d be

r e c a p t u r e d .

We would a l so i n c l u d e i n t h i s g r o u p of " s e c u l a r

n a t i o n a l i s t writersw, l e a r n e d a c a d e m i c s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s

who combined w i t h i n t h e i r i n t e r e s t a c o n c e r n f o r c u l t u r e

and t h e Church , T h i s i s c l e a r l y e x e m p l i f i e d i n D r .

K, A. B u s i a - a l e a r n e d academic and t e a c h e r who

combined l o v e f o r (academics w i t h p o l i t i c s as w e l l as

t h e Church ,

An A s h a n t i b o r n i n 1313 2nd e d u c a t e d i n Oxfo rd ,

B u s i a o b t a i n e d h i s d o c t o r a t e d e g r e e i n s o c i a l a n t h r o p o -

l o g y a t t h e end of the-: Second World idare Hc headed t h e

d e p a r t m e n t o f s o c i o l o g y i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Legon t i ll

109

1958 when h e r e s i g n e d f o r a c t i v e p o l i t i c s ,

D r . B u s i a was c r i t i c a l o f t h e t y p e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y

w h i c h t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s b r o u g h t - a s y s t e m t h a t t r i e d t o

d e s t r o y t h e b a s i c ~ ' ~ f r i c a n modes o f t h o u g h t and l i f e .

From t h e S e k o n d F - T a k o r a d i S u r v e y w h i c h h e c o n d u c t e d i n

1950, B u s i a conc lu : l ?d k h ; t as o n e w a t c h e d thi- d a i l y

l i v e s a n d a c t i v i t i c . ~ of thi l 111-'op,_ and t o o k a c c o u n t of

t h e r i tcs c o n n e c t e d w i t h mL~rrir lgc: , b i r t ! ~ , d e a t h , and

w$dowhood, o n ? w o u l d l e z r n t h a t a q r c ? > t d e a l o f t h e

n o r m a l cornmutx:l a c t i v i ticis o f t!~:: c o n v e r t s l s y o u t s i d e b

t h e i r C h r i s t i c i n a c t i v i t i e s anci t h ; i t f o r a l l t h e i r

i n f l u e n c e , t h e C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h e s wcre s t i l l a l i e n

i n s t i t u t i o n s , f q i n t r u d i n g upon b u t n o t i n t e g r a t e d w i t h

s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , q f ** L a t e r i n 1955, h e recommended

to t h e M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h i n G h m a t h c : t " f o r c o n v e r s i o n t o

t h e C h r i s t i a n F a i t h t o he more t h a n s u p e r f i c i a l , t h e

C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h m u s t come t o g r i p s w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l

be l ie fs a n d p r a c t i c e s , " 2 5

& i n t o t h e w r i t i n g s from t h e ' s e c u l a r ' n a t i o n a l i s t s ,

was a q u a s i - p o l i t i c o - r e l i g i o u s movement t h a t a rose i n

N i g e r i a i n 1948, p a r t l y a s a n e x t e n s i o n of n a t i o n a l i s t

r e s i s t a n c e t o c o l o n i a l r u l e , I t s h i s t o r y had b e e n

r e m o t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s h o o t i n g o f A f r i c a n e m p l o y e e s - p p p p p p p p - p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

of t h e Un i t i l d A f r i c a Co~npany i n S u r u t u , i n t h e Delta

r e g i o n of t h . S o u t h z r n P r o v i n c f s , now i n B e n d e l S t a t e

of N i g e r i a , The s h o o t i n g d i d n o t r e d l l y s t a r t t h e

movement , b u t intensified a n a l r e a d y p o l i t i c a l t e n s e

s i t u a t i o n , The local p r e s s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of West

A f r i c a s t a r t e d r u n n i n g a c a m p a i g n o f b i t t e r n e s s ,

h a t r e d and m i s t r u s t o f t h e c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t , and

a g a i n s t almost e v e r y t h i n g c o n n w t c d w i t h B r i t a i n ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e C h u r c h , Thc movement was t h e n c a l l e d t h e +

N a t i o n a l C h u r c h o f N i g e r i a and Cameroons - p e r h a p s a

p s e u d o - r e l i g i o u s w i n g of o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l

p a r t i e s i n N i g s r i a - t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f N i g e r i a

a n d Cameroons (N.CoN.C,) l e d b y Herbert M a c a u l a y a n d

l a t e r b y Dr. Nnamdi R z i k i w e . The movement h e l d N i g e r i a n

a n d o t h e r A f r i c a n n a t i o n a l i s t s - Z i k , O j i k e , M a c a u l a y ,

A g g r e y , Kwame Nkrumah, S e n g h o r , and K e n y a t t a i n v e r y

h i g h esteem, It h a s a s l o g a n w h i c h had e x c i t i n g

i n f l u e n c e o n t h e members - "The Mus l ims h a v e t h e i r A l l a h , The C h r i s t i a n s h a v e t h e i r J e s u s Bu t w e h a v e o u r ~ i k , "26

They t h u s b u i l t a v e r y s t r o n g c u l t a r o u n d t h e A f r i c a n

n a t i o n a l i s t s whom t h c y g r e a t l y a d m i r e d ,

a n o t h e r v e t e r a n p o l i t i c i a n p r o p o u n d e d t h e p h i l o s o p h y of m

G O D I A N I S i , i n p r c f e r c n c c t o t h e N a t i o n a l C h u r c h s i n c e

many A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s h a d a t t a i n e d i n d e p e n d e n c e o r

w e r e a t t h e v e r g e o f a t t a i n i n g i t , W i t h t h i s new

s l a n t , h e p i o n e L r c d t h e m i s s i o n o f G o d i a n i s m a s a

w o r l d - w i d c r e l i g i o u s rnovemcn t o f ' T r a d i t i o n a l i s m ,

e m p h a s i z i n g t h e Supreme Sod o f t h e B lack Race a s t h e

o n l y o b j e c t o f w o r s h i p o

I n i t s r e c e n t s t r u c t u r e a n d p o l i c y , G o d i a n i s m

i n c o r p o r a t e s e l e m e n t s f r o m t h ~ t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n s of

many n e g r o p e o p l e s , b o r r o w i n g l a r g e l y f r o m $he C h r i s t i a n -* + r e l i g i o u s l a n g u a g e , l i t u r g y and t h e o l o g y a n d h a s

a c c e p t e d S u n d a y a s i t s d a y o f w o r s h i p !

D a t h i n s t r u c t u r e a n d e x p r e s s i o n s G o d i a n i s m c a n

h a r d l y be c a l l e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n o f a n y A f r i c a n

p e o p l e . A t bes t , i t c a n be c a l l e d a modern t f p o l i t i c a l

mavemen t" t r y i n g to e x p l a i n n a t i o n a l i s t v i e w s a n d

w i s h e s i n a r e l i g i o u s s t y l e .

The Movement c l a i m s t o h a v e many a d h e r e n t s i n

N i g e r i a , many c o u n t r i e s i n West A f r i c a , t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s and t h e C a r r i b e a n s , w i t h i t s World H e a d q u a r t e r s

i n A b a , Imo S t a t e o f N i g e r i a , The p h i l o s o p h y o f

G e d i a n i s m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p e a l i n g t o many b l a c k

A m e r i c a n s who f i n d i n i t a s t r o n g weapon a g a i n s t r a c i a l

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y i n t h i s t i m z when s e a r c h for

I R o o t s I h a s g e n e r a t e d a l o t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n t h e

c u l t u r e o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n peopie,

INDIGENOUS CHZISTIAIJ W R I T L K L IN SEARCH ----- OF' S C L F H O ~ D AND IIIENTI'TY --

The W e s t e r n C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g i s t s h a d a t r e m e n d o u s

i n f l u k n c c o n t h e i n d i g e n o u s A f r i c a n wr i t e r s who w e r e

o r d a i n e d m i n i s t ~ r s a n d s c o n T c ? s s i o n a l s c h o l a r s ' and had

p a s s e d t h r o u g h t1w t u t e l a g z or-' C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y b

s c h o l a r s , An i n c r e a s e i s c v i d e n c c d i n t h c number o f

p u b l i s h e d c r i t i q u i s o f Lht. m i s s i o n a r y a n d o t h d

European w r i t e r s o n h f r i c ~ n r ( , l i q i o n b y t h e i n d i g e n o u s

C h r i s t i a n wri tcrs, A1 t h o u g h they s o u g h t t o p r e s e n t t h e

v a l u e s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n d l f a i t h a s o b j - c t i v c l y a s t h e y

c o u l d , thcir m i s s i o n - o r i e n t e d t h c o l o ~ i c a l b a c k g r o u n d i s

c o n s p i c o u s l y shown i n t h c i r z e a l t o makc t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n a too l t h r o u g h w h i c h C h r i s t i a n i t y c o u l d b e

p r o p a g a t e d .

A s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , t h c " p r a e p a r a t i o e v a n g e l i c a t

a p p r o a c h c o n t r o l l e d t o some e x t e n t t h e w o r k s of t h e

i n d i g c n o u s ' c o n f e s s i o n a l s c h o l a r s 7 who e x p l o r e d t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y of u s i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n a s a

means of p r o p a g a t i n g t h e G o s p e l , F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e

1950's, i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a , many C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s l i k e *

S, N, Ezeanya and M, Vladuka, ( f o l l o w i n g t h e f o o t s t e p s

of B i s h o p Shanahan and somz e a r l y 1920 m i s s i o n a r i e s ) d i d

a s t u d y On how t h c I g b o r e l i g i o n c o u l d be u s e d a s a

s t e p p i n g s t o n e t o t h c m e a n i n g f u l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e

C h r i s t i a n r i t u a l o f t h e Mass t o t h c c o n v e r t s t o

C h r i s t i a n i t y . 2 7 'The d e t a i l z d work d o n e b y Ezeanya

h i m s e l f l8ter c u l m i n a t e d i n a d o c t o r a l t h e s i s w h i c h h e

p r e s e n t e d t o t h e F a c u l t y o f T h e o l o g y of t h e P r o p a g a n d a

Urban U n i v e r s i t y i n Romc2 i n 1956. 28 a i s h o p J. Shanahan

( a n o u t s t a n d i n g and f o r e m o s t m i s s i o n a r y t o I g b o l a n d ) had

e a r l i e r a d v i s e d t h ~ m i s s i o n a r i e s and A f r i c a n s a l i k e ,

t h a t w h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n n e e d e d w a s t r a n s -

f o r m a t i o n n o t d e s t r u c t i o n , I t i s on t h e b a s i s o f t h i s

t h a t numerous West A f r i c a n C a t h o l i c P r i e s t s d i d d o c t o r a l

theses on t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e r e l i g i o n and c u l t u r e

as a way t o e n h a n c e t h e i r e v a n g e l i c a l s t r a t e g y ,

I n N i g e r i a , o t h e r i n d i g e n o u s s c h o l a r s who h a v e

p r o d u c e d s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y on t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n b o t h

a s v e h i c l e o f e x p r e s s i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y and as a s e a r c h

f o r i d e n t i t y and s e l f h o o d i n c l u d e E, 3. Idowu, F, A.

A r i n z e , E,C.O. I l o g u , and J, 0, Awolalu .

P r o f e s s o r E, 8, Idowu, a M e t h o d i s t C h r i s t i a n .. ?

t h e o l o g i a n and s c h o l a r , wrote h i s Olodumare: Cad I n Yoruba .---

Belief (1962) a t a t i m e when A f r i c a n s w E r c t h o u g h t t o - h a v e n o i d e a o f God. Thc o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h was d o n e i n

t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s a s a p a r t o f t h e d o c t o r a l t h e s i s h e

presented t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y of London. Drawing f r o m

o r a l t r a d i t i o n , p r o v e r b s , a n d m y t h s , Idowu tr ies t o

e s t a b l i s h t h e f a c t t h a t Olodumar%, t h c Supreme God,

w a s t h e o n e essential f a c t o r h y w h i c h t h e b e l i e f a n d

l i f e of t h ~ Yoruba c o h c r ~ . Htl d i s m i s s e d t h e i d e a t h a t

t h e O l o d u m a r e wa,? a t l eus rc -motus o r d ~ u s a b s c o n d i t u s , - Hence t h c t h e m e o f t r a n s c L n d m c e a n i imman~:nce r u n s

t h r o u g h t h e b o o k , Hc d i s c u s d t h < d i v i n i t i : ~ whom h e

+ d e s c r i b d a s th,? m a n i f c s t a t i o n s o f t h e Supreme? God.

T h u s , h e c a n e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t Yorubn r e l i g i o n w a s

m o n o t h c i s t i c a s a t w o r s t d i f f u s e d m o n o t h e i s m ' , W i t h

t h i s mode of theological a n a l y s i s , Idnwu p u r s u e d t h e

t h e m e o f i n d i g e n i z a t i o n and i n h i s Towards a n I n d i g e n o u s

C h u r c h - (1965) c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n

h a s s t r o n g e l e m e n t s o n w h i c h a m e a n i n g f u l i n d i g e n o u s

C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h c a n be b u i l t .

I n a n e x t r e m e n a t i o n a l i s t t o n e , Idowu d i s m i s s e d

t h e d i s p a r a g i n g t e r m i n o l o g i e s w h i c h W e s t e r n w r i t e r s had

c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e d f o r A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , To h im, as

s t a t e d i n A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l ~ e l i q i o n : A D e f i n i t i o n - - - -- - - - - -- -

(1973), s u c h terms l i k c ' i d o l a t r y 1 , t p r i m i t i v e l ,

! h e a t h e n ' , ' t r i b a l 1 , a n d ' f e t i s h 1 s h o u l d n o t be u s e d

f o r A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , h o w e v e r v a l u e - f r e e t h e y m i g h t be.

B i s h o p F, A, A r i n z e t s S a c r i f i c e i n Ibo R e l i g i o n

( 1 9 7 0 ) i s a n c d i t e d v e r s i o n o f h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s

p r e s e n t e d t o Urban U n i v e r s i t y , H o m c i n 1 9 6 0 , w i t h t h e

t i t l c " l b o S a c r i f i c e a s a n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h c

C a t c c h e s i , ~ o f t h e H o l y Masstso 'Thc work is i n l i n e w i t h

t h o s e d o n d b y o t h e r Roman C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s , w h o s e con-

c e r n was e v a n g - l i s r n , I n s p i t e o f thc s ~ - r i o u s a t t e m p t

b y t h e B i s h o p t o prt .s( :nt thL. m a t e r i a l s o b j c x t i v e l y ,

l i k e i n h i s many o t h c r p u b l i c s t i o n s o n t h e I g b o , h e

t i l t e d i t tow;7rds onL$ g o a l - th5it) o f mak ing C h r i s t i a n i t y

r ea l t o t h d I g b o ,

P r o f e s s o r LOCOO, I l o L l u i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i n t e r -

a c t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y and I q h o r e l i g i o n and c u l t u r e .

I n h i s C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d I q b o C u l t u r e ( 1 9 7 4 ) a r e v i s e d - -

v e r s i o n o f h i s d o c t o r a l t h c s i s " C h r i s t i a n E t h i c s i n a n

A f r i c a n Background I l o g u ( a n A n g l i c a n c l e r g y m a n a n d

r e t i r e d U n i v e r s i t y t e a c h e r ) t r i e s t o work o u t how t h e

C h u r c h i n A f r i c a , p a r t i c u l a r l y I g b o l a n d c a n t a k e

s e r i o u s l y some t r a d i t i o n d l e l e m e n t s i n t h c c u l t u r e t o

make C h r i s t i a n i t y i n c a r n a t e i n I g b o s o c i e t y , t h e r e b y

m a k i n g i t * ? a u t h e n t i c I g b o r e l i g i o n " .

I n Ghana , a number of s c h o l a r s had p r o d u c e d w o r k s

of s i m i l a r v a l u c and i n t e r e s t , They i n c l u d e C, G.

B a e t a l s The C h a l l e n g e o f A f r i c a n C u l t u r e ( A c c r a , 1955 ) ; c..rw Y-

J, H. N k e t i a , F u n e r a l D i r q e s o f t h e &an P e o p l e (1955);

We E, Abraham, The Mind o f A f r i c a n ( 1 9 6 2 ) ; S , G, - W i l l i a m s o n , Akan R e l i q i o n and t h e C h r i s t i a n F a i t h (1965 1;

and P. Sa rpony , Ghan-t .... ( 1 9 7 4 ) -

J, 1-1, ~Jk t - . t i a , a l s o an A s h a n t i l i k e B u s i a , was

e d u c a t e d i n Ghana and London, A t t h e London School

of 0 r i ~ ~ n t i : l ;1t1!.1 African S t u d i f ~ s , h e d i d a n advanced

s t u d y i n mus i c wh ich was c o n t i n u i d a t J u i l l a r d and

N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v c r s i t i ~ s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , When

h e j o i n e d th.2 s t a f f o f the. U n i v c r s i t y a f Ghana i n 1952 ,

h e began t o cmphf i s izc t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i n d i g e n o u s

drummin:~, d a n c i n g and f u n e r a l d i r g e s i n C h r i s t i a n wor-

s h i p , H e b e l i e v e s t h a t :

"if Churches i n Af r i c ' a a r e t o grow a s A f r i c a n C h u r c h e s and nok a s e x t e n s i o n s o f p a r i s h e s and b i s h o p r i c s ,,, t h e y mus t b e a l l o w e d t o t a k e r o o t i n t h e s o i l o f t h e A f r i c a n C u l t u r e i n wh ich t h e y a re p l a n t e d . . . "29

Bishop P e t e r Sarpong , a Roman C a t h o l i c p r e l a t e o f

t h e Diocese of Kurnasi has, i n a u n i q u e way, combined h i s

a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l and t h e o l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g i n e x p l a i n i n g

Ghana ' s c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d -

i n g of C h r i s t i a n message, I n h i s Ghana i n R e t r o s p e c t :

Some A z c c t : ; o f Ghana ian C u l t u r e ( 1 9 7 4 ) and Girls ' --..LyIuy

- -

419771, he tries t o examine

how v a r i o u s a s p c c t s o f t h t t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e c a n be

u s e d a s a v e h i c l e of ~ v s n ~ > e l i z a t i o n i n a modern s o c i e t y ,

T h i s e v a n q e l i c a l i n t e r e s t h a s o v e r s h a d o w e d a n y o t h e r

c o n t r i b u t i o n s of H a r r y Si lwycrr i n h i s s t u d y of A f r i c a n

r e l i g i o n o As a C h r i s t i C w t h z o l o g i a n and s c h o l a r ,

S a w y - r r b e l i c v c ~ s t h a t t o a C h r i s t i a n r e a d e r , t h e n e e d

f o r u n d e r s t a n d l n q t h ~ f u n d a r n - n t a l r e l i g i o u s f o r m s o f

t h z p a s t ~ 3 . 1 1 ~ f o r u r q k n t a c t i o n a n d s t u d y i n o r d e r t o

discover more s a t i s f a c t o r i l y how t o make C h r i s t i a n i t y

p r o b e d e e p i n t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e k p r i c n n ,

R i g h t l y , S a w y c r r has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t h i s c o n c e r n

i s t o p r o v i d e a p r o l e y o m e n o n w h i c h l a t e r t h e o l o g i a n s

w i l l e x p a n d a n d i m p r o v e w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f C h r i s t i a n

E v a n g e l i s m , I n h i s C r e a t i v e E v a n g e l i s m (1968), S a w y e r r

t h e r . z f o r e o u t l i n e s s t r a t e g i e s , p r o b l e m s and p r o s p e c t s of

m a k i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y a s o l i d a n d f u n c t i o n a l f a i t h of t h e

A f r i c a n , T h i s tk.erne i s f u r t h e r p u r s u e d i n a j o i n t s t u d y

h c made w i t h W, To H a r r i s , a o n e - t i m e M e t h o d i s t

m i s s i o n a r y t o S i e r r a L e o n e , o n t h e Mende be l ief a n d

e t h i c s , 1"s a n e f f o r t a t e x p l a i n i n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s

of t h e Mcncle way o f l i f e a n 0 a meaningful m i n i s t r y among

t h e m - I n t h e i r '~7:. i'he S p r i n g s o f Mende i7elicf a n d . . -.-- - , .-. C o n d u c t (3.958.'. b o t h S a w y ~ r r and Harris a t t - e m p t t o g i v e - -- .- .=...

a n i n d e p t h d e s c r i p t i o n of t h c t r a d i t i o n s 1 r e l i g i o u s

c o n c e r n o f t h e Mende w i t h e m p h a s i s o n m o r a l i t y a s t h e

b a s i s o f t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e s o c i e t y .

W h i l c e x a m i n i n g t h e theme o f t h e Supreme B e i n g i n

West A f r i c a , S a w y e r r d i s c o v e r s a n d g e t s c o n v i n c e d t h a t

God i s a P e r s o n a s b e l i e v e d b y h i s fe l low c o u n t r y m e n , ---- c o n t r a D i e t r i c h W e s t e r m s n n a n d 'I', C u l l e n Young,

w h i t e m i s s i o n a r i e s who p r o j e c t t h e D e i t y a s a ' r e m o t e

a b s t r a c t i o n l o 30 T h i s v i e w i s expressed i n God:

A n c e s t o r o r C r e a t o r ? ( 1 9 7 0 ) , w h i c h c e n t r e d o n some 'UII

b a s p e c t s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n o f t h e Yoruba ,

Akan a n d Mendc,

SUMMARY A N D CONCLUSION

I t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e i n d i g e n o u s West

A f r i c a n C h r i s t i a n theologians w e r e ( w h i l e s e e k i n g a

d e f e n c e f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n ~ ~ l r e l i g i o n ) p r i m a r i l y

i n t e r e s t e d i n s e e k i n g ways t o make C h r i s t i a n i t y a

l i v i n g A f r i c a n f a i t h , I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e i r I n t e r e s t

h z s b e e n c e n t r e d o n ' q i n d i y e n i s a t i o n n , Most d e b a t e s ,

c o n f e r e n c e s and p o l e m i c s o f t h e mid 1 9 5 0 1 s a n d e a r l y

1 9 6 0 1 s on l i n d i g e n i z a t i o n ' , l l i f r i c a n i z a t i o n l , ' T h e o l o g i a

R f r i c a n a l o r Black Thc ,o loyy ' w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

p r a c t i c a l m e t h o d s t o make C h r i s t i a n i t y a n ' A f r i c a n

~ e l i g i o n ~ , w i t h m a t e r i a l s g o t f r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n .

Whcn a cream o f A f r i c a n t h e o l o g i a n s a s s e m b l e d i n

I b a d a n , N i g e r i a , i n 1966 t o d i s c u s s A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s

i n t h e l i g h t of B i b l i c a l t h e o l o g y , t h e y r e a c h e d a c o n -

c e n s u s o n how t o a c h i e v e t h a t g o a l - t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t o A f r i c a n s u s i n g m o d e l s from c u l t u r e ,

l a n g u a g e , a n d r e l i g i o n . The d i s c u s s i o n s h a v e r e s u l t e d

i n a book e d i t e d b y Kwesi D i c k s o n a n d P a u l E l l i n g w o r t h , 31

It i s a m a z i n g t h a t e d u c a t e d A f r i c a n C h r i s t i a n

t h e o l o g i a n s who s t u d i e d t h e t r a d i t i @ n a l r e l i g i o n w i t h

t h i s e v a n g e l i c a l b i a s d i d n o t r e a l i z e t h a t t h e y

i n d i r e c t l y s u b s c r i b e d t o t h ~ s u p c r i o r i t y of C h r i s t i a n i t y

t o t h e t r ~ i d i t i o n a l f a i t h d e s p i t e t h e i r e f fo r t s t o show

t h e r e l i g i o n a s a p e o p l c f s s e a r c h f o r t h e Ult imate

R e a l i t y ,

A. J. j h e l t o n h a s t a k e n P r o f e s s o r J. S , Mbiti ( o n e

of t h e foremost A f r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s t h e o l o g i a n s t o l o o k

a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n o n c o n t i n e n t a l l e v e l ) to

t a s l c a n d p o s s i b l y o t h e r s who a d o p t t h e same r n e t h o d o l o q y ,

f o r c o n s t a n t e m p h a s i s upon t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of C h r i s t i a n i t y .

H e a c c u s e s Mbiti o f p u t t i n g A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n i n s e c o n d

p l a c e , 32

B e s i d e s , t h ~ Ugs.ndan s c h o l a r , O k o t ~ I B i t c k h a s - p p p p p p p p p p p p p - p - p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - -

c r i t i c i z e d many o t h e r i n d i g e n o u s A f r i c a n s c h o l a r s

i n c l u d i n g Danquah, B u s i a , :,braham, Idowu and M b i t i f o r

n o t p r e s c n t i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n i n s u c h a

s y s t e m a t i c way t h a t t h e a d h e r e n t s would u n d e r s t a n d i t ,

He a c c u s e d them o f d r e s s i n g t h e A f r i c a n d e i t i e s i n a n

awkward l i e l l e n i c g a r b i n o r d e r t o i m p r e s s t h e European

a u d i e n c e whom t h e y s ~ t o u t t o c o n v i n c e of t h e v i a b i l i t y

33 of A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n ,

R e g r e t t a b l y , i n t h e I?a.nc!s o f somc.:. i n d i g e n o u s

A f r i c a n Chr i : , t i an s c h o l c w s , t h l l t r , ? . d i t i o n s l r ~ c l i g i o n h a s

n o t been s t u d i i ~ d a s a f a i t h on i t s owq r i g h t , c o m p a r a b l e

t o any o th lz r r e l i g i o n , T h e y s t u d i e d i t a s a means t o an

e n d and n o t a n end i n i t s e l f , T h a t i s o n e of t h s weak-

n e s s e s o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f th,.? l con f e s s i o n a l s c h o l a r s q

t o t h e s t u d y o f A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , I

Y e t i t i s b e l i c v c d t h a t w i t h t h c r e c e n t C h u r c h ' s

r a d i c a l t h e o l o g i c a l v iews a b o u t o t h e r r e l i g i o n s and t h e

c o n c e p t o f d i a l o g u e , a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n may emerge , T h i s may n o t l i k e l y

end up i n c o n v e r s i o n o f b e l i e v e r s i n t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i -

g i o n ( t h o u g h t h a t i s n o t e x c l u d e d ) b u t t h e r e would b e

an a t m o s p h e r e o f p e a c e f u l c o - e x i s t e n c e be tween p e o p l e

o f v a r i o u s f a i t h s . 'tt l e a s t i n r e c e n t times, some

C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s h a v e s t a r t e d t o show r e a l r e s p e c t

f o r t h e a d h e r e n t s of t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n .

NOTES -31

P o D, C u r t i n , " ' S c i e n t i f i c v R a c i s m a n d t h e B r i t i s h 'Theory o f L m p i r e t t J o u r n a l o f H i s to r i ca l S o c i c Q of N i q e r i a , 2 , 1 ? 1 9 6 0 ) , 48. - C:F. 0, U o K a l u . u M i s s i o n a r i c s . C o l o n i a l Governmen t a n d S e c r e t ~ o c i e t i e s i n south- astern I g b o l a n d 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 5 0 i q , J o u r n a l o f H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f N i g e r i a , 9 , 1 ( 1 9 ' / 7 ) , 78 - a 80

P o D, C u r t i n , ;bid,, 4 2 ,

See P i e r r e V c r q ~ r , '~Thc Yoruba High God, A Kevicw of S o u r c e s i 1 , c)lJLd, 2 , 2 ( J a n , 1 9 6 6 1 , 23.

F a t h e r Lt j c u n c t o t h v DirLctor9 1 7 O c t o b e r , 1 9 0 2 CSE, P a r i s 192/111/11, Q u o t e d by F , K , E k c c h i ,

t c r p r i s . 2 : m c i 1 : i v d l r y i n I b o l a n d ---" ---

o n d o n s F r a n k Cr l ss , b

19 i.i;iLima P o K, McKenzid, I n t e r - - I i e l i . i o u s - E n c o u n t e r i n West A f r i c a , ( L e i c c s t c r : ~ l a c k f r a i r s P r e s s L t d , .

P o K O McKcnzie , I b i d 71. Q u o t e d f r o m C.M.S. --O 9

CA3/64, Review o f Nider M i s s i o n 1857--1877, p 0 3 , --- Edmund F, P e r r y , E c v i e w o f D o n a l d S e n i o r a n d C a r o l 1 S t u h l m u e l l e r , The B i b l i c a l F o u n d a t i o n s of M i s s i o n i n The Kevicw o f Books a n d R e l i q i o n 1 2 , - 6 ( J u n e , 1 9 8 4 1 ,

H e n d r i c k Kraemer, The C h r i s t i a n Message i n a N o n - C h r i s t i a n Wor ld , (London : The E d i n b u r g h - H o u ~ e ~ ~ ~ r e s s , 193cgJ-6 p.302,

H e n d r i c k Kracmer, I b i d , , 338.

H e n d r i c k Kraemer, I b i d , , 34.2.

E. G, P a r r i n d e r , West A f r i c a n R e l i q i o n , ( 2 n d E d i t i o n , London: Epwor-tl-r P r e s s , l 9 6 l ) , p, 2 ,

Meycr F o r t e s a n d L l i ~ t e r l e n , ' C h r i s t i a n i t y i n A f r i c a ' i n F o r t e s a n d D i e t e r l e n ( e d s , 1, A f r i c a n S y s t e m s o f T h o u q h t , o on don : 0.U.P. 196-1.

See C h a p t e r One, The L i t e r a t u r e Review.

P a u l F, K n i t t e r , "Homm C a t h o l i c Approach t o o t h e r R e l i g i o n s Deve lopments and T e n s i o n I s , I n t e r n a t i o n a l 3ullc: t in o f M i s s i o n a r y R e s e a r c h , n7 ( A p r i l l g m 53 ,

P a u l F. K n i t t e r ,

P a u l F, K n i t t c r , I b i d . , 50 , -- Seu " V a t i c a n S t a t e m e n t : The i i t t i t u d e o f t h e Church Towards tht- Follows-s o f O t h e r R c l i y i o n s ~ , C u r r e n t D i a l o q u 5 , Vo1.7 (Autumn 19841 , p ,16,

Harr is No Moblcy9 The Ghana ian P s Imaqe o f t h e M i s s i o n a r x , - ( L e i d e n : E o J, B r i l l , 19701 , pp, 2 and 7 , I

14. We Mobley, I b i d , , 32 ,

J, M, S a r b a h , A s h a n t i N a t i o n a l C o n s t i t u t i o n 7- I - - - . -L

( 19061 , p , x i v , Q u o t e d b y H * W, Mobley, I b i d . , 35,

T, 0, Ranger , "The Churches , t h e N a t i o n a l i s t S t a t e and A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n " i n Fasho le -Luke , Gray , e t . al. ( e d s , 1, C h r i s t i a n i t y I n I n d e p e n d e n t A f r i c a n C h u r c h e s , ( I b a d a n : I b a d a n Un-iverSi t y P r e s s , l q 7 5 1, ~ - 4 7 C

K a A, B u s i a , R e p o r t on a S o c i a l Su rvey o f Sekond i -Tako rad i , \London: Crown Agen t s f o r t-s, 1 9 5 T p, 79,

K, A, B u s i a , C h r i s t i a n i t y and A f r i c a n C u l t u r e , ( 19551 , p , i i i o f t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n ,

H i s t o r i c z l Reco rds 1947-1948/A, C, M, So A r c h i v e s , London, See a l s o Lh~2 N a t i o n a l Church Sonq Book, ( ~ a g o s , 195 0).

S. N, Ezcanya and PI. M:2duka, "From I g b o S a c r i f i c e t o t h o MassH 9 LUX? 2 (1952 -1953 ) , 43-44, Quo ted b y Fo h r i n z c ? . . t ; a c r i f i c r ~ .--. . i n Ifqbo R e l i g i o n , ( I b a d a n : I b a d a n U i 2 j 7 ~ ~ . _ , , L t y k r l ; . c . - 1~)70-,

28, S, N. Ezc-anya, "'I'hr- Method o f , i d a p t a t i o n i n t h e E v a n g e l i s a t i o n o f t h e Igbo-Speak ing P ~ o p l e s ' ~ , ( Unpub. PI?. Do T h i \ s i s , P r o p s g a n d a Urban U n i v e r s i t y , R o m e , 1 9 5 6 1 , U u o t d b y : i r i n z c , I b i d e 610

29. J, I{. N k e t i n , '?Thd C o n t r i b u t i o n s of A f r i c a n C u l t u r e t o C h r i s t i a n I ~ l o r s h i p " , I n t e r n a t i o n a l - Review o f M i s s i o n , XLVII ( 1 9 5 8 1 , 268. .-.L -

30, D o ~ c s t e r m ~ m n , T h e A f r i c a n 'l'oday and Tomorrow, (London : 0, U,P., 1 9 3 6 x - 196 , D o W e s t e r m a n n , ; \ i r ica and Ch O,UoPo, 1 9 3 7 , 3 r d E d i t i o n , 1 Sec C u l l e n Young, A f r i c a n ;!a s and Wisdom, (London: 1 9 3 7 1 , 25;+

31. K w c s i D ickson m d P. I l l i n c j w o r t h ( e d , 1 , B i b l i c a l R e v e l a t i o n and i i f r i c a n d e l i c f s , ( ~ e w ~ o r k : Mary - ~ n o m b i a BOO^;, 19-

3 2 , A, J, S h e l t o n , ! ' S t r a n g e S y n c r e t i s m : The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n s v i a C h r i s t and E u r o p e t r , The Couch, 2, 1 ( 1 9 7 0 1 , 36,

R e l i g i o n s i n W e s t e r n ~ a s t ~ u b l i s h i n ~

T h i s i s w h a t C h r i s t i a n K, Gaba h a s t r i e d t o d o

w i t h t h e Anlo Ewc o f ~ h a n a , ' p l a c i n g h i m s e l f i n s u c h

a p o s i t i o n w h c r e h e b o t h l o o k e d a t t h e r e l i g i o n and - w i t h t h e v o t a r i e s o f t h e f a i t h t h o s e ways o f l i f e h e _WY

w a n t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d e x p l a i n , T h i s l o o k s l i k e an

o b j e c t i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e r e l i g i o u s phenomenon from

t h e p o i n t of v i e w o f t h e o l o g y r a t h c r t h a n t h a t o f

a n t h r o p o l o g y o r s o c i o l o g y b u t but i n c o r p o r a t i n g b o t h .

The same new i n s i g h t i s shown by D r . Ikenga-Metuh b

i n h i s a t t e m p t t o e l u c i d a t e t h e I g b o u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n God and man i n m a n ' s t e m p o r a l

and e t e r n a l d i m e n s i o n s o f h i s e ~ i s t e n c o . ~ The d a t a a r e

c o l l e c t e d f r o m o r a l h i s t o r y , l a n g u a g e , e t h n o g r a p h y a n d

t h e m e t h o d o l o g y h a s b e e n p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l w h i l c t h e

a n a l y s i s t h e o l o g i c a l ,

K e f i ~i. O p o k u ' s work c a n a l s o be i n c l u d e d i n t h i s

g r o u p , H i s West A f r i c a n R e l i q i o n ( 1 9 7 8 1 l o o k s l i k e a

c u r s o r y s u r v e y o f t h e p r i n c i p a l e l e m c n t s o f t h e t r a d i -

t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , y e t i t i s p u r s u e d w i t h s u c h a

m e t h o d o l o g y t h a t d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h e

p r e v i o u s d e s c r i p t i v e o r e n u m e r a t i v e m e t h o d s , H e n o t

a n l y d i s m i s s e s t h e e r r o n e o u s v i e w s o f e a r l i e r writers

l i k e 1i. B. E l l i s , o n t h e Supreme Being b u t shows a

s t r o n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l d a t a i n

t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f W e s t r ~ f r i c a n r e l i g i o n . H e d o e s

n o t show any i n t e res t i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t s 1 u s e o f

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s , n e i t h e r

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e n o r evangelistic, a l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t

debunk s c h o l a r s who had a d o p t e d them, The g a u n t l e t

th rown b y t h e s e ncw g r o u p s o f s c h o l a r s i s y c t t o b e

f u l l y a c c e p t e d and a d o p t e d i n t h e s t u d y o f West

A f r i c a n r ~ l i g i o n ,

Some o t h e r s c h o l a r s h a v e made c o n t r i b u t i o n s which b

t e n d t o p r e s e n t a h i s t o r i c a l prolegomenon f o r i n d e p t h

reconstruction of t h e c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f a g i v e n

p e o p l e . T h i s came o u t o f t h , ? m a t e r i a l s p r o v i d e d

t h r o u g h f i e l d work p r a j c c t s u t i l i z i n g o r a l t r a d i t i o n ,

p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y , h i t h e r t o n c g l e c t e d as r e l i a b l e

t o o l s i n r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e A f r i c a n p a s t s , T h i s h a s

p o i q t e d t o a n on-going r e l i g i o u s c h a n g e t a k i n g p l a c e i n

t h s t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y . Such was i g n o r e d p a r t l y f r o m

l a c k o f p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e which was b e l i e v e d t h e n t o

b e t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n , It i s

t h r o u g h t h i s p a i n s t a k i n g a n a l y s i s o f f i e l d work d a t a

t h a t T, 0. Ranger and I , N. Kimarnbo p roduced The 1C

His_f;Qri,c& S t u d i e s o f I" , f r ican R e l i q i o n (1972 1. T h i s

new s t a n c e d i s m i s s e s t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l

and r a c i a l b i a s of t h e c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y of t h e p a s t

which r e f e r r e d any ' h i g h e r 1 e l e m e n t s o f n e g r o

c i v i l i z a t i o n t o t h e e x a g g e r a t e d d i f f u s i o n i s t ' Hamitic

T h e o r y ' , Through a n a l y s i s o f o r a l i n f o r m a t i o n and

a r c h e o l o g i c a l d a t a A, E, AfiL-Jbo h a s a t t e m p t e d a

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l o o s e p i e c e s o f I gbo c u l t u r a l

h i s t o r y i n h i s s e e s o f Sand (1981), T h i s e f f o r t i s

n o t o n l y i n t e l l e c t u a l l y r e w a r d i n g b u t a l s o p o i n t s t o

a r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f s y s t e m s t h a t had i n t h e p a s t been

d i s m i s s e d as u n r e l i a b l c and g i v e n warped judgment ,

THE SOCIAL SCIENCE FACTOR - - - - - - . . . -

Complementing t h e r e l i g i o u s f a c t o r e m p h a s i s g i v e n

by some s c h o l a r s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , i s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n

o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s ; p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e who h a v e t a k e n

t o s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y i n r e c e n t times, A s t i m u l a t i n g

example i s A, J. S h e l t o n ' s work on t h e I g b o and I g a l a ,

H i s book , I q b o - I q a l a B o r d e r l a n d (1971) i s a f i e l d - w o r k - monograph i n t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e t ime-honoured a n t h r o -

p o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f t h e s t u d y o f n o n - l i t e r a t e

societies, His p e r s p e c t i v e which i s i n l i n e w i t h t h e

o l d ' l f u n c t i o n a l i s t a p p r o a c h v s t o t h e s t u d y o f r e l i g i o n

a s a means o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l comes o u t w i t h a new

e m p h a s i s , T h i s new e m p h a s i s i; t h e f o c u s on t h e

h i s t o r i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d and

a n a l y s e d , H i s s t u d y h a s c l e a r l y shown t h a t h i s t o r i c a l

d i m e n s i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n c a n be

e f f e c t i v e l y i n v e s t i g a t e d t h r o u g h a s y s t e m a t i c and

d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f o r a l t r a d i t i o n , p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y

and c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i o - r e l i q i o u s s i t u < j . t i o n s , T h i s

work i s one o f t h e few f i e l d monographs i n E n g l i s h

wh ich h a s t r i e d t o i n t e r p r e t ~ i f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l

R e l i g i o u s s y s t e m t h r o u g h t i m e , A l t hough I;, C, b

E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , (Nuer R e l i g i o n , 1956 1, J, Midi?le ton

( u b a r - i o n - -9 1 9 6 0 ) and G o L i e n h a r d t ( ~ i v i n a

a e r i e n c e ----9 1 9 6 1 ) had i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t t o u c h e d

ypon t h e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t o f some f e a t u r e s o f t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , i t i s S h e l t o n who h a s d e a l t w i t h

t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o b l e m i n a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e and

s y s t e m a t i c manner. H i s e f f o r t h a s o b v i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e d

t h e v i e w s o f P a r r i n d e r and Mbiti i n t h e u s e o f o r a l

s o u r c e s t o r e c o n s t r u c t A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , 3

This h a s been f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e d i n H e W, T u r n e r ' s

a n a l y s i s o f t h e P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l s t u d y a s a p o s s i b l e way

f a r w a r d t o t h e s t u d y o f t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n s e 4 Y e t

t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e methods have n o t f u l l y a c c e p t e d t h e

c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p u r e l y t h e o l o g i c a l s t a n c e to t h e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n , Despite t h e v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e

p u r e l y p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l and a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l m e t h o d s ,

t h e r e seems t o b e a ' m i s s i n g - l i n k 9 be tween b o t h . I t

i s t h a t ' m i s s i n g - l i n k P t h a t o u r new a p p r o a c h would

a d d r e s s i t s e l f t o , Through c u l t u r e - a r e a and phenome-

n o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f two s e l e c t e d t hemes i n I g b o

r e l i g i o n , w e s h a l l i l l u s t r a t e I?o\\l t h i s s m i s s i n g - l i n k 1

c a n b e s u p p l i e d i n I g b o r e l i f j i o n , Lie s h a l l now t u r n

t o t h e ' C u l t u r e - A r e a and Phcnomeno1oqie;l l App roach f t o

s u r v e y i t s s t r u c t u r e , e s s e n c e and l i k e l y l i m i t a t i o n i n 1

t h e s t u d y o f !Jest r i f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n ,

The q u e s t f o r a me thodo logy i s a n on-going p r o c e s s .

T h i s work h a s t h e r e f o r e come o u t w i t h a new me thodo logy ,

h a v i n g a n a l y s e d t h e s t r e n g t h and w e a k n e s s e s o f t h e

p r e u i a u s o n e s , We have c h r i s t e n e d o u r own me thodo logy

t h e C u l t u r e - A r e a and Phenomenoloy i c a l Approach, The r*r

a p p r o a c h i s s v g g e s t e d a s a new p o s s i b l e and v i a b l e

p e r s p e c t i v e by which

T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n

d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c

t h e f u t u r e s t u d i e s o f West A f r i c a n

c a n be u n d e r t a k e n , I t i s an i n t e r -

h - a t y p e t h a t h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d

b y scholars of A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n i n r e c e n t p a s t b u t h a s

n o t b e e n f u l l y u t i l i z e d o F o r i n s t a n c e , H a r o l d T u r n e r ,

w r i t i n g i n 1 9 7 9 , r e m a r k e d t h a t :

!'The f a c t o r o f d i v i n e a c t i o n , however , i s n o t o n l y a l o n g s i d e o t h e r s , b u t i n t h e o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s r e g a r d e d a s o p e r a t i n g i n and t h r o u g h t h e s e c u l a r o r ' n o n - r e l i g i o u s ' f a c t o r s ; t h e s e m u s t t h e r e f o r e be s t u d i e d t h r o u g h t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s and o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . " 5

A l t h o u g h T u r n e r was i n t h e s a i d work p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d

w i t h o n e o f t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f r e l i g i o u s phenomena - t h e

I n d e p e n d e n t C h u r c h e s i , n A f r i c a - i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o

n o t e t h a t t h e method o f a n a l y s i s hk recommended c o v e r s

a l l a s p e c t s o f r e l i g i o u s s i t u a t i o n i n Africa.

F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f c l e a r e r a n a l y s i s , a c u l t u r e -

area i s u n d e r s t o o d a s :

"a g e o g r a p h i c a l d e l i m i t a t i o n o f a n a r e a t h a t h a s t h e same d o m i n a n t a n d s i g n i f i c a n t c u l t u r e t r a i t s , c o m p l e x e s and p a t t e r n . 16

S i m i l a r l y , t h e phenomenology of r e l i g i o n refers t o a

s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y of t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o r forms of

r e l i g i o n a n d t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d m e a n i n g s . The phenomeno-

l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t o r e l i g i o n , p e r h a p s stems from Edmund

H u s s e r l ' s p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h h e d e v e l o p e d

p a r t l y i n p r o t e s t a g a i n s t i ' n e o - K a n t i a n , l e m p i r i c a l

p h i l o s o p h y t h s t i n f l u e n c e d and d o m i n a t e d t h e w o r k s o f

most German u n i v e r s i t i e s a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y .

It may a l s o be a p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e d o g m a t i c

7 e m p i r i c i s m o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , T h c p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

method i s o n e t h a t s u s p e n d s a n y v a l u e judgment w h i l e

i t i s i n t h e p r o c e s s of i d e n t i f y i n g t h e e s s e n c e o f

t h e r e l i g i o u s phenomenon t h a t i s b e i n g s t u d i e d . I n

e f f e c t i t i s a method w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h o u t a n y a

p r i o r i mo t ive . I t i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h b o t h

t h e c o l l e c t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d a t a w i t h empathy.

T h a t i s why P e t t e r s o n and Ake rbe rg h a v e i n a j o i n t

s t u d y s t a t e d t h a t : b

! ' the r e s e a r c h e r ' s t a s k d o e s n o t end w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f a g r e a t e r o r lesser number o f f a c t s . I n h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , h e mus t be aware t h a t a r e l i g i o n i s more o r less a s y s t e m o f bel iefs , r i t u a l b e h a v i o u r and e t h i c a l s t r u c t u r e . The phenomenology o f r e l i g i o n a p p e a r s a s a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r when i t comes t o i n t e r p r e t i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l i g i o n , "8

I n a n y g i v e n s o c i e t y , t h e m e t h o d i c a l p r o c e d u r e by

which s u c h p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s c a r r i e d

o u t h a s been d e s c r i b e d b y Rrenneman a s a t w o - t i e r e d

p r o c e s s o f s P m o r p h o l o g i c a l phenomenology and herme-

n e u t i c a l The f o r m e r i m p l i e s t h e

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s t y p e s and s t r u c t u r e s t h a t

a r i s e f r o m an e x a m i n a t i o n o f d a t a w h i l e t h c l a t t e r

p r o b e s i n t o t h e e s s e n c ? o f meaning r e s i d i n g t a c i t l y

w i t h i n t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e phenomenon,

T h i s new c u l t u r e - a r e a and p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h

t a k e s c o g n i z a n c e o f t h e r e commenda t i ons p r e v i o u s l y made

by some s c h o l a r s whose p e r s p e c t i v e s emphas i zed

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e l i g i o n , C h a r l e s

Lonq f o r i n s t a n c e , w r i t i n q o v e r a d e c a d e a g o ,

recommended f o r t h e s t u d y o f A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n and o t h e r

p r i m a l r e l i g i o n s wha t h12 c a l l e d a u n i f i e d a p p r o a c h t o

wencompass ing n o t o n l y t h e phenomenology and morphology o f r e l i g i o n b u t e q u a l l y the e x i s t e n t i a l , s o c i a l and p r a c t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s of r e l i g i o n , " l O

I n Aylward S h o r t e r ' s c h o i c e methodology - t h e ' M u l t i -

d i m e n s i o n a l ' a p p r o a c h - t h e same i d e a o f a b road-based

i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c o - o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e s t u d y o f A f r i c a n

t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n i s implied.'' The p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

d i m e n s i o n i s n o t , hmwever, c l e a r l y s p e l t o u t .

R more r e c e n t c a l l f o r a f f po ly -me thod i c p e r s p e c t i v e "

for t P L e s t u d y o f t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n s i s t h a t o f

Benja.min Ray, H e h a s t r i e d t o combine as many p e r s -

p e c t i v e s as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o r e v e a l t h e f u l l

s e m a n t i c , e x i s t e n t i t 3 1 m d s o c i a l mean ings o f A f r i c a n

r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m s , l2 O b v i o u s l y , H i r o l d W. T u r n e r ' s

most r e c e n t s u g g e s t i o n on a !'Way f o r w a r d i n t h e

r e l i g i o u s s t u d y o f : i f r i c a n p r i m a l r e l i g i o n s i v h a s come

o u t t o c o n f i r m t h a t most s t u d i e s o n A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n ,

h a v e n o t y e t b e n e f i t t e d f r o m a n a d e q u a t e c o m b i n a t i o n

o f disciplines, 13

T h i s new a p p r o a c h , r e c o g n i z i n q t h e p r e v i o u s c a l l s

b y s c h o l a r s f o r a m o r e - e m b r a c i n g p i . - r s p c c t i v e f o r t h e

s t u d y of A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , s t a n d s t o b e n e f i t f r o m a

w e a l t h o f s c h o l a r s h i p c x i s t i n g i n t h c f i i - l d o f A f r i c a n

s t u d i e s , F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e dange r . o l a p ~ i r e l y phenome-

n o l o g i c a l s t a n c e w h i c h t e n d s towar tds e n u m e r a t i o n o f 4

d a t a a n d n e g l x t o f t h e s o c i a l d y n z m i c s i n w h i c h t h e

d a t a e x i s t , i s t a k e n care of b y t h e c u l t u r e - a r e a

e m p h a s i s , It w i l l i n t h i s w?y s u p p l y a n y " m i s s i n g - l i n k "

b e t w e e n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s of p u r e l y a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l or

t h e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s ,

I V

RESUME

F o r a s m o o t h t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h i s f i rs t p a r t o f

t h e work t o t h e s e c o n d p a r t w h e r e t h e new a p p r o a c h i s

a p p l i e d , i t i s p e r t i n e n t t o r e c a p i t u l a t e w h a t h a s b e e n

s a i d t h u s f a r . We h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d o n e of t h e aims o f

t h i s work - a r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o a c h e s so f a r

u s e d i n t h e s t u d y o f West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n .

We h a v e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e c u r s o r y r e m a r k s o f t h e

e a r l y European v i s i t o r s t o I , f r i c - .A d i d n o t p r e s e n t a

t r u e p i c t u r e O F t!?c! t r a d i t i o n c i l r e l i g i o n , S i m i l a r l y

t h e p r e j u d i c e s o f t h e a . n t h r o p o l o g i c a . 1 i n t e r p r e t e r s who

a d o p t e d e i t h e r s y m b o l i s t o r s o c i o - f u n c t i o n a l i s t s t a n c e

p r e s e n t e d a r e l i g i o n d e v o i d o f i t s p h i l o s o p h i c a l ,

s p i r i t u a l and m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , The p u r e l y pheno-

m e n o l o g i c a l s t a n c e o f t h e t h e o l o g i a n s and t h e

npraepara t io -evanqe l ica r7 e m p h a s i s o f t h e u c o n f e s s i o n a l

s c h o l a r s f f a l s o p r e s e n t e d a l o p s i d e d ' r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m ,

The n a t i o n a l i s t a p p r o a c h of West A f r i c a n i n d i g e n o u s

s c h o l a r s t e n d e d to be e i t h e r l a p o l o g e t i c t o r a t times

too p o l e m i c a l ,

Two o t h e r p r o b l e m s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e a l r e a d y

d i s c u s s e d are o v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n and m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

I t i s t h e t a s k o f t h e new c u l t u r e - a r e a and phenomenolo-

g i c a l a p p r o ~ c h t o o f f s e t them, W e s h a l l a p p l y i t

c o n s i s t e n t l y i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n a s w e d o a c a s e s t u d y

of I g b o c o n c e p t s o f God and Deities,

1. C, R, Gaba, S c r i p t u r e s of a n A f r i c a n P e o p l e : T h e S a c r e d U t t e r a n c e s o f t h e A n l o , ( N e w York: NOK - P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 5 7 ,

2, E, I lcenga--Metuh, God a n d Man i n ? \ f r i c a n R e l i g i o n , (London : G e o f f r e y Chapman, 1 9 8 1 1, 10-12.

3, See i i y l w a r d S h o r t e r , A f r i c a n C h r i s t i a n T h e o x , ( G r c ~ i t 3ri t a i n : Ceof frey Chapman, m5 1,

# 4, t i , h!, T u r n e r , "The Way F o r w a r d i n t h e R e l i q i o u s

S t u d y o f ~ ' ~ f r i c a n ~ r i m i l R e l i g i o n s ", ~ o u r n a i o f w o n i n Africa, 1 2 , 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) ~ 1-15.

5 . H e kd. T u r n e r , R e l i g i p u s I n n o v a t i o n i n A f r i c a : s Movements , 1, p . m .

6. 0, U. K a l u , "The R o u t of t h e Gods: C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n o f C r o s s - R i v e r I g b o l a n d 1903-195OV', ( Unpub, Mass , , n , d e 1 , p.1. See a l s o D a r y l l Fo rde a n d G, I. J o n e s , The Ibo a n d I b i b i o - S p e a k i n q P e o p l e s o f South- - E a s t e r n J V W , (London : I;J, 1 9 5 0 1 , p , 9 .

7 , Edmund H u s s e r l , The C r i s i s o f E u r o p e a n S c i e n c e s a n d T r a n s c e n d a l Phenornenoloqy, ( T r a n s l a t e d , r EvaKs ton s N o r t h {Western U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 1 , 353-378. See a lso A l b e r t S c h u l t z , u P h e n o ~ ~ c n o l o g y and S o c i a l S c i e n c e s T v i n C o l l e c t e d E s s a E , Vo1.1, ( T h e Hague: N i g h o f f , 19721, m g i n a l l y i n s a y s i n Memory o f Edrnund H u s s e r l a b G , ( C a m b r i d g e Mass. : - Howard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 0 ) , Cf, S. 0, I ' inoz ie , lsOn Phenomeno logy a n d t h e S o c i o l o g y of l i n o w l s d g e i n Af r i c a l f , Tke Conch , >(-IT, -1&2 ( - 1 9 8 0 ) - -1- - - - - - -

~ e

9 O 0

8. Olof P e t t e r s o n and H o A k e r b c r g , I n t e s r e t i n g UOUS Phenomena : j t u d i e s w i t h f e r e n c e t o t h e Phenomenolo o f R e l i q i o n , ( S t o c k h o l m : -~&981). 0.25. Q u o t e d b y J.o.:~. O l u p o n a , ~ ~ h ~ n o m & o i o ~ i c a l / i ; n t h r o ~ ~ l o ~ i c a l , i n a l y s i s o f t h e R e l i g i o n of t h e Ondo-Yoruba o f N i g e r i a (Phoi? , 'J.'kesis: Bos ton U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 3 1 , p , l G f f ,

9. W, Lo Brenneman Jr,, So 0, Y a r i a n a n d A. M. O l s o n , ThoSe,c-iny Ey? : H f r m e n - u t i c a l Phenomenology i n t h e ~ T u d y of R e 1 1 =on ?-and -London : ' m y l v & University P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 1, p,14, Q u o t e d b y J , O , K . O l u p o n a , I b i d p.12. = ' '

1 0 . C h a r l e s M. Long, FvPro leyomenon t o a ~ e l i g i o u s H e r r n e n e u t i c q l , H i s t o r y of R e l i g i o n s , 6 , 3 ( l 9 7 1 ) , 254, b

11. Aylward S h o r t e r , A f r i c a n C h r i s t i a n T h e o l o q y , - ( G r e a t B r i t a i n : G e o f f r e y Chapman, 1 9 7 5 ) , 58.

12 . B. C. Ray, l i q i o n s : Symbols , R i t u a l e r s c y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1 9 7 6 ) , u p s k i , Symbols and T h e o r y ,

Cambr idge : C.U,P., 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 4 - c

1 3 , H. W. T u r n e r , '!The Way Forward i n t h e R e l i q i o u s S t u d y o f ~ f r i c a n p r i m a l R e l i g i o n s 1 ! , J.R,A. ; 1 2 , 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , p - 2 .

PART TWO

THkZ lIZPPLICI I T I O N Oi+' CULTURE-AREl\ I \ N D PHENOMENOLOGIC,ZL 7 ~ 1 1 0 . i ~ ~ IN A CliSC-STUDY OF I G B O RELIGION

CI-1,\PrI'ER S I X

INTRODUCTION

T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l use t h e c u l t u r e - a r e a and

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h d i s c u s - i - d i n t h r c o n c l u d i n g

pa r t of the f i r s t s e c t i o n t o t l . s c l ~ i b c a n d ~ n n l y s e t h e #

c o n c e p t s of God and d i v i n i t i c ? ~ i n I g b o t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n , T h e s t a g e i s now set f o r t h e new a p p r o a c h

t o c a r r y o u t a n it.,d-.pt!? ::tilily c f t h e s e two s e l e c t e d

t h e m e s i n I y b o r e l i g i o n i n a n a t t e m p t t o remedy t h e

f l a w s i n e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s ,

THE IGi30 A N D T H E I R P~;I~CF;PTION OF THE VJORLD P

( a ) The C u l t u r e - A r e a s

The I g b o - s p c a l c i n y p e o p l e c o n s t i t u t e o n e of t h e

largest e t h n i c g r o u p s i n Nigeria. They s h a r e common

b o r d e r s w i t h t h e Edo i n the West, I j a w i n t h e S o u t h ,

t h e Idoma, I g a l a and Ogoja i n t h e N o r t h a n d N o r t h - E a s t

r e s p e c t i v e l y , and t h c l b i b i o and E f i k i n t h e S o u t h - E a s t ,

137

The p r e s e n t Anambra and Imo S t a t e s h a v e t h e

l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f I gho p o p u l a t i o n . They a r e

t h e two a r e a s w e s h a l l concentrate o n , i n t h i s s t u d y .

A s i z e a b l e p o p u l ; . ~ t i o n of t h c Igbo, however , i s found

i n t h e p resen t : 3 ~ n d e l S t a t ? , w e s t o f t h e R i v e r N i g e r

and i n t h e R i v e r s S tc i t e o f t h e D e l t a r e g i o n . S e c a u s e

of p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e and t h e i r r e a d i n e s s t o t r a v e l ,

t h e I gbo h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d l a r g e communities i n many

o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s i n N i y c r i a , b

The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h c I g b o i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e

a b o u t t h i r t : ? e n m i l l i o n , b u t t h e p rob l sm o f i n a c c u r a t e

c e n s u s i n N i g e r i a a t p r e s e n t p r e v e n t s u s f r o m making

i t d e f i n i t e and r e l i a b l c f i g u r e .

The word i s u s e d f o r b o t h t h e l a n g u a g e and

t h e p e o p l e . The v e r s i o n ' I b o 1 i s o f t e n found i n o l d - b o o k s and r e c o r d s , I t i s t h e a n g l i c i z e d fo rm o f t h e

name, I t i s n o t u s e d by t h e e l d e r s i n t h e r u r a l commu-

n i t i e s . A l o t o f p e o p l e and o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g

t h e S o c i e t y f o r t h e P romot ion o f t h ? Igbo Language and

C u l t u r e ( S a p . I,L.C, ) h a v e r e c e n t l y s t a r t e d t o e m p h a s i z e

t h e u s e o f t h ~ o r i g i n 3 1 v e r s i o n - I s o , I t i s t h e o n e - - w e s h a l l c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e i n t h i s work e x c e p t where w e

a r c q u o t i n g a n y t h i n 9 lvher,: th:. rrnglj .cis?d version i s used .

Thc q u e s t i o n o f w h e r e the I g b o came f r o m a n d t h e

m e a n i n g o f - t h e word hz.vc Z:)v;=.n ,lLn o l d p r o b l e m i n v o l v i n g

a 1o.k o f s p c - x - u l ~ i t i o n : ;... ?'h.?re a rc n o c~enir_.ral o r

c1aborat:r- t r : idi t : i .on: ; i>f o r i g i n o r m i g r a t i o n , Some s u b -

c u l t u r t i l g r o u p s ~ 1 . t t h , _ pc . r iphc? ry oT I q b o t e r r i t o r y

( d u e t o l o n g a s s o c i a t i o n b:ith t h e i r non- Igbo ne i c j h b o u r s )

e i t h c ? r t r a c ? t h p i r o r i ~ i n t o somr;. e r s t w h i l e f a m o u s

k i n g d o m s o u t s i d e i g b o l m d o r c la im t o b c non- Igbo , F o r

i n s t a n c e , some k i n d r e d s i n O n i t s h a s.nd O g u t a t rsce t h e i r

b o r i g i n t o t h . 2 o l d Edo k i n g d o m o f B e n i n . Some p a r t s o f

Nsukka c l a i m t o be o f t h e o l d I g a l a s t o c k .

d . J t h o u g h t h i s i s n o t a s t u d y o f t h e p r e c o l o n i a l

I g b o s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , i t i s , h o w e v e r , i m p o r t a n t

t o d e s c r i b e b r i e f l y t h e c o m p l e x I y b o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

s e t - u p i n w h i c h t h e r e l i g i o n was p r a c t i s e d , The I g b o

c o m m u n i t i e s a r e t y p i c a l l y a c e p h a l o u s s e g m e n t a r y u n i t s ,

They a r c u s u a l l y n o t l a r g e r t h a n a v i l l a g e g r o u p .

A l t h o u g h i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e y d i d n o t b u i l d s t a t e s t h a t

c o n t r o l l c d w i d e areas, i t i s wrong t o lump a l l t h e

d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f I g b o s o c i s t y i n t o o n e t y p e o f

3 o l i t i c a l system, 'Yhc t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m may

l o o k basic1.1l .y _ s i t n i lk,r ,- 1 % ~ t k1cly s ' n o w c d - . T o m e d i f f e r e n c e s - - - - -

i n t h e s , i i , I i way Lhr: IgSo I s n q v r : q ~ : i t h o u y h f a i r l y u n i f i e d

a t l eas t i n c_.xpr>ssint:; '7;:sic i d e a s ) ~ L S V . ~ - ~ O U S d i z l e c t s

i n t h e d i f f (:rent i d c n t i i i a b l s u b - c u l t u r c i areas, 1

D a r y l l F o r d e a n d CJ, I . J o n ~ s had ea r l i e r o n

c l a s s i f i c ? d t h e Igbo i n t o f i v e m a i n d i s t i n c t i v e s u h -

g r o u p s , The f i v e m:?in d i v i s i o n s a r c t h c N o r t h e r n o r

O n i t s h a I g b o made u p of l d e s t e r n or Nri-i".wka, E a s t e r n

The s i!cond i s t h c S o u t h e r n o r O w c i r r i Icjbo, F o u r m i n o r

s u b - g r o u p s i n t!2e s o u t h i n c l u d e t h e I s u - A m , O r a t t a -

Ikwc-r r i , Qhyhy-Ngwa a n d t h e I s u - I t e m , The t h i r d major +

g r o u p i s t h e W e s t e r n I g b o made u p of t h e n o r t h e r n - I k a ,

s o u t h e r n I k a o r Kwale and t h e R i v e r i n e area of Ogwash i

Ukwu, On i t s h a , O w e r r i , h h o a d a ,

T h e f o u r t h g roup h a s t h r e e s u b - s e c t i o n s , They a r e

t h e E a s t e r n o r t h c C r o s s R i v e r I g b o made u p of t h e Ada

(Edda 1, ) h a m - O h a f f i a , a n d t h e ikg.

The f i f t h g r o u p - t h e N o r t h - & s t I g b o i s made u p

of o n l y o n e m i c r o - g r o u p c a l l e d o ~ u - u ~ u . ~ S e v e r a l

s t r u c t u r a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v c c h a n g e s i n N i g e r i a s i n c e

t h e e n d of c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n have n x c s s i t a t e d a

r e - a d j u s t m , ? n t of J o n c I s 1945 d e l i m i t s t i o n . F o r t h c

purposes o f c o n v e n i e n c e 11 nflw d e l i m i t a t i o n , E c s t o f t h e

N i g e r may l o o k t h u s :

I, The N o r t h s u b - c u l t u r ~ : a r c a - made u p of Nsukka , Enugu, U d i , A W ~ U and Nkanu;

'Thc Nor th-West i n c l u d e s Umunr i , t'Lwka, Anam, O n i t s h a a n d Nnewi areas;

T h e N o r t h - e a s t i n c o r p o r ~ t i n g I z z i , i b a k a l i k i , E z z a n g b o , Ikwo , "\f i k p o ;

'Thi. Sou'ch w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h c Nywa, O w e r r i , t h ~ Isu-amn s u b g r o u p o f Okigwe, O r l u , p h y h y ant ; I s u - I t e m ,

'yhcl. ~ro:;s...i'<^;.vcsr :Cgbo s u b - c u l tars a r c 2 c o v e r s Ohqf is. 2nd ; ' ~ o c h u l c w u ,

Some com!i:unitic:s in a sui.:qroup n a y show some c h a r a c t e r i s -

w i t h d i f f e r e n t c h a r x t i ~ r ' . ; ' : i c s ,

Towards t h e \Jc>s t and Nor th--l,Jr_.s t Igbo s u b - c u l t u r e

a r e a s l i v e th i? O n i t s h a i-lncl t h c s :il'-.st ~ r n - - 1 g b o n c i q h b o u r s

( B e n d e l I g b o ) who came u n d e r t h c i n f luL:nce o f t h e erst-

w h i l e Cdo Icingdom, The Nsu!tka i n t h e n o r t h came u n d e r

t h e I g a l a i n f l u e n c e , The two hciv,_ t i t l z s l i k e t h e O b i - a n d Ezc. w h i c h were r e s e r v e d f o r t h e r i c h men, I n - O n i t s h a t h e Ob i s9& i s t h e h i g h e s t s i n g l e t i t l e a man --- - c o u l d h o l d i n t h e c o m m u n i t y Q 3 T h c r e a r e s i m i l a r

a s p e c t s o f t h e Edo 2nd I g a l a f o u n d i n t h e t w o areas

e s p e c i a l l y i n terms o f r e g a l i a a n d a m e a s u r e o f con-

c e n t r a t i o n of p o w e r s or. t h e r u l c r who h o l d s t h e h i g h e s t

T h e r e i s a t y p e o f monarchy i n o n i t s h a ( a n d t h e i r

West I g b o n e i g h b o u r s ) which p e r h a p s d u e t o i n f l u e n c e

f r o m Ben in , h a s b e e n worked i n t o a s y s t e m whe reby o n l y

a s e c t i o n o f t h e community wh ich t r a c e s i t s l i n e a g e t o

t h e r o y a l t y c a n s u p p l y t h e King ( O b i ) who is t h e head - o f s t a t e and t h c h i g h e s t o f f i c i a l ,

I n t h e N o r t h - e a s t s u b c u l t u r e a r e a o f A b a k a l i k i and

Af ikpo and p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t h e C r o s s R i v e r I g b o a r e a ,

t h e r e i s a h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d age-group i n s t i t u t i o n as

w e l l a s secret s o c i c t i e s - t h e k k p e , Akang, etc. 4

Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e i r non-Igbo n e i g h b o u r s , t h e

b u s i n e s s o f gove rnmen t was r u n by a c o m b i n a t i o n o f

k i n s h i p , a g e - s e t and secret societies, T h e r e i s a l s o a

s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n by wh ich

b o t h p a t r i l i n e a l and m a t r i l i n e a l d e s c e n t g r o u p s combine.

R i c h men who c o u l d a f f o r d t o pay f o r t h e h i g h e s t g r a d e

i n t h e secret s o c i e t i e s ( w h i c h c l a i m e d t o c o n t r o l s u p e r -

n a t u r a l p o w e r s ) e x e r c i s e d s t r o n g p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e .

I n Qhrhy , Ngwa, I b s k u ( s o u t h s u b c u l t u r e a r e a ) are

t h e p a t r i l i n e a l k i n s h i p p a t t e r n s . I n t h c s e p l a c e s t h e i r

c l o s e c u l t u r a l con t a c t w i t h t h e i r I b i b i o n e i g h b o u r s h a s

a l s o b r o u g h t in t h e u s e o f t h e secrl:t s o c i e t i e s i n

gove rnmen t of thc: commun i t i e s , A t O l o k o r o i n I b c k u ,

t h e Q k ~ n k ? ( I g b o e q u i v a l e n t of t h e I b i b i o Ekpe) s h a r e d

i n t h c s y s t e m o f gove rnmen t , T h i s was g r a d u a l l y

e x t e n d e d t o t h e h i n t e r l m d a r e a s of Mbaise .

The more c e n t r ~ l z o n e ( i n t h e S o u t h s u b - - c u l t u r e

area) o f t h e c o l o n i a l Okiqwc, O r l u and O w c r r i d i v i s i o n s

had a t y p e of rjov,lrnmc:nt p r x l o m i n a n t l y r u n on k i n s h i p

b a s i s , HO\i~t.vcr, membership i n a t i t l e soc i \ : : t y l i k e Qz? - ( w h i c h t h e y g o t from t he I J r i -Awl : ? a r c l ) o r s-cret s o c i e t y

l i k e t h e Okonko and t h e F!mpw; ( r na squc radc~ ) o c c ~ s i o n a l l y 0 0 c. ---- - - - -.-

o f f e r e d some ~ . d v m t : ~ g e i r ~ j o i n i n ( > the upp-r c l ~ s s . I n

some p a r t s o f t h e ,ar(?3 ( p a r t i c l ; l & l y Osuh C l a n and I l b a i s e )

d e c i s i o n s r e a c h e d by a c o n c 2 n s u s were s t a r t e d a t the

k i n d r e d l e v e l , The rc is a s u h - u n i t , a (?my-nna) k i n d r e d

or l i n e a g e c o u n c i l i n wh ich ? v e r y a d u l t male i s a member.

Women o f t h e k i n d r e d a l s o h a v e t h e i r c o u n c i l , From t h e

l i n e a g e c o u n c i l - (Nwa-oka-ntulo i n t h e Isu-ama sub-

g r o u p of t h e S o u t h or Aladi-mma i n M b ~ i s e ) t h e v a r i o u s

h e a d s of t h e l i n e a g e s - t h e f i r s t s o n s - D i g k p a r a - who

h o l d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t a f f of o f f i c e - t h e ~ f ? - and - o f t e n b e l o n g t o t h e Ozo s o c i e t y , would b e d e l e g a t e d to

0 e. - r e p r e s e n t t h e i r l i n c a g e s a t t h e v i l l a g e c o u n c i l . They

c o n s t i t u t e t h e AMA-ALA - t h e c o u n c i l of e l d e r s . A t

s u c h a s s e m b l y , t h e h o l d e r o f t h e most s e n i o r ? f ~ ( f r o m II

t h e mos t s e n i o r l i n e a g e ) would p r e s i d e . H e h i m s e l f

would n o t t a k e a n y u n i l a t e r a l d e c i s i o n beyond t h e

a g r e e m e n t s r e a c h e d by t h e c o u n c i l (Rma-ala) . T h i s is

t h e s y s t e m t i l l i t comcs t o t h e s u b - c l a n o r c l a n - l e v e l

or i n n d e l i b e r a t i o n w i t h r e p r c s e n t a t i v c s of o t h e r

commun i t i e s . E a c h p e r s o n knows w h e r c h c f a l l s i n , A s

t h e a s s o c i ~ t i o n g d t n w i d c r , s 7 r o p r e s z n t c l t i v c s f ' a r e d e l e -

gated f rom v a r i o u s lev:.:ls t o d t s l i b c r a t e , No r e p r e s c n t a -

t i v e a t z x h s t a g e o r l c v k l o f d e l i b a r a t i o n g e t s i n t o

a n y a g r e e m e n t which g o e s beyond t h e manda t e g i v e n t o

him b y h i s peop l i . w i t h o u t f i r s t g o i n g back t o

r e n e g o t i z t e t h ? terms. 4

From t h e f o r e g o i n g , we n o t i c e two t y p e s of democracy

wh ich t h e p e o p l e p r a c t i s e d i n t h e v a r i o u s s u b - c u l t u r e areas,

One i s t h e D i r e c t - D e m o c r 3 a t t h e min ima l l e v e l i n wh ich

a l l a d u l t m a l e s and o f t e n a few e l d c r l y women meet

t o g e t h e r t o d i s c u s s i s s u e s t h 2 t c o n c e r n t h e whole

l i n e a g e o r community, A t a w i d e r l e v e l , t h e r e i s a

Representative-Dzmocracy i n wh ich someone i s s e n t w i t h

a d e f i n i t e manda t e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e g roup .

A l though t h e r e was n o e v i d e n c e o f t h e c x i s t c n c e o f

an a b s o l u t e monarchy i n any o f t h d s u h c u l t u r c a r e a s i n

t h e p a s t , t h c t y p c of democracy t h q t p r c ~ ~ a i l e d d i d n o t

r e l a p s e i n t o a n a r c h y , I n mornknt~ of cmergcncy l i k e i n t e r -

v i l l a g e w x s , p c o p l c wcrc able. t o r a l l y r ound t o f i g h t

a common enemy,

( b ) T h e P e r c e p t i o n o f t h c Clrorld - T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e I g b o w o r l d c a n be p e r c e i v e d

from t h e v a r i o u s " b c i n g s f P t h y t o c c u p y t h e t h r c e -

c o m p a r t m e n t s of t h c U n i v e r s e w h i c h t h e y v f c o n s t r u c t F q

i n an a t t e m p t t o c . x p l a i n s p a c e - t i m e e v e n t s , T h e r e i s

a n i m p l i c a t i o n o f p o i n t i n g t o t h e s k y a b o v e as t h e a b o d e

of t h e Supri3me B c i n g ?.nd o t h e r m a j o r d i v i n i t i e s . The

E a r t h i s inh;..kl l ; d b y 'chc E a r t h - g o d d e s s , n a t u r e s p i r i t s ,

p a t r o n s p i r i t s of h u m m a c t i v i t i e s a n d e c o l o g y . Here i s

t h e V i s i b l e w o r l d -- t h ~ vwa, i n h a b i t e d , b y man. T h e t h i r d w-

s e g m e n t - t h e ~ ' I n v i s i b l c Worldu t l O t h e r w o r l d u - ' t h e --. ----- 9

Wor ld B e n e a t h P - ( A l n m m u ~ ) i s t h e abode of t h e d e p a r t e d ----- a n c e s t o r s , a n d o t h e r d i s m e m b e r e d s p i r i t s .

T h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f s p a c e are s e e n t o be i n a

r e g u l a r a n d c o n s i s t e n t o r d e r , T h c r e i s t h e n i g h t a n d

d a y , r a i n y s e a s o n f o l l o w s t h e d r y o n e , d e z t h comes a f t e r

l i f e , T h e r c i s a r h y t h m i n l i f e , a s e q u e n c c o f o n e

e v e n t a f t e r t h e o t h e r , i n a n o r d e r e d s u c c e s s i o n - a l l

s y m b o l i z i n g ha rmony ; c o n s i s t e n c y a n d dynamism. A d i s -

r u p t i o n o f t h i s order a n d ha rmony w o u l d t a n t a m o u n t t o a

d i s r u p t i o n of l i f c , T h c r e i s a s e r i o u s e t h i c a l i m p l i c a -

t i o n i n m ~ i n t a i n i n g t h i s h x m o n y . T h i s t h e r e f o r e b r i n g s

t h e r e l i g i o n t o th ,? core of t h c wor ld - -v i ew. Man o n e a r t h

m a i n t a i n s t h i s h a r i x o n y b y s e r i o u s o b s e r v a n c e of h i s

r e l i g i o u s d u t i e s , H e uses t h e r e l i g i o n t o e x p l a i n ,

when and how t h i n g s happen , t o p r e d i c t w h a t n e x t would

f o l l o w an a c t i o n and a l s o t o c o n t r o l e v e n t s i n t i m e and

s p a c e ,

E , E , E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d h a s d i s c o v c r c d w i t h i n t h e Nuer

w o r l d t h a t sc tasons and monthly c h m y < : s r : - . p a ~ t t h e m s e l v e s

5 y e a r a f t e r y e a r , M i r c e a E l i a d e had e u l i d r on d e s c r i b e d

t h i s c o n t i n u i t y and cyc l ic ; . . l r 8 > p c t i t i o n of cvt- .nts i n

n a t u r e arnong non- l i t , : r ; l tL2 s o c i : t i cs a:; tl~,: i',Iyth o f

E t e r n a l ~ e t u r n ' .6 T n k i n l ~ ti12 c y c l i c a l v k v of t h : w o r l d

a l i t t l e f u r t h z r , P r o f e s s o r J, S. M b i t i , d i s c u s s e s t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n c o n c e p t of t i m e i n n s t r i k i n g l y

c o n t r o v e r s i a l manner , E v c n t s w i t h i n t h e p e r c e p t i b l e

u n i v e r s e a r e calculated i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f a c t o r s o f

Time and Space . N e w e l 1 S , Booth and o t h e r s who c r i t i c i z e - M b i t i claim t o have d i s c o v e r e d some c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n h i s

( M b i t i ' s ) a n a l y s i s o f A f r i c a n c o n c e p t o f t i m e . Mbi t i ,

a c c o r d i n g t o him s t a t e s i n o n e p l a c e t h a t " t i m e as a

s e p a r a t e r e a l i t y d o e s n o t move, o n l y e v e n t s come and

g o . . .91, and o n l y t o s t a t ? s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s t h a t

" t i m e a s a s u c c i ? s s i o n o f s i m u l t e n e i t y o f e v e n t s , move n o t

f o r w a r d b u t backward , ' i 7

If Mbi t i h a s e x p r e s s e d h i s i d e n s more c l c a r l y h e

i s s a y i n g t h a t i t i s n o t t i m e t h a t 'moves ' i n t o t h e

past b u t e v e n t s do. For i n s t a n c e , i n I g b o c o n c e p t ,

t i m e d o e s not e x i s t a p a r t f r o m human a c t i v i t y , It i s

h i s a c t i v i t y h ? r c and now t h a t 'creates ' t i m e , S i n c e

time i s c r e a t e d Sy humcn x t i v i t y , thtd d i s t a n t f u t u r e

i s n o t e a s i l y o r na tu r . 3 . l l y c . 2 l c u l a t e d o r spoken o f . It

i s n o t t h a t thc: mean:; of d o i n g s o i s n o t t h e r e b u t t h a t

. t h e d i s t a n t f u t u r e i s 'iJnrcs1. ' b<;.c?lise i t c o n t a i n s n o

events y e t and JS s u c h hat-; nok 5,:m b r o u g h t i n t o human

a c t i v i t y ' .

The Greek c o n c e p t 05 CHRONOS - s p e c i f i c l i n e a l b

t i m e - i s n o t i n u s e i n I g b o s y s t e m of t ime - r eckon ing ,

It i s the KAIROS - s e a s o n s - which i s r e l a t i o n a l t h a t i s - use% An e v e n t or i n c i d e n t is d a t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o

a n o t h e r s p e c t a c u l a r i n c i d e n t o r d a i l y a c t i v i t y t h a t t o o k

p l a c e , T h i s i s wha t M b i t i h a s p o s s i b l y s t r u g g l e d t o

s t a t e a b o u t o t h e r A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s , E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d

had earlier r e p o r t e d samc a b o u t t h e Nuer who refer t o

o u t s t a n d i n g e v e n t s or a c t i v i t i e s i n i n t e r p r e t i n g o t h e r s , 8

A s p e c i f i c l o o k a t some of t h e e x p r e s s i o n s o f some

I g l m c o m m u n i t i e s c l e a r l y b r i n g s o u t t h e p e o p l e ' s c y c l i c a l

view of t h e w o r l d , The I g b o t i m e - OGE - i s c lass i f ied - i n s u c h a way t h a t i t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e g r o w t h o f s e a s o n

F KAIROS and a p p e a r a n c e o f n a t u r a l phenomena, The y e a r

A f ? (/\rg is d iv ided into t w o e q u a l h a l v e s of r a i n y ..II).

S e a s o n - U D U M M I R I ( f u l l o f watzr , o v e r f l o w i n g w i t h w a t e r ) ,

and d r y s e a s o n - QKOCI4I. The e x c l a m a t i o n a t t h e s i g h t of

a new moon on t h e s k y g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n o f a l i f e t h a t

moves i n a c y c l i c a l o r d e r . I n t h e S o u t h I g b o s u b c u l t u r e

area ( p a r t i ~ u l ~ ~ r l y t h z Isu-ama s u b - u n i t ) , a t t h e s i g h t

of a new moon, wom~:n and c h i l d r e n s t r i k e t h z i r c h e s t s

as t h e y reci te a s ~ y i n q : F v Q n ~ a n k e ?z? a p ~ t a c h e m,

n k e 923 a p ~ t a c h e m , n k e ugbua chckwn rn k a n d i ?z?

c h e r e m - t h e o t h e r moon p r e s e r v e d m e , may t h i s p r e s e r v e - m e a l s o . s ' A t Awka, ( N o r t h - w e s t I g b o a r e a ) , t h e r e i s a n

e x p r e s s i o n , K w a - a m , kwa m (as t h e y e a r s come and go, may

I c o n t i n u e t o l i v e a s w e l l ) , I n t h i s o r d e r , l i f e moves

i n a c y c l i c a l d i r e c t i o n , alternating the: s e a s o n s , w e t

and d r y , g r o w t h and d o r m ~ n c y , l i f e and d e a t h , t h e l i v i n g ,

t h e d e a d , t h e u n b o r n i n t e r a c t .

The moon on t h e s k y w h i c h r u n s w h a t m i g h t b e

d e s c r i b e d as ' l u n a r months ! i s d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e n weeks

of f o u r d a y s e a c h , I n t h e S o u t h I g b o a r e a and p a r t s of

t h e N o r t h - e a s t a n d C r o s s R i v c r I g b o a r c a s , t h e r e i s a

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e Izu-Ukwu - ( B I G WEEK) i n w h i c h e a c h

of t h e f o u r m a r k e t d a y s i s c o u n t e d t w i c e . The f o u r - d a y

week, I z u - n t a , ( s m a l l week) i s t h e s t a n d w - d s y s t e m o f

r e c k o n i n g i n t h e Nor th-west and N o r t h s u b - c u l t u r e a r e a s ,

Names of t h e d a y s of t h e week a l s o d e n o t e t h e names o f

m a r k e t s , E k c -9

Oye ( N o r t h a n d N o r t h - w e s t I g b o , O r i e i n - t h e S o u t h ) , A f ? , a n d N k w ~ . A p a r t from t h i s ' n a t u r a l - - t i m e 1 , t h e r e i s t h e e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t ' r i t u a l t i m e ' - w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e c e r e m o n i a l b e h a v i o u r a n d a c t u a l

r i t u a l s ,

THE BELIEF I N GOD

Above e v e r y b e i n g t h a t o c c u p i e s t h e Igbo I n v i s i b l e

bJor ld i s God, bc l i l : vcx l t o b e S u p r e m e 2nd d e s i g n a t e d w i t h

v a r i o u s names i n t h e d i f f e r e n t s u b - c u l t u r e x e a s , N o

s e r i o u s writer w i l l a g a i n d o u b t t h e I g b o belief i n t h e

S u p r e m e B e i n g , t h e One who i s t h o u g h t t o be p r e - e m i n e n t

i n a l l t h i n g s , T h i s w i l l be b o r n e o u t i n t h e names a n d

t i t l e s b y w h i c h t h c p e o p l e know him,

(a) Names a n d T i t l e s o f God

D i f f e r e n t names a n d t i t l e s b y w h i c h t h e I g b o know

God are d e p e n d e n t o n s e v e r a l f a c t o r s - l i n g u i s t i c

( d i a l e c t i c a l ) , c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l influences w h i c h

t h e d i f f e r e n t s u b - c u l t u r e a rcas h a d b e e n s u b j e c t e d to ,

T h e Nor th -Wes t Icjbo c a l l God, OSEDULUWA, u s u a l l y

s h o r t e n e d t o OLISA, T h e name m e a n s ' L o r d who bears u p - t h e word f a l l s i n t o t h r e e p a r t s : OLISA-RIJLU-YWA, OLISR

w h i c h i s f u r t h e r s h o r t d n e d t o QSA or OSE i s L o r d w h i l e - - BULU, i s a s h o r t e n e d v e r s i o n of Onye-obulu - a p o r t e r , - a bearar, a carrier. Q d A i s t h e v i s i b l e p a r t o f t h e

L__

created u n i v e r s e , t h e m r l d o f t i m e a n d s p a c e w h e r e

man l i v e s , T h e name i s u s e d by t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h

came u n d e r t h e i n f l . u ~ : n c c o f t h e o l d Xdo k ingdom, p a r t i -

c u l a r l y t h e O n i t s h a , T h r o u g h O n i t s h a i n f l u e n c e a g a i n ,

some o f t h c c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n t h e same s u b c u l t u r a l z o n e

came t o u s e t h e name,, O s e b u l u w a i s t h e Icjbo v e r s i o n o f +

t h e Edo namc f o r God - O s a n o b u a - t h e S o u r c e o f B e i n g who

car r ies a n d s u s t a i n s t h e U n i v e r s e , It c o u l d be, p e r h a p s ,

t h e Edo who t h r o u g h t h e i r c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t w i t h t h e

I g b o , West o f t h e N i g e r t h a t b o r r o w e d t h e i r name f o r

God a n d adulteratd it. A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y c o u l d be

t h a t s i n c e b o t h I g b o a n d Edo b e l o n g t o t h e same f a m i l y

o f Kwa G r o u p of l a n g u a g e s , t h e q u e s t i o n o f b o t h h a v i n g

names s i m i l a r i n r o o t a n d s o u n d f o r many common t h i n g s

c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t ,

I n t h e S o u t h e r n I q h o t e r r i t o r y ( ~ z r t i e u l a r l y t h e

s u b - g r o u p d e s i g n a t e d I s u - a m a ) , t h z common name i s

C H I N E K E . T h : t r a n s l . , > k o r s o f t t ~ c : l i n i o n I q b o B i b l e

p o p u l a r i z e d it- a n d d r o p p e d CkIU!(:!i.? w h i c h i s a l s o a n o ld

m i g h t h a v e b e e n d r o n p c d b c c ? , u s e t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

m i s s i o n a r i e s s p o k e o f a 7fr:::y-tain p l a c e i n Ibo c o u n t r y i n

w h i c h "Tsukuql d w , ? l l s and w h w c h e d e l i v e r s h i s o r a c l e

and a n s w e r s e n q u i r i e s .,. p c o p l e t r a v e l to t h e p l a c e

f r o m e v e r y p a r t o f ti12 c o u n t r y ,,, 9

r f The name, CHUKWU,

w h i c h showed some s i r n L l a r i t y wikh the O r a c u l a r D e i t y

a t Arochukwu was c a r e f u l l y a v o i d e d b y t h e P r o t e s t a n t

m i s s i o n a r i e s so as n o t t o c o n f u s e i t w i t h t h e Supreme

God t h e y w a n t e d t o i n t r o c l u c c t o the ' p a g a n s 1 . They

NEKE a n d w h e r e v e r t h e y saw God ( J c h o v a ,

+ ELOHIM) i n t h e Hebrew t e x t , t h e y t r m s l a t e d i t CHINEKE - meaning Crea to r -God .

The N o r k h - e a s t e r n and C r o s s - R i v c r I g b o s u b - c u l t u r e

a r e a s c a l l t h e Supreme God O b a s i - d i - n l e l u . H e i s n o t

c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e O r a c u l a r D e i t y o f t h e A r ? . D r . F. I.

E k e j i u b a h a s s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e i s belief i n ?bas:-di-n'elu -

- t h e High God, t h o u g h n o t c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e CHUKLJU o f

t h e O r a c l e , IV Obasi -dl -n ' e l u means God Above ref e r r i n g 0 .

t o h i s e l e v a t e d s t a t u s a n d m i g h t , Obasi i s p r o b a b l y a n

a d u l t e r a t i o n o f t h e EEik name f o r God, t h e Supreme God,

R b a s i Ibom. The c l o s e c u l t u r a l a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n

t h c I q b o i n the:;e ti!^ s u b - c u 1 t u r ; i l a r e a s and t h e i r E f i k

n c i g h b o u r s m i g h t h ~ v e i n f l u c n c z d t h e t b o r r o w i n g s t of names.

The Nsukk,? I g b o i n t h e n o r t h , lwho carnr_. u n d e r t h e

i n f l u e n c e o f t h e 1 9 - l a , c 2 l l God ZLECIHITOKE, L i t e r a l l y

t h o aamc means " t h e King of s p i r i t s and C r e a t i o n u ,

The f u l l name i s EZECMITOKUKE, The word ' t e f i n Nsukka - dS!,alcct means P g n a q P ( a n d ) , E x c e p t i n r e c e n t - p a s t , t h e - e l d e r s i n Nsukkfi d i d n o t u s 2 t h e name C H I N C K L a s was

t h e c a s e i n t h c S o u t h - l q h o a r e a o r O w e r r i , However,

a n i n f o r r n m t , :\t?rn;7 Ugwuj-1, n p r i e s t of Ezcucjwu D e i t y

a t Obirno Nsu-:ka, c P ' r w d tl.17 t t h c y hati u s ~1 t h e name

CHUKWU f o r God f o r a l o n i t i l l ] , i n t h ? p a s t , b o t h i n - r i t u a l o f f e r i n g s and i n o r d i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n .

s u b - c u l t u r e a r e , l s , h c i s b e l i l : v c d t o be u n i q u e i n a l l

p e s p e c t , T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n th t : s e v e r a l p r a i s e

names b y w h i c h p c o p l c k n o : ~ God, Such names i n c l u d e

Q k p a k a o r u rnba, ( O r a i f i t e , N , W , I g b o ) - h e who p o i n t s - - -

f r o m a n y s p o t a n d i t stretches t o a n y p a r t o f t h e

w o r l d , Amarnn amacha amachn ( O w c r r i , S o u t h - I g b o a r e a ) - n o t

known y c t L f u l l y c o m p r e h e n d e d ; Onye n 9 n f e l u 9 9 9 d 9 y a

na-akp; n a l a ( A l a y i , Bende, Okoko and A k a r a ) , Anya P

ukwu n a - e l u z u vwa ( I su -ama s u b g r o u p ) - o n e b i g e y e t h a t ---.Ic

sees t h e w h o l c w o r l d - O b i b i e o k w n c h i e - ( I k w o ,

wmek?, N o r t h - e a s t ) a f i e r c e d e s t r o y e r a n d r e p a i r e r ,

I k p o Nkpume ( U d i , Ukehe, E z e a g u , ~ i k e ) - a g r e a t h e a p -v'

o f s t o n 2 - t h e f U n s u r m o u n t a b l e P ; Eze-Iqwe (Awgu, Maku,

I s u o c h i ) - t h e G r c ' 7 . t King of Heaven, T h e s e and o t h e r

s i m i l w t i t les a n d p r , a i s c - n m e s r c f l c c t t h e e x p e r i e n c e s ,

e c o l o g y a n d h i s t o r y o f c a c h a r e a w h e r e t h e y a re u s e d ,

I n c i d e n t a l l y , c o n t a c t s i n r e c e n t t i m e h a v e f a c i l i t a t c d

d i f f u s i o n o f t h c t i t l z s f r o m on? a r e a t o t h e o t h e r ,

I t i s ;im?zinq c h i t d e s p i t e t h e r u s h f o r c h i e f t a i n c y

t i t l e s i n m m y p x t s O F I g b o 1 7 n d i n r e c e n t y e a r s , n o o n e

h a s c l a i m e d a n y t i t l e w i t h w h i c h peopl t? know a n d a d d r e s s

God, T h e title I G W ' ( s k y ) i s n o t u s e d f o r t h e S u p r e m e

B e i n g . P c o p l z r a t h e r b e a r t h c o p h o r o u s names e i t h e r t o

e x p r e s s a n a t t r i b u t e of God or t o d c s c r i b c t h e c i r cu rn - b

s t a n c e s u r r o u n d i n y t h e b i r t h of a p c r s o n . S u c h names may

i n d i c a t e p r a i s e , t r u s t a n d t h a n k s t o God i n s t e a d o f

s h o n o u r s t o t h e b e a r e r s - f o r i n s t a n c e , Chukwuma, (God

k n o w s , i n d i c a t i n g h i s o m n i s c e n c e ) , Chukwuka, (God i s

g r e a t e r t h m a l l t h i n g s ) . H e i s Chukwu-Abiarna - t h e

G r e a t P r o v i d ? n c e , S u p p l i e r of a 1 1 g o o d t h i n g s . T h e s e

names p r i n c i p a l l y p o i n t t o t h e I g b o b e l i e f i n t h e

S u p r e m e B e i n g ,

( b ) A t t r i h u t c s of n o C o n c e p t

A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o s y s t t ? m ? t i c t h e o l o g i c a l

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f God y e t i n a n y o f t h < ? s u h - c u l t u r e a reas ,

we s h a l l p r e s \ : n t h(:rt+ 7 s y n t h z s i s o f t h ~ c o n c e p t s g l e a n e d

f r o m t h e v a r i o u s s u b - g r o u p s .

CHUKWU i s u n i q u e , None c o m p a r e s w i t h him i n any

r e s p e c t . No c r e a t u r e i n I g b o m y t h o l o g y h a s e v e r

c h a l l e n g e d t h s s u p r e m a c y o f God. H e o c c u p i e s a u n i q u e

p o s i t i o n i n t h e I g b o wor ld -v iew w h e r e h e d w e l l s i n h i s

e l e v a t e d a n d l o f t y a b o d e - t h e Sky - d e p i c t i n g a p l a c e

of h o n o u r , s t a t u s and p u r i t y . H e i s n o t u n d e r s t o o d a s a

" w i t h d r a w n Godq1 - as some f o r e i g n o b s e r v e r s had ea r l i e r

m i s i n t e r p r e t e d f r o m on2 o f t h o s e m y t h s t h a t t e a c h G o d ' s

e l e v a t e d p o s i t i o n f r o m t h c common a n d o r d i n a r y , The

myth h a s i t s many v c r s i o n s b u t o n e i s cBmmon i n t h e

S o u t h and N o r t h - e a s t s u b - c u l t u r z a r e a s , It s t a t e s t h a t

God l i v e d c l o s e t o men i n t h e d i s t a n t p a s t a f t e r h e h a d

c r e a t e d t h e w o r l d , H e suppli t :d a l l t h a t men n e e d e d .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , o n e g r e e d y woman w e n t b a c k t o Chukwu w i t h - ~ w a s h e d h a n d s a f t e r s h c ~ had had a me31 o f t lpounded yams',

God i n a n n o y m c e w e n t u p h i y h c r t h a n t h e r e a c h o f human

h a n d s , T h i s v e r s i o n i s c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h e Isu-ama s u b -

g r o u p i n t h c S o u t h ~ j n d Ikwo i n t h e N o r t h - e a s t .

A t E z i h e , Amaigbo, O l o k o r o , O w e r r i n t a , ( a l l i n t h e

S o u t h - I g b o s u b - c u l t u r c a r e a ) , i t i s n l a z y woman who

r e t u r n c ? d h t e f r o m m a r k e t a n d p r e p a r e d l l t e m e a l s d a i l y

b h a t c a u s e d G o d v s movcmcnt u p w a r d s , The woman w o u l d

pound h e r f o o d w i t h h e r p e s t l e i n s u c h a way t h a t e a c h

t i m e s h e l i f t e d i t u p , i t w o u l d s t r i k e t h e ' S k y ' w h i c h

wns w i t h i n t h e r e a c h of human h a n d s , S u c h c o n s t a n t

d i s t u r b a n c e rnadc Chukwu move h i s a b o d e h i g h e r t h a n human

h a n d s c o u l d t o u c h , ( S ~ L pages 162ffo f o r d e t a i l s on myths3,

A t Mbawsi, ( S o u t h I g b o ) , I m i l i k c n u , Eha-Arnufu, N i k e

( N o r t h ) , i t was 7 w o m m who l o s t h e r o n l y s o n and con-

t i n u e d c r y i n g a 1 1 t h r o u g h t h e n i g h t t h a t made God move

up. S i m i l r 2 r l y , i t i s b e l i e v e d i n t h e Nor th -wes t I g b o

are(a, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t U l i t h a t p e o p l e a b u s e d G o d ' s

p r o x i m i t y and b r o u g h t t o him a l l sor ts o f c o m p l a i n t s .

The c o n s t a n t d i s t u r b a n c e made God movc'up t o e s c a p e from

t h e menace o f human c r e a t u r e s .

From t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e m y t h s , i t i s g a t h e r e d t h a t

t h e new d i s t a n c e o f God from man i s u n d e r s t o o d i n terms

o f m o r a l i t y , g r e a t n e s s a n d power , b u t n o t i n terms o f

p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p and care f o r man, H e l i v e s a b o v e ,

y e t h e i s immanent and c o u l d be a p p e a l e d t o a t a n y moment

and foresees a l l t h a t h a p p e n i n t h e U n i v e r s e .

C h u k w u f s u n i q u e n e s s i s o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s why t h e r e

a r e n o i m a g 2 s - g r a v e n or i n d r a w i n g or i n p a i n t i n g - o f

him i n m y o f thi2 s u b - c u l t u r c a r e a s , T h i s u n i q u e n e s s i s

a l s o expressed i n some of t h c p r a i s e namcs w h i c h w e h a v e

e a r l i e r on d i s c u s s e d . B ~ c a u s z God i s u n i q u e , h e i s b o t h

t r n n s c z n d e n t a l and immanent, known y z t i n c o m p r e h c n s i b l e ,

The u n i q u e n e s s of God i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n h i s

u n i v e r s a l i t y . H e i s t h e ODEZULIGBO ( ~ o r t h - w e s t I g b o ) , O D E N I G B O ( N o r t h and S o u t h I g b o ) - o n e whose fame s p r e a d s

t h r o u g h o u t I g b o l a n d - i m p l y i n g t h e w h o l e w o r l d . The

w h o l e w o r l d i n I g b o c o n c e p t i s c i r c u m s c r i b e d w i t h i n t h e

c o n f i n c s of h e r t e r r i t o r y .

Chukwu i s u n d e r s t o o d as t h e Cre:.ltive Power , t h e

D i v i n e E s s e n c e 2nd o r i g i n o f a l l t h c t ? x i s t , Hencc t h i s

i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e work O K I K E ( O K U K E ) - f C r c 7 t i o n f

a p p e n d e d t o h i s nqmc i n t h e S o u t h a n d b ~ o r t h I g b o sub-

culture a r e a s of O w e r r i and Nsukk;? r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Some a t t e m p t s h ~ v e b e e n made t o c l a s s i f y t h e

' b e i n g s f i n t h e S p i r i t World w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o

t h c i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e Supreme B e i n g , M. 4.

Onwujeogwu s t a t e s t h a t Chukwu m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f a s t h e

a u t h o r o f L i g h t Knowledge (Anyanw;), a u t h o r of

f e r t i l i t y ( k j b a l a ) , a u t h o r of p r o d u c t i v i t y ( C h i ) ,., t h e -.I

a u t h o r who c r e a t e d A l y s i , t h e i n t r u d e r i n t o t h s l i f e o f

t h e o t h e r b e i n g s i n t h c w o r l d , Vwa .,, l2 T h i s i s i n a - way s t a t i n g t h . ? t Chukwu i s t h e S o u r c e o f a l l t h a t e x i s t ,

i n t h e s k y , w o r l d and u n d e r w o r l d , A l t h o u g h I g b o m y t h s

c a n i n n o way claim t o give a c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

c o n c e p t o f t h c w o r l d , t h c y c a t e g o r i c a l l y s t a t e t h a t God,

( t h e Supreme B e i n g ) , i s t h e F i r s t C a u s e of a l l , i n c l u d i n g

t h e d e i t i e s , They t e l l u s sornc2thinq a b o u t God h i m s e l f

b u t n o t v e r y much, as t h e r c i s n o a t t e m p t t o assert o r

d e f e n d h i s e x i s t c 2 n c c . 13

(c) I g b o I d e a s o f God: O r i q i n a l or a New Deve lopment?

Nany writers on I g h o r e l i g i o n h a v e e x p r e s s e d d o u b t s

as t o t h e p e r i o d o f I g b o clcsr c o n c e p t o f t h e Supreme

B e i n g , Some h a v e a f f i r m e d th i3 t t h s b z l i e f i s n o t o r i g i n a l

t o t h e I g b o b u t =i 1 a t z d e v c l o p m e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m

r n i s ~ i o n ~ x y and o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o n t a c t s , Is t h e n t h e +

Supreme B e i n g Chukwu ( C h i n e k e , O l i s a , Osebu luwa o r

Q b a s i - d i - n ' c l u ) a s t r a n g e r t o t h e I g b o p a n t h e o n ?

M a r g a r e t M. G r e e n , who worked i n t h e N o r t h s u b -

c u l t u r e I g b o a r e a i n t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s h a s c o n f e s s e d t h a t "if

t h e r e i s a n y o t h e r c o n c e p t i o n o f a U n i v e r s a l CHI, among

t h e ~ g b o " , ~ ~ s h e c o u l d n o t t e s t i f y t o t h a t . On t h e

c o n t r a r y , C, K, Meek, a n o t h e r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t who worked

e a r l i e r t h a n G r e e n was q b l e t o d i s c o v e r some g r o u n d s f o r

I g b o b e l i e f i n t h e Supreme B e i n g , He c l a i m e d t o h a v e

f o u n d t h e c u l t o f God i n some p a r t s o f Nsukka, Q k p a t y ,

Awgu, Mgbowo ( N o r t h I g b o a r e a ) and A f i k p o , Ezza ( N o r t h -

e a s t I g b o ) . S p e a k i n q s p c : c i f i c a l l y a b o u t Nsukka, Meek

s t a t e d t h a t t h e i d e a o f t h z Suprzmc l3eing i s t o o d e e p l y

e n t a n g l e d i n t h e w~3b of thk3 s u p c r n a t u r n l w o r l d t o be

r e g a r d e d a s a r s s u l t of a d d i t i o n t o it." 15

N o o n e has come w i t h a d e f i n i t c k n o w l e d g e o f t h e

time when t h e c o n c e p t of t h e S u p r c m e B e i n g became clear

t o t h e I g b o i n t h e v a r i o u s s u b - c u l t u r e a r e n s , T h e r e are

t h e o p h o r o u s namds w h i c h d a t e f a r b - ~ c k i n t o t h e h i s t o r y

o f t h e p l a c e s ( w h e r e t h e y e x i s t ) b e f o r e t h s i r ea r l i es t

c o n t a c t s w i t h C h r i s t i a n or o t h e r E u r o p e a n v i s i t o r s were

made. S u c h names i n c l u d e :

Nwachukwu - -

Chukwueke -

Chukwukere - Iwuchukwu - - - -

O b a s i - - N w o l i s a o

N e b o l i s a - -

G o d ' s s o n ( s o u t h , N o r t h - e a s t a n d C r o s s - R i v z r I g b o a r e a s ) ;

God i s C r e a t o r ( O k i g w c , O w c r r i , Egbu i n t h e S o u t h I g b o a r e a ) ;

God i s t h e C r c ~ t o r - ( I s u - a m 3 s u b - g r o u p o f t h e S o u t h ) ;

t h e Law o f Cod - ( I k e d u r u , O r l u , M g b i d i , . O q u t a , O h a j i i n t h e S o u t h , Ikwo, , \ b a k a l i k i N o r t h - e a s t ) ;

G o d ' s c h i l d , ( ~ o r t h - w e s t I g b o ) ;

Look on God ( ~ o r t h - w e s t 1 g b 0 ) ~

T h e r e i s n o s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t o show t h a t i t w a s

o n l y a f t e r c o n t n c t w i t h r n i s s i o n v i z s t h q t t h e s e a n d

s i m i l a r o t h e r nxmes cmc i n t o u s e , On t h e c o n t r a r y ,

two o r a l evidences collected f r o m t h c N o r t h - w e s t a n d t h e

Isu-arnn s u b - g r o u p o f t h e S o u t h I g b o c u l t u r e - a r e a s p o i n t

t o a n a g e - l o n g b e l i z f i n Chukwu. C h i e f N i c h o l a s A l u z i w e - Chukwukere i n a d i s c u s s i o n t r a c e d t h e gcne r lbaogy o f h i s

f > m i l y up t o a s e v e n t h g c n c r a t i o n , m e n t i o n i n g c o n f i d e n t l y

h i s a n c e s t o r s w i t h t h e o p h o r o u s n l m e s who d i e d l o n g before

m i s s i o n , ~ r y h i s t o r y i n t h e a r e a , S i m i l a r l y J. A r i n z e of

Igboukwu w a s ;ibl,: t o mt ln t ion some s i x g e n e r a t i o n s o f

h i s a n c e s t o r s who had t h e o p h o r o u s names. H e g a v e names

o f some k i n d r c d s whose f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s had t h e o p h o r o u s

nnrncs,

An i m p o r t m t c z r l y w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e o f t h e I g b o

b e l i e f i n Chukwu i s f r o m J, F, Schon and C r o w t h e r t s

j o u r n a l . They r e c o r d e d t h < ? t : +

I t t h e I g b o are , . . a r e l i g i o u s p e o p l e . The word ' T s u k u t - God, i s c o n t i n u a l l y h e x d . Tsuku i s s u p p o s e d t o d o e v e r y t h i n g ,. . The n o t i o n s o f some o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e Supreme Be ing are i n many r e s p e c t s c n r r o c t . . . Some of t h e i r p a r a b l e s arel6 d e s c r i p t i v e of t h e p e r c e p t i o n of God.9t

It i s l i k e l y t h a t n o s e c t i o n o f t h e I g b o s o c i e t y

r e a l l y g r a s p e d i n t i m e n clear k n o w l e d g e o f t h e f o r m

and n a t u r e o f Chukwu. Some h a v e a r g u z d t h a t f r o m t h e

p o i n t o f v i e w o f e t h n o g r a p h y , Chukwu ( Q b ~ s i - d i - n f e l u , o r

E z e c h i t o k e ) m i g h t n o t h a v c b w n o r i g i n 2 1 w i t h t h e I g b o .

I t m i g h t h a v e b c z n bor rowed ( o r i s a h y b r i d name) t h r o u g h

c o n t a c t s p o s s i b l y d l t i n g beyond c a r l y m i g r ~ t i o n s which

p r e c e d e d m i s s i o n a r y c m d c o l o n i 3 l enterprises.

I f Chukwu o r C h i n e k e is ~ n - i l y s c d , o n e g e t s s o m e t h i n g - l i k e : CHI-UKIdU, t h ~ G r 2 ; l t CI-11. t h e G r e . i t S p i r i t , I n

t h e m i s s i o n x y t r , m s l ~ t o r s c i t h c r d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d or

undc.rpl ; lyed, - E k e sc:?ms t o be i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p r e f i x

C h i " Bu t t h e t r a n s l a t o r s o f t h e Union I g b o B i b l e t o o k - I n a t t o mean 'whof - a r c l - i t i v e p r o n o u n a n d made Eke a - - v e r b ( t o c rea te ) , To them t h i s s u i t e d t h e t h e o l o g y o f a

C r e a t o r God o f t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r of G e n e s i s , The word

' n a f - - and - if u s e d a s a c o n j u n c t i o n , c o u l d h a v e made

t h e name - C H I n a E k e two i n d e p e n d e n t d e i t i e s , ( n o n e of

w h i c h i s s u p r e m e ) . ' N a p c o u l d a l s o be an a u x i l i a r y v e r b - h e l p i n g e k e ( n a - e k e ) - meaning t o c r e a t e . - l7 ~ f ( n a p i s - a c c e p t e d a s a c o n j u n c t i o n , t h e name C h i n e k e c o u l d be two

w o r d s s t a n d i n g f o r o n e s i n g l e t h i n g . I t w i l l f a l l i n

l i n e w i t h many o t h e r I g b o w o r d s w h i c h i n d i c a t e t h e I g b o

c o n c e p t s of i n ~ e p a r ~ a b l e d u a l i t y e , g ,

Oha-na-eze - crowd

Okwu-na-yka - t r o u b l e

Aku-na-vba - w e a l t h

Ntq-na-Imoroko - e v e r y t h i n g ,

E k e c o u l d be a n o t h e r god l i k c C h i as f t i s of t e n - - u s e d i n t e r ~ h ~ a n g e a b l y i n many I g b o nqmes:

Chi-Qma - Eke- ma - L e b e c h i - Onycbuch i - Onyebueke -

Chinwuba - - - Eke j i y b a (Ekewuba)

C h i m e z i e - - - Ekernezie.

B e s i d e s , i n t h e 1-u-am2 s u b - g r o u p o f t h e S o u t h , Eke,

C h i and vwa-:ma a r e t h r z c d i f f e r e n t d e i t i e s f o r a woman, - S h e e s t n b l i s h e s d i f f e r e n t s h r i n e s f o r them a t t h e back

o f h e r h o u s e . The eke-names o c c u r more i n t h e S o u t h a n d -- C r o s s - R i v e r I g b o s u b - c u l t u r e a r e a s w h i l e t h e Chi v e r s i o n

o c c u r s more i n t h e N o r t h and North-wcst I g b o l a n d ,

C h i c o u l d bc a g e n e r i c name f o r God o r S p i r i t , a - root f r o m w h i c h o t h e r a t t r i b u t e s d e v e l o p e d , , I t g o e s

w i t h r7. c o n n o t a t i o n o f an o v e r f l o w i n g f u l l n e s s , t h e main

S o u r c e and e s s e n c e o f b e i n g . The w o r d s t h a t f o l l o w

C h i e.g. ukwu seemed t o h a v e b e e n added t o t h e o r i g i n a l - s p i r i t t o g i v e an e n h a n c e d s t a t u s t o t h e d e i t y which t h e

I g b o came t o u n d e r s t a n d a f t e r t h e i r c o n t a c t w i t h

m i s s i o n a r i e s , T h i s t h e r e f o r e makes C H U K W U , a f u s i o n o f

CHI and Ukwu - ( s p i r i t a n d g r e a t ) - h e n c e t h e name - - G r e a t S p i r i t , Ukwu h a s g o t a n o t h e r s u b t l e mean ing - a -

l8 bund- le , t h a t w h i c h c o n t a i n s ( d e p e n d i n g on t h e a c c e n t s

o n t h e t o n e ) , T h i s i s t h e s t a n d o f t h o s e who see t h e

I g b o c o n c e p t o f t h e Supreme B e i n g a s a l a t c i n t r o d u c t i o n

i n t o I g b o b e l i e f s y s t e m , T h i s ide?. i s u n a c c e p t a b l e t o

t h i s t h e s i s b e c $ a u s c i t s o u n d s t o o s p e c u l a t i v e and h a s n o

s t r o n g e t h n o g r a p h i c b a s i s . H e s i d e s t h e argumzn t i s

b a s e d o n l y on t h e Chukwu a n d C h i n ~ k e , w i t h o u t s a y i n g -I-

a n y t h i n g on t h e o t h e r names of God i n I g b o l a n d - Osebu luwa , and $ ) b a s t - d q - n ' e l u w h i c h h a v e n o - c h i r oo t

a n d c o n n o t a t i o n ,

( d ) God i n I q b o Myths

Wc w a n t t o sum u p t h k a r g u m e n t on t h e I g b o belief

i n God w i t h e v i d e n c e from m y t h s ,

S i m p l y p u t , m y t h s a r e s tor ies a b o u t g o d s . They

a r e d i f f e r e n t from f o l k - l o r e ( a k ~ k ~ i f 0 1 - which, a r e t o l d

f o r e n t e r t a i n m e n t d u r i n g m o o n l i g h t p l a y s , They a r e a l s o

d i f f e r e n t f r o m l e g e n d s - a k ~ k 9 g b o o - w h i c h are c o n c e r n e d

w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f t h c d i s t a n t p a s t , Myths - A k y k ~ maka

o m e n a l a - a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h s a c r e d h i s t o r y . Myths a r e

d e s c r i b e d i n p r e l i t e r a t e socie t ies as a ' p r a g m a t i c

c h a r t e r f o r p r i m i t i v e f a i t h a n d m o r a l wisdom.' 20 They ,

t h e r e f o r e , f o r m a p e o p l e ' s t r a d i t i o n w h i c h i s handed

down f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r , They a r e t h e

a n c e s t r a l h e r i t a g e o f a p e o p l e w h i c h c a n h a r d l y be

b o r r o w e d . S i m i l a r l y , t h c v a l u e o f m y t h s h a s b e e n p o i n t e d

o u t b y Baumann a s an e s e e n t i a l a i d t o u n d e r s t a n d a p e o p l e ,

To him a myth i s t h e " o b j e c t i v e and p e r m a n e n t p h i l o s o p h y

of l i fe i ' of a n y g i v e n p e o p l e , 21

h d m i t t c c l l y , t h c I g b o l a c k a s y s t e m a t i c d o c t r i n e

o n t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e Supreme Be ing a n d t h a t o f t h e

U n i v e r s e , They, howc:vcr, h'xve m y t h s w h i c h l e n d

c r e d e n c e t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i n q s , Two m y t h s f r o m

two d i f f e r e n t s u b - c u l t u r c a r e a s w i l l now b e u s e d to

i l l u s t r a t e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r?:al i t ies o f I g b o b e l i e f ,

c u l t u r e anc? e x p e r i e n c e o

Chukwu a n d t h c N r i P e o p l c : - - - The Nri T r a d i t i o n s o f O r i g i n c i r c u l a t e i n t h e N o r t h

a n d N o r t h Wcst I g b o l a n d , N r i i s b e l i e v e d to be t h e

c r a d l e of I g b o c i v i l i z a t i o n . The I V r i t r a d i t i o n asserts

t h a t when E r i came down f r o m t h e s k y , h e s a t o n a n a n t -

h i l l as t h e l a n d w a s a morass o r w a t e r l o g g e d - ( a l a d i

d e k e d e k e ) , H e was s e n t down w i t h h i s w i f e Narnualcy.

F o l l o w i n g E r i s c o m p l a i n t Chukwu smt down a n ''~wka -- b l a c k s m i t h who u s e d h i s f i e r y b e l l o w t o d r y t h e e a r t h .

W h i l e E r i was a l i v e , h e a n d h i s d e p e n d a n t s w e r e f e d b y

Chulcwu. They were f e d o n Azu-Igwe ( a t y p e o f f i s h f r o m -.-A&.-

t h e s k y ) , The f o o d s u p p l y f r o m Chukwu was t e r m i n a t e d

o n t h e d e a t h o f E r i , Then N r i , t h ~ fir: ;-t s o n o f E r i

p e t i t i o n e d Chukwu a b o u t t h d s i t u a t i o n , Y.2 was i n s t r u c t e d ,---. -

t o k i l l a n d b u r y h i s s o n :ind d s u g h t [ ; r , N r i c o m p l i e d w i t h

( t w e l v e d(>ys 1, yam c ~ ~ r o u t x l f rom t h s o n ' s g r a v e a n d

cocoyam from t h e d a u g h t e r ' s g r a v e , I t was a f t e r N r i

and h i s p c o p l c had e a t e n t h e yam a n d cocoyarn t h a t t h e y

were d b l t ? t o s l e e p f o r t h c f i r s t t i m c ,

L a t e r , N r i k i l l c d o n ( > o: h i s malp s l a v e s a n d a

femalr: s l n v c and b u r i 2 d th im i n separate- g r a v e s , From

t h e m a l e , s p r o u t c d t h e o i l pa lm inkwy) w h i l e a b r e a d - .--

f r u i t t rcc ( y k w a ) s p r o u t e d f r o m th ,> q r ? v e o f t h e - -*-- f e m a l e s l ave ,

N r i and h i s p.20plL4 p r o s p e r ~ . t l bibc-uze c f th.: new

food s u p p l y . ~-le wss o r d e r e d s g a i n by Chukwu t o d i s t r i -

b u t e t h e new f o o d items t o a l l m m k i n d , N r i o b j e c t e d ,

a r g u i n g t h a t h t hcid p a i d d e a r l y f o r thcrn, L v e n t u a l l y

a n a c c o r d was r e a c h e d , F o r a q r z c i n ~ t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e

f o o d items, Chukwu g a v e N r i s e v e r 2 1 r i q h t s o v e r h i s

n e i g h b o u r s - H e was t o -. c l e a n s e e v e r y town o f a n y

a b o m i n a t i o n c o m m i t t e d i n i t , t o t i e t h e 'Nqwulul - a n k l e

c o r d s o n men who t o o k Qzg t i t l e s ; to c rown k i n g s a t - A g u l e r i , I n a d d i t i o n , h e a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r s r e c e i v e d

t h e Q g w ~ J i ( m e d i c i n e f o r yam) i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e a W

r i c h s u p p l y o f yams e v e r y y e a r i n a l l t h e s u r r o u n d i n g

t o w n s - i n c l u d i n g a l l t o w n s t h a t s u b j e c t e d t h e m s e l v e s

to t h e E z e - N r i . F o r t h e s e s e r v i c e s , t h e Umunri

( c h i l d r e n o f N r i ) r e c e i v e d t r i b u t e f r o m t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g

towns. B e s i d e s , t h e y t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d

cocoyarn f rom t h e d a u g h t e r t s g r a v e , I t was a f t e r N r i

and h i s p c o p l r had e a t e n t h e yam and cocoyam t h a t t h e y

were ilble t o s l e e p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e o

L a t e r , N r i k i l l e d on(> o f h i s m a l e s l a v e s and a

f e m a l ~ s l a v e and b u r i e d t h ~ n i i n s c p a r a t c ? grfivcis, From

t h e ma le , s p r o u t e d t h e o i l palm (nkwv) w h i l e a b r e a d - -.-

N r i and h i s p , ~ o p l , . p rospcrcc l ~ ~ C F U C E I o L t h f - new

f o o d s u p p l y , ijc w , 3 s o r d e r e d a g a i n by Chukwu t o d i s t r i - 4

b u t e t h e ncw f o o d i tems t o a 1 1 mankind, N r i o b j e c t e d ,

a r g u i n g t h a t hc had p a i d d c a r l y f o r them, E v e n t u a l l y

an a c c o r d was r e a c h e d , Fo r a q r z e i n y t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e

f o o d items, Chukwu g a v c N r i s c v e r s l r i g h t s o v c r h i s

n e i g h b o u r s - H e was t o c l e a n s e e v e r y town o f a n y "- a b o m i n a t i o n commi t t ed i n i t , t o t i e the 'Nqwulu' - a n k l e

c o r d s on men who t o o k Gzp t i t l e s ; t o crown k i n g s a t - A g u l e r i . I n a d d i t i o n , h e and h i s s u c c e s s o r s r e c e i v e d

t h e Qgwy J i ( m e d i c i n e f o r yam) i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e a

r i c h s u p p l y o f yams e v e r y y e a r i n a l l t h e s u r r o u n d i n g

towns - i n c l u d i n g a l l towns t h a t s u b j e c t e d t h e m s e l v e s

t o t h e Eze--Nri, Fo r t h e s e s e r v i c e s , t h e Umunri

( c h i l d r e n o f N r i ) r e c e i v e d t r i b u t e f r om t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g

towns. B e s i d e s , t h e y t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e wor ld

(ice. I q b o known w o r l d t h e n ) u n m o l e s t e d and became

p u r v e y o r s of c u l t s , c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d c raf ts ,

The I g b o i d e a o f God's c l o s e n e s s t o man a s s e e n

i n t h i s N r i m y t h i s a l so t r u e i n a n o t h e r m y t h f r o m t h e

S o u t h I g b o s u b - c u l t u r e area.

Z0-h of W i t h d r a w a l -- ( f r o m t h e I su-ama s u b - q r o u p ) :

I n t h e Isu-iima sub -g r o u p o f t h c S o u t h - I g b o l a n d , t h e

N r i m y t 3 i s n o t g i v ? n a n y p l a c e of promincncc . , They

r a t h e r t e l l o f how m?n l o s t h i s p r i v j l e g c o T c l o s e

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o God, W c h z v e a l r j e a d y m e n t i o n e d t h i s

i n p a s s i n ( j , Chukwu w i t h d r e w h i s h e s v e n from t h e r e a c h --- af s i n f u l man, O _ " i g i n a l l y , t h c Sky - - IGWE - w a s v e r y

close t o % - t h e e a r t h . Man c o u l d d r a w h i s food f r o m

h e a v e n w i t h o u t l a , J o u r , b e c a u s e Chulcwu w a s b e n e v o l e n t -- a n d h a d e n o u g h i n t h e s k y o ,a u n f o r t u n a t e i n c i d e n t

h a p p e n e d one d a y , A g r e e d y woman w i t h u n w a s h e d h a n d s ,

t o u c h e d t h e f a c e o f t h e ' w h i t e - s k y 1 a f t e r s h e h a d e a t e n

a m e a l of "pounded yamu. T h i s a c t a m o u n t e d t o t h e p r o -

f a n a t i o n o f t h e ' p u r e ' , f s p o t l e s s l a n d t h e ' s ac red ' ,

God i n a n n o y a n c e , p u l l e d u p t h e s k y ( w h e r e h e l i v e d )

from t h e r e a c h of s i n f u l man i n o r d e r t o a v o i d f u t u r e

s o i l i n g o f t h e h e a v e n ,

Many v e r s i o n s o f t h e s e m y t h s a b o u n d , b u t t h e i r

i m p l i c a t i o n s a re o b v i o u s , First , Chukwu w a s r e s p o n s i b l e

for man's o r i g i n a l h a b i t a t i o n on earth, The I g b o

a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Chukwu d i d n o t w a i t t i l l C h r i s t i a n i t y

a r r i v e d . Chukwu and man u s e d to h a v e d i a l o g u e a s a

mark o f d i v i n e b e n e v o l c n c ~ ~ ~ Y e t t h i s f r e e d o m i s l i a b l e

to a b u s e , C a d ' s new d i s t a n c c f r o m t h e r e a c h o f man i s

m o r a l and n o t p e r s o n a l ,

I t i s a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t b e l i e f i n a Supreme

Being i s a f e a t u r e o f I g b o r e l i d i o n f o u n d i n t h e v a r i o u s

s u b - c u l t u r e a r e a s . I n a p u r e l y r e l i g i o u s s e n s e , w o r s h i p

i s a r e s p o n s e o f r e s p e c t and h o n o u r to s p i r i t b e i n g s ,

T h r e e k e y w o r d s t r a n s l a t e t h e term ' w o r s h i p t i n

I g b o r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t s . They a r e ' O f u f e ' , ;g?-Mm;?

a n d ' N s e k p u l u t o The f i r s t i m p l i e s r e v e r e n c e , r e s p e c t

and a l s o a man ' s a t t i t u d e t o a d e i t y , o r an a n c e s t o r .

The P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s t r a n s l a t e d t h e ~ h r i s t i a n

r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e i n I g b o a s : 'Ofufe-Nruu - n r u mean ing - 9

homage, t h u s making ' w o r s h i p t a s e r v i c e o f homage.

t 0 f u f e t i n i t s e l f i n v o l v e s l a b o u r , o r s e r v i c e r e n d e r e d U_U_

o b l i g a t o r i l y t o a s e n i c r , b e n e f ~ ~ c t o r o r a n o v e r l o r d ,

' Zgg-P'Bny~ ' ( g g g - ~ r n a a i n Nsukka, N o r t h - e a s t a r e a ) >

i s e x c l u s i v c l y u s e d f o r a m a n s s a t t i t u d e t o t h e S p i r i t s

a n d o t h e r non-human f o r c e s , It i n v o l v e s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e

of d e v o t i o n a l acts i n h o n o u r o f a d e i t y o r de i t ies . 2 2

I t m e a n s t o V u r r y f a v o u r i s o f t h e s p i r i t s , !'to p l a c a t e

t h e s p i r i t s i ' o r t o a s se r t o n e ' s i n n o c e n c e ( I g g - a g ~ g ? 1.

T h e N o r t h - w s s t I y b o a rea of O g i d i , Obosi, O n i t s h a a n d

o t h e r s d e s c r i b e t h e v o t a r i e s o f i ~ f r i c a n r e l i g i o n as

' N d i - g g p M m ~ ~ ~ ' - t h o s e who ' w o r s h i p 1 t h c S p i r i t s . - The term ~,"SISUJ~ i s p e c u l i a r t o t h e N o r t h - w e s t

I g b o a r e a of O n i t s h ? , , a n d h c r n c i g h b o u r s , it i n v o l v e s

' b o w i n g down l , g e n u f l c c t i n g and p r n s t r a t i n q h c f o r c a n

e f f i g y o f :: d e i t y o r b e f o r e :?t s h r i w , I t i s r a r e f o r

a n I g b o t o p r o s t r a t e b i ~ f o r e c. f e l l o w man, I f a n y human

b e i n g t r ies t o make a n u n n e c c s s c l r y show o i p o w e r , w e a l t h

o r o p p o r t u n i t y , h c i s u s u a l l y c h s . l l e n g e d w i t h a q u e s t i o n :

ga e s e k p u l u g i , $ b~ ~ h u k w ' u ? ' ~ - Must w e p r o s t r a t e

b e f o r e y o u , are you God? A s i m i l a r q u e s t i o n i s , $ c h g r ~

k a a n y $ kp:? i s i a l a n y e g i ? - Do you w a n t u s t o bow - down b e f o r e you? i m p l y i n g , d o you w a n t u s t o w o r s h i p you?

lit times, p e o p l e a r e h e a r d u s i n g t h e s e w o r d s i n

p u r e l y l s e c u l a r ' way w i t h o u t a t t a c h i n g a n y r e l i g i o u s

m e a n i n g t o t hem, I n p u r e l y r e l i g i o u s s e n s e , t h e y are

r e s e r v e d f o r s p e c i f i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n of acts of h u m i l i t y ,

d e p e n d e n c e , a d m i r a t i o n , t h a n k s a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f

k i n d n e s s received.

I n t h e l i g h t of t h c F o r e g o i n g , i s t h e I g b o Supreme

God w o r s h i p p e d ? I f s o , t o wh<at e x t e n t ? G, To Basden

h a s r e m a r k c d t h a t ma l thouqh t h c r e i s 2 universal b e l i e f

i n a Suprcmc Being and .,, tlw e f f e c t o f s u c h a be l ief

i s negligible. I t i s p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l and h a s n o

marked influence %on l i f e a.nd character of^ 2 3 But

N , W, Thomas who wrot: e a r l i e r t h a n B ~ s d e n d e s c r i b e d t h e

c o l o n i a l I'iwka D i v i s i o n a s a p l a c e w h e r e p e o p l e w o r s h i p p e d

Chukwu, Alose p e r s o n 2 1 p r o t e c t i v e d e i t i e s and a n c e s t o r s , 2 4 - ---9

H i s c o n c e p t o f ~! losc i s muddled upb s i n c e , t o him, i t _W__-

c o u l d mean c i t h c r t h e imayt=s o r t h c s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s

t h e y r e p r e s e n t .

A more a r t i c u l a t e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f o b j e c t s o f

w o r s h i p i s made b y D r , F, ' ' i r inze , H i s d i s c o v e r y i n t h e

n o r t h I g b o a r e a of Awgu, , \ ,guata, and Udi c l e a r l y shows

t h a t : q s t h e t h r e e o b j e c t s o f I g b o r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f and c u l t i n t h e s t r i c t s e n s e w e God, t h e S p i r i t s and t h e ancestor^.'^

25

S r o P a t r i c i a Okwuo d i s c o v e r e d i n O r l u i n t h c Isu-ama sub-

g r o u p o f t h e S o u t h I y b o a r e a t h a t t h e o b j e c t t h ( 2 t receive

w a r s h i p and t h a t h a v e c u l t a r c fsth,: Suprcmc i-3eing, m i n o r

s p i r i t s and a n c e s t o r s , l1 25 I n t h c n o r t h c a s t a r e a o f

A b a k a l i k i , Ezzamqbo, Q k p g s i and the. Nsukk~3 pc7rt o f t h e

N o r t h , t h e o b j c c t s a r e t h e s1Suprem(3 B e i n g , n ; l t u r c

s p i r i t s ( e a r t h g o d d e s s , waticr d c i t i c s , h i l l d e i t z i e s ) 7

p e r s o n a l d e i t i c s and a c r i z l c i c i t i e s , " 27 p r o f e s s o r

J, 0. ~ ~ w o l a l u h a s a l s o r ~ m a r k e d t h n t among t h e Yoruba,

w o r s h i p i s o f f e r e d ' ? n o t o n l y t o t h e Supreme Being b u t

a l s o t o h i s f u n c t i o n a r i e s - t h e d e i t i e s , s p i r i t s and

o f c o u r s e , t h ~ ? a n c e s t o r s i n c l u d e d among t h e s p i r i t s , l 1 28

One common f e a t u r e i n t h e a b o v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s i s t h e

i n c l u s i o n o f t h e Suprcme d e i n g a s a n o b j e c t o f w o r s h i p ,

W e s h a l l now s p e l l o u t how t h i s w o r s h i p i s c a r r i e d o u t ,

( b ) D i r c c t Worsh ip o f God --- b

The d i s c o v e r i e s o f i ~ r c h b i s h o p , - , r inze i n t h e N o r t h

I g b o area ( a ft.w y e a r s b a c k ) and t h e t e s t i m o n i e s o f t h e

t h r e e men who had d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h him i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t

n o r t h e r n towns h a v c b ~ e n c o n f i r m e d b y r e c e n t d a t a f r o m

t h e f i e l d . 29 A t *;china (;,gucita, n o r t h - w e s t s u b c u l t u r e

a r e a ) t h e r e i s s t i l l t h e p r a c t i c e of t h i d i r e c t w o r s h i p

o f Chukwu. c o c k ( u s u a l l y w h i t e ) i s t i e d t o a v c r y l o n g

bamboo s t i c k h o i s t e d on ;In e l e v a t e d s p o t , The c o c k i s

l e f t o n t h e bamboo s t i c k o It i s l c f t t o d i e a l t h o u g h

some may mannyc t o e s c a p e and f l y away, T h i s i s c a l l e d

;,ja Eze Enu - ~ a c r i f i c < ~ t o t h e King a b o v e , , i t Maku,

,'iwyu, I h e , O w e l l i ( n o r t h I g b o a r e a ) s i m i l a r w o r s h i p i s

offered t o t h e Supreme Be ing , F u r t h e r u p n o r t h t o Udi ,

Q k p a t y and i n t h i n o r t h e a s t towns o f 1,mc7sJr$, ~" i f ikpo ,

170

t h i s r i t u a l i s common, 30

A l t h o u g h t h i s i s n o t a r e g u l a r w o r s h i p , i t i s n o t

c o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t a s some w r i t e r s h a d portrayed, On

e n q u i r y , a n i n f o r m , m t who h 7 d j u s t f i n i s h e d o f f e r i n g

t h e w o r s h i p a t h i s compouncl i n /vnas$r& ( n o r t h e a s t )

e x p l a i n e d th : l t t h e m a t e r i a l s f o r s u c h o f f ( 2 r i n g s a r e n o t

a l l o w s d t o d r o p o n tht? g r o u n d . s ~ c o n d l y , o n e o f f e r s

t hem when fin o c c a s i o n dc.m?.nds F o r i n s t ~ l n c ~ i , a p r o b l e m

t h a t d e f i e s t h , h e l p o f o t h e r d c i t i t : s m l y p r o m p t d i r e c t

a f f t 2 r i n c j s t o Chukwu, 1-L ~ l , o c x p l a r / n c d th . ; t a n y compound

i n i ' m z s i r i c17n be u s e d f o r s u c h w o r s h i p , The w o r s h i p p e r

m u s t l o o k upwarcls and mrike h i s p ~ t i t i o n s t o t h e S u p r e m e

Be ing .

The d i r e c t w o r s h i p of th t - Supreme God E z e c h i t o k i k e

i s n o t i c e d in many p a r t s o f Nsukka - t h e n o r t h I g b o area,

A t I b a g w a - a n i , Alg-Ung a n d I m i l i k e n u ( a l l i n N s u k k a ) are

p o o r l y c o n s t r u c t e d s a c r e d s p o t s i n e v e r y compound, T h e y

a r e e a r t h e n mounds w h i c h a re u s e d a s t h e s h r i n e s o f t h e

E z e c h i t o k e . A t t h e f o o t of each mound a re a few f l a t - s tones , t w o bamboo s t i c k s , f i x e d some fee t a p a r t o n w h i c h

i s t i e d a s t r i p o f c l o t h s t r e t c h i n g a c r o s s , From t h e

s t r i p of c l o t h a r e v a r i o u s c o l o u r s o f c l o t h h a n g i n g

down, A r c c e n t v i s i t t o ~ Z l g - p n ~ showed o n e of t h e

d i l a p i d a t e d a l t a r s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e E z e c h i t o k e ,

D e s c r i b i n g o n e o f t h o s e a l t z r s a f e w y e a r s b a c k ,

A, J, S h d l t o n w r o t e :

fP,.. d z d i c a t c d t o t h L High God , . . t h e 7 l t a r i s a s m a l l s h r i n c o f s t o n d s w i t h n g r a s s - t h a t c h e d r o o f s u p p o r t ~ d on t h r e e f ,:t t l o n g l i v c - t r ~ ; s t i c k s , Shr in \ : s f o r t h e High God a r t o u t s i d e i n t h c compound o r a v i l l q e : squar i . . "31

t o t h e Suprcrnt. i3eing i n many p r r t s oJ Nsultk7, t h e r e i s

a t Umun- l\lgwcl 211 a n n u a l f ~ s t i . v ~ > l f o r him u c u a l l y d u r i n g

* discovcary o f :In a n n u a l f ~ s t i v : ~ l i n honour o f t i ? < . ;;upreme

Being at I hembos i (Nor th -wcs t I q b o a r c l ) , Thc Okwu-

Chukwu ( s h r i n e o f t h e Supremc d e i n q ) i s a c e n t r e o f b u s y

r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s i n honou r o f Chukwu d u r i n g t h a t -- p e r i o d . T h i s f e s t i v l l i s c o n f i n c d t o t h i s l o c a l commu-

n i t y and a few v i l l a g e s s u r r o u n d i n g it. I t i s a t i m e

when i n d i v i d u a l s o f f e r t h m k s t o God i n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f

h i s g o o d n e s s t o w a r d s t h e p e o p l e , T h e r e i s no p r i e s t

a t t a c h e d t o t h i s s h r i n e . I t i s t h e p r i e s t o f t h e Ea r th -

Goddess who a n n o u n c e s t h c t i m e o f t h e f e s t i v a l , Even i n

t h e Nsukka ( n o r t h ) , A f i k p o , i m a s jr; ( N o r t h - e a s t ) and

Awgu ( n o r t h ) t h e r e i s no evident? o f any p r i e s t d e d i c a t e d

t o t h e c u l t o f t h e S u p r m c Bcinq

5. N. Lzcanya r ~ c o r d e d a t Okpuje Nsukka ( N o r t h

I g b o a r e a ) a p r a y e r d i r e c t c d t o E z e c h i t o k e wh ich i s

t y p i c a l of t h e p r a y e r s i n t h a t a r e a , Thc p r i e s t of

Okpu j e p r a y c d , m e n t i o n i n g i t o k c , f i rs t b e f o r e any

o t h e r d e i t y :

f 9 Q z e c h i t o k e , i n n , Ugwu Okpuje mulum nyc m i f e o l i l i n y e m ~rngrny nye rn ntmny; n y c rn L ~ O

gozi~ mmsdy nil^,"

" i : : z c e h i t ~ l < e , c h r t h d e i t y , Ugwu Okpu j;. ( h i l l d e i t y ) t h a t g a v e m e b i r t h g i v e me t h i n g s to e a t , g i v e m e o f f s p r i n g g i v e rnc w i v e s g i v e m c money I

bless a l l men, i s 3 2

Even i n t h e Isu-ama s u b - g r o u p o f t h e S o u t h I g b o a r e a

w h e r e t h e d i r e c t c u l t o f t h e Supreme t3eing i s n o t h i g h l y

d e v e l o p e d , S r . P a t r i c i a Okt~uo r~corded a morning prayer i n

w h i c h t h e Supreme a e i n g i s a d d r e s s e d f i r s t b c f o r e o t h e r

d e i t i e s :

"Cod ( c h i n e k e ) comc and takc: k o l a n u t , E z i z e ( l o c a l d e i t y ) c o m L and t s k , ? k o l a n u t Big and S m a l l s p i r i t s , comd and t a k c k o l a n u t , . " 3 3

God's name i s u s e d i n b l e s s i n i , o r c a u s i n g pc?oplc

i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of I~;bolc?nd, 0 f t c .n g r e e t i n g s are

e x c h a n g e d i n h i s name, The i r r c q u l a r i t y o f o r g a n i z e d

w o r s h i p d i r e c t d t o God dot s n o t i n a n y way s u g g e s t t h a t

h e i s n o t w o r s h i p p e d a t a l l o r t h 2 t p e o p l e d o n o t t a k e

him s e r i o u s l y ,

173

( c ) I n d i r c c t N o r s h i p

A l t h o u q h t h ~ Supreme God i s r c c o g n i z c d i n most

I g b o c o m m u n i t i t ~ s , i t sccms t h a t t h c d a i l y a f f a i r s o f

l i f e a r e manag(_d an(1 . ;upe . rv isc~d b y many o t h e r t u t e l a r y

s p i r i t s , T ~ L d i v i n i t i c s seen t o be ' p a t r o n s ' o f some

a s p e c t s o f s o c i L t a l l i f e , T h t y c x d r c i s c much c o n t r o l

6n t h e l i v e s of t h s p e o p l e i n t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w h e r e t h e y

a r e w o r s h i p p c d , Many of t h m becomc s o p r o m i n e n t i n t h e

l i v e s of t h e c m r n u n i t i c s t h a t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s s m them

as the: S o u r c e of t h ~ i r s u c c e s s i n l i f +

Many of t h e d i v i n i t i e s h a v ~ e l a b o r a t e c u l t ,

R e g u l a r s a c r i f i c s s a n d p r a y e r s a r e d i r e c t e d t o them,

D u r i n g s u c h s a c r i f i c e s , God may n o t b e m e n t i o n e d . I n

some, God i s m e n t i o n e d and h i s h e l p i s s o l i c i t e d , The

e l a b o r a t e c u l t s of most o f t h e d e i t i c s t e n d to s u b m e r g e

t h a t o f t h e Supreme B e i n g , Hence i n t h e S o u t h - I g b o

s u b - c u l t u r e area, t h e e l a b o r a t e c u l t s o f t h e E a r t h g o d d e s ,

t h e E m a d i ~ h a d e i t y h a v e o v c r s h a d o w c d t h a t o f t h e Supreme

B e i n g , I n Edda, ( N o r t h - c a s t ) , t h c c u l t o f t h e I k p a l a

d e i t y i s t h e most p r o m i n i n t i n t h c communi ty , R e g u l a r

m o r n i n g a n d e v e n i n g s a c r i f i c e s a r c o f f e r e d t o I k p a l a .

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h t S u p r i ~ m c 3 e i n g a n d t h e

d i v i n i t i e s i s c o n c e i v e d o f i n d i v c r z c w l y s , Thcy a re

o f t e n s e e n a s i n k e r m e d i ; ? r i ( ; s between man a n d t h c Supreme

Supreme Being a n d h i s c r e - i t i o n who c l ~ p u t i z e f o r him.

I t i s l i k e l y t h a t some of th,xn a r e t h ~ i n t e l l e c t u a l

f r a q m e n t a t i o n s o f h i s a c t i v i t y , Whi le t h e Supreme Be ing

i s transcendent, t h ? ~ ; ~ ? i t i c s h e l p t o 2 x p r e s s h i s

immancncc i n t h ~ theocratic q o v c r n m s n t o f t h c u n i v e r s e .

God i s thc : rc . forc o f t e n u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e U l t i m a t e

r e c i p i e n t o f a l l o f f e r i n g s made t o t h e lasser g o d s who

may b e e x p l i c i t l y r ~ f e r r e d tc a s i n t e r m e d i a r i e s . 34

I n t h e C e n t r a l p a r t d f t h e S o u t h I g b o s u b - c u l t u r e

a r e a w h e r e t h e d i r e c t w o r s h i p o f God i s m i n i m a l ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n O w e r r i and M b a i s e , t h e c u l t o f Chukwu i s

o b v i o u s l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h c c u l t o f t h e Sun, The p e o p l e

see t h e Sun a s t h e ' e y e ' o r q m o u t h P o f Chukwu, When

someone i s s i c k , and i s b e l i e v e d t o b e a t t h e p o i n t of

d e a t h , an u r g e n t m e s s a g e c o u l d be s e n t to Chukwu t h r o u g h

t h e l s u n l , Onc f a c e s t h c r a y s o f t h e s u n and s p ? a k s

d i r e c t l y t o Chukwu a s i f t h r o u g h t h c d i r e c t r a y s o f t h e

s u n , Chukwu i s r e a c h e d .

The p r i e s t o f Ez~\ugwu d c i t y a t Obirno Nsukka was

p e r p l e x e d when a s k e d i f tht-rc. - x i _ . o ' i h . _ r o b j ~ c t s h e

o f fe r : ; w o r s h i p beyond t h ~ d l - i t y , E;:~!uywu, I-lc r e t o r t e d .--- t h a t h e worshipped Ezeugwu .md oLhor d c i t i i : ~ l i k e --

t h e E a r t h g o d d e s s , a n c e s t o r s and f i n a l l y , God.

D r . C. 0. Nwanunobi h a s u s c d t h c p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l

t r a n s a c t i o n t o d i s p o s e of thi! Dc'us O t i o s u s c o n c e p t i n

I g b o r e l i g i o n , Hc ~ q u a t ~ s t h L . a n c e s t o r w i t h t h c

m i d d l d man o r in t< : rmed i :2 ry t h r o u g h whom a c r e d i t o r o r

b e n e f a c t o r c o u l d b,: r c . , x h e d . 35

T h r o u g h the:. d i r c c t w o r s h i p w h i c h these? d e i t i e s

receive, t h e I g b o w o r s h i p p e r g e t s t o God i n d i r e c t l y .

I n some p r a y e r s , t h i t n3mc.. o f God i s n o t m e n t i o n e d a t

a l l , , Yet t h y I g b o are n o t p : ? r t u r b e d bccLause t h e y know

t h ' l t t h e Supreme & i n g i s t h e U l t i m : . ~ t e recipient o f a l l

forms o f w o r s h i p , As a g r e a t King and R u l e r , God h a s

' w i t h d r a w n ' t o t h a t r k m o t e n e s s w h i c h i s a n a s p e c t o f

h i s greatness, H e i s o n l y r a r e l y a p p r o a c h e d d i r e c t l y

because h i s m i n i s t e r s - t h e i n t e r v e n i n g d i v i n i t i e s - receive much more a t t e n t i o n from t h e common man.

D a r y l l F 0 r d e ant3 ti. I , J o n e s , Tht; I b o a n d Ibibio- = k i n q P c o p l ~ s o f S o u t h c r n N i q z r i a , (London : I 1 1 9 5 0 , 1 0 Sec A, 13, l i f i q b o , "The I n d i g e n o u s , . ~ o l i t i c a l S y s t e m s o f t h c I g b o H , T, ,RIK, 4 , 3 ( 1 9 7 3 ) 13-22.

D a r y l l F o r d e a n d G. I, J a n e s , I b i d . , 1 0 ,

I k c n n n N z i m i r o , S t u d i e s i n I b o P o l i t i c a l S y s t e m s , (London E F r a n k Fass, 1--33-49,

Simon Ot t e n b x g , Lcrid,-rs h i p a n d A u t h o r i t y i n a n i i f r i c a n T r i b e : ~ l ? ' Z ' ; i f i k p v i l l a g e Group , (London : -7 - m n n l v c r n y o f x h i n g t o n P r e s s , 1 9 T 1 ) , 80-90.

M i r c e a C l i a d e , The M t h o f t h e E t e r n a l R e t u r n , & ( P r i n c ? t o n , N o J, , 1 r l n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 4

N e w e l l S o Boo th J n r , , 'T i rnc 2nd Change i n A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l 'Thought" , J 2 , 7 , 2 ( 1 9 7 5 1 , 8 2 ,

E, E, E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , ' N u e r Time-Reckoning , I b i d 202. Cf . Lo Bohanan, s s A G e n c a o l o g i c a l 8?&;rft, AFRICA, 2 2 ( O c t . 1 9 5 2 1 .

J, F. ~ c h 8 - 1 a n d J, A, C r o w t h c r , N i q e r E x p e d i t i o n , ( L o n d o n : H a k c h a r d & S o n s , 1 8 4 2 1 , p.51,

F. I , E k c j i u b a , vl',ro World-View: A n a l y s i s o f the C o s m o l o a i c a l I d e a s o f t h e Lwochukwu P e o p l c of t h e

2

; ; a s t e r n N i g e r i a M , West A f r i c a n Rel ig ion , Nsukka , 8 ( J u l y 1 9 7 0 ) , 3 ,

S e e C. U r n M. Ezckwugo, " 'Ch i : The Tru;: tiod i n I g b o R e l i g i o n F t , ( P h , D, T h e s i s of thi: U n i v c r s i t y o f I n n s b r u c k , i i u s t r i , l r , 1 9 7 3 1 , 116. Thz p r c s c n t w r i t e r e x p ~ r i c n c e d proh1.-ms of t r a n s l - ! t i o n a r o u n d I s h i e l u , I g b o - e z e and iJzg-pwan&,

M. 12. @w;c j e~gwy, i iThi: Lthno--hi:3 t o r i c . 1 S u r v e y o f I g b o , E a s t i ~ n d I.Jest of Lower i<igi!r B a s i n " , Unpub. Mss., ( 1 9 6 9 1 , p 0 7 ,

E. E, Metuh, FsThc, R e l i g i o u s D i m c n s i o n s o f A f r i c a n C o s m o l o q i e s : I-\ Cast? S t u d y o f t h c I g b o o f N i g e r i a q s , Wcst i i f r i c a n R e l i g i o n , 1 7 , 2 ( 1 9 7 8 1 , 1 8 f f . ; God and Man, i n i i f r i c - i n R e l i i ~ n , (London : & o f f r e y Chnprn?n, ?i%&

M. M, Green, I b o V i l l a y e ' l f f a i r s , ( L o n d o n : S i d w i c k and J a c k s o n , 1 9 4 7 1 , 5 2 ,

C, K O Meek, Lqw a n d A u t h o r i t y i n a N i q e r i a n T r i b e , ( L o n d o n : O.U.P., 1 9 3 7 1 , 20-30. See a l so , Meek, f7Tht: R e l i g i o n s o f N ige r i :~" , ;\FRIC;i, 1 5 , 2 ( A p r i l 1 9 4 3 ) , l o o f f ,

J , I.', ~ch"o"n m d S o 12, C r c w t h c r , J o u r n a l o f Schon a n d C r o w t h e r , 2, "it, 50.

C h i n u a Achebe , I s c h i i n I g b o C o s m o l o g y q f , i n

C,U,M, Ezckwugo, ) C h i z T h e True, God i n I g b o R e l i g i o n 9 - I b i d ,

E. S , C h i l d s , i n t h c O l d T e s t a m e n t , (London : :;-C,

3. M a l i n o w s k i , fiP:yth i n P r i m i t i v e P s y c h o l o q y i n B, M s l i n o w s k i (cd, ), M s q i c , S c i e n c c a n d R t i i i c l ion d O t h e r E s s a y s , (New York r D o u b l e Day & Coo

I n c , , 1 9 5 4 1 , p .107,

2t.c E, IJ, S m i t h , ; , f . r i can I d e a s o f God (London : --. - 1 9 5 0 1 , p .6 , q u o t i n g - ' A n d und U r z e i t d c s Mcnschen i n Mythus d c s A f r i c a n i s c h e n V o l k e r .

J, 0. i l w o l a l u , Yorub3 S e l i c f s and S a c r i f i c i a l Ri tes , ( L o n d a n : Lonym; n s Ed., 1 9 7 9 1, 98 , _yl_

Go T 13asden, hriq(:r I b o s , (London : S c e l e y S e r v i c e s , 1 9 3 8 , R e p r i n t , P r c m k C a s s , 1 9 6 6 1 , p.37.

N. W. Thomas, i i n t h r c ~ o l o g i c a l R e p o r t on t h e o - S p e a k i n q P e o p l e s of N i g e r i a , Vol , I, ndon:: H a r r i s o n and S o n s , 1 9 1 3 1 , 26-28.

25, F, A, A r i n z c , S a c r i f i c e i n I g b o R e l i q i o n , ( I b a d a n : I b n d a n U n i v c r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 7 , 48,

26, S r , P z . t r i c i a Okwuo, q s S a c r i f i c e among t h e T r a d i t i o n a l I g h o of O r l u i n Imo S t a t c t ' , (BOA, T h e s i s , Univ , of N i g e r i a , Nsukka, 1 9 7 6 1 , p,4,

27, Udochukwu Eze, "Shrini :s tl?dic;:tc.d t o th t? Minor D i v i n i ti,s among t h ~ I g b o of ,msrnbra S t a t e t s , (Mal'i, T h L z s i s , U n i v c . r s i t y of N i g t r i r l , Nsukka , 1 9 7 9 1 , p.21,

3 1 ;i0 J, :;he1 t o n , Thc i-'13 j h r d c r l m d , ( ~ ' i l b a n y : S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y of I\Ic.w York Pri::;s, l 9 7 l ) , 8 6 ,

32 , S. N , E z e a n y l , "Go<!, S p i r i t -?nd S p i r i t World ' l , i n D i c k s o n a n d - ~ l l i n ~ w r t h ( e d s , 1 , B i b l i c a l ~ c v e i a t i o n a n d A f r i c a n B e l i e f s , ( L o n d o n L u t h c - r w o r t h P r e s s , v

33, S r , P a t r i c i a Okwuo, op. ci_t_, , 6, 34, D a r y l l F o r d e a n d G, I* J o n c s , The I b o a n d I b i b i o -

S ~ e a k i n a P e o ~ l e s . O D , c i t , . 25.

35, C. 0, Nwanunobi , s fThe Deus O t e o s u s C o n c e p t i n T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n : :'in L x a m i n a t i o n t h r o u g h T r a n s a c t i o n a l ( i i Workshop P a p e r , I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s o n The F o u n d a t i o n s

b o C i v i l i z a t i o n , University o f N i g e r i a , 2 , 19801, pp, T 2 f f .

CHAPTER S E V E N

THE DIVINITIES 2,s GOD'S FLGENTS

(a) D e f i n i t i o n - o f Terms:

I n t h e I g b o pzinth?on, numerous o t h e r non-human

s p i r i t s may bc- identified. %mc c a n bc d e s c r i b e d as

N a t u r e S p i r i t s , r e p r e s ~ n t i n g ond o r 0 t h - r o f n a t u r a l

phenomena l i k c t h ~ Sun, n y n , , n ( E a r t h - g o d d e s s ), L i g h t n i n g (&mad igha ) , O t h e r s mly 52 P e r s o n a l - S p i r i t s i n t h e s c n s c t h a t t h e y a r e u s u a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r a p e r s o n s s w e l f a r e - They a r b c o n c e i v e d o f i n terms

o f man 's p h y s i o l o g i c 2 1 o r p s y c h o l o y i c a l a s p 2 c t s o f l i fe .

Thcy may b e e m a n a t i o n s of h i s body o r s o u l . They i n c l u d e

Ch i I k e n a Ufo, P w y n a - i j c among o t h e r s , -9 2 9 -

I n t h e n e x t g r o u p , w e h a v e t h e a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s - b e l i e v e d t o be t h e s p i r i t s o f human b e i n g s who l i v e d

w e l l h e r e o n e a r t h and h a v e gone t o t h e ' u ~ d e r w o r l d ' .

W i t h i n t h i s g r o u p a r e a l s o t h e e v i l s p i r i t s o f bad men

who d i e d some t i m e - t h e E k a l o q o l i , t h e Ogbonuke. The

s o u l s of wicked t r a n s m i g r a t i n g c h i l d r e n - Qgbanje - and

t h e - :unosu ( l i v i n g p e o p l e ' s s p i r i t w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o

t r a n s f o r m i n t o o t h e r o b j e c t s t o c a u s e ha rm) ,

The i n n u m e r a b l e p a t r o n d e i t i e s o f v a r i o u s communi-

t i es and c o m p a r t m e n t s o f l i f e - t h e t i l y s i form a n o t h e r - 179

b r o a d g r o u p ,

We s h a l l d i s c u s s t h r e c d e i t i e s h e r e - t h e - E a r t h q o d d e s s , t h ? Sun a n d t h c L i g h t n i n g a s b e l i e v e d - b y t h e I g b o i n t h z v a r i o u s s u b - c u l t u r e areas.

The d e i t i e s a r c b e l i e v e d t o b e e i t h e r male o r

female. They a r e ' c r e a t u r e s 1 o f Chukwu who b r o u g h t

them i n t o b e i n g , Some art? t h e g l o r i f i e d h e r o e s o f t h e

p a s t , The i n f l u z n c c of some o f t h e d i v i n i t i e s i s

l i m i t e d t o t h e l o c z l c o r ? m u n i t i e s w h c r e they a r c

w o r s h i p p e d . b

( b ) The C u l t o f t h e E a r t h - G o d d e s s :

The E a r t h - g o d d e s s i s t h e m o s t p r o m i n c ? n t d e i t y i n

many p a r t s o f I g b o l m d . I n t h c S o u t h I g b o ares i t i s

c a l l e d ;ila w h i l e t h e Nor th-West I g b o c a l l i t An;, The - 9 -

C r o s s - R i v e r a n d p a r t s o f t h e N o r t h - e a s t s u b - c u l t u r e

a reas d e s c r i b e i t a s a n d i n t h e n o r t h I g b o a rea , i t

i s ane, The d e i t y i s u n d e r s t o o d as a f e m a l e d e i t y i n - many p z r t s o f I g b o l m d , Howcver a r o u n d N i k e , A g b a j a ,

Ud i , i \ ~ g ~ ( n o r t h ) a n d i i b a k a l i k i , Ikwo ( N o r t h - e a s t 1 A l a - i s s e e n as a male d e i t y .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Chukwu a n d - A l a h a s c r e a t e d

some difficulties among thL2 I g b o o f t h e n o r t h s u b - c u l t u r e

area, h l t h o u g h c o n s i d e r e d t o b e female? i n Nsukka , A l a -

i s more or lcss t 2 q u z l t o the: H i g h God b o t h i n age a n d

p r a c t i c a l power. T h c r c i s a b e l i e f t h a t ";-me n a Chukwu

ra t ! - i m p l y i n g ' E a r t h a n d God ar,.-: i q u a l i . la i s o f t e n - - c o n s i d e r e d t h e f e m a l c c o u n t c r p a r t o f Chukwu _. a n d i n a

f e m i n i n e msnnc:r a . c t s l i k s a r e c i p i e n t - L i b a t i o n t o

Chukwu a re p o u r e d o n t h c g r o u n d - p h y s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

o f t h e E a r t h o

I n t h e C r o s s - H i v c r a n d ;ou th I g b o c u l t u r e a reas ,

t h e e a r t h i s n o t c o n s i d e r c d a s Chukwu ' s e q u a l . She i s

h o w e v e r d e s c r i b r d a s t h c f b m a l e c o n s o r t o f Chukwu. I n

thc Dlbari h o u s e s , - ( S o u t h I g b o a r c a ) t h e E a r t h g o d d e s s i s

r e p r e s e n t e d i n d i f f e r e n t s i t t i n g p o s i t i o n s - o f t e n w i t h

h e r s o n o n h e r k n e c s , a t t i m 2 s f l a n k e d b y h e r c h i l d r e n

a n d g r a n d c h i l d r e n . , b o t h e r p i c t u r e o f - , I l a f r o m an - Mbari

House a t Eke-Nguru M b a i s e p r e s e n t s h e r l i k e a young

woman w i t h d a n g l i n g f a t b reas t s ( i n d i c a t i n g f e r t i l i t y

p r i n c i p l e ) . S h c i s s e a t e d o n a s t o o l w i t h t w o o f h e r

c h i l d r m , I n a n o t h e r p i c t u r e s h e i s s e a t e d w i t h a s o n

d r e s s e d l i k e a s c h o o l (boy ( p o s s i b l y a n i l n f l u e n c e o f

C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n ) , She i s o f t e n d e s c r i b e d a s Nne Udo

( b l o t h e r o f P e a . c e ) , o r Eze -Nwmyi (Queen o f t h e U n d e r w o r l d ) ,

The c u l t of t h e e z r t h - g o d d e s s i s n o t h i g h l y

d e v e l o p e d i n t h e N o r t h I g b o l < a n d o f Nsukka a s i t i s i n

t h e S o u t h , 'I'hc r e a s o n f o r t h i s d c v ~ l o p m c n t i s n o t c lear

b u t o n e g e t s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e r e a rc many l o c a l

d c i t i c s ( f e m a l e ) i n t h i s a r e a whose c u l t s s e r v e s imi la r

p u r p o s c s l i l tc t h o s e o f t h e e a r t h g o d d e s s i n o t h e r a r e a s

o f t h e South . The ;idgrg o f ~ i l p - y n g ~ t h e Uqwunyo o f Leja --- and t h e Ochcdgu o f L'ha-lilurn~n;: fire among t h c p o p u l a r

f e m a l e d e i t i e s w i t h c l s b o r n t c l c u l t s i n Nsukka a r e a .

S e c o n d l y , t i-11- numcirdus h i l l s i n Nsukka h ~ ~ v t w,_11-

d e v e l o p e d c u l t s , S i n c e t h ~ y a r c p - r t o f tht:: p h y s i c a l

e a r t h , t h c y m?y l i k L ) l y o v , rshz-iow t h c dc2velopmcnt of

s e p a r a t e c u l t f o r t h j - K x t h qodcl~.ss,f i I n c i d ~ m t a l l y ,

names a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i l l s a r c u s u a l l y g i v e n t o males:

Ugwu - H i l l (7 man)

Ugwoku - M;1l1-. h i l l

Ugwuja - Small h i l l

Ugwuanyi - Our h i l l

Eze-ugwu - King o f h i l l

LUthough , o n e d o e s n o t o b s c r v c a w e l l - d e v e l o p e d

s h r i n e d e d i c a t e d t o t h e E a r t h g o d d e s s i n Nsukka, i t d o e s

n o t mean t h a t t h e people: d o n o t a p p r e c i a t e h e r i m p o r t a n c e ,

Attama Ugwuja e x p l a i n s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e E a r t h

g o d d e s s i n a d r a m a t i c way:

' !every p e r s o n l i v e s on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e e a r t h , Wi thou t t h e e a r t h , w e c a n n o t g row f o o d t o ea t , i~ man l i v e s on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e e a r t h u n t i l h e d i ? s , H e d o e s n o t livz i n t h e s k y o r i n t h c w a t e r s , and h e g o e s i n s i d e t h ? e a r t h o n l y a f t e r h e d i e s , So t h e e a r t h i s h e r e and i a c owns i t b e c a u s e - s h e owns t h e e a r t h and i s thi: G r e a t Motherv .1

The E a r t h g o d d e s s i s r e g a r d e d as t h e d i r e c t

c u s t o d i a n o f m o r a l i t y . The who le l i f e e x p e r i e n c e i s

e a r t h - c e n t r e d , The t a b o o s (NsQ-a la ) - t h i n g s a b h o r e n t

t o t h e Ea r th -goddes s ; c u s t o m s (Omenala , omenani ) - t h i n g s t h a t happen on t h e e a r t h , a r e l i t e r a l l y norms

o f c o n d u c t e x p e c t e d o f e v e r y o n e who l i v e s i n a s o c i e t y

whose s o u r c e o f l i v e l i h o o d i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y l a n d -

o r i e n t e d . Any a c t o f m i s c o n d u c t i s r e g a r d e d a s p o l l u -

t i o n o f t h e f a c e of t h e e a r t h - amerg-a la , A s a g e n t s

of m o r a l i t y , t h e p r i e s t s o f thC Ea r th -goddes s a r e among

t h e most p o w e r f u l i n t e q r a t i n q f o r c e s i n I g b o s o c i e t y . 2

The c u l t o f a n c e s t o r s a r e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Ala. - They a r e i n a s u b t l e way, t h o u g h t t o reside i n t h e

A la - ez i - t h e I s l and o f t h e compoundr ' - i n s o f a r a s -W___

t h e i r g r a v e s , s h r i n e s and a l t a r s a r c l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h c

g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n f i n e s o f t h e p a t r i l i n e a g e , No o n e s h o u l d

c u l t i v a t e a n y p o r t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y l a n d w i t h o u t t h e

p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e a n c e s t o r s o r t h e D igkpa ra o f t h e

f a m i l y who i s t h e i r l i v i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . T h i s i s o n e

o f t h e r e a s o n s why f a m i l y l a n d - d i s p u t e s ( t o o common i n

t h e S o u t h I g b o a r e a ) are s e t t l e d o u t o f c o u r t s , No

s i n g l e member o f t h e f a m i l y c a n q s e l l l or ' m o r t g a g e 1 any

p a r t o f t h e f a m i l y - l a n d b e c a u s e t h a t w i l l i m p l y q l s e l l i n g t l

o f f t h e g r a v e s o f t h e a n c e s t o r s , 3

The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h s E a r t h - g o d d e s s i s a

r e f l e c t i o n o f a s o c i e t y whose economy i s b a s i c a l l y

a g r i c u l t u r a l , The i m p o r t a n c e o f l a n d a s a f a c t o r o f

p r o d u c t i o n i s s y m b o l i z e d i n v a r i o u s ways and i s p r o -

t e c t e d t h r o u g h r e l i g i o u s s a n c t i o n s , 4

B e c a u s e a g r i c u l t u r e i s i m p o r t a n t i n I g b o l a n d ,

A j ~ k ; , t h e p a t r o n god o f t h e f a r m e r i s p l a c a t e d and _q__

e l a b o r a t e f e s t i v a l d e d i c a t e d t o i t , The G h a n j ~ k ;

d e i t y i s w o r s h i p p , ~ d i n many p a r t s o f I g b o l a n d b e c a u s e

i t i s t h e p a t r o n d e i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e r e a r e some

s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h i s i m p o r t a n t I y b o d e i t y o I t i s

c a l l e d A h a a n j t k u o r P h a n j ~ l c ; i n t h e c e n t r a l and o t h e r

p a r t s o f t h e S o u t h I y b o a r e a , I t i s p s h a j i g k y o r

M f & a j i g k i i n Nsukka ( n o r t h ) and U f e j i g k y i n t h e n o r t h - - w e s t I g b o a r e a s o f Nri-i'iwks. m d O n i t s h a , The s e x o f

t h e d e i t y a l s o v a r i e s - m a l e i n t h e n o r t h w e s t , f e m a l e

i n t h e Nsukka a r e a o f t h e n o r t h .

The N e w Y a m f e s t i v a l i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h i s d e i t y i n

t h e Sou th-wes t a r e a o f Egbema, O h a j i , Awara, pmygbanne.

Her5 i t i s c e l e b r a t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e h a r v e s t

s e a s o n s - ( A u g u s t t o S e p t e m b e r i n E n g l i s h c a l e n d a r ) .

A r w n d t h e Nor th -wes t a r e a o f N r i , Awka, and t h e N o r t h

d e i t y - t h e f e s t i v a l i s s e p w a t c f r o m t h e a n n u a l N e w

Yam f e s t i v a l . I n Nsukk ;..., be tween March and A p r i l , a t

t h e b e g i n n i n g of p l m t i n y s e a s o n i n I g b o c a l e n d a r , t h e

f a r m i m p l a n e n t s a re b r o u g h t i n t o t h e yam b a r n f o r t h e

ceremony, They a r e b l ~ ? s s c d and p u r i f i e d f o r t h e n e x t

p l a n t i n g , I n ;iwka-Onitsha z o n e , b e f o r e t h e new yam i s

e a t e n , t h t : p o t s a r e u s u a l l y c l t i a n s e d i n a ceremony i n

honour o f t h e p a t r o n d e i t y o f a g r i c u l t u r e .

T h i s g o e s t o show t h a t t h e r e i s n o t much c e n t r e

o f o r t h o d o x y i n mos t b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s i n I g b o l a n d .

A l though J b e l i e f may l o o k c e n t r a l hnd w i d e s p r e a d , t h e

l o c a l e m p h a s i s affects i t s s i c j n i f i c m c t . i n d i f f e r e n t

p l a c e s . The E a r t h g o d d e s s - t hough a pan- Igbo d e i t y ,

h a s n o t been u n i f o r m l y w o r s h i p p e d i n a l l t h e s u b c u l t u r e

a r e a s .

I1

THE CULT OF AMIILIIQHA - - - - - - - -

T h i s i s a p r o m i n e n t d i v i n i t y b e l i e v e d t o b e

Chukwuls companion i n t h c s k y , I t i s t h e t h u n d e r

d i v i n i t y l - b e l i e v e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e " r i g h t e o u s w r a t h

o f Chukwu

T h i s d e i t y wh ich a l s o m a n i f ~ s t s the.-: g l o r y of God

t h r o u g h l i g h t n i n g and t h u n d e r h a s i t s c u l t i n many p a r t s

o f I g b o l a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Louth I q b o s u b - c u l t u r e

a r e a . The god o f t h u n d e r i s d e s i g n a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t

names i n t h e v a r i o u s : ; u b c u l t u r c a r e a s , I n t h e S o u t h

I g b o s u b c u l t u r e a r e a , t h ~ n ~ ~ r n ~ : o f t h e d e i t y i s c a l l e d

h a d i g h a , I n th:? Cross K i v z r I g b o z o n e , t h e p o p u l a r

name of t h i s d c i t y i s K i - i r n s . 1 ~ w h i l ~ i t i s u n d e r s t o o d - a s IGLiE ( S k y ) i n t h c Onitsh;: drc 'a o f Nor th -wes t

-0

Igbo lanc l , M r , Njoku I b c o f idguru Mbaise s t ~ t e d t h a t

Amadi$hca i s a sky-god w h i c h i s g i v e n a p r a i s e name o f - .--

&a It i s r e g a r d e d as thc e x e c u t o r o f t h e j u s t i c e

and w r a t h o f the. Supremo S e i n q , I n t h e Isu-ams. s u b g r o u p , a name

t h i s d c i t y i s ?.lso known a s Kamalg, p o s s i b l y , L b o r r o w t 3 d

f r o m th i . s o j o u r n e r s who w e n t t o t h e i i ro o r a c l e and had

c o n t a c t s w i t h t h ~ Cross-River I g b o p e o p l e ,

T h i s d e i t y i s l a r g e l y unknown ( a n d n o t w o r s h i p p e d )

i n some b o r d e r l i n e towns i n t h e n o r t h I g b o t e r r i t o r y ,

It i s a l s o n o t r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e Q t a n z u / Q t a n c h a r a sub-

c l a n o f Okigwe, When crimes, h i d d e n o r o p e n , seem t o

e s c a p a t h e n o t i c e of t h e g u a r d i a n o f m o r a l i t y , t h e

O m n i s c i e n t God r o a r s f r o m a b o v e ( ~ l u - 1 q w e ) t h r o u g h

IWadigha (Kamaly) w i t h t h u n d e r 2nd l i g h t n i n g ( ~ g b e - e l u - g u n s of th i l s k y ) and s t r i k e s dyad a n y o f f e n d e r , When

i s t h c r o s u l t o f Chukwuqs r c t r i b u t i v c justice:, I n Edda, - --

war. I n t h i s n o r t h - e a s t I j b c town t h t ' t hL1s g o t f b ~ G 3 r - h e r ~

a n c e s t o r s P 9 , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e f i ~ r c e g o d of t h u n d e r

i s a c c e p t e d a s a f a c t o r o f d e f e n c e and p r o t e c t i o n ,

The e a r t h l y s h r i n e o f t h i s sky-god i s l o c a t e d a t

Qzuzy i n t h e p r e s e n t R i v e r s S t a t e o f N i g e r i a , I n t h e

C o l o n i a l N i g e r i a . , i t was i n t h e o l d O w e r r i P r o v i n c e ,

Thc s i t e o f t h i s s h r i n e i s s o a w e - i n s p i r i n g t h a t o n e i s

t e m p t e d t o c o n c l u d e t h n t t h i s i s an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e

I g b o p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e m i g h t y power o f t h e Supreme God.

The h i s t o r y of t h i s d e i t y h a s n o t b e e n f u l l y r e c o r d e d .

A r e c e n t t r i p t o t h c s h r i n e h a s h e l p e d t o b r e t r i c v e

t h i s s h o r t e x p l f a n ~ t i o n s

"Th2 Karnalu d e i t y originated f r o m ymyatyry N a t i v c C o u r t Area i n Ahoada Dis t r ic t i n t h c f o r m e r O w e r r i P r o v i n c e . V m y a t ~ r y i s i n E t c h c , i n t h e p r e s e n t R i v e r s S t a t e , ' T h 2 town i n w h i c h t h e h a d i o h a l i v e s i . e , i t s e a r t h l y head- q u a r t e r s i s c a l l e d Qz;z;, I t i s f r o m Qzyzy t h a t i t s p r e a d i t s i n f l u e n c e t o a l l p a r t s o f I q b o l c m d , T h s t i s why t h e d e i t y i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d Amadioha-Pzvzy ' as i f i t i s the? p a t r o n d c i t y o f t h e town," 5

I n t h c p , ~ s t , ( b e f o r e 1900) p e o p l e c o u l d g o t o Qzyzy

w i t h a n y p e r s o n a l p r o p c r t y cf t h e p e r s o n t h e y w a n t e d to

r e p o r t t o Amadigha, ' T ~ L god would c a u s e t h e m a n ' s d e a t h

i f t h e c l i e n t s w e r e r i g h t i n t h e i r c l a i m s , I t was s t a t e d

t h n t t h e d e i t y had i t s s h r i n e e s t , - ~ b l i s h c d i n a l l t h e

t o w n s i n t h e f o r m e r O w e r r i P r o v i n c e i n t h e p r e s e n t S o u t h

I g b o s u b c u l t u r e ares, The d e i t y c o u l d k i l l t h r o u g h t h e

f o l l o w i n g ways - a c c i d e n t s , f a l l f r o m a t ree , r e c e i v i n g

f a t a l i n j u r i e s f r o m a f a l l i n g o b j e c t , a t t a c k b y a swarm

o f b e e s , s n a k e and o t h c r a n i m a l b i t e s , l i g h t n i n g a n d

b y d rowning .

The s h r i n e o f t h o d e i t y was d e s t r o y e d i n 1 9 0 5 b y

t h e t r o o p s s e n t b y t h e Ois t r ic t O f f i c e r a t O w e r r i t h e n ,

ii c o u r t was e s t . 2 . b l i s h e d n e a r t h e s h r i n e . The p r e s e n t

s h r i n e was r c b u i l t i n a b o u t 1 9 4 0 a f t c r s e v e r a l y e a r s

of s e c r z t o p ( 2 r a t i o n s from other p l a c e s (see Appendix 111). 4

The d e i t y h a s q o t e l a b o r a t e c u l t i n many places. It

h a s g o t i t s own p r i e s t s and c u l t a t t e n d a n t s i n t h e

v a r i o u s towns w h e r e t h e w o r s h i p i s s t i l l g o i n g on . The

c u l t o f ivnadigha as a n a g e n t of t h e Supreme Being i s -U__

w i d e s p r e a d i n O w e r r i and o t h e r p a r t s of t h e S o u t h I g b o

a r e a , Sometime, God i s i n v o k e d t o a r b i t r a t e t h r o u g h

t h e i n s t r u r n o n t a l i t y o f i i m a d i ~ h a i n s u c h s e r i o u s c a s e s -- and d i s p u t e s i n v o l v i n g m a l i c i o u s a c c u s a t i o n . I t i s

t h r o u g h s u c h t h a t sonz f o r m of d i s c i p l i n e and j u s t i c e i s

enforc t -A, It i s be1it:vecl t h ; ~ t tht ma dig ha d o e s n o t

s t r i k e d m d any o n i c o n s i d e r e d h c n i e s t and i n n o c e n t b y

t h e d e i t y o

THL CULT O F THE SUN

The ' S u n 7 i s o n e o f t h e most p o w e r f u l a g e n t s of

t h e Suprcme Be ing . I t i s b c l i e v c d t o i n h a b i t t h e

Sky w i t h Chukwu, -Y_

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e Sun 2nd Chukwu i s

n o t f u l l y c o m p r e h e n d e d a s d i f f c r c - n t p < ? o p l ~ . emphasize

i t i n d i f f e r e n t ways , The s u n i s s ; l i d tc:; bi? a n

e m a n a t i o n of t h e :;upr(~me Being o r n r i ~ f l c c t i , ~ n of h i s

+ g l o r y and s p l c n d o u r (i,wlca i n th,. Nor th-wes t I g b o ) . I n Nsukka , th,:? s u n i s o f t e n s c e n as t h e ' e y e ' (a=>

o r a s t h e t m o u t l ~ ' ( ~ n y ) o f t h e Supreme B e i n g o - I n t h L : N o r t h - e a s t t o w n s of Nkporo , Aka<:zc,

Ezza, A g b a n i ~'~kpugo, and Norcieh ( n o r t h 1, t h e

s u n i s d e s c r i b 2 d as b o t h t h c ' s o n q m d ' f a c e 1 o f t h e

Supremc God, a uniqut : e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s b r i g h t n e s s , t h e

r a d i a n c e o f h i s ' l i f e e s s e n c e 1 , The s u n ' c o n v e y s 1 l i g h t

e n e r g y , l i f e a n d b r i g h t n e s s o f f o r t u n e , A t i t s s e t t i n g ,

" l i f e i s dimmed and g o e s o f f i L - a s y m b o l i c e x p r e s s i o n o f

' l i v i n g and d y i n g 1 . When i t i s n o t o u t , ' l i f e ' i s

l f c ~ v z r e d r i and t h u s becomes l ' i n a c t i v e H ,

I n t h e I s u - I t e m and Isu-ama s u b g r o u p s o f t h e S o u t h ,

t h e s u n b e c o m e s t h c s o u r c e o f r e f e r e n c e , t h e c h i e f

f ac tor i n d e t ~ r m i n i n g t h c d a y ' s a c t i v i t y o Man g e t s u p

from s l e e p ( s y m b o l i c d e a t h ) a t t h e r i s i n g o f t h e s u n .

The movement o f t h e s u n i n t h e s k y i s u s e d t o r e g u l a t e

m a n ' s t i m e - c h a r t , Hc w a t c h e s t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s u n

o n t h e s k y t o know when t o "cap t h e p a l m w i n e , t o

leavc f o r t h e m a r k c t , t o r e t u r n f r o m t h e f a r m . T h u s

h e i s d e e p l y i n f l u a n c e d b y t h e m ~ v e r n ~ ~ n t o f t h e s u n a s

a s y m b o l i c movemdnt o f t h c ' l i f e - f o r c e 9 .

Thc. sex o f t h e s u n d e i t y i n t h e v a r i o u s sub-

c u l t u r e a r e a s i s rnzle, T h i s i s o b s e r v a b l e f r o m t h e b

v z r i o u s n a w s connected w i t h t h c s u n w h i c h p e o p l e b e a r

i n t h e S o u t h p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th,.: m o r e C e n t r a l area.

S u c h names l o o k a s i f thl-y a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e w i t h

t h e t h e o p h o r o u s names , f o r i n s t a n c e :

Chukwu ( G o d ) - Anyanwy ( s u n )

Chukwugcha ( w h i t e - A n y a n w y ~ c h a ( w h i t e s u n ) g o d )

d e p i c t i n g t h e b r i g h t n e s s i n God a n d Sun.

Nwachukwu (God 1 s s o n ) - Nwanyanwy ( s u n s c h i l d

Ekmhukwu (Chukwu 1s - Ekeanyanwy ( A n y a n w y l s c r e a t i o n ) c r e a t i o n )

T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s u n i s o f t e n s e e n a s t h e d i r e c t

t ' r e p r s s e n t a t i v e M o f t h e Supreme God, S e v e r a l a l t a r s a re

d e d i c a t e d t o t h e s u n i n t h e n o r t h - I g b o area , D e s c r i b i n g

one o f t h o s e s h r i n c s , Co K, Mcek s t a t e s t h a t a man:

"sets i t a s s o o n a s h c e s t a b l i s h e s a home o f h i s own. The symbol of Anyanwu i s a b r a n c h o r c u t t i n g of an &, =irisit p l a n t e d o u t s i d e th i . hu t . f t6

I n some p a r t s o f t h z same n o r t h I g b o a r s a , f o r

i n s t a n c e ~Iwgu, r ~ n d Maky, ;!nd i n A f i k p o , V n ~ e k e , I z z i ,

!%panwudclc ( n o r t h e a s t ) ;I man u s u a l l y flees t h e s u n

t o o f f e r a w h i t e c h i c k e n when h;. i s malting an i n d i r e c t

o f f e r i n g t o th,. S u p r ~ r n - 3 e i n g 0 7

The s u n i s i n t r i c , ? t c l y a s s ~ : c i ~ t d d ~ ~ i t h t h e c h i - c u l t - At LLwka. ( n o r t h w e s t ) th' :re i s a r . i t u l - ' 1 w h i c h i s + p e r f o r m e d i n o r d e r t o e ~ t ? ~ b l i s h t h e c u l t o f an i n d i v i -

d u a l I s c h i , Thc i n d i v i d u q l i s b r o u g h t n u t i n t h e e a r l y - h o u r s o f t h e morn ing t o mnk,? s o m ~ c l a i m s f r o m t h e

Supreme God, Hc! f a c t ? s t h e sun a t thc: e ~ r l y h o u r s when

t h e r a y s are b o t h picturesque and h a r m l e s s , H e makes

a series o f r e q u e s t f r o m God and a l l h e s a y s a r e t i e d

i n a p a r c e l a n d ' b u r i e d 1 a t a n y p o i n t i n t h e compound.

The e a r l y morn ing i s s i g n i f i c a n t h e r e . I n t h e f i r s t

instants, i t i s t h e t i m e t h e ' s u n t i s s e e n t o be ' w a k i n g t

u p t o p e r f o r m i t s d a i l y a c t i v i t y , S e c o n d l y , i t i s

b e l i e v e d t h a t t h c ' s u n f r a d i a t e s t h e b e a u t y , l o v e ,

i n n o c e n c e , and g l o r y of God, P r e t t y and h a r m l e s s l i t t l e

g i r l s a r e u s u a l l y c a l l e d f lAnyanwy-vtytytt - morn ing s u n - i n d i c a t i n g t h s a d m i r a b l e q u s l i t i c s o f t h e s u n ,

On t h z c o n t r a r y i s t h e idea t h a t t h e s e t t i n g o f

t h e s u n i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e r t p a s s i n g " away o f o n e ' s

s o u l . A ceremony t o " c u t o f f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween

a d e a d man and h i s &, i s p e r f o r m e d i n th;? t .vening.

A s t h e ' s e t t i n g s u n ' p x s e s away, t h c s h r i n c i s

' u p r o o t e d ' i n d i c ? , t i n g th;:t thi.: r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s b e e n

s e v e r e d , J u s t a s t h e ce remony of " b r i n g i n g downu t h e chi - Q performed when t h , sun i s r i s i n g , t h a t of ' c u t t i n g 1

o r ' p u l l i n g t i t o f f i s pe r fo rmed ,xt-. s u n s e t , T h e sun b

i s f a c e d a t e n c h r i t u a l ,

S i m i l a r l y a r o u n d O w e r r i 2nd o t h e r towns i n t h e

C e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e Sou th - Igbc arc17, a ce remony i s pe r -

formed f o r a s i c k p c r s ~ n a b o u t t o d i e , When i t i s

c e r t a i n t h a t a s i c k p ~ l r s o n i s u n l i k c l y t o s u r v i v e , o n e

o f h i s r e l a t i v e s would go t o tht : c e n t r e o f t h c compound

and o f f e r a s a c r i f i c e . He o f f e r s s. w h i t e c h i c k e n t o

t h e s u n r e q u e s t i n g t h a t t h c s o u l o f h i s s i c k r e l a t i v e

would be ' t a k e n home1 s a f e l y ,

The t h r z c p r i n c i p a l d e i t i e s a n a l y s e d h e r e are n o t

o n l y s e e n as a g e n t s o f t h e Supreme Bcing b u t a l s o i n t c r -

m e d i a r i e s t h r o u g h whom p e o p l e g c t a c c e s s t o him. The

i n d i r e c t w o r s h i p of t h z Supreme Being i s c a r r i e d o u t

t h r o u g h t h e w o r s h i p of t h e s e and s i m i l a r o t h e r d e i t i e s ,

Forclc 2nd G. I, J o n 2 s 9 Thc I b o d n d I b i b i o - S p e a k i n 2

My I n f o r m a n t Ndukwi. Ucluma a t A m a s i r i a g r e e s w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m O w e r r i , O h a j i a n d O k p a l a i n S o u t h l y b o a re? . ,

0, U. K a l u , h s P r e c a r i o u s V i s i o n : The l ~ f r i c a n P e r c e p t i o n o f h i s W o r l d 7 f , i n 0, U, K a l u ( e d . 1, I b i d 39-43, The I g b o m y t h o f c r w - t i o n --".-".- 9 e m p h a s i z z s l a n d a n d 2 g r i c u l t u r e .

O r a l I n t e r v i e w w i t h F r a n c i p ACJU, t h e p r i z s t o f I ' u n a d i ~ h a a t t h c s h r i n e , 8 / 1 1 / 8 3 ,

C. K o Meek, Law a n d Au i n a N i g e r i a n T r i b e , (London : O o U o P o , 193'1~ See Aqwu akoh . , . <

O r a l I n t e r v i e w a t A m a s i r i , 2 5 / 2 / 8 3 ,

M r . Eze N, Ezc who c o l l e c t e d t h e i n f o r m l ? t i o n comes f r o m Onueke a n d h a s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e r i t u a l .

I n t h i s \ m r k , wi.. s e t o u t tc a c c o m p l i s h two t a s k s ,

d o l o g i c s which had b e e n u s e d t o s t u d y t h e West ~ l f r i c a n

T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n , Thc o t h e r i s t o d o a case s t u d y

on I g b o r e l i g i o n u s i n g th,: c u l t u r e - a r e a and

remedy t h e f l a w s i n c a r l i l ? r w r i t i n g s , E ~ t t e n t i o n w a s ,

however , c o n c e n t r a t e d on two, t h ~ m c s i n I g b c r e l i g i o n .

To a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e , therefore, i n t e n s i v e l i b r a r y and

a r c h i v a l r e s e a r c h was u n d e r t a k ~ n , M a t e r i a l s f rom t h i s

s o u r c e were s u p p l e m e n t e d and v a l i d a t e d w i t h t h o s e

o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e f i e l d t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a -

t i o n a l method.

The s t u d y b e g i n s w i t h an a n a l y s i s o f t h e a p p r o a c h

o f e a r l i e r writers on West A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n , T h c i r c u r s o r y method o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n

c o u p l e d w i t h r a c i a l and c u l t u r a l p r e j u d i c e p roduced

distorted v i e w o f West i i f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , From p o i n t o f

view o f s c h o l a r s h i p , we have shown t h e s u h j c c t i v i t y o f

t h i s c l a s s o f w r i t i n g ,

The p e r i o d o f c o l o n i i l l a d m i n i s t r n t i d n b r o u g h t i n

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s who a d 3 p t e d d i t h e r s y m b o l i s t o r

s o c i a l - f u n c t i o n a l i s t n p p r o x h o f e i t h e r t h e F r e n c h o r

B r i t i s h ' S c h o o l s ' o f An th ropo logy , W e h ave a l s o c o n -

s i d e r e d t h e German s c h o l a r s whosi: c o n t r i b u t i o n s w e r e

no less s p e c t a c u l a r , B e s i d e s b e i n g a h i s t o r i c a l and

p r e s e n t i n g a s t a t i c v i ew of t h e West A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n , t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l w r i t e r s were u n a b l e t o

s u r v e y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h c s p i r i t u a l and m o r a l

d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e f a i t h ,

Next t h c s t u d y examined t h e w r i t i n g s f rom t h e

m i s s i o n a r y s t a n d p o i n t , Thc p u r e l y p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

s t a n c e a d o p t e d by t h c theologians s u f f e r e d some d e f e c t s .

B e s i d e s r e l i g i o u s p r e j u d i c c ~ m d o v c r g e n e r a l i z n t i o n , t h e

m i s s i o n a r i e s p r e s e n t e d a t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n d e s c r i b e d

o u t o f i t s s o c i f i l c o n t e x t , Thi. 9 c o n f c s s i o n ~ ~ l s c h o l a r s '

whose aim w a s t o s v a n g c l i z e A f r i c m s , e x p l a i n e d t h e

r e l i g i o n i n Wes te rn t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e .

The c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f i n d i g e n o u s West A f r i c a n

s c h o l a r s h a v e a l s o been c v a l u a t c d , Somc C h r i s t i a n

t h e o l o g i a n s among them a d o p t e d t h e " p r z e p a r a t i o

e v n n g c l i c a i : a p p r o a c h of t h e i r Wes t e rn c o l l e a g u e s , The

s e c u l a r wr i t e r s among t h < m became t o o n a t i o n a l i s t i c and

o v e r - r e a c t e d i n t h e i r a t t e m p t t o d e f e n d t h e West 2 ~ f r i c a n

r e l i g i o n , Some became t o o p o l e m i c a l o r a p o l o g e t i c ,

We h a v e a l s o t a k e n n o t e of t w o modern t r e n d s w h i c h

h a v e made some s o l i d c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n West A f r i c a n

s c h o 1 : ~ r s h i p . The f i r s t i s t h e h i s t o r i a n o f r e l i g i o n

who a d o p t e d p u r ~ l y p h c n o m m o l o g i c a l s t a n c e and

emphasizec? t h e l f r z l i g i c ) n - n d s s i f o f t h e f a i t h o The o t h e r

i s t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e m3thod w h i c h a d o p t e d a l l t h e t o o l s

o f modern s o c i s l sc imcc r e s e a r c h t o i n t e r p r e t West

h f r i c a n r e l i g i o n , W C ~ h z v ~ comc to ~ 0 n c l u d i 3 t h a t n e i t h c r

t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s n o r t h e h i s t o r i a n s o f r e l i g i o n

p r e s e n t ~ d t h e a l l - r a m i f y i n g n a t b r e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n . I n a s o c i e t y w h e r e t h c s a c r e d and s e c u l a r

d o n o t e x i s t i n d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d c o m p a r t m e n t s , t l

s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , h i s t o r i c a l and r e l i g i o u s b a c k g r o u n d

m u s t b e g i v e n a c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,

R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t n o o n e s i n g l e t h e o r z t i c a l f r ame-

wcrk c n n f u l l y p r o v i d e t h e a n s w e r , t h i s s t u d y h a s

t h e r e f o r e o f f e r e d t h e c u l t u r e - a r e a and p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l

a p p r o a c h a s a v i a b l e p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e s t u d y . I n con-

s i d e r i n g t h i s , i t h a s t a k w n o t ? o f Harcjld W. T u r n e r ' s

r e c e n t c a l l f o r th . ! re--c:xaminatic)n cf t h c s t u d y o f

r e l i g i o u s phenomena w i t h i n s m a l l e r T i u n i t s of 12 l a r g e r

c o m p l e x s o c i i 2 t y as ;: nzw d i r e c t i \ . : , n tc.1 ti?!.:. s t u d y o f

A f r i c a n p r i m a l religions," f-lo h a s 0pint-1~1 t h a t . s u c h

a ~ s p h c n o m ~ ~ n o l o g i c : ~ l s t u d y w i t h i n c u l t u r ' 2 - a r e a g r c u p s

w i l l i n v o l v c s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y of a l l t h e manifestations

o f f o r m s o f r e l i g i o n a n d t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d m e a n i n g s from

m o r p h o l o g i c a l , t y p a l o y i c a l a n d c o m p a r a t i v e v i e w p o i n t s . F s 1

The c a l l s of p r : ~ v i o u s s c h o l a r s who s u g g e s t e d a

u n i f i e d a n d mor? pc1yrnethocJi.c a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y of

A f r i c m r e l i g i o n w c r c c o n s i d ? r e d b - f o r t wc p : ) s i t c d t h e

c u l t u r e - a r c a a n d phc-nornt:n,j a p p r o ? c h , F o r i n s t a n c e ,

w e h a v e t z k e n n o t < ? t ~ f 3. C, Ii:yss f s p c ~ l y m < t h o d i ~ f t a p p r o a c h

2 among o t h e r s , H O W L V L ~ ~ thc. e a r l i e r sugcjes t i i - ,n of

b C h a r l c s Long i s f u l l y i n c c ~ r p o r s t c d i n t h t l c h a i c r -~f a

c u l t u r e - a r e a a n d phenom,- :nologica l p e r s p e c t i v e . I n t h e

w o r d s o f C h a r l c s Lonq , Y1phcnorncn:)logy a n d m o r p h o l o g y o f

r e l i g i o n i ' s h o u l d be c o n s i c l e r c d a l o n g s i d 2 t h e f i e x i s t e n t i a l ,

s o c i a l a n d p r a c t i c a l dimensions of r e l i g i o n , " 3

W e h a v e , t h e r e f o r e , come o u t w i t h t h e c u l t u r e - a r e a

a n d p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a p p r o r ? c h as t h i a n s w e r t o t h e

w e a k n e s s e s o f t h e e a r l i c r w r i t i n g s , I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e ,

t h e c u l t u r e - a r s a e m p h a s i s h a s t a k e n care o f t h e p r o b l e m

of o v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . Secondly, t h e phenomenological

s t a n c e h a s c h e c k e d t h e e r r o r af p r e j u d i c e i n i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n o f ava i l ab le d a t a ,

W h i l e a p p l y i n g t h i s new a p p r o a c h i n t h e s e c o n d

p a r t of t h e w o r k , wi> w c r c , h o w ~ e v e r , r e m i n d e d o f

P r o f e s s o r E, B, Idowu I s e a r l i e r w a r n i n g w h i c h h e

c a l l e d I t h i ? High Way Codes ' to t h e s t u d y of A f r i c a n

T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n , 4

Using t h i s a p p r o a c h i n s t u d y i n g t h e I g b o c o n c e p t s

of God and D i v i n i t i ~ s , wc h a v e n o t only p r o v e d i t s

v i a b i l i t y b u t a l s o b e n e f i t t e d f rom t h e w e a l t h of i d e a s

r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h s u c h an i n d e p t h a n a l y s i s . Thc b e l i e f

i n t h e S u p r e m ~ Being i s c o n f i r m e d t o 5e i n t h e v a r i o u s

subculture a r e a s , Thd d i f f e r e n t names w i t h wh ich t h e

p e o p l e know God a r e dependent on s c v c r a l f ac tors - +

h i s t o r y , c u l t u r e - c o n t a c t 2nd l a n g u L q c ( d i z l e c t 1. Any

To r e a c h

d e c i p h e r i n g t

a n y o b j e c t i v e

t h a t i t n e e d s

p r i n c i p l e s .

From o u r

t h e o l o g i c a l a rgumen t on t h e p e r i o d o f I g b o a w a r e n e s s

o f God s h o u l d t a k e n a t e of a 1 1 t h e names of God i n a l l

t h e identifiable s u b c u l t u r e a r e a s . Using CHUKWU or

CHINEKE a l o n e d o e s n o t h c l p much, -.--w.uII

t h e l e v e l of u n d e r s t a n d i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r

hc mean ings o f t h e r e l i g i o u s d a t a t h r o u g h

a n a l y s i s , w e have now come t o c o n c l u d e

a method c o m p r i s i n g e l a b o r a t e t h e o r e t i c a l

s t u d y , wc have; s e e n how a n y u n q u a l i f i e d

t h e o l o g i c a l s t a t c m e n t a b o u t I g b o r c 1 i g j . c n c a n no l o n g e r

b e a c c e p t e d . F o r ins tanci . , ik . ;ne s a y s , " t h z I g b o d o n o t .Z

of fe r d a i l y w o r s h i p ts t h e Sup rune Be ing i i , t h e o n e h a s

t o b e reminded t h a t t hc l - e an2 cornpoun(< a l t a r s i n many

p a r t s o f Nsukka. I t i s s a f e r t o s a y t h a t " t h e d i r e c t

w c r s h i p o f t h c Suprernc Being i s more f r e q u e n t i n t h e

n o r t h s u b - c u l t u r e I g b o a r e a o f Nsukka t h a n i n O w c r r i

i n t h e s o u t h o w

T h i s work h a s p o i n t c d o u t t h e v a l u ? wh ich a

m i c r o - s t u d y o f t h i s t y p e h a s f o r a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n

and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n i n t h e

v a s t a r e a of t h e West A f r i c a n s u b - r e g i o n , ~ e s i d e s ,

i t r e v e a l s t h a t t r a d i t i o n 2 1 r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e h a s b

shown r e m a r k a b l e v e r s a t i l i t y i n i t s h i s t o r y and d e v e l o p -

ment. F u t u r e s t u d i e s w i l l no l o n g s r see t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o n a s a s u r v i v a l o f t h e so-call i : -d t t p r i m i t i v e

f e t i s h i s m " b u t a s a p e o p l e ' s c o n t i n o u s s e a r c h f o r t h e

U l t i m a t e R e a l i t y ,

1. H. W. T u r n e r , i1Tht2 Way Forward i n t h e R e l i g i o u s S tudy of P r i m a l R e l i g i o n s s s , J ,H.A, , 3 , 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) 2,

2, B, C, Ray, A f r i c a n R e l i q i o n s : Symbols, R i t u a l and Cornrnunitl, (New J e r s e y : P r e n k i c c - H a l l , 1 9 7 6 ) , p e l b -

3, C h a r l e s M, Long, srProlegomcnon t o a R e l i g i o u s H e r m m e u t i c f s , H i s t o r 1 of R e l i q i o n s , 6 , 3 ( l 9 7 l ) , - p.254,

4 , E, B, Idowu, ' i i f r i can T r a d i t i o n a l R e l i g i o n : 1 '~ D L . f i n i t i o n , (Lc;ndon: S,C.M, P r e s s L~T 19731, K +

A P P E N D I C E S

ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES OF EXTRACTS FROM THE FIELD REPORTS v-

A P P E N D I X I

THE ADQRQ D I V I N I T Y - - - - -

1. I n f o r m a n t s : Atama C h r i s t o p h e r Humphrey Eze L a z a r u s Ukwueze

2. Date: 3 r d December, 1982

3. F i e l d A s s i s t a n t : E. E. Odo

#

SUMMARY

The Adoro i s a f e m a l e d e i t y i n A l p y n g Nsukka, North . - Igbo s u b c u l t u r e a r e a whose i n f l u e n c e has submerged t h a t

of h e r male c o n s o r t , Ugwu-ekpe. H e r s o n , Ngwu, acts l i k e

her ' body-guard* and h i s s h r i n e i s l o c a t e d a t t h e main

e n t r a n c e t o t h e s h r i n e ,

The i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s d e i t y c a n be a s c e r t a i n e d from t h e l o c a t i o n of i t s s h r i n e : a t t h e o n l y source of water

s ~ p p l y i n a v e r y d r y town, The d e i t y i s t h e r e f o r e regarded a s t h e f e r t i l i t y p r i n c i p l e of t h e town, a source o f l i fe where b a r r e n women who need c h i l d r e n come t o a s k fo r

b a b i e s . T h e r e i s an elaborate w o r s h i p h e r e every Oye-

m a r k e t d a y a t a b o u t 4 p.m, Worsh ippe r s come f rom d i f f e g e n t

p a r t s o f Nsukka and Benue S t a t e . J u b i l a n t w o r s h i p p e r 3

dance t o t h e b e a u t i f u l mus ic f rom modern i n s t r u m e n t s .

The s h r i n e i s d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r s found in Nsukka. The Attama who c o n t r o l s i t , i s n o t of I g a l a o r i g i n , Its

n o n 4 g a l a i n f l u e n c e i s p e r h a p s an a t t e m p t by t y p i c a l Igbo s t o c k t o o f f s e t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e I g a l a A t t a m a which

had c o n t r o l l e d a l l o t h e r s h r i n e s i n Nsukka b o r d e r l i n e

I g b o l a n d .

The numerous u n f i r e d c l a y p o t s are a common s i g h t i n a l l t h e s h r i n e s i n Nsukka, Two l i k e l y r e a s o n s c a n be

adduced , One i s t h a t Nsukka 5s s o d r y t h a t w a t e r i s a

c h e r i s h e d commodity, V o t a r i e s o f f e r g i f t s of water con-

t a i n e r s as p r e c i o u s g i f t s t o t h e d i v i n i t y , S e c o n d l y ,

Adoro i s a female d e i t y and p o t s are among i m p o r t a n t 0 .

-.cclrc

h o u s e h o l d u t e n s i l s of a woman,

The a b s e n c e o f any o t h e r c u l t o f t h e E a r t h g o d d e s s

i s made u p f o r by t h e e l a b o r a b e c u l t o f Ad?r?. No one knows w h e t h e r A d ~ r g i s a d e i f i e d f e m a l e a n c e s t o r a s s h e

h a s h e r own s h r i n e whe re s h e w o r s h i p s E z e c h i t o k e ,

The u s e of modern m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s and t h e s o l i d

h o u s e s b e i n g u sed as t h e s h r i n e , re f lec t t h e a b i l i t y o f

t h e o r g a n i z e r s of t h e s h r i n e t o be r e l e v a n t t o t h e c u r r e n t

s i t u a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t r y . I n s p i t e o f t h e p r e s e n c e of b i g

c h u r c h e s a r o u n d and t h e U n i v e r s i t y of N i g e r i a , t h i s s h r i n e

i s s t i l l a f l o u r i s h i n g c e n t r e f o r r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s ,

APPENDIX I1

TNITIATION I N T O OGO CULT AT ANQFIA AFIKPO - - -

I n f o r m a n t : M r , Uduma - a H e a d m a s t e r of a S c h o o l and a l s o a w o r s h i p p e r of a l o c a l d e i t y .

Date : 1 0 t h March, 1 9 8 3 ,

M r , Uduma worked as a f i e l d a s s i s t a n t t o Simon

O t t e n b e r g and h i s w i f e , Phoebe,

AS a member o f t h e c u l t , M r , Uduma h a s d e t a i l s

of t h e s o c i e t y " 7 ' . i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e Age G r a d e

s y s t e m t h a t i s common i n f 7 ~ f i k p o , T h i s c u l t i s i m p o r t a n t b

f o r a n y young man i n A n ~ f i a i f h e w i l l l i k e t o b e r e g a r d e d

a s f u l l - g r o w n man by t h e communi ty , I t i s n o t a n

i n i t i a t i o n i n t o a secret s o c i e t y b u t i n t o a c o m p u l s o r y

a d u l t s t a g e i n t h e town,

The i n i t i a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e b e t w e e n A u g u s t and

December e v e r y y e a r u s u a l l y a f t e r t h e New Y a m f e s t i v a l ,

The ' c a n d i d a t e s ' move i n t o t h e 'camp' a n d l i v e i n t h e

b l s h b e t w e e n Augus t a n d December, They are a l l o w e d to l i v e l i k e o u t l a w s and v a g a b o n d s i n t h e 'camp1 ( b u s h ) ,

They c o m m i t a l l sorts of crime - s t e a l , l o o t p e o p l e ' s

p r o p e r t y , h u n t w i l d a n i m a l s , e n d u r e h u n g e r , c o l d ,

and t h i r s t ,

D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h r e e months i n t h e 'campf t h e

young men a r e n o t e x p c c t e d t o s l e e p i n h o u s e s , e a t c o o k e d

f o o d e x c e p t t h e o n e s e n t i n t o them b y a f e w s e l e c t e d o ld

men, I n t h e p a s t , t h e ' c a n d i d a t e s werc e x p e c t e d t o g e t

human h e a d s a s pr , ~c+ i c ; t l d c m o n s t r ; l t i o n of power ,

A t t h e end of t h e t h r e e months1 * e x i l e 1 i n t h e

1% B u s h t , t h e n e o p h i t e s a r e e x p e c t e d t o f i n d t h e i r

way o u t t o t h e @ i n i t i a t i o n h a l l 1 . The movement t a k e s

p l a c e a t n i g h t . T h e i r e y e s a r e c o v e r e d w i t h bands of

c l o t h . The r o a d s a r c b l o c k e d w i t h l o g s of wood, and

ab le -bodied young men h i d e a t d i f f e r e n t c o r n e r s . They

beat any n e o p h i t z m e r c i l e s s l y as he s t r u g g l e s t o g e t

o u t of t h e bush. Those who manage t o g e t o u t a r e

f i n a l l y b r o u g h t i n t o t h e '0s House' where t h e y a r e

t a u g h t t h e secrets of l i f e for men, Those who c o l l a p s e d

on t h c way a r e t a u n t e d and a r e a sked t o j o i n t h e n e x t

g r o u p t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , The 'secret s c h o o l i n g 1 is 8

f o l l o w e d by a n e l a b o r a t e o u t i n g ceremony when t h e

n e o p h i t e s ' r e t u r n 1 t o t h z society and are welcomed by

t h e whole community a t t h e Oqo s ~ . Thzy * r e i n t e g r a t e 1

i n t o t h e d i s c i p l i n e d l i f s o f t h e s o c i c t y where t h e y are

t r e a t e d a s a d u l t men. Thc h a r d s h i p which t h e y are

s u b j e c t e d t o i s aimed a t p r e p a r i n g them t o f a c e t h e

r e a l i t i e s of l i f e .

APPENDIX 111 ---- JZU 8 . -

I n f o r m a n t : M r . F r a n c i s Agu

Date : 2 8 t h A p r i l , 1983

L o c a t i o n : Qzyzv i s i n t h e p r e s e n t R i v e r s S t a t e o f N i g e r i a .

The o r i g i n of t h i s d e i t y i s d i f f i c u l t t o a c c o u n t

f o r as i t i s n o t seen as t h e p a t r o n d e i t y o f t h e

comrnuni t y .

M r , Agu who w a s a c i v i l s e r v a v t i n Enugu i n t h e

f o r m e r E a s t e r n Region r e t i r e d i n 1965 and t ook up f u l l

t i m e s e r v i c e a t t h i s a w c - i n s p i r i n g s h r i n e .

h u n d e r c a l l c d Amadi?ha i n t h e c e n t r a l W

I g b o a r e a , i s a l s o c a l l e d Karnaly i n t h e C r o s s River Igbo P

area and i n some p a r t s of t h e Nor th -wes t s u b c u l t u r e

a r e a s , Minor s h r i n e s of t h e d e i t y a t a n y o t h e r p a r t of I g b o l a n d o r i g i n a t e d f rom t h e m a j o r o n e a t Qzyzy.

The p r e s e n t s h r i n e o f t h e d e i t y was e s t a b l i s h e d i n

1930 a f t e r t h c d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e f o r m e r o n e by t h e D.O.

a t O w e r r i i n 1905 soon a f t e r t h c Aro E x p e d i t i o n of 1901/02.

The s i t e i s s o a w e - i n s p i r i n g t h a t o n e n o t i c e s I g b o

p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s p i r i t w o r l d , It i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e

d e i t y i s a p o w e r f u l god. T h i s is a s e r i o u s a t t e m p t by

t h e men i n t h c p a s t t o r e c a p t u r e thc powers t h a t e x i s t

i n n a t u r e , The impos ing e f f i g y o f t h e d e i t y s y m b o l i s e

t h a t c o n c e p t o f power. The e f f i g y i s a b o u t two and a

h a l f f e e t h i g h w i t h t h r e e human heads on wh ich a p y t h o n

c o i l e d , The head of a ram i s p l a c e d on i t w h i l e two

s h e e p are p l a c e d u n d e r n e a t h , A l l t h e f i g u r e s s y m b o l i s e

power a s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d by t h e Igbo , The two h o r n s on

t h e ram s y m b o l i s e power , w h i l e t h e p y t h o n i s a n o t h e r

m e s s e n g e r o f t h e d e i t y , Thc t h r e e human h e a d s show t h a t

i n t h e p a s t , human b e i n g s were o f f e r e d t o KAMALY, T h e

o t h e r a n i m a l s a r e v i c t i m s o f s a c r i f i c e ,

It i s b c l i e v c d t h a t a n y o n e k i l l e d by l i g h t n i n g

anywhere i s ci v i c t i m of t h i s d e i t y , The power o f t h e

d e i t y i s n o t d i m i n i s h e d by t h e number of o t h e r s h r i n e s o f

kmadioha e s t z b l i s h 2 d i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of I g b o l a n d , M r . 0

m c d t h a t t h o s e who d o n o t w o r s h i p t h c d e i t y d o n o t

acknowledge i t s power, H e e x p l a i n e d t h a t c o n s c i o u s l y or

o t h e r w i s e , e v e r y o n e fe ; . l s t h e power o f t h e d e i t y , No

i n n o c e n t p e r s o n is k i l l e d by l i g h t n i n g . A s a god of

j u s t i c e , i t c a n s t r i k e any o f f e n d e r w h e t h e r t h e one

b e l i e v e s or n o t ,

Many c l i e n t s s t i l l come f rom d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of

Bende l , R i v e r s , I m o and ' k a m b r a S t a t e s t o c o n s u l t t h i s

d e i t y . No m a t t e r t h e b r a n c h of i t s s h r i n e t h e d e i t y is

c o n s u l t e d , i t c a r r i e s o u t i t s judgement on a n y o f f e n d e r

i n any p a r t of t h e u n i v e r s e ,

The h o u s e h o l d p r o p c r t y f o u n d a t t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s

of t h e s h r i n e a r c i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e v i c t i m s who d i e d as

a r e s u l t of f a l s e o a t h t h e y swore a t t h c s h r i n e of t h e

d e i t y . Thesc o b j e c t s add t o t h e f e a r s o f a n y who would

come t h e r e f o r s e t t l e m e n t of d i s p u t e s .

At t h e a n n u a l f e s t i v a l of t h e d e i t y , i n Augus t ,

t h o s e who had been h e l p e d some time i n t h e p a s t would

come t o p a y homage t o t h e d e i t y , I r o n i c a l l y , i t i s s a i d

t h a t t h e d e i t y t u r n s back t o ! ' s t r i k e d e a d y $ a n y o n e who

w a n t s t o h i r e i t s s e r v i c e s a g a i n s t some o n e a d j u d g e d b y

t h e d e i t y a s h o n e s t , Though t h e r e i s n o r e g u l a r c u l t of

t h e d e i t y i n many p l a c e s , i t i s s t i l l f e a r e d a n d p e o p l e

s t i l l g o t o i t s s h r i n e n e a r e s t t o them f o r s e t t l e m e n t of

d i s p u t e s , The o r i g i n a l s i t e of t h e s h r i n e a t Qzyzy was

b e s i e g e d and a c u s t o m a r y c o u r t e s t a b l i s h e d b e s i d e i t ,

Y e t t h e c u l t d i d n o t d i e o u t l i k c t h o s e o f t h e o r a c u l a r

d e i t i e s when t h e y wcr? d e m o l i s h ~ d by t h e c o l o n i a l

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,

The g o d o f t h u n d e r i s a n i g b o expression of t h e

d i v i n c w r a t h a n d judg,.?mcnt a g a i n s t l n y u n n a t u r a l e v e n t .

The god i s b e l i e v e d t o t h r o w t o thL? o p e n a n y :had

m e d i c i n e s " w h i c h men h i d e u n d e r t h e i r d r e s s e s o r a t a n y

c o r n e r of t h e h o u s e ,

AP-FCNDIX I V

THE CULT OF ALE (EARTH GODDESS) I N EZLA

I n f o r m a n t : Mba N w a f ~

I n t e r p r e t e r : T h e o p h i l u s O k o r i e ( a t e a c h e r )

Date: 2 5 t h May, 1983,

The E z z a , Ikwo, I z z i and some p a r t s o f t h c N o r t h - e a s t

I g b o a r 2 a h a v e a d i f f c r c n t d i a l c c t w h i c h some p e o p l e i n

t h e morc c e n t r a l a r e a d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d , T h e i r c o n t a c t

w i t h t h e C r o s s R i v e r I q b o n c i q h b o u r s d i \ l n o t a f f e c t them

so much i n terms of cul . t ;urc b o r r m ~ i n g s , 'Th(2ir c o n t a c t h a s

b e e n f a c i l i t a t e d t h r o u q ' ~ th:? Kbonyi and 0k;nolcu r i v e r s .

T h e r e i s a n e l a b o r a t e a n c e s t o r c u l t i n t h i s a r e a ,

l i k e i n many o t h e r p a r t s of I g b o l a n d , E v e r y l i n e a g e h e a d

i s b u r i e d w i t h i n t h c compound, T h % s i s o n e o f t h e r i c h e s t

f o o d p r o d u c i n g a r e a s i n I g b o l a n d . T h e h e a d o f t h e s e n i o r

l i n e a g e i s c a l l e d I s h i a l c ( h e a d of l a n d ) . The a g r i c u l t u r a l --- I

c o n c e r n s o f t h c a r e a mcalcc t h z p e o p l e d e p e n d c o m p l e t e l y on l a n d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c u l t of t h e E a r t h g o d d e s s i s

h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d , The Ale ( e a r t h ) is s t r o n g l y c o n n e c t e d I -- w i t h t h e a n c e s t o r s . Thc l i v i n g h e a d o f a l i n e a g e i s a

p r i e s t o f t h e Z a r t h g o d d e s s ( A l e ) and as t h e h e a d o f t h e - L i n e a g e s h r i n e , h c i s a l s o t h e I s h i a l e . T h i s i s a t y p e

I

4

o f l e a d e r s h i p w h e r e t h ? h e a d o f t h e most s e n i o r l i n e a g e I

becomes t h e p r i e s t o f t h e A l e , B e i n g b o t h t h e p r i e s t a n d I - I

t h e l e a d e r , he a d m i n i s t e r s a l l t h a t h a p p e n s i n t h c s o c i e t y .

Land d i s p u t e s a r e s e t t l e d b y t h e I s h i a l c a n d a l l who m u s t -- f a r m , m u s t gc2t h i s p e r m i s s i o n ,

The c u l t of t h e Z a r t h g o d d e s s i s t h e h i g h e s t

d e v e l o p e d c u l t i n t h i s a r c ? , The I s h i a l e i s a symbol of

u n i t y i n t h e communi ty , However, t h e r e is t h e u s e of

t h e gfg w h i c h t h e in:ormsnt c l a i m e d i s r e l a t i v e l y new i n - t h e a r e a d u e t o c o n t a c t s w i t h o t h e r i t i n e r a n t p r i e s t s ,

The h i g h e s t t i t l o i s t h e eiHorsc t i t l e i s , T h i s i s t a k e n

as a mark o f s u c c e s s f u l y m f a r m i n g o r w e a l t h i n o t h e r

a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , Horses, cows o r r a m s a r e k i l l e d ,

i s a mark of a f f l u c n c c w h i c h many I s h i a l c d o ,

APPENDIX V

THE EZE-NRI: AN I G B O PRIEST-KING

I n f o r m a n t s : 1. J, Nwafor (Enugwu-~kwu, 6 / 5 / 8 3 ) 2, 0. Okoye ( ~ g u k w u - N r i , 1 0 / 5 / 8 3 ) 3, I, E z e o b i ( N a w f i a , 1 5 / 5 / 8 3 )

S i n c e t h e t i m e o f M,D,W. J c f f r e y s ' r e s e a r c h i n t h i s

'Ho ly C i t y 1 of N r i a n d r e c e n t w o r k s of Qnw;eje?gw? i n

t h i s a r e a , a good number o f w r i t t e n s o u r c e s are a v a i l a b l e

o n t h i s u n i q u e c e n t r e o f r c ? l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n , The i n t e r e s t

o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e r e a s o n s why #

t h i s model p r i e s t h o o d o r I c i n g s h i p d i d n o t s p r e a d t o

o t h e r p a r t s o f I g h o l a n d , S e c o n d l y , wc w a n t e d t o under -

s t a n d how t h i s r e v e r e d ' d i v i n e k i n g q h a s b e e n g e t t i n g

on a t p r e s e n t w i t h t r a d i t i o n e s p e c i a l l y t h a t c o n n e c t e d

w i t h t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a c a n d i d a t e i n t o a ' g o d 1 ,

T h e r e i s a q u a r r e l o v e r t h e h e a d s h i p o f t h e i l H o l y

City:' Meanwhi le t h e religious h c a d q u a r t e r s o f Umunri

i s s t i l l a t ,lgukwu and t h e h i g h e s t O r d e r of N r i p r i e s t -

hood came f r o m t h e r e . They h o l d t h e h i g h e s t a n d t h e

o l d e s t tf? i n I g b o l a n d , The t h r e c i n f o r m a n t s f r o m t h e - d i f f e r e n t towns a re a g r e e d on t h i s , T h e r e i s however ,

a d i f f i c u l t i s s u e t o r e s o l v e : t h a t i s t h e a g e o f t h e

d i f f e r e n t ?f? i n Agukwu a n d t h a t a t Enugwu-ukwu s i n c e - the two c h i e f s d o n o t a c c e p t t h s t o n e i s i n f e r i o r t o t h e o t h e r ,

The N r i p r i e s t h o o d a n d ! c i n g s h i p wcri:. a r a r e

c o m b i n a t i o n o f p i c t y and power w h i c h d i d n o t c o r r u p t .

Hence N r i p e o p l c s t i l l see their : e r s t l ~ h i l c kingdom as a

'Ho ly C i t y 1 w h e r e no o n e was o p p r e s s e d , n o p o i s o n i n g , no

w i t c h c r a f t , etc. had a p l a c e , T h i s t h e r e f o r e q u a l i f i e d

e v e r y c i t i z e n o f t h e Holy C i t y a s a p r i e s t , To

p e r p e t u a t e t h i s c l a i m , t h e E z e - N r i who s u p c r v i s c s them

d o e s n o t o f f i c i a t e a s a p r i e s t b u t a s ' g o d q h i m s e l f - above t h e r a n k o f p r i e s t h o o d . H i s p o s i t i o n a s a ' g o d '

g i v e s him u n i q u e powers t o c o n f e r p r i e s t l y o f f i c e on a l l

h i s subjects,

The -- Rdama - who i s k h ~ h i q h e s t p r i e s t of a l 1 , d i r e c t s

and c o n t r o l s th.2 r i t u a l s c o n n e c t e d w i t h the: ceremony

w h i c h c h a n q e s a c ; ? n d i d ? t z f o r the; T$ri k i n g s h i p i n t o a

The 'Ho ly p i l g r i m a . q ~ i t n t q u l c r i t o o b t , \ i n thc

' Q d y d y t , o n e o f t h e importanir. i tems t h a t m c ? ? : ~ up the:: L__.

r o y a l r e g a l i a , has bc:;ln e x n l a i n e d i n r e l a - t i o n t o t h e

h i s t o r i c o r r a t h c r 1m7 / th i ca l7 p o s i t i o n o f A g u l e r i b e i n g

t h e a n c i e n t home of t h e Umunri f r om w h e r e t h e y m i g r a t e d

t o Agukwu, I t i s a show o f s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e t r a d i -

t i o n a l home as w e l l a s a d i p l o m a t i c way o f s c e k i n g

r e c o g n i t i o n f r o m t h e a n c e s t o r s , T h i s c r e a t e s t h e p rob lem

of d a t i n g t h e o r i g i n of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of t h i s ' d i v i n e '

k i n g s h i p . It w a s p o s s i b l y a f t e r the m i g r a t i o n f r o m t h e

A g u l e r i home t h a t t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n began .

Why d i d t h i s monarchy which c o n t r o l l e d t h e p o l i t i c o -

r e l i g i o u s l i f e of t h e p e o p l e n o t s e e k t o c o l o n i z e o t h e r

p a r t s o f I g b o t e r r i t o r y ? The N r i p r i e s t s were: s e c n a s

p u r v e y o r s o f b o t h c u l t s and c i v i l i z a t i o n . Y e t , t h e

p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e i r i n f l u e n c e d i d n o t a f f e c t

many o t h e r s u b - c u l t u r e a r e a s . For i n s t a n c e t h e p r e s e n c e

of gfg symbol and 923 t i t l e s o c i e t y i s t r a c e a b l e t o t h e c.l)l -U-

N r i i t i n e r a n t r i t u a l e x p e r t s b u t t h e i r i n t e r e s t was

n o t o n b u i l d i n g ' c o l o n y P :I? t h e ' H o l y C i t y 1 . None of

t h e i n f o r m a n t s w a s p r e p x - e d t o g i v e an a n s w e r ,

Two l i k e l y r e a s o n s m i g h t be g i v e n f o r t h i s t y p e o f

d e v e l o p m e n t , F i r s t , t h e ' S a c r e d K i n g F m i g h t be a l e a d e r

o f a g r o u p o f p r i e s t s whose i n t e r e s t was p u r e l y r e l i g i o u s

r a t h z r th,?n p o l i t i c a l d o m i n a t i o n o f o t h e r c l a n s , S e c o n d ,

o t h e r I g b o g r o u p s m i g h t h a v e a c c e p t e d t h e i r r i t u a l

c o n t r i b u t i o n s b u t n o t t h e i r p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , T h e i r

m u c h - p u b l i c i s e d ' p i e t y r made them n o t u s e force o n

p e o p l e . P r o b a b l y t h e i r lac!< o f s t r o n g m i l i t a r y force b

p r e v e n t e d them f r o m d o i n g so.

The ! r i t u a l t o f f i c e of t h e c i t i z e n s of N r i i s n o t

e x e r c i s e d o v e r a l l p a r t s of I g b o l a n d . T h i s may be t h e

r e a s o n t h e s ' d i v i n e q q a s p e c t of t h e k i n g s h i p i s n o t v e r y

much e m p h a s i z e d by n o n - i n d i g e n e s o f N r i . The r e s p e c t

and i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Eze-Nri h a s e q u a l l y d i m i n i s h e d .

APPENDIX V I

ATION OF OF171CES I N E D D A RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE

P l a c e : Amangwu V i l l a g e , Edda

Compound : E z i Ukpa Amaukwu Compound

C h i e f I n f o r m a n t : C h i e f Qlyg; Uduma

I n t e r p r e t e r : M r , O k i k e Onwe

D a t e : 28 May, 1983,

Edda f a l l s w i t h i n t h e same s u b - c u l t u r e a r e a w i t h

k f i k p o and s i t u a t e s c7 fcw k i l o m . ters f r o m l-imasdri and

Afilcpo, The t l i a l c c t s a r c f z i r l y Q i f i c r r e n t . T h o s e i n

t h e S o u t h o r Nor th -wes t I q b o nr.27. may n o t u n d e r s t a n d

t h e d i a l e c t s e a s i l y ,

Two ?ge g r a d e s ( R i ~ n k o and I s h i n ~ ) wcre r : ? s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f khc c h i , ? f d e i t y i n t h i s town, The

two g r o u p s c l e a r e d t h ~ c o n f l u e n c l - o f t h e ~ I J O s t r e a m s i n

t h e town and l o c a t e d t h c s h r i n e tlwrc, The s e v e n

v i l l a g e s i n t h e town s a w i t 2nd l a t m b r o u q h t s e v e n cows

t o t h e s h r i n e t o t h c d c i t y t o c o n f i r m t h e i r s u p p o r t o f

i t s p r e s e n c e . Thereafter, t h e y g a v e t h e d e i t y a name -

Two young a g e g r a d e s a 1 t e r n a t e e v e r y f o u r y e a r s .

The f i rs t i s c a l l e d Anyafymba, a y o u n g e r g r a d e o f t h e - - Bianko. The o t h e r i s krymkpu w h i c h i s a y o u n g e r b r a n c h

o f t h e Ishina. A f t e r e a c h of t h e two y o u n g e r age g r a d e s - h a s p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t ro le a t t h e f e s t i v a l o f I k p a l a .

d e i t y , w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e o n c e i n f o u r y e a r s , t h e g r o u p

moves t o t h e h i g h e r a d u l t g r a d e o f e i t h e r B i a n k o or I s h i n a ,

The c h i e f of t h c town i n c i d e n t a l l y i s t h e p r i e s t

of t h e d e i t y , The o f f i c e of tzhe p r i c s t i s h e r e d i t a r y

and d e v o l v e s o n a n y on(? wi-~o becomes t h e c h i c f o f t h e

town ,and m u s t b e l o n q t o e i t h e r of t h c two agc g r a d e s - B i a n k o or I s h i n a , It was r e p o r t e d t h a t t h ? l e a d e r o f ..-- ----- t h e a g e g r a d e t h a t b r o u g h t t h e d e i t y became t h e c h i e f of

t h e community and i n c i d e n t a l l y assumed t h e o f f i c e of

p r i e s t h o o d , W h i l e t h c p r i e s t - c h i e f i s i n t h e s h r i n e ,

h e d o e s n o t s p e a k i n m o t h e r l a n g u a g e e x c e p t h i s local

d i a l e c t . H e t h c r e f o r ~ . s p e a k s t h r o u g h a n i n t e r p r e t e r

when a d d r e s s i n q 2 v i s i t : o r , The d e i t y was s a i d t o h a v e

b e e n b r o u g h t f r o m e l s e w h e r e b u t n o on? was able t o s t a te b

w h e r e i t came f r o m ,

The l i f e of t h e p r i e s t who i s a l so t h e c h i e f of t h e

communi ty i s on;: i n which r i t u a l and p o l i t i c a l o f f ices

are combined , He i s , h o w e v m , n o t r e g a r d e d a s a i i s a c r e d , i

k i n g o f t h e N r i t y p e o Wc p e r f o r m s t h e o f f i c i a l r i t u a l s

t o t h z c h i e f d e i t y of t h c town - .. 1- and f i x e s t h e

d a t e f o r t h e a n n u a l f e s t i v a l o f t h e d e i t y , w h i c h t a k e s

p l a c e from J a n u w y 1st t o t h c 8 t h e v e r y y e a r , Thc r i t u a l

t h a t c o n f e r s t h z p r i e s t l y o f f i c e on a candidate i s t h e

same t h a t makes him the c h i e f o f t h e community.

Edda i s a town w i t h "war-hero a n c e s t o r s t ' who r e p o s e

c o n f i d e n c e on a l e a d e r who i s a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e

secrets of t h ? d e i t y , H e p r e p a r e s them f o r war , T h i s

b r i n g s u s t o t h e p l x e of otticr I ~ c a l d e i t i e s i n t h e

s o c i o - r e l i g i o u s l i f e o f ti-12 Kddn p e o p l e ,

The Earth-goddess has a n c l a h o r a t c : c ' u l t c a l l e d

a l s o r e v e r e d i n t h e town, I t i s also r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

a d j u d i c a t i n g c a s e s and a d m i n i s t e r i n g o a t h s a n d j u s t i c e .

The Kamaly-Ukwu d e i t y h a s a c o n s p i c u o u s s h r i n e a t t h e

town s q u a r e , I t i s understood as t h e god of w a r w h i c h

o f f e r s t h e town p r o t e c t i o n from t h e e x t e r n a l e n e m i e s ,

The o f f e r i n g s t o t h c Supreme Being a r e p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h

t h e s h r i n e o f KamalpUkwu. Each of t h e s e d e i t i e s h a s

a p r i e s t who i s u n d e r t h e p r i e s t o f S P A L A d e i t y . Each

g o e s t o him f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n a t c e r t a i n times o f t h e week

t o d i s c u s s t h e r c l i y i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l matters,

The Edda e x a m p l e i s u n i q u e , Many t r a d i t i o n a l

p r i e s t s i n I g b o s o c i e t y d o n o t s u h j c c k t h e m s e l v e s t o

t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h c p r i e s t o f a n o t h e r d e i t y . What

g a v e t h e p r i e s t o f t h e I K P I ~ L A d e i t y a n a d v a n t a g e o v e r

o t h e r p r i e s t s i s h i s p o s i t i o n as t h e communi ty l e a d e r

as w e l l a s h i s s o c i e t y - t h c two a g e g r a d e s w h i c h w e r e

s a i d t o h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s i h l z f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e

d e i t y i n t h e town,

216

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UMPROF 6 / 1 2 NRE The O g b u n o r i e Oracle R e p o r t b y He R e C r a w f o r d

C o n f l i c t b e t w e ~ n C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d P a g a n C u s t o m s , 1925-26 CSE 1 / 4 9 / 5 6

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CSE 1 / 8 5 / 9 0 5 1

CSE 1 / 8 6 / 9 1

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CO 520/26 E g e r t o n t o C,O, 11 O c t . 1904 ( ~ n c l o s e )

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M, Macgrcgor , l ~ I n t c l l i g e n c e R e p o r t on Awgu ~ i v i s i o n " , Unpub l i shed Govt. M s s , , 1927 ,

H e r b e r t F, Mat thews , r s I n t e l l i g e n c e R e p o r t on t h e i x o s I!, Unpub l i shed Government M s s , , 1927.

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M. D. W. J e f f r e y , s ' i i e p ~ r t on t h e Ibo-Speak ing P e o p l e o f Awka D i v i s i o n u , Unpub l i s hed Government R e p o r t , 1330 ,

C. K. Meek, " I n t e l l i g e n c e R e p o r t on Awgu", Unpub l i shed Government R e p o r t , 1931 ,

H. Waddington, s f I n t e l l i g e n & e K e p o r t on A f i k p o t f , Unpub l i shed Govcrnment R c p o r t , 1931 ,

JrnGoC* A l l e n , " S . n t c l l i g e n c c R e p o r t on t h e I z z i C l a n u , Unpub l i shed Government R e p o r t , 1932 ,

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B. Go S t o n e , " I n t e l l i g e n c e Kepo r t on Umueri V i l l a g e o f t h e i i g u l z r i N a t i v e C o u r t Area o f O n i t s h a D i v i s i o n n , Unpub l i s hed Government K e p o r t , 1332 ,

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H, Waddington, "Intelligence Kepor t on t h e Okpos i C l a n of Af i k p o D i v i s i o n f f , Unpub l i shed Government R e p o r t , 1933 .

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07 /1 /55 P a p e r s and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e be tween t h e c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t and N a t i v e A u t h o r i t i e s . 1851-1856

011/1-20 Miscellaneous m i s s i o n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e and p a p e r s 1844-1880

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/ 4 C, A. G o l l m e r f s i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e n a t i v e a g e n t s a t i l adagry 1 8 5 2

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H, Townsend, David H i n d e r e r , C, A. Gollmer p r o t e s t i n g a g a i n s t p r o p o s e d a p p o i n t m e n t o f A f r i c a n B i s h o p

016/33-34 C h a r l e s Chapman: H,MoSo R a t t l e s n a k e 1 8 6 4 f o r w a r d i n g ( ! 3 4 ) !IWhydah R Dahomey ( f r o m t h e j o u r n a l o f t h e Dawson & f rom h i s 12tters t o F, F i t z g e r a l d Csq., S e c r ~ t a r y , A f r i c a n Aid S o c i e t y Nos. 1 7 : 1 8 6 2 ) " , ( ~ a w s o n was a n a t i v e t r a d e r and f o r m e r Wesl2ya.n M i s s i o n a r y a t O u i d a h ; j o u r n a l d e a l s w i t h Government and c u s t o m s o f Dahomey 1.

31/1-131 C r o w t h e r , t?ev. Samuel Ad j a i : N ~ t i v e P a s t o r Badagry Abeokuta N i g e r e x p e d i t i o n Lagos

0 4 5 / 4 1 i n c l u d e s n o t e s re: c o m p a r a t i v e cost o f N i g e r and Yoruba M i s s i o n s 1 8 6 3

037 /57 a ' r e p o r t on t h e p o l i t i c a l and s p i r i t u a l s t a t e o f O n i t s h a 1 1864

/ 5 8 ' c o p y o f t r e a t y b e t w e e n t h e k i n g and C h i e f s o f O n i t s h a and H O M O t h e Queen f o r t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of t h e s l a v e t r a d e , p r e v e n t i o n o f human s a c r i f i c e s a n d t h e o p z n i n g and e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f I c g i t i m a t e t r a d ? ! 1 8 6 4

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I I I I I( 1 8 4 1 , 1 8 4 2 , pp. 5 0 f f .

11 V o l . 11, N e w S e r i e s , 1 8 6 6 , p.60. See p a r t i - c u l a r l y , B i s h o p C r o w t h e r ' s L e t t e r s , O c t . 1, 1 8 6 5 , May 5 , 1 8 6 6 ,

Vol. I , New S e r i e s , 1 8 6 5 - J o u r n a l o f B i s h o p C r o w t h e r ( , lugus t and S e p t e m b e r I 8 6 4 1.

P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Church M i s s i a n a r y S o c i e t y , 1852-1853, pp. 50-51,

Rev. W. B. M a c k e n z i e l s Sermon o n Monday E v e n i n g , A p r i l 30, 1 8 5 5 i n t h c P r o c e e d i n g s :,f t h c C,M,S,, 1854-1855, p,11.

P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e C, M, S., 1856-57, p, 27 ,

Church M i s s i o n a r y I n t c l l i g e n c e r , Vol , I , N e w S e r i e s , 1 8 6 5 , ~ ~ 1 9 3 ,

P r o c e e d i n g s 1900-1901, pp, 91-93.

P r o c e e d i n g 1901-02, pp. 82-90, R R e p o r t f rom Miss G, A, B e n n e t t ,

P r o c e e d i n g s 1 9 0 5 , pp. 58-60, S e e t h c same r e p o r t i n t h e Church M i s s i o n a r y I n t e l l i g c n c e r , 1 9 0 4 , O c t o b e r . pp, 751-3,

Church M i s s i o n s r y I n t c l i i g c n c t 7 r , i , ugus t , 1 9 0 3 , p ,611.

C h u r c h M i s s i o n w y R ~ v i e w ( N ~ L I S c r i t : s cf t h c I n t e l l i g c n c e r ) , Vol, LIX, 1 9 0 8 , , i p r i l , pp, 226-28.

Church M i s s i o n a r y kcv iew. N e w S e r i ~ s o f t h c I n t c l l i y z n c e r , PXy, 1 9 0 8 , p , 293,

Church M i s s i o n a r y i i e v i t w , N t w S e r i e s o f t h c b I n t c l l i g e n c e r , J u l y , 1 9 0 8 , pp. ~105-408.

P r o c e e d i n g 1 9 1 0 , pp , 112-43,

P r o c e e d i n g 1910-11, pp. 31-42.

Church M i s s i o n a r y Revicw, O c t , 1 9 1 5 , pp. 597-602,

Church M i s s i o n a r y Review, D c c , 1 9 1 5 , pi]. 726-732,

P r o c e e d i n g 1915-16, 1916-17, pp. 2 6 f f - See Church M i s s i o n a r y Review, 1 9 1 6 A u g u s t , pp, 455-62 f o r same i n f o r m a t i o n ,

P r o c e e d i n y 1917-18, pp , 21-22,

C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y Review, 1 9 2 0 , pp, 363-364,

C h u r c h M i s s i o n a r y Review, 1 9 2 3 , Vol. LXXIV, pp. 1 5 f f e ( ~ o l y g a r n y : ~'i P r o b l e m i n N i g e r i a ) ,

P r o c e e d i n g o f t h e Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , 1921-22,

P r o c e e d i n g o f t h e Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y , 1923-24, p,5.

CoMeS, R e p o r t a n d L i s t s ( f o r m e r l y P r o c e e d i n g ) 1926-27, p.3.

11 11 1) t v !! v I 1928-29, ~ - 5 ~

v I 1) !! 11 t I DI 1929-30, pp.5-7.

C. M. S. R e p o r t and L i s t s ( f o r m e r l y P r o c e e d i n g ) 1930-31, p.7.

C.M.S. Annual R e p o r t Gen. E d i t o r , Rev, C O D , S n e l l , M.A. 1922-23, pp. 5-25,

CoM,S, Annual R e p o r t , E d i t o r , Miss F. Hughes -Hal ley , 1926-27, p -36 .

, 1928-29, pp. 57-58.

UNPUBLISHED THESES, "LND DESSEIITI'LTIONS

1. Anyika , F,, " S h r i n e s d e d i c a t e d t o Minor D i v i n i t i e s commonly Worshipped i n t h e E a s t C e n t r a l S t a t e o f N i g e r i a f s , ( B . A ~ T h e s i s , Univ, o f N i g e r i a ) , 1974.

2. Eze, Udochukwu, " S h r i n e s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Minor D i v i n i t i e s among t h e I g b o s o f t h e Anambra S t a t e o f N i g e r i a f v , (M,R, T h e s i s , Univ. o f N i g e r i a ) , 1979 .

3. Ezckwugo, C. U. M, , "Chi , The T r u e God i n I g b o R e l i g i o n " , (Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f I n n s b r u c h ) , 1973 .

4. Okwuo, P a t r i c i a ( S r . ) , i f S a c r i f i c e among t h e T r a d i t i o n a l I g b o s of O r l u i n Imo S t a t e t f , (B.ii , T h e s i s , U , N o N o 1, 1976 .

5. Olupona , J. 0. K e h i n d c , v q A P h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l / ; \ n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i m a l y s i s o f t h e I i e l i g i o n o f t h e Ondo-Yoruba o f N i g e r i a " , ( P ~ , D . T h e s i s , Univ, c;f m s t o n 1, 1 9 8 3 ,

6. Ufomba, J o s e p h U, , s t D i v i n a t i o n i n NgwalandH, ( B.A. T h e s i s , Univ, of N i g e r i d , N s u k k a ) , 1973.