University of Nigeria Research Publications

OGBUAGU, Josephat Okechukwu

A

utho

r

PG/M.Sc/89/8273

Title

A Survey of Industrial Pollution in Anambra State,

An Assessment of Water Quality Parameters of Rivers Dodo, Oji and Ebenebe Lake

Facu

lty

Physical Sciences

Dep

artm

ent

Pure and Industrial Chemistry

Dat

e November, 1991

Sign

atur

e

A SURVEY O F INl lUSTlUAL POLLUTION I N ANAMBRA STATE AND AN ASSESSVImT OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF R I V E R S DODO, oJI All413 ZBENEBE LAKE.

OGBUAGU JOSEPHAT OKECWKWU

PG/M. ~c/89/8273

DEPARTMENT OF PURE AND INDUSTRIAL CI.IEMLSTRY, UNIVERSITY O F NIGERIA, NSUKKA

A SURVEY OF I N D ' J S T ~ A L POLLUTION IN ANAMBRA STATE AND AN A S S E S S E N T O F WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF RIVERS DODO, OJI AND BENEBE LAKE.

OGBUAGU , JOSEPHAT OKECHUKWU

( PC/M . SC/W /8 273 )

A RESEAFtCH PROJECT S[JBMITTED I N P W A L FULF'ILMEIVT O F THX REQUIRENZNT3 FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF SCIENCE DECREE I N ANALYTIC& C m STRY I N THE DWARTMENT OF PURE AND INDUSTRIAL OHBIISTRY, FACULTY OF PHYEECIAL SCIENCES, UNIVER.SITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA. . 1 : "

PROJECT SUPERVlCSORt PROFESSOR Ea Ca OMFOR

NOVEMBER, 1991.

M r , J, 0, ogbuagu, a postgraduate student i n the

Department of Pure and Indus t r ia l Chemistry and with

completed t h e requirements f o r course and researoh

work f o r the degree of Master of Science i n Analytical

Chemistry,

The work embodied i n this t h e s i s i s or iginal

and has not been submitted i n p a r t o r f u l l fo r any : .

other diploma o r degree of this o r any other

Univer s i ty ,

Prof, C, O. okafor ( Head of ~6partrnen-b)

/'L' Prof, E. C, okafor ( +pervi sor )

an evergrem memory

of my late father, Mr. R.o. ogbuay.

iii

I am highly indebted to my projsot superviaor,

Professor E. C. okafor* who directed this work mel

even had to take the risk and pains of accompanying

me to the various sample colleotion points.

1 must alm i n no way fail to express m y profound

gratitude to the members of eke Ogbuagu family for

their patience and love for knowle

ABSTRACT

A s u r v e y of i n d u ~ t r i a l p o l l u t i n n i n Anamhra s t a t e

W F S c a r r i e d o u t b e t w c e n F e b r u a r y A990 a n d J u n e 1 9 9 7 ,

T h e s u r v e y showed t h ~ t I d e m i l i , O n i t s h a a n d Nnewi L o c a l

G o v e r r m ~ n t Areas h 3 v e t h e q r e a t c s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f

i n d u s t r i e s * Some o f t h e s e i n d u s t r i e . : d i s c h a r q e t h e i r

w a s t e s i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h v e r y l i t t l e or n o

t r e 3 t m e n t . ~ h ~ s k o c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r i v e r s

g o d o , O j i a n d E b e n e b e L a k e were d e t e r m i n e d , T h e

c o n c e n t r a t i ~ n s of some w a t e r - q u a l i t y - p a r a m e t e r s v i7 ,

d i s s o l v ~ d o x y g e n (Do), b i o c h c m i c ~ l o x y g e n demand ( B O D ) ,

s u l p h a t ~ , n i t r a t c , c h l o r i d e , c o n d u c t i v i t y ~ n t f a c i d

1 e v e l s were s t u d i e d . ~ o n c ~ n t r a t i o n l e v e l s of t r a c e

m e t a l s ; K , Na, Ca, Mg, Mn, C t l , Zn, F e , PD, N i , C r ,

and C d w e r c a l s o m e ~ s u r e d *

A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e a b o v e

a n a l y s i s a n d t h e s t a n d a r d s set b y t h e W o r l d ~ c a l t h

O r g a n i z a t i o n , WHO, 3s h i q h ~ s t d e s i r a b l e a n d maximum

permissible l e v e l s f o r d r i n k i n g w a t e r d i d n o t show a n y

s ~ r i o u s d i f f e r e n c e a s t o i n d i c a t e p o l l u t i o n i n t h e s e

s u r f a c e w a t e r s *

L I S T OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Map of Rivers Dodo, Oji and menebe Lake showing sampling p o i n t s . . 0 0 e m .me O . . .. 32

2 Nap of Anambra S t a t e showing t h e Loca l Government Areas . O O .a 107

3 Map of ihambra S t a t e showing t h e s i z e s of Ind .us t r i a l E s t a b l i s h e n t s by Local Government Areas .. . v 108

LIST OF TABLES

1 Descrip-Lion of Sampling P o i n t s . . 0 . 33

2 Perlomlai~ce type of Atomic Absorption 3p ec-Lrome-ter 0 0 0 0 .* e r n . . 39

3 S-bock ;;tamlard Solu t ions f o r elements determined . . * a 0 . . . 45

4 Resul t s of t h e a n a l y s i s on Samples from Rivers Ilodo, O j i , and Ebenebe Lake .. 66

5 Some World Health Organisation Drinlcirlg Yater Standards . . . . 72

6 S o l u b i l i t y of Oxygen i n Fresh Water Exposed t o Ury Atmosphere Containing 20.9:': Oxygen a t Barometric p ressu re of 760 rnln 1% . m e 0 . . O . . 73

7 New York S t a t e Water P o l l u t i o n Control Board C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Fresh Water 74

8 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Surface Water Q u a l i t i e s 75

9 Sizes of i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s in Niger ia 85

10 Types of I n d u s t r i a l Groups i n Anambra S t a t e cmd t h e i r Locations by Local Govemlment Areas . O * a . O . . 109 '

I 1 I n d u s t r i e s i n Anambra S ta te , t h e i r raw m a t e r i d s , products p o l l u t a n t s o r wastes and method(sj of d isposa l .. 110

v i i

Page

C e r t i f i c a t i o n . * O D @ . 0 .

Dedication . a . . . . 0 a

hckrio w l edC; anent; . O . o 0 .

Abstract . . m e m e . O . O

L i s t of 2:i.gures . . .. a *

L i s t of Tables . . . . 0 0

Table of Contents . . O 0 o

In t roduc t ion . o Q . O . . Importance of t h e Rivers Sampled

Poss ib le Sources of Po l lu t ion o .

A i m of t h e Study . O a a 0 . ~rea/;5cope of Study . O . O

LI TERilTURE REV1 EW 0 . 0 .

Meaning of p o l l u t i o n . . . . T y p e s of p o l l u t i o n and p o l l u t a n t s

Cases of p o l l u t i o n and e f f e c t s

Control of Incl.ustrial P o l l u t i o n

C r i t e r i a f o r p o l l u t i o n .. . . 2.15.1 Oxygen Content .. .. 2.5.2 pII ( ac id l e v e l ) . . 2 .5 .3 Organic q u a l i t y . . 2.5.4 N i t r a t e s .. . . . . 2.5.5 Ileavy metal concentrat idn

EXPERIMEJTAL .. . . . . 0 . . . SampleArea .. 0 . . O * . . . Parameters assessed 0 . . . . . Sampling p o i n t s . . * . . . ..

3.4 Detection of heavy meta ls us ing A.A. S.

1

ii

iii

i v

v

v i

v i i

3.4, I Pr inc ip l e of A.A. S. . . a

3.4.2 Preparat ion of Standard Solut ions and determination of t h e meta ls .. a 0 . .

3.5 pH ( ac id l e v e l ) determination .. . . 3.6 Detemlination of E l e c t r i c a l dlanductivi t y

(Conductance) .O 0. 0 . . . 3.7 De-termbation of dissolved oxygen . .

3.7.1 Sampling technique and precaut ions 0 . . . .O

3.7.2 Preparat ion of reagents . . 3.7.3 Procedure f o r DO determination 7.7.1+ Chemistry of t h e Rideal-

Stewart Method o, o 0 . . 3.8 Deterrnhation of Biochemical Oxygen

Demmd (1301)) 0 0 . . 0. . . . . 3.9 Determhatj-on of Anions . . . . .

3.8.1 Determination of Sulphate 3.9.2 Determination of ckiLori.de

3.9.3 Ijeterrnination of N i t r a t e Nitrogen .. 0. 0 a . .

4.0 Resul ts and Discussion .O 0 0 . .

G References . . . . .. . . .. .. Appendix: Lkrvey of I n d u s t r i a l Po l lu t ion

i n Anambra S t a t e

l o ? In t roduct ion . . . . . . 1.2 Aims of t h e Survey .. .O

I. 3 Signif icance of t h e Study . . 1 04 Area Scope of Study . . t.5 - ~esearchlSUFVey T e c l n i q u e x

1.6 Defin i t ion of terms .. . .

CONTBJTS ( CONTD. )

Page

2.0 L i t e r a t u r e ileview . . 0 0 0 0 . . 86

3.0 Results of Survey and Discussion . . 94

4.0 Conclusion . D 0 0 0 0 @ @ .. 105

I. I INTRODUCTION

Indus t r ies a re t h e backbone of a nat ion 's

development, They a r e necessary f o r the upliftment

of our l iv ing standards. But due t o the production of

unwanted and harmful. wastes, e f f luents e t c t h a t a re

sources of environmental pollution, experts a re now

worried that Nigerian indus t r ies are i n a s w i f t stroke

s i l e n t l y k i l l i n g the environment,

From Kaduna i s a report t h a t waste re la ted

epidemic may spread i n the s t a t e due t o indiscriminate

discharges of poi sonous sub stances i n t o the Kaduna

River.' The f e a r now i s t h a t the r i v e r may have been

polluted with dangerous indus t r ia l materials. The

Director of Federal l3nvironmental Protection Agency,

FEPA, Dr. Olu Aina also to ld journal is ts a f t e r a recent

inspection v i s i t t o Arewa Texti les Industr ies , Kaduna

that he was not happy with the ltdozing of s u l p h r i c

acid ( H ~ S O ~ ) and the system of earation". He also

warned Presi dents Clothings i n Lagos during a similar

v i s i t t o f ind solution t o i t s waste Usposal method o r

face t he wrath of t h e law, It was found t h a t a l l the

indus t r i e s around the Kaduna r iver discharge t h e i r

wastes which are e i ther p a r t i a l l y t rea ted o r untreated

i n t o public drain from where they f ind t hei r ways i n t o

the River Kaduna.

&ch cases of harmful waste discharges abound i n

major indus t r ia l centres of Port-Harcourt , Kano,

Benin City and Lagos today. 2

Urbanization, increasing indus t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s

and modernisation of agr icul tural prac t ices i n terms

'of the application o f f e r t i l i z e r s , pes t ic ides and

other agro-chemicals, natural d i sas te r have continued

t o pol lu te the environment including r i v e r s and lake^.%

In advanced countries, the i s sue of pollution has

assumed such a dimension t h a t i n the United States of

America, USA, f o r instance, the Great Lakes were once

cut off from human a c t i v i t i e s - f ishing, swimming etc.

I n Nigeria, this concern which was brought i n t o

focus by the 1988 Koko tonic waste Saga m a t he nation-

wide furore t h a t the I t a l i a n waste generated propelled

the Federal Government t o the promulgation of Decree

Number 58 of 1988 which established the Federal

Ehvironmental Protection Agency, FEPA. T h i s decree

empowers FEPA t o pol ice the Nigerian environment t o

ensure an enforcement of a clean pollution-free

Nigerian atmosphere.

I n Anermbra State, no serious case of environmental

abuse has been recorded but evidence existS t h a t there

i s i nd i scriminate cti. scharge of indus t r ia l wastes;

l i q u i d s , fumes and p a r t i c u l a t e s f r e e l y i n t o t h e air,

s o i l and water bodies. The e f f e c t s of these discharges

however have no t been evaluated.

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF TI% RIVERS SNIPLED

Not much data are ava i lab le cm t h e l eng th and a r ea

of drainage bas in of these r i ve r s , b u t i n t h e c a m u n i t i e s

where they a r e located , they a r e suurces of water f o r

ag r i cu l tu r a l , danes t ic and i n d u s t r i a l purposes as well

as snails and aquatics.

I

1.3 POSSIBLE SQJRCES OF PCLLUTION

The r i v e r s which a r e a l l l inked t o each other flow

through subtropical r a i n f o r e s t and urban areas , and

a r c constant ly enriched by many t r i b u t a r i e s which

c r i s s -c ross many peasant v i l l a g e s , agpicul tura l l ands

and urban areas. Increased i ndus t r i a l and ag r i cu l tu r a l

a c t i v i t i e s have led t o urbanizat ion and p o l l u t i mal

stress an these r ivers , ' Dodo River Sample pcdnt 1,

Figure 2, i s very c lose t o Qrenwa ~ndust r i&. Layout.

Marklint Medical Canplex, Hemason B i scu i t s Ltdo and

Transnational Food Processing Indus t r i e s Ltdo a r e a l l p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - -

1 ocated a t this Ckenwa I n d u s t r i a l Layout. The

Natianal EZectric Power Authority, NEPA, Thermal Sta t ion

i s loca ted between Sample Po in t s 2 and 3 a l l a l m g

o ji River. Rivers A j a l i (from A j a l i River and O j l i River)

and Mamu both pass through marly peasant v i l l a g e s and

farm lands.

Indus t r i a l and ag r i cu l tu ra l a c t i v i t i e s as well as

urbanization a r e tkkls t h e main poss ible sources of

pol lu t ion t o these r ivers ,

1.4 A I M OF THE S N D Y

Water samples were col lected from Rivers Dodo, O j i

and Ebenebe Lake. Physico-chemical ana lys i s were then

car r ied out on these s ~ l e s m

The aim of t h e ana lys i s i s t o f i n d out t h e e f f e c t

of t h e i n d u s t r i a l establishments around t h e r i v e r s on

t h e i r water quality. To determine the nature of

po l lu t an t s i f any on these r i v e r within t h e

inves t iga t iona l a rea and t o assess t h e concentration

l e v e l of each po l lu tan t t o ascer ta in i f such l e v e l s of

pol lu t ion a r e c r i t i ca l . t o t h e animal l i v e s i n t h e r ivers ,

The parameters which were invest igated f o r a r e

those t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o a f f ec t e i t h e r survival of

organisms in s ide t h e r i v e r s o r t h e hea l th of humans and

p l a n t s t 'hat use t h e water from these surface waters,

1.5 AREA/SCOPE OF STUDY

The study area covers some r ivers a t o j i River

and Awka Local. Government Areas of Anambra State.

I n the water qudlity assessment, pH, temperature,

dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, specific

conductance a s well a s concentrations of metals were

investigated. The metals were those tha t are

l ike ly t o be used a s raw materials i n the

nearby industries;

toxic to marine organisms or man a t low

concentrations;

fo r which a reasonable amount of information

are available f o r marine environment; and

whose instmment s f o r detection are available

a t the period of study.

LI TEMTURE REVIEW

2.1 THEMEANING OF POLLUTICIN

Pol lu t ion as it a f f e c t s environnental g l a i t y i

bas i ca l ly t h e re lease by man of .substances o r energy

i n t o t h e environment i n quan t i t i e s which a r e e i t h e r

harmful t o himself, o ther l i v i n g th ings , reduce t h e

qua l i ty of l i f e , cause hazards t o human health,

ecological systems, s t ruc tures , amenities or i n t e r f e r e

with l eg i t ima te u ses of t h e environment. The enviroment

here comprises of t h e landscape we see, t h e a i r we

breathe, t h e streams etc. 394

I n defining w h a t cons t i t u t e s po l lu t ion s i t ua t ion

espec ia l ly regarding heal th , it i s necessary t o know t h e

species involved, t h e i r su scep t ib i l i t y t o t h e toxin in

question and t h e condit ions of e ~ p o s u r e . ~ To cons t i t u t e

po l lu t ion , any change i n water, s o i l or a i r qua l i ty must

be both adverse and unreasonable, Otherwise we would

have t o say t h a t water i s pol lu ted with algae, f i s h o r

fowl. The mere f a c t t h a t parameters of water qual i ty

f o r ins tance a r e changed as a r e s u l t of*manls a c t i v i t y

does no t i t s e l f cons t i t u t e pollut ion. There must b e

evidence t h a t such changes a r e adverse t o one o r more

bene f i c i a l uses of water.

7

Every substance i n t h e marine environment may be

considered as a f t p o t w t i a l po l lu t an t t~ . I f it i s

concentrated su f f i c i en t ly t o harm a benef ic ia l use, it

becomes an actual pol lu tant . Even d i s t i l l e d water can

be a po ten t i a l po l lu tan t when discharged i n t o t h e

marine environment f o r it may alter t h a t na tura l s a l i n i t y

and a f f e c t t he osmotic balance of many organisms.

Another category known as "corollary po l lu tan ts t t a r e not

added d i r e c t l y t o water by man bu t they can be traced

i n d i r e c t l y t o human a c t i v i t i e s . A prime example i s an

es tuar ine algal bloom or a heavy growth of attached

slime organisms t r iggered and nurtured by excessive

n u t r i e n t s from municipal o r i ndus t r i a l waste-waters,

Here the algae or slime i s $he corollary po l lu tan t , bu t

t he v i l l a i n s which a r e no t themselves po l lu t an t s a r e t h e

nu t r i en t sub stances i n t h e waste discharges,

Man-made pol lut ion comes from i n d u s t r i a l exhauts,

home-heating, incinerat ion, open f i r e s and dumps, dus t s

from roads, engine exhauts, crop spraying, construction

debr is e t c O 7 Not a l l pol lu t ion however dan be a t t r i bu ted

t o man's a c t i v i t i e s ; f o r e s t f i r e s s t a r t ed by l ightening

may r e s u l t i n excessive s o i l erosion and t h e s i l t a t i o n

of estuaries. Water hyacinth o r mi l fo i l may choke a

stream and grea t ly a f f e c t s i ts environment.

Natural traumas become po l lu t ion when m a n 1 s a c t i v i t i e s

overwhelm t h e capacity of an ecosystem t o handle them

thereby causing an imbalance i n t h e system, Water and

a i r a r e t h e two commonest pol lu ted a reas i n our

environment,

Po l lu t ion may render water unsui table f o r

i n d u s t r i a l use, Pol lu t ion with ac id r a i n s cause dock

deter iora t ion. Pol lu t ion from such i n d u s t r i e s as

mining and quarrying may i n t e r f e r e with navigation and

thus requ i re dredging of t h e stream. Discharges i n t o

streams and l akes u l t imate ly a f f e c t bo th surface and

ground sources of publ ic water system, Hazardous

wastes may be capable of causing cancer, miscarriages,

deafness, anaemia, l i v e r and kidney damage, nervous

disorders , b i r t h defec t s and a decrease i n t h e qua l i ty

and enjoyment of l i f e , Residues of synthet ic

chemicals l i n g e r i n s o i l s t o which they have been

applied a dozen year before, They have entered and

lodged i n t h e bodies of f i s h , b i rd s , r e p t i l e s , domestic

and wild animals so un iversa l ly t h a t s c i e n t i s t s carrying

on animal experiments f i n d it almost impossible t o

l oca t e subjects f r e e from such contaminants. They have

been i n f i s h i n remote mountain l akes , i n earthworms

burrowing i n s o i l , i n t h e eggs of b i r d s and i n man

himself because these chemicals are now stored i n t h e

bodies of t he v a s t maJority of human beings; i n t he

mother's milk and probably i n the t i s s u e s of t h e unborn

child.

2.2 TYPES OF POLLUTION AND POLLUTANTS

Pol lu tan t s a r e substances t h a t cause damage t o

t a r g e t s i n t h e environment, T h i s de f in i t i on excludes

po ten t i a l hazardous mate r ia l s used by people on

themselves l i k e cosmetics, food addi t ives , pharmaceuticals

o r notoriously tobacco smoke. Po l lu tan t s may be i n t h e

form of so l ids , l i q u i d s and gases, Perhaps, t he re i s no

such thing a s a typ i ca l area, bu t t h e atmosphere of a

representa t ive i n d u s t r i a l a rea w i l l have about 22% of

i t s po l lu t an t s from i n d u s t r i a l sources, about 18h from

commercial sources and t h e remaining 6% from publ ic

sources. 596

Pol lut ion i s normally c l a s s i f i e d i n t o air, water

o r s o i l po l lu t ion depending on the area of t he environment

affected. Air po l lu t ion i s t h e presence i n t he outdoor

atmosphere of sub stances i n quan t i t i e s which a r e

i n ju r ious t o human, p l a n t o r animal l i f e o r t o

property o r unreasonably i n t e r f e r e with a comfortable

enjoyment of l i f e and property. Sulphur oxides,

hydrogen sulphide, ozone, CO, ni t rogen oxides, dus t s

fumes e t c a r e major air pol lu tants . 8p9 Water po l lu t ion

i s the creat ion of 013 ject ionable condit ions through t h e

discharge of sewage o r i n d u s t r i a l wastes i n t o na tura l

water. lo With t h e growth of c i t i e s and t h e expansion

of i ndus t r i e s , water o r stream pol lu t ion has become a

major concern i n several places. Chlorine which i s

rout inely added t o drinking water t o reduce the number

of b a c t e r i a unfortunately has now been found t o r eac t

with i n d u s t r i a l organic po l lu t an t s now found i n water

t o produce a var ie ty of cancer-producing agents. 11

Radioactive Pollution; Man has always been exposed t o

na tu ra l sources of chemical a c t i v i t y and cosmic radia-

t ion. T h i s i s ref erred t o a s background radiation.

The use of radioact ive mate r ia l s f o r treatment,

research and other purposes must always be regarded a s

a p o t e n t i a l hazard, bu t these poss ible sources of

r ad ioac t iv i t y a r e usual ly well control led and not a

danger t o t he general public. The immediate danger i s

often t o those working with radioact ive mater ia ls , who

however have the necessary knowledge t o take proper

shielding and other precautions t o p ro t ec t themselves.

P a r t i c l e s of strontiumand cesium sprayed when nuclear

weapons a r e t e s t ed represent a t h r e a t t o h n a n l i f e

because penetrat ion of body c e l l s by radioact ive

p a r t i c l e s causes i o n i z a t i o n of t h e atoms of c e l l s .

The extent pf damage however depends on t h e dose

received and whether it i s i n t e r n a l l y o r external ly .

Radiation leakages l ead ing -to p o l l u t i o n may a l s o occur

i n x-ray machines, f luoroscopic equipment etc.

Strontium which i s s i m i l a t o calcium i s o f t e n

deposi ted i n bones and i n young ch i ld ren and can cause

malignances, I n a d u l t s , t h e cancel lous bones a r e

u s u a l l y a f f e c t e d causinz acute poisoning. Luminous

p a i n t s containing r a d i o a c t i v e compounds were recognised

as a hazard more t l m n 50 yea r s ago. 7

2.3 CASES OF POLLUTION AND WFECTS Sahetimes 1 t h e r e existb s u f f i c i e n t evidence t o a l e r t

communities t o t h e p o s s i b l e dangers of pol lu t ion . Some

e f f e c t s a r e acu te and may b e fa ta l , while some e f f e c t s

a r e delayed and may b e apparent only a f t e r yea r s of

exposure. Acute poisons from p o l l u t i o n produce t h e i r

e f f e c t s i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t t ime¶ genera l ly from a

s i n g l e concentrated dose of t h e tox in g iy ing rise t o

dea th o r permanent d i s a b i l i t y . But chronic e f f e c t s a r e

t h e r e s u l t of low doses, b u i l t up over time. 12

I n t h e Meuse Valley Belgium i n 1930, 60 people

d ied as a r e s u l t of heavy a i r pol lu t ion . I n Donora

Pennysylvania i n 1940, a repor ted 20 people d ied from

pol lu t ion. I n London i n 1952, during a two week per iod

of air pol lu t ion, about 4,000 more people died than

normally. I n Minamata Day, Japan, more tkLan 100 people

were k i l l e d o r disabled between 1953 and 1960 through

eat ing f i s h and she l l f i s h contaminated with chloro-

methyl mercury. A second outbreak of Minamata disease

as it has became known occurred i n 1965 near t h e mouth

of Agano River i n Japan a i d out of t h e 30 persons

af fected, f i v e died. Both outbreaks were caused by

wastes from f a c t o r i e s where acetaldehyde was

manufactured from acetylene using a mercury ca t a ly s t

and 5% of t he e f f luen t mercury was i n t h e methyl form, 13

Again i n Seveso, I t a l y on July 10, 1976, dioxin

( t e t rac~orodibenzoparadoxin - TCDD) , a t o x i c contaminant

of the herbicide 2,4, 5-T escaped from t h e manufacturing

p lan t i n t o t h e a i r spreading i n t o t h e neighbouring

v i l l a g e and k i l l i n g l ivestock. The hea l th e f f e c t s on

t h e v i l l a g e of Seveso a r e still being evaluated and in

May 1980, "dioxin contamination i n Seveso, I t a l y has not

ye t shown any increase i n spontanous abortion and b i r t h

defec t s r e l a t ed t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l accident i s st i l l high,

Perhaps, one of t he g rea t e s t manifestation of

i n d u s t r i a l pol lu t ion of environment by manufacturing

i n d u s t r i e s i s the case of ttItai-itdll (ouch ouch)

d isease i n Japan i n 1360' s. The itd-itd disease i s an

unusual chronic d isease unknown u n t i l modern times

which has f o r a long time a f f l i c t e d r e s iden t s i n t h e

d i s t r i c t s along t h e stream of J in s tu River i n Toyama

Prefecture , Japan, The p a t i e n t s had severe osteomalacia

and suf fe r from in tense pain i n t h e i r bones. T h i s

disease was so named because of t h e p a t i e n t s shr ieks

of Ilitai-itaiH. A mine which produces zinc, lead,

cadmfum was located on t h e upper reaches of t h e J in t su

River, and i t s waste water was discharged i n t o t h e

River, A s t h e increased production of metal w a s

i n s i s t e d on without su f f i c i en t treatment of t h e waste

water, t h e J in t su River became tu rb id and pol lu ted with

t h e poisonous metals. Down-stream, where r i c e was

cu l t f vated, t h i s po l lu ted water was used f o r i r r i g a t i o n

and t h e growth of r i c e was in jured and t h e harvest

A research work car r ied out by J. Kobayashi of

the ohara I n s t i t u t e f o r Agricul-tural Biology okayma

Universi ty, Kurashiki, Japan, using spectrochemical

Analysis of t h e bones and other t i s s u e s of pa t i en t s ,

s o i l and p l a n t s discovered a markedly high content of

zinc, cadmium and l ead i n them, 16

Some outstanding e f f ec t s of po l lu t ion include

A. THE PHENOMENON OF ACTD RAIN:

The term acid r a i n r e f e r s t o rain o r snow t h a t has

a high acid l eve l , In t h e worst example y e t recorded, a

rainstorm i n Scotland in 1374 produced r a in and acid

l e v e l equal t o that of vinegar. The causes of ac id

r a i n are t h e i n d u s t r i a l smokestacks giving off sulpkur

and ni trogen compounds from t h e burning of o i l and

p a r t i c u l a r l y coal, The sulphur and ni t rogen compounds

a r e transformed i n the atmosphere i n t o sulphuric ac id

and n i t r i c p l u s other ac id i c compounds. Carried by t h e

winds these compounds -then come down i n rain o r snow

hundred o r even thous.mds of miles away. The na tu ra l

a b i l i t y t o neu t r a l i ze these ac ids by s o i l , bodies of

water and p l an t l i f e i s soon exhausted. 8

With a g r ea t e r u s e of coal , this problem (ac id

r a in ) may be fu r the r aggravated by t h e SO2 t h a t coal

burning produces. SO2 discharged i n t o a moist

atmosphere l e a d s t o t h e formation of a f i n e m i s t of

sulphuric ac id which causes t h e development of

numerous mall brown f l e c k s on contaminated leaves.

The f l e c k s represent mall a reas of c e l l s k i l l e d

through contact with t h e acid. 899

15

B. THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT:

Industr ia l a c t i v i t i e s and countless rnanuf acturing

processes release C02 and other gases c l a s s i f i ed as

c h l ~ r ~ f l u o r o c a r b o n s (CFC' s ) which deplete the earth1 s

protective ozone layer , and ac t l i k e g lass i n a green-

house by trapping some of the heat radiated by the

earth, Without the trapping, the ear th would be too

cold f o r human survival,

The l eve l of C02 i n the atmosphere has an

important effect on cl imatic change, Most of the

earth1 s incoming energy i s short waveleng h t radiation, b

which tends t o pass through atmospheric C02 easily.

The earth, however, re-radiates much of the received

energy a s long-wavelenght radiation which CO2 absorbs

and re-emits towards the earth, This phenomenon i s

known a s "greenhouse ef fec t t t and can r e su l t i n an

increase i n the surface temperature of a planet. An

extreme example of the effect i s shown by Venus, a

planet covered by heavy clouds composed mostly of C02,

whose surface temperatures have been measured a t 4 3 0 ~ ~ .

If the C02 content of the atmosphere i s reduced, the

" temperature falls, According t o one respectable

theory, i f t he atmospheric C02 concentration were

halved, the ear th would become completely covered with

ice. 17

16

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

r epo r t s t h a t t he greenhouse e f f e c t could r a i s e t h e

average temperature by between 1.5 and 4.5O~ before

t h e middle of t h e next; century. The c o l l a t e r a l problem

thinning of t h e ozone sh ie ld agains t deadly rad ia t ion

has a l s o been measured, Major greenhouse gases, t h e i r

percentages and. sources a s shown below, 17,18

Gas Percentage Sources

Coal, o i l , na tu ra l gas, clef o res ta t ion

Foams, aerosol , propel lants , r e f r i ge ran t s , solvents, air conditioning e tc ,

Wet lands, f o s s i l f u e l s , l ives tock , r i c e

Foss i l f u e l s , f e r t i l i z e r s , deforestat ion.

T h i s comes from the word "eutrophos" meaning

nourishing o r t o nourish. It a l so impli6s anything t h a t

provides nu t r i en t , it means t h e enrichanent of t h e water

o r l ake soi l . 3,10 lh t rophicat ion i s an insidous form

of water po l lu t ion t h a t causes progressive deter iora t ion

i n water resources on a wide scale,

Over-enrichment w i t h t h e very n u t r i e n t s t h a t a r e

e s sen t i a l f o r aquatic l i f e results i n over-abundance

of p l an t l i f e that i s followed by other d r a s t i c changes

i n t h e ecology of t h e l ake , stream o r estuary.

Although bac t e r i a consume organic matter before it

reaches t h e receiving water, thus preventing t h e

deplet ion of oxygen i n t h e stream o r l ake , this process

r e l ea ses inorganic sub stances which a c t a s p l an t

n u t r i e n t s and a r e discharged i n t o t h e stream. These

n u t r i e n t s such a s phosphates and n i t r a t e s feed t h e

algae u n t i l they b ecome abundant and d ieo Decaying

organic masses then r e s u l t , reducing t h e dissolved

oxygen content of t h e stream jus t a s much a s t h e

organic loads discharged from t h e older primary t r ea t -

ment f a c i l i t i e s which these secondary p l a n t s replaced.

The process above descr ibes t h e phenomenon of

entrop hi cation. 395s.11

The b e s t method of control of entrophication i s by

t h e removal of n u t r i e n t s f o r ins tance from sewage, b u t

other promi sing methods include removal *of weeds, debr is ,

dredging of l a k e sediments and flushing. The use of

weed-killers and a lg i c ides can provide temporary r e l i e f

from excessive weed growths, b u t t h e i r use can a f f e c t

water quality. 19

I>. IIEAVY METAL POISONING:

I ndus t r i a l wastes of t en contain contaminants among

them heavy metals such a s Zn, Pb, C d , Hg which could

bu i ld up i n t h e s o i l t o concentrations t h a t a r e

poisonous t o p l a n t s and animals,

A t present th ree metals Hg, Cd, Pb and a fou r th

one Al a r e considered t o be a t present an imminent

hazard t o man, Lead i s a pervasive contaminant i n our

environment and i s some-times found i n water, T h i s i s

pa r t i cu l a r ly t r u e i n o ld homes where water running

through pipes containing Pb b ecornes contaminated,

High concentration of l e a d i n dust , s o i l and

vegetation near s t r e e t s and highways c l ea r ly can be

a t t r i bu ted t o l ead emissions from motor vehicles,

The ear ly symptoms of Pb poisoning a r e of ten ignored

because they st imulate other ailments - stomach aches,

fa t igue , i r r i t a b i l i t y and b ehaviour problems, The

disease i n i t s l a t e r s tages exhibi ts symptoms l i k e

severe headaches, l o s s of ape t i t e , cramps, vomiting,

l o s s of co-ordination, convulsions and stupor.

Serious damage t o kidney, l i v e r o r b ra in and t o

reproductive and cen t ra l nervous system r e s u l t a t l a t e r

stages. Children i n p a r t i c u l a r a r e of ten affected. 5,719

Pb contamination i s nowadays a s t e t r ae thy l l ead i n

anti-knock and power-increasing G e n t i n gasoline.

Cadmium retent ion i n kidney causes hypertension,

Cd in jec ted may a l so cause cramps, nausea, vomiting

and diorrhea. The metal i s perhaps t h e most infamous

of itai-itai disease, t h e hyperexcretion of calcium

which l eads t o softening of bones,

The present problem of mercury was f i r s t recognized

i n Japan a t Minamata Bay where more than 100 persons

died through the eat ing of f i s h and s h e l l f i s h

contaminated with methyl mercury, Cases of pol lu t ion

by Hg a re not being reported frequently these days.

A 4 th metal which a l so needs specia l consideration

i s aluminium previously considered biological i ne r t ,

At i s now known t o cause b ra in damage, bone disease and

severe anaemia i n cer ta in renal f a i l u r e p a t i e n t s

t r e a t e d by long term haemodialysis, A syndrome,

d i a l y s i s dementia o r encephalopathy i s found where AL

i s used i n water treatment, I n t h e west of Scotland,

a t l e a s t 15 p a t i e n t s have died as a r e s u l t of d i a l y s i s

dementia, 13

Another out standing e f f ec t of polLution i s tox ic i ty

of some pes t ic ides and newer po l lu tan ts l i k e detergents

and f e r t i l i z e r s , Example Lake Ontairo, one of t h e

Great Lakes ( i n USA) has had mirex, which i s a

pes t ic ide r e l a t ed t o t h e cancer-causing kepone dumped

i n t o it. Dioxin, one of t h e most tox ic of a l l

sub stances and polyclilorinated biphenols (PCB) have

a l so been found i n this lake. 'I1 Chlorinated hydro-

carbons l i k e DDT, clielctrine, clilordane, endrin and

heptachlor p l u s organo-plmsphorous compounds a r e t h e

v i l l a i n s here. Chlorinated hydrocarbons a r e known t o

cause l i v e r damage and a l s o a f f ec t t h e cen t ra l nervous

system causing ~electroencephalographic~ changes a s well

a s muscle tremors and co~wuls ions while organo-

5 7911 phosphorous i n sec t i c ides cause t tencephal i t i s t rmensf l ' With an increase i n t h e use of f e r t i l i z e r s ,

pe s t i c ides and herbicides, c e r t a in p l an t n u t r i e n t s such

a s n i t r a t e s and phosphates which a r e a l so present in

ashes and detergents have i n t h e i r usual manner begun t o

encourage t h e growth of algae and phytoplankton when

they a r e washed in-to t h e water bodies. The growth of

such aquatic p l a n t s cause a reduction i n t he

a v a i l a b i l i t y of oxygen i n t h e water. Example, t h e

presence of water hyacinths a t Lagos, ogun and Ondo

lagoon systems have been e q l a i n e d t o be from the above.

I t i s suspected t h a t t h e weeds may have emerged a s t h e

outcome of an "unintended f e r t i l i z a t i o n N of t h e water

by run-off from close-by f e r t i l i z e d farm lands, These

p e s t i c i d e s invariably g e t washed i n t o nearby streams and

r i v e r s where they would e i t h e r k i l l off t h e aquatic l i f e

giving r i s e t o permaner~t stream po l lu t i on o r where

t h e i r t o x i c contents could ' eventually be absorbed by

t he p l an t s , posing dangers when they a r e consumed by

mano

2.4 C O N T R ~ OF P ~ L U T I O N

It could conclusively be said from t h e foregoing

t h a t our increas ingly sophis t ica ted technology can

produce no t only a b e t t e r way of l i f e bu t a l so new

heal th problems. Our a b i l i t y t o respond quickly and

e f fec t ive ly t o these new problems w i l l determine our

l e v e l of well-being, i n f a c t our very survival as a

species. E f fo r t s a r e now on t h e inc rease t o control

po l lu t i on especia l ly from t h e i r sources; low sulphur

f u e l s a r e now pre fe r red t o high sulphur f u e l s t h a t

th rea ten a high sulpknrr oxide po l lu t ion , t he e f f e c t s

of s i l i c o s i s , a damage t o lungs caused by exposure t o

dust can now be control led by regular check-ups and

prevention of exposme, b r u c e l l o s i s and anthrax of

s laughter house employees and dairymeq a r e now being

eliminated by t h e use of s-terilants and d i s in f ec-tants.

Motor veh ic le po l lu t i on can be control led by t a i l -

pipe emission, i n j ec t i on of a ir i n t o t he exhaust system,

use of a f t e r burners and low amount of l e ad i n fuels.

Water po l lu t ion i s on control by t h e use of waste

treatment p l a n t s b u i l t with a consideration of t h e

magnitude and changing nakrre of water po l lu tan t s , while

some newer po l lu t an t s a r e of t en prevented from entering

i n t o water ways. Inert; and i r r i t a t i n g gases a r e these

days reduced by wet processing,

Liquid wastes from indus t r i e s can b e t r ea t ed and

control led by diversion ( rout ing sewage o r o ther

pol lu ted mate r ia l s away from one a rea and i n t o another) ,

d i l u t i on , deep well disposal ( i n j ec t ing waste mater ia ls

i n t o deep wells) ; mec1l;mical screening, s e t t l i n g and

skimming and applicat ion of various chemicals l i k e alum

or l ime t o remove m a l l waste p a r t i c l e s and subsequent

sedimentation, Other methods include e l ec t rod ia ly s i s t o

remove salts, centr i fugat ion, ammonia s t r ipp ing etc.

Biological treatment employing f i l t e r s o r ac t iva ted

sludge t o reduce biochemical oxygen demand a r e a l so done,

To ac tua l ly control po l lu t ion , the re should be

publ ic awareness on t h e ef fects , b u t most importantly,

monitoring by governrnea-1; agencies must have t o be

proper1 y enf o r cede

2.5 CRITERIA FOR POLLUTION - Water Gbality Parameters

The commonly used ind ices of pol lu t ion a r e

s i t ua t ions t h a t a f f ec t t h e swv iva l of organisms in t h e

water body. Based on this, some water qua l i ty

parameters l i k e oxygen content, n i t r a t e content, heavy

metal concen&rati.on, pII (acid l e v e l ) , conductarlce e t c

are used f o r estimating t h e extent of pu r i ty o r amount

of pol lu t ion i n water. I n other words, t h e extent of

pol lu t ion i s judged from t h e concerltrat.ion l e v e l of

most of the chemical and biological aspects of t h e

water. Some of these aspects and t h e i r e f f e c t s a r e

discussed below.

2.5.1 Oxygen Content

The oxygen content of a sample of water i s very

important in t h e estimation of po l lu t ion of water o r

e f f luen t s from industr ies. This oxygen content i s

usual ly divided i n t o oxygen denand, dissolved oxygen

and biochemical oxygen demand which was formerly

measured a s oxygen consumed. Oxygen denland i s an

empirical measure of t h e chemically oxidizable mater ia ls

i n water, It i s defined a s t h e amount of oxygen

required t o pur i fy t h e water by oxidation. That i s t h e p p p p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - -

t o t a l oxygen a ce r t a in amount of water w i l l u se f o r

oxidation,, The sub st,ances t h a t require oxyBen f o r

oxidation in water are carbon, ni trogen, phosphorous

etc t o C02, NU2, P205 e t c respectively. The capacity

of any body of water t o oxidize wastes depends on t h e

water 's oxygen, oxygen resu l t ing from photosynthesis

i n algae and other green p l a n t s and t h e dissolved oxygen

already i n t h e water, If t h e oxygen u t i l i z a t i o n exceeds

oxygen production, a negative oxygen balance occurs and

an anerobic condition r e s u l t s t h a t provides f o r

undesirable bac t e r i a action, However, a stream need no t

be i n a s t a t e of negative oxygen balance t o be badly

polluted, If t h e t o t a l oxygen demand exceeds the

standard per cap i ta demand from domestic sewage of '

76,27g of oxygen pe r clay, t h e stream i s l i k e l y loaded

with excessive pollut ion,

Dissolved oxygen measurements a re v i t a l f o r

maintaining aerobic conditions i n na tura l waters. It

ind ica tes whether t he b io log ica l changes a r e brought

about by aerobic o r by anerobic organisms, Generally,

very low concentration of dissolved oxygen, l e s s than

3 5 mg/dm o r 5 ppm, cons t i t u t e s po l lu t ion ' in water. 7920

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) i s however one of

t h e most r e l i a b l e ind ices of water pollut ion, It i s

expressed as the quantity of oxygen required f o r t h e

oxidation of organic matters i n milligrams per l i t r e

( m g b i t r e ) o r p a r t s p e r mil l ion (ppm). The BOD i s t h e

amount of oxygen requi red f o r the b io log i ca l "

decomposition of dl ssolved organic s o l i d s t o occur

under aerobic condi t ions aid a t a standardized time and

temperature, I t i s determined by measuring t h e mount

of oxygen used by decayed micro-organisms i n a sample

of water o r waste water over a s p e c i f i c temperature

usua l ly 20°c. The BOD tes t i s a procedure which

measures t h e d issolved oxygen consumed by microbial l i f e

while a ss imi la t ing and oxidizing t h e organic mattes

present i n t h e w a t e r . A high BOD t he r e fo r e i nd i ca t e s

the presence of l a r g e amount of arganic po l l u t i on caused

by microbial organisms in water.4 To obta in BOD, f i r s t

determine t h e d issolved oxygen, then incubate t h e water

sample f o r 5 days a t 2 0 ' ~ (cover properly) . The

d i f fe rence between t h e amounts of d issolved oxygen

p resen t a-1; t h e beginning and a t t h e end of these

incubat ion pe r iods ( o r t h e amount of oxygen l o s t ) i s t h e

BOD, From th is t e s t , it i s then pos s ib l e t o determine

whether t h e oxygen content i n a stream i s below t h e l e v d

c r i t i c a l t o sus ta in aqua t i c l i f e * The cohvenience of

BOD measurement llas made it t h e f avou r i t e t o o l f o r

assessing waste treatment e f fec t iveness and even general

water qual i ty , However, t h e r e a r e s t i l l many unknowns

i n t h e re la t ionsh ip between ROD and DO. Again, BOD i s

u sua l l y over-estimated because it i s concerned with t h e

measure of only those compounds which a r e biochemically

oxidi.zab1.e.

Oxygen consumed i s a mea.sure of t h e amount of

oxygen required t o oxidize unstable mate r ia l s i n a

sample by means of potassium permanganate i n ac id

solut ion, T h i s tesl; has been replaced by BOD because

it does not g ive r e s u l t s which a r e comparabl-e t o those

obtained from b io log ica l oxidation processes t h a t

occur i n nature. But oxygen consumed has one advantage

i n t h a t t he r e s u l t s can b e obtained i n l e s s than 5 days.

Owing t o t h e f a c t t h a t W h o 4 i s se l ec t ive i n i t s

react ion and a t t acks t he carbonaceous and no t t h e

nitrogenous matter, t h e r e s u l t s w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t from

those obtained by t h e BOD method.

When a chemical l i k e K2Cr207 i s used t o oxidize

t h e water during measurement of i t s oxygen demand,

then, it i s ca l l ed t h e chemical oxygen demand (CQD),

2-5.2 pH (ac id l e v e l )

The pH of any body of water descrjbes i t s degree

of ac id i ty or a lka l in i ty . N a t u r a l water i s buffered - t h a t i s , t he re i s a na tu ra l mechanism which regula tes

t h e pH so thtit it usual ly v a r i e s within a narrow range

between 7 and 9. The PI-I of h m a n blood i s maintained

a t 7*4. lo The World Health Organisation, WHO, standard

f o r drinking water spec i f i e s t h a t t he highest des i rable

l e v e l and maximum permissible l e v e l f o r t he p H of

drinking water i s 7,0 - 8,5 and 6,5 t o 9.2 respectively. 20

A t lower pH l eve l s , marine l i v e s may no t survive, f o r

ins tance i n waters sipping from coal mines with pH of

around 3,9, no l i v e s have been recorded,

2,5,3 organic Quality

Constituerits r e l a t i n g t o t h i s a r e ammonium nitrogen

albuminoid nitrogen, n i t r a t e ni trogen and n i t r i t e

nitrogen, Others a r e hycirocarbons, phosphates etc.

The presence of these i n water l eads t o a process known

a s eutrophication of na tu ra l waters which i n turn r e s u l t s

i n t h e dissolved oxygen depletion i n t he water, Most

organic mater ia ls a r e at tacked by bac t e r i a and broken

down i n t o simple compounds4 To do this, t he b a c t e r i a

requ i res oxygen, The g rea t e r t he supply of organic

food, the longer t h e population of b a c t e r i a t h a t can be

supported and t he g rea t e r t h e demand on t h e oxygen

supply i n the water. T h i s demand f o r oxygen by bac t e r i a

i s ca l led t h e biological o r biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD). The BOD i s a usefu l index of po l lu t ion

especia l ly that r e l a t e d t o t h e organic load of t he water.

Because a l l stream animcals a r e dependent upon t h e oxygen

supply i n water, t he BOD i s of p a r t i c u l a r importance in

determining which forms of l i f e a pol lu ted r i v e r i s

capable of supporting. For organical ly pol lu ted water,

it i s then used t o determine whether organic wastes

w i l l reduce the oxygen content i n a stream below t h e

l e v e l c r i t i c a l t o sus ta in aquatic l i f e , Very low

concentration of dissolved oxygen cons t i t u t e s pol lu t ion

i n water and a high concentration of ammonia a lso cause

t h e water t o be pol.lu-i;ed. F i sh have t h e g rea t e s t oxygm

need; usually cold water f i s h require more oxygen than

warm water fish. 1 n v e r - i ; e b s . t ~ ~ can t o l e r a t e lower

concentrations of oxygen and bac t e r i a s t i l l lower.

2.5.4 Ni t ra tes

Decomposition of ni trogen wastes form n i t r a t e s and

because all the oxygen i s consumed, green p l a n t s may

d i e and anaerobic b a c t e r i a survive. The n i t ra ' t e s from

t h e above sources a r e converted by ce r t a in bac t e r i a

within t he body t o n i t r i t e s . The n i t r i t e s r eac t with

t h e hemoglobin i n red c e l l s , causing t h e c e l l s t o loose

t h e i r a b i l i t y t o carry oxygen, and thus threatening t h e

body with asphyxiation. In fan t s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y

suscept ib le t o this colzdition of blood disorder ca l led

METHEMOGLOBINEMIA - because g a s t r i c juices have a low p H

which c r ea t e s a su i t ab l e environment f o r t h e b a c t e r i a

t h a t convert t he n i t r a t e s t o n i t r i t e s . 11

2,5,5 Heavy Metal Concmtrat ions

A t t h e present time, four metals, Hg, Cd, Pb and Al,

a re considered t o be a p r e s m t o r an imminent hazard t o

man. Because of this, t h e i r concentrations in samples

of water a l so serve a s c r i t e r i a f o r estimating t h e

p u r i t y o r extent of po l lu t ion of waters,

The World Health Orgariisa.t;ion i n i t s "guideline

values f o r drinking water"has a spec i f ica t ion of

highest des i rab le and maximum permissible l e v e l s of

concentrations of heavy metals and more general ly all

common meta l l i c elements especia l ly t h e ones t h a t a r e

f requent ly used i n i ndus t r i e s and which eventually f i n d

t h e i r ways t o t h e s o i l , a i r o r drinking water sources

a s well a s i n t o r i v e r s where they accumulate i n marine

animals. When t h e concentration of each of these metals

exceeds t h e speci f ied l e v e l , it implies t h a t t h e water

has an excess of i-t and i s u n f i t f o r ce r t a in domestic

and i n d u s t r i a l purposes, Sometimes a higher concen-

t r a t i o n may mean pol lu t ion caused by t h e metal i n question.

other parameters of water q u d i t y Fan a l so be used

to a s se s s pollution. For instance plankton population,

because po l lu t ion destroys t h e normal fauna and f l o r a

of a stream. A marked reduction in clean water species

of l i f e can a l so b e used a s a c r i t e r i o n of severe

pollut ion. 3t4t7

3. I SAMPLE AREA.

I n this p a r t of thin pro jec t work, a base l ine study

of some physico-chemical. c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were ca r r ied out

on samples of water collec-bed from r i v e r s loca ted

around some i n d u s t r i a l establishments i n Anambra State.

The surf ace waters are Dodo River i n Dodo , 0 ji River

Local Government Area, River 0 ji before and a f t e r t h e

National E l e c t r i c Power, NEPA, power s t a t i on a t River

o ji, Aja l i and M a n u Rivers a t t h e i r entry po in t s i n t o

Ebenebe Lake a t Umu ji, Ebenebe i n Awka Local Government

Area a l l i n k~ambra State.

These r i v e r s mentioned above a re all l inked t o

each o the r , Fig, 1.

3.2 PARAMETERS ASSESSED

The parameters t e s t e d f o r on the samples are anions

(chlorides, n i t r a t e , sulphate) and metals; K, Na, Mg, Ivln,

Ca, C r , N i , Cu, Zn, Fe, Cd, Pbo Other parameters a l so

assessed were p H (ac id l e v e l ) , t e q e r a t u ? e , dissolved

oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and conductance.

The concentration l e v e l s and values of t h e above

parameters were then compared with t h e highest des i rab le

and maximum permissible l e v e l s s e t by t h e World Health

Organisation, WHO, f o r drinking water. See Table 5.

DO and ROD were detmmined using t h e methods s e t

by t h e manual f o r chemical and B a c t e r i o l o g i c a l Analysis

of Water anc! Sewwe, and. t h e Standard Methods of

Chemical Analysis a l l of which are based an t h e

American Pub l i c Health Association ( APHA), Chloride

was determined by v o l u ~ n e t r i c method while su lphate was t u r b i d i m e t r i c

by b o t h volumetr ic and L (us ing a turb id imeter )

methods. The n i t r a t e content was by t h e phenol-

disulphonic a c i d method. The meta ls were determined

using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, The Atomic

Absorption Spectraphotometer used was a Hitach Model

180 - 70 Zeeman Atomic Absorption Spectrometer, The

i o n i c conductance was measured with a conductometer, a

Jlionic Mark S e r i e s 3 Conductivity Meter, The a c i d l e v e l ,

pH, was measured wi th a Model P 107 D i g i t a l pH meter.

3 , 3 SAMPLING POINTS

Five sampling p o i n t s were cliasen (Fig. I ) f o r

a n a l y s i s based on

( a ) Proximity t o indus-kri.d a rea( s ) o r an a r e a of i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y .

(b) Urbanization - t h a t i s closeness t o an urban area.

( c) Contribution by t r i b u t a r i e s .

The t a b l e below g i v e s a shor t desc r ip t ion of t h e

sampling points .

Table I : The Sampling Po in t s (s.P)

SOP* I

S.P. 2

SOP. 3

SoP.4

S.P.5

Description

Dodo River, Very c lose t o okenwa I n d u s t r i a l Layout,

o j i River Local Government Area. Marklint Medical

Complex, IIemason B i s c u i t s Ltd. , Transnational Food

Processing indus t ry a r e a l l loca ted a t t h e

Okenwa I n d u s t r i a l Layout,

River o ji, About 5 metres before NEPA Themlal

s ta t ion .

River o ji, about 10 metres a f t e r t h e NEPA

Thermal Station.

River A j a l i at t h e po in t of en t ry i n t o l3enebe

Lake.

River Mamu, at t h e po in t of en t ry i n t o Ebenebe

Lake.

Dif ferent samples were col lec ted f o r t h e analysis.

BOD and DO were measred. with same sample while t h e o the r

parameters metals, pH, conductance e t c measurements were

done on one sample. The temperature of t h e water was

taken before each col lect ion.

3 . 4 DETECT1 ON OF HF,RVY I4ETAL S

Several analyt iccd techniques a r e ava i lab le f o r

metal detect ian i n water analysis. Some of these

techniques a r e Atomic IUL, sorption Spectrometry, emission

spectrometry, chroma't;ography ( exchange) , t i t r imetr j r and

gravimetry, flame photometry and Anodic Stripping

Voltammetry. Only -three (3) of those methods; Neutron

Activation Analysis, Atomic & sorption Spectrometry and

Anodic Stripping Voltxi~metrjr ( ASV) have su f f i c i en t

s e n s i t i v i t y t o allow darect measurements of t r a c e metals

i n sea o r r i ve r watzr. And of these th ree , only Anodic

Stripping Voltammetry can discriminate between d i f f e rex t

chemical forms i o e o valences o r species.

I n this work, oiily Atomic Absorption Spectro-

photometer was used i n ana lys i s f o r t he metals checked

for.

30 bO1 Atomic Absorption aectrophotometry ( A.A. S. )

The following metal.s, K, Na, Ca, Mg, C r , N i , Cu,

7 2 , Mn, Fe, Cd and Pb were determined in. this work by

using A. A. S.

3.4. I . I P r inc ip le of A. A. S.

Atomic Ab sorption b$ ectrometry i s an ana ly t ica l

method f o r t he determination of elanents, based upon t h e

absorption of radiant energy, u ~ 1 ~ ~ 1 1 y i n t h e u l t r a -

v i o l e t and v i s i b l e r eg ions by n e u t r a l atoms i n t h e 2 1 gaseous state, h'ton~ic f luorescence spectrometsy a l so

enables el.emenls t o be de temined b u t on the b a s i s of

the re-emission of t h e rarFi.ant energy absorbed by t h e

f r e e atoms.

I n t e r a c t i o n of atom w i t h var ious forms of energy

r e s u l t s i n -three very c lo se ly r e l a t ed spectroscopic

phenomena which a r e commonly used in ami ly t i c a l

l abo ra to r i es; emission, ah sorpt ion and fluorescence.

of t he se 3 , atomic absorpt ion i s t h e most v e r s a t i l e

l abo ra to ry technique avld i s p re sen t l y overshadowing b o t h

flame emission and f luorescence which appear t o have

g r e a t e r l im i t a t i ons , 22723 In an Atomic Absorption

ana lys i s , t h e element being determined must b e reduced

t o t h e elemental s t a t e , vaporized anti imposed i n t h e

beam of r ad i a t i on from t h e source. T h i s process i s

most f r equen t ly accomplished by drawing a so lu t ion of

t h e sample, as a f i n e m i s t , in-to a s u i t a b l e flameo The

flame . thus' serves a funct ion analogous t o t h a t of t h e

c e l l and so lu t ion i n conventional ab sow-tion

spectroscopy.

The absorpt ion spectrum of an element i n i t s

gaseous atomic form c o n s i s t s of a s e r i e s of well-defined, - p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

narrow l i n e s a r i s i n g from e l ec t ron i c t r a n s i t i o n s of t h e

outermost electrons. For metals, t h e energies of many

t r a n s i t i o n s correspond t o wavelenghts i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t

and v i s i b l e regions. A t room temperature, essent5ally

a l l of t h e atoms of a sample of matter a r e i n t h e

ground s t a t e , Example, -the s i n g l e o u t e r e l e c t r o n of

sodium metal occupies -the 3 S o r b i t a l under t h e s e

circumstances, Exci'ta-t;ion of t h i s t o higher o r b i t a l s

can b e brought about by t h e hea t of a f l a m e o The l i f e

time of t h e exc i t ed atom i s b r i e f , l e s s than lom9

seconds, however, a1c.l i t s r e t u r n t o t h e ground state i s

accompanied by t h e emission of a quantum of radia t ion ,

T h i s i s flame photometry (flame emission) and it i s t h e

r a d i a t i o n emitted by t h e exci ted atoms t h a t i s r e l a t e d

t o concent ra t ion , while i n t h e atsmic absorpt ion , it i s

t h e r a d i a t i o n absorbed by t h e unexcited atoms t h a t i s

determined, 22s 231t24 Since atomic ah so rp t ion depends only

upon t h e number of i ~ n e x c i t e d atoms, t h e absorpt ion

i n t e n s i t y i s n o t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e temperature of

t h e flame. >.

The b a s i c components of an atomic absorpt ion

spectrometer inc lude a source, a monochromotor, a sample

container , i n this cascr! a flame, a d e t e e t o r and an

amplif ier- indicator , The hollow cathode lamp i s the

commonest r a d i a t i o n source f o r atomic absorpt ion

spectrophotorneters, The lamp emits a l i n e of t h e same

wavelenght a s that t o b e used f o r t h e absorpt ion analysis , ;

Each metal has i t s own lamp, Fuels used f o r flame

product ion inc lude n a t u r a l gas , propane, b u t m e ,

hydrogen and ace1;ylene; -tne comnon oxidants a re a i r ,

oxygen-enriched a i r , okygen and n i t rons oxide. 22,23

The f l m e type used i n this analysi-s was a i r /

acetylene.

CALIBRATI ON - The Hitach Model 180-70 Zeeman Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer used f o r this ana lys i s i s equipped

with a taut-suspension microammeter read-out, The meter

sca le i s ca l ib ra ted in absorbance.

S e n s i t i v i t i e s and Detection L i m i t s : The ana ly t ica l - performance of atomic absorption spectrometer i s

usual ly expressed i n t h e form of a l i s t of elements and

associated se r i s i t iv i t i es , I n A,A, S. , t h e term

l l sens i t iv i ty l t has a specia l meaning and i s defined a s

t h a t concentration of t h e element i n ppm or ug/ml o r

m l b , i n aqeous solut ion which g ives an absorbance of

0,00436, equivalent to a 1% absorption of t he transmit ted

radia t ion, 2 1

Detection l i m i t s of elements i n Atomic Absorp-tfon

though l e s s frequently quoted than s e n s i t i v i t i e s , a r e

nevertheless a b et-ter c r i t e r f on of instrumental

performance, Detection l i m i t s w i l l here be defined a s

t h a t concentration of an elenent , i n ppm, which gives a

reading equal t o twice t h e standard deviat ion of t h e

background signal.

39

PRECISION AND ACCURACY. A number of e f fec t s aontribute

t o the uncertainty of the f i n a l signal displayed on a

readout system. The sources of error are

fluctuations i n hollow cathode lamp emission signal.

photomultiplier llshort noise",

electronic noise.)

flame fluctuations.~

Nebulization and atomization no1 se.

Inaccuracies in t h e readout system,

systematic and random errors incurred i n sample

preparation,

instrumental interferencesp

Some of these fac to r s a re under the control of the

operator. Clearly, sources of error i n sample

preparation should be recognised and interferences

should be control1ed.l The fac to r s a re taken i n t o

account i n the design of the equipment.

wavelenght, sens i t iv i ty and detection l i m i t of some of

the elements, determined are shown in the t ab le below.

'Table 2: Perfoxmaice Type of A.A. S.

Cal cium

Copper

Iron

Lead

Magnes sium

Manganese

Zinc

Flame ~ Y W

Sen si ti- v i t y ( P P ~

Detection l i m i t (ppm)

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy i s highly spec i f ic

f o r a given element. The wavelenghts a t which individual

elements absorb a r e w e l l defined and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of

two elements absorbing a t exact ly t h e same wavelenght i s

so remote t h a t t h e technique i s gmerally' recognized t o

b e f r e e of s p e c t r a interference. The response of an

element a t i t s resonance wavelenght may sometimes b e

dependent on another component o r components i n t h e sample

solut ion and th i s e f f e c t i s usual ly known a s tlchemicdb

interference". Certain physical p rope r t i e s of t h e

solut ion may a l so a f f e c t t h e response.

A vapour of f r e e atoms of t h e element; i n t h e flame

irrus-1; b e generated be fore absorpt ion a t t h e resonance

wavelenght can occur, T h e number o f f r e e atoms and

hence t h e ex ten t of atomic absorpt ion i n t h e flame is

d i c t a t e d by equilibrium constants and any c o n s t r a i n t s

on t h e system causing shifts i n t h e e q u i l i b r i a w i l l

c o n s t i t u t e a chemical in te r fe rence , Causes of chemical.

i n t e r f e r ences and methods of overcoming them a r e t y p i f i e d

a s follows:

(1) ANTONIC: I t i s well known t h a t common anionic

spec ies such as pkmsphate, sulphate, aluminate arid

o the r oxyginated anions depress t h e absorpt ion of t h e

a l k a l i n e e a r t h metals in t h e air /acetylene. The

chemical components formed a r e r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e a t t h e

a i r /ace ty lene flame temperature and t h e formation of

f r e e atoms of t h e meta ls i s p a r t i a l l y obstructed, The

e f f e c t i s important whuz determining calcium and

ma.gnessium and. must be overcome, Various methods of

counteract ing this type of i n t e r f e r ence a r e avai lable .

( a ) Removal of t h e i n t e r f e r i n g anion( s-) by chemical o r

by i o n exchange techniques. These methods a r e n o t o f t en

used as they d e t r a c t from t h e e s s e n t i a l s impl ic i ty of

atomic absorpt ion analys is ,

( b ) Additions of an excess of t h e i n t e r f e r i n g anion( s )

t o bo th sample and standard. solut ions. This method i s

simple b u t may well reduce t h e a n a l y t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y

of t h e element t o be determined t o below a use fu l I.imit,

( c ) U s e of a h o t t e r flame, For t h e a l k a l i n e e a r t h

elements, this i r r~p l i e s use of t h e n i t r o u s oxide/

acetylene flame. d h i l s t t h e flame temperature i s

s u f f i c i e n t l y high t o completely overcome an ion ic

in te r fe rences , another e f f e c t known as Voniza t ion t t i s

introduced.

( d ) Addition of a t treleasine; agent t t i s probably t h e

most conmonly used 'teclmique, A r e l e a s i n g agent i s t h e

s a l t of a metal which w i l l form a s t a b l e compound with

t h e i n t e r f e r i n g anion, Lanthanum and o the r r a r e e a r t h

c h l o r i d e s a r e very e f f e c t i v e , and strontium c N o r i d e

may a c t a s a releasin{; agent f o r calcium and magnessiwn

i n t h e presence of t h e i n t e r f e r i n g anions. Same

c he la t ing agents , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e d i sodium salt of

e thylene diamine t e t r a c e t i c a c i d ( EDTA) are e f f e c t i v e

i n overcoming anionic i n t e r f e r e n c e by a c t i v e che la t ion

of t h e metal t o b e determined r a t h e r than by r e a c t i o n

wi th t h e anionic species.

2. I O N I ZATI ON

This i n t e r f e r e n c e i s u s u j l l y observed only i n high

temperature flames such as the n i t r o u s oxi.de/acetylene

type, and i s charac ter ized by enhancement i n t h e

response of t h e element being determined. An equilibrium

e x i s t s i n t he flame between f r e e atoms and ions , and f o r

elements having r e l a t i v e l y low ion iza t ion po ten t i a l s ,

t h e proportion of i ons w i l l b e high. I f a second

eas i l y ionized element b e introduced i n t o t h e flame,

t h e equil.ibrium for both elements i s sh i f t ed tawards

t he atomic s t a t e , producing an enhancement i n ana ly t ica l

s ens i t i v i t y . T h i s in te r fe rence i s eff ectiwely overcome

by addi t ian of t he same quanti ty of t h e in ter ference t o

t h e standard solut ions a s i s present i n t h e samples, o r

by addi t ian of an excess of an eas i ly ionizable metal

l i k e K o r Na t o both standards and sample solutions.

3 . BACKGROUND (MATRIX)

The presence i n t h e sample solut ion of one or more

elements i n very l a r g e excess over t h e element t o be

determined may l ead t o a s l i g h t , bu t s ign i f ican t i n t e r -

f erence effect , T h i s type of in te r fe rence i s commonly

encountered in metallurgical analysis. If t h e

in te r fe rence i s severe, it may be necesshry t o separate

t h e matrix and t h e metal t o be determined by extract ion

o r by ion exchange methods.

4. VISCOIC;ITY AND NWACE TENSION EFFECTS

The s e n s i t i v i t y shown by an el-ement i n atomic

ab sorpt ion dey ends on ~narly f ac to r s , including t h e sate

a t whi.ch t h e sample i s taken up by t h e nebulizer and

t h e size of t h e d rop l e t s producede Sample t ake up r a t e

i s dependent upon -the v i s cos i t y of the sample, while

d rop le t s i z e i s influenced by i t s surface tension,

Fortunately, viscosi . ty and. sur f ace e f f e c t s are negli-

g ib l e i n the v a s t major i ty of analysis. Poss ib le

v i s cos i t y effects ccm usua l l y b e p red ic ted by inspect ion

of t h e stalutiori, and are overcome by d i l u t i n g t h e sample

with water o r a suitable organic solvent, It i s well

known t h a t t h e use of organic so lvents brings about an

improvement i n ana ly t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y , probably because

of production by the nebul izer of a g r ea t e r proportion

of smaller d rop l e t s i n the sample spray than i s obtained

with aqeous solutions. Obviously, i t i s necessary t o

use t h e same solvent f o r bo th sample and standards,

Surface ten,don e f f e c t s may then b e ignored.

3.4.2 Preparation of Standard Solut ions

The general t e c l m i w e i s t o prepare r e l a t i v e l y

concentrated stock so lu t ions f o r each element from

which working standards a r e prepared by s e r i a l d i lu t ion ,

A stock solut ion i s normally a solut ion of a simple

s a l t of one metal. Reagents used i n prepara t ion of

s tocks need no t be excessively pure a s they a r e t o b e

used a t considerable d i lu t ions . Analytical reagent

grade i s qu i t e .sufficient because when t h e stock

solut ions have been d i l u t ed t o prepare t h e working

standards, the concentrat ions of impur i t i e s w i l l b e so

low a s t o b e negl ig ib le , 21

The t a b l e below shows t h e su i t ab l e reagents and

methods of preparing t h e stock so lu t ions of t h e twelve

(12) elements determined, A l l the reagents and

chemicals used i n t h i s ana lys i s w e r e of ana ly t i ca l grade.

* Table 3: Stock Standard Solutions f o r elements determined.

Reagent

NaCl

KC1

CaC03

Mg ribbon

Metal

Metal

Metal

Metal

Metal

Metal

Metal

Cd 0

I_

T ) i ssolution

Water

Water

50 m l Conc H C l

20 m l 5M-HC1 + 5 m l Conc HNoj

50 m l ZM-INo3

50 5M-wO3

50 m l Conc H C l

Volume

!!o avoid possible leaching of metals from the

Con c en- t r a t ion --iRmL

1000

1000

qooo

qooo

qooo

1 000

1 000

qooo

qooo

qooo

1000

1000

glassware, t h e stock standard solutions just l i k e the

samples were stored i n polyethene bot t les ,

DETERMINATION OF TI-E I4IDN-I S

The concentrat ion i n ppm of t h e elements were

determined d i r e c t l y us ing four ( 4 ) s tandards

(I) 0.00 pprn

( 2 ) 5,Oo pprn

( 3 ) lo.oopprn

(/+) 15 o r 20 ppm

depending on t h e element involved, The 0.00 pprn was

bl-ank ( de-ioni zed water).

The water samples were each f i l t e r e d using

Whatman No. 1 f i l t e r paper t o remove s i l i c a t e and

o t h e r i n s o l u b l e m a t e r i a l s t h a t could clog t h e

atonii zer during t h e analysis .

No s tandard curve was prepared i n t h i s a n a l y s i s

because t h e l l i tach Model 180 - 70 Zeeman Atomic

Absorption *ec t roph tomete r used i s equipped wi th a

taut-suspension rnicroammeter read-out. I t has an

i n b u i l t graph. The meter s c a l e i s c a l i b r a t e d i n

ab sorbance,

pH r e f e r s t o hydrogen i o n index and means t h e

hydrogen i o n concentra-Lion i n a solut ion. The scale

i s defined by t h e formular; p H = -logfl30+ - 7. I n words,

it i s defined as t h e nega t ive l o g a r i t h i of t h e hydro-

xonium ion concentrat ion of t h e solut ion. T h u s a

so lu t ion of hydroxionim ion concentrat ion of 1.0 x 10~ '

per dm3 would have a pl1 of 5 etc. Nost natural water

have pH t h a t range from 4 - 9 and a r e o f t en b a s i c due 2- - t o C03 and HCO-, .

Each water sample was taken by accura te ly

f i l l i n g a c lean 25 cm3 graduated cyl inder t o t h e 25 cm5

mark, The sample was poured i n t o a c l ean d ry sample

3 c e l l . 1 .,0 cm of wide w*ange pH i n d i c a t o r solutiori was

then added using t h e 1.0 cm5 c a l i b r a t e d dropper and

shaken t o mix, Another sample c e l l was f i l l e d with

3 25 cm of t h e o r i g i n a l water sample b u t this -Lime

without p H i n d i c a t o r so lu t ion and placed i n t o a hollow.

The p H range meter s c a l e was then i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e

meter and t h e wavel~lzgi~1-f; didl adjus ted t o 520 nm.

The l i g h t control. was a l s o adjus ted t o t h e des i red

range. This i s a form of s tandardiza t ion , The

prepared sample was -1;h.a p laced i n t h e c e l l holder and

t h e p1-I va lue read-off Xrom t h e cen t re o r lower sca le ,

according t o t h e developed colour, If the colour does

n o t correspond t o those irxLicated on the c e n t r e o r low

s c a l e s , and o r t h e meter reading does n o t f a l l within

t h e ranges ind ica ted , then t h e wavelenght dial was

ad.justed t o 615 nm and the instrument s tandardized a s

descr ibed before, 'The prepared sample was then placed

i n t h e c e l l b l d e r avid the pII value read-off from t h e

upp er scale,

'The abo ; r~ de tcmir ia t ion was done f o r each of t h e

water sample. The pII meter was a model P. 107 d i g i t a l -

pH meter.

6 -----we ELECTRICAL CO?JDJ CTIVITY -- (CONDJCTANCA --- The canduct iv i ty of a water sample i s a measure of

t he quant i ty of i o n s i n -I;he water and the re fo re d i r e c t l y

r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l d issolved s o l i d s (TDs) of t h e water.

THEORY: The f a c t t h a t aqeous so lu t ions of c e r t a i n --- m a t e r i a l . ~ c a l l ed e l e c t r o l y t e s , condl~ct an e l e c t r i c

current provides the most direct evidence f o r t h e idea

t h s t i o n s capable of independent motion a r e present .

Measurement of t hc s=onductiv&%y of aqeous

so lu t ions are made with a conduct ivi ty c e l l and an

e l e c t r i c circuit. W r e n an a l t e r r ~ t i r ~ g cur ren t i s used

t o prevent build up of charges of oppos i te s ign near

t h e two elec' trodes of t h e cel l so 'that t h e r e i s l i t t l e

metal-solut ion e l e c t r i c r e s i s t ance , i t i $ found t h a t

t h e conduct iv i ty c e l l obeys ohm's law, The cur ren t - - -

flowing tWough t h e c e l l p i s p ropor t ibna1 I% t h e vo l t age

ac ross t h e cell.

It i s poss ib le t he r e fo r e t o ass ign a r e s i s t ance of

so many ohns t o such a c e l l i n t h e same manner as one

assigns a resistance -to a m e t a l l i c conductor, I t i s

more convenient however t o focus our a t - t en t ion on t h e

conductance of an e l e c t r o l y t i c so lu t ion r a t h e r than

on i t s res i s t ance , These q u a n t i t i e s a r e r ec ip roca l ly

r e l a t e d , and the conductance, L , i s ca lcu la ted from I t h e measured r e s i s t a n c e as L =

where R = r e s i s t a n c e i n oknns, I = c u r r e n t and L has a

u n i t r ec ip roca l of o h s atimes c'illed m b .

PRoCEDJRE: Cond.lc t m c e s were measured by a conductometer. - The conductometer was a s e r i e s 3 , Dionic Mark Conductivi-ty

Dleter with a wheatstone b r idge which was c a l i b r a t e d with

a s tandard r e s i s t a x e box. Flask type c e l l s wi th

t i g h t l y p l a t i n i zed e l e c t r o d e s were used,

The corlductivity meter scale was i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e

meter and t h e range switch s e t a t 5. Then t h e probe

assembly was connected -to t h e 5 p i n r ecep tab le on t h e

spectrophotorneter panel and immersed f i n a l l y i n t o a

beaker containing t h e sample solut ion. The depth of

t h e so lu t ion was s u f f i c i e n t t o allow t h e probe t o b e

immersed t o t h e ven t holes, The appropr ia te range was

se lec ted by s t a r t i n g wi th the highest range and working

down, Each range on t h e meter s c a l e had a number which

corresponds wi th t h e switch p o s i t i o n number, If t h e

reading was i n t h e lowest I@:, of t h e range, t h e nex t

lower range was switched t o a i d t h e reading tak ing again.

I 30 i

Results are shown and discussed under r e s u l t s and

1 d i s c u s s i ~ n .

1 3.7 DISSOLVED OXYGEN

1 THEORY: The amount of oxygen dissolved i n water a t a i

1 given time depends on p a r t i a l pressure. For water a t

) h igh temperature, s o l u b i l i t y decreases with increase i n

1 temperature. The de tec t ion of oxygen dissolved i n water

1 I i s v i t a l f o r ensuring aerobic condit ions i n waters t h a t

1 i leceive po l lu ted waters. Oxygen i s poorly soluble i n I I

1 water, it does no t react chemically with water.

I So lub i l i t y of o r ciissolved oxygen content of na tu ra l

) water depends on temperature, turbulence a t t h e surface, I I t h e ex ten t of the surface a rea exposed t o t he atmosphere,

1 atmospheric pressure and t h e percentage of oxygen i n t h e

1 surrounding a i r . Generally, dissolved oxygen around

1 3 mg per l i t r e o r less have been shown t o i n t e r f e r e with

) f i sh popul.ations through delayed hatching of eggs, I ) reduced s i z e and vigor of enbroys, production of

I monstros i t ies i n young, in te r fe rence with food diges t ion

1 and accelera t ion . of blood clothing, decreased to lerance

) t o c e r t a i n tox ican t s , reduced food e f f i c iency and growth I 1 r a t e , and reduced m a x i m u m sustained swf-rnming speed. I

I An outstanding procedure f o r t h e detec t ion of

Idissolved oxygen i s by :'linkLerts method. But i n some

cases i n using this 'kilinld.ert s method., e r r o r s tend t o

b e introduced by t h e presence of n i t r i t e s , i r o n salts,

and certain organic compounds, However, t h e use af

sodium azide e l iminates t he i n t e r f e r ence of n i t r i t e s

while potassiun~ f l u o r i d e overcomes t he e f f e c t of

f e r r i c salts provided the f e r r i c i o n concentration

does no t exceed 200 mg p e r l i t r e and t h e r e i s no delay

i n t i t r a t i o n , 25 T h i s i s t h e Rideal-Stewart modification

of Winkler 9 method f o r determination of dissolved

oxyg en . I n t h e Rideal-Stewart modification, t h e n i t r i t e s ,

i r o n and organic matter a r e f i r s t oxidized by potassium

permanganate and excess permanganate removed with

potassium oxalate. Care r n u s t be taken n o t t o add t oo

g r e a t an excess of t he oxa la te because it introduces an

e r r o r i n t h e r e su l t , 24

3 . '7.1 Sampling Technique and Precautions 24,26,27

Samplings were made with extreme ca r e so as t o

avoid contac t of t h e sample wi th air.

The samples f o r ana ly s i s were co l l ec ted i n

3 1000 cm (1 l i t r e ) polyethale b o t t l e s , L n each - - - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

co l l ec t i on , t he water was allowed t o d i sp lace t h e

atmosphere by a nonsplashing r i s e i n t h e bo t t l e .

After t h e water has overflowed t h e b o t t l e t o t h e extent

of several times t h e container capacity, s m p l e

preservat ion was irnmcdiately ca r r ied ou t f o r samples

s l a t ed f o r dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen

demand deterruinations, while the stoppers of the sarple

b o t t l e s were jus t re i~ laced i n a manner t o avoid air

entrairment a?d packed c a r d u l l y f o r samples meant f o r

metal de temina t ions , conductance and pH,

Changes may occur i n t h e concentrations and values

of ce r t a in parameters i n water samples i f ana lys i s i s

delayed. Example Al, C r , C u , Pb, Zn may be l o s t

through adsorption o r ion exchange with t h e w a l l s of

t h e container i n case of g l a s s b o t t l e s , Fe and Mn may

p r e c i p i t a t e depending on t h e redox p o t e n t i a l of the

sample. Changes i n t h e pH-alkalinity-Co2 system can

induce the pruc ip i tu t ion of CaCO- thereby lowering t h e 5' values f o r calcium and t o t a l hardness, ete;, Because of

these and others , t h e physical. and chemical ana lys i s of

pol lu ted waters should be undertaken within 12 hours of

co l lec t ion of d i g h t ly po l lu ted waters within 48 hours , and of un~js l lu ted waters within 72 hours. Samples that

a r e t ransported t o u 1Sorul;ory should i n most cases,

b e r e f r ige ra t ed and kept i n t h e dark during shipments.

Whenever an analysis must be postponed beyond t h e

s t a t ed time limits, t h e sample may b e p re t rea ted o r

f i x e d to prese rve a p r t i c u l a r substance o r r e l a t e d

group of sub stames, 26,27

In this work, no r e f r i g e r a t i o n f a c f l i t y was

immediately available, The sarrrples were t h e r e f o r e

packed i n s i d e a bag, covered wi th o l d newspapers and

o l d c lo th ing m a t e r i a l s and then rushed t o t h e

l a b o r a t o r i e s f o r ana lys i s , The L U a n a l y s i s was c a r r i e d

o u t in~mediately a t tlze l a b o r a t o r y after which the samples

were incubated f o r f i v e (5) days at. 2 0 ' ~ f o r t h e BOD.

Analysis f o r metals , pH and conc~uctance were made t h e

fol lowing day,

3,,7.2 Prepara t ion of Reagents f o r DO a d BOD 24

The fol lowing reagen t s , stock s tandards , were

prepared and used f o r t h e de tec t ion of d isso lved oxygen

and biochemical oxygen demand of t h e samples worked on,

The procedures were as sta-ted i n t h e l z b o r a t o r y Manual

f o r chernicdl and B a c t e r i a l Analysis a:f Water and Sewage

based on American P u b l i c Health Associat;ion. The s t ack

s o l u t i o n s and methods are

1. Potassium Permanganate reagent: 6.32 grams of

potassium permanganate w a s disso lved i n d i s t i l l e d water

and made up t o 1 l i t r e . This was about 0.4p/\ 2. Potassium oxalate: 20.0 grams of pot;assium o x a l a t e p p p p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

was d i s so lved i n s u f f i c i e n t d i s f i l l e d water t o inake 1 l i t r e ,

3. Manganese I1 te t raoxosulphate V I : 480 grams of

Manganese I1 te t raoxosulphate VI c r y s t a l s ( M ~ s o ~ . 4 ~ ~ 0 )

was dissolved i n d i s t i l l e d water and made up t o I l i t r e

(400 g of MnS04.2H20 can also be used).

4, Alkaline Potassium Iodide: 500 grams NaOH, 20 gm

of sodium az ide , NaNj, and 150 gm of K I were dissolved

i n d i s t i l l e d water, s epa ra te ly , and then p u t toge the r

t o make 1 l i t r e .

5 . Sodium t r i o x o t h i o s u l p h a t e V I : 6.205 grams of

N a S 0 were d isso lved i n d i s t i l l e d water and then made 2 2 3 up t o 1 l i t r c . T h i s gave 0.039P.1 Na2S203. 5 m l of C H L l j

&

was then added.

6 , Starch Indica tor : A t h i n p a s t e of 2.0g of s t a r c h

was made i n cold water. 200 ml of b o i l i n g water was

poured and t h e mixture s t i r r e d . When t h e mixture cooled,

a few drops of chlorof o m was added f o r preserva t ion ,

3,7.3 Procedure f o r DO Determination 24

Each sample was c o l l e c t e d i n 1000 cm3 (1 l i t r e )

acid-washed b o t t l e s usual-ly r insed thoroughly with

water sample t o b e c d l e c t e d . A t each c o l l e c t i m ,

e f f o r t s were made t o avoid c a n t a c t of t h e sample with

a i r . To achieve t lzis, t h e b o t t l e was canp le te ly f i l l e d

a t 2 - 10 cm below t h e su r face of water and corcked

t i g h t l y .

Immediately a f t e r c o l l e c t i o n , 1.8 m l of concentrated

H2S% and 2.5 m l of I(Mn0 were added by means of 11.

p i p e t t e s , dipping t h e ends j u s t below t h e s u r f ace of

t h e water. The s topper was i n s e r t e d and t h e content

mixed by i n v e r t i n g t h e b o t t l e severa l t imeso

After 20 minutes, 2.5 m l of K2C204 was added, and

t h e content mixed toge the r a f t e r corcking. After t h e

colour has disappeared, 2.5 m l of Manganese I1 t e t r a -

oxosulphate V I was added followed by add i t ion of 8 m l of

a l k a l i n e potassium iodide. The s topper was i n s e r t e d and

t h e content mixed. T h e p r e c i p i t a t e t h a t fonned was b

allowed t o s e t t l e halfway and t h e content mixed again.

Another 2.5 m l of concentrated H7SC4 was added

and t h e content mixed. The so lu t ion a t th is t ime was

i n t e n s e l y y e l l ow col ourecl. The so lu t ion was then

c a r e f u l l y wrapped and. pu-t i n t o a b igger conta iner aid

t ranspor ted s t r a i g h t t o t h e l a b ora tory f o r anaJ.ysis.

A t t h e l abora to ry , 100 m l of each was withdrawn

i n t o an Erlenmeyer f l a sk . A b u r e t t e was f i l l e d wi th

t h e 0.0393M Na2S203. The th iosu lpha te was run drop by

drop i n t o t h e sample s o l u t i m u n t i l t h e yellow c o l m r

disappeared. Then 1 m l of s t a r c h so lu t ion was added

and t h e add i t ion of th iosu lpha te continued u n t i l t h e

b l u e col our j u s t disappeared.

The v ~ l u m e oT th iosu lpha te was recorded and a ~ y

r e tu rn ~f t h e b lue colour was disregarded. The

respec t ive va lues of d issolved oxygen were ca lcu la ted

using t h e f onnular;

m l of 0.0393M th ios ldpha te x 2 = ppm dissolved oxygen,

3.7,4 Chemistry of -- t h e Iiicleal-Stewart M o d i f i c a t i a ~ C

of Winklerl s PIethodL4

The reac t ions involved i n t h e va r ious s t e p s of t h e

above determination can b e represented 'by t h e following

equations. 4

Manganese I1 te t raoxosulphate r e a c t s with t h e KOH

i n t h e a l k a l i n e K I mixture t o produce a white f loccu len t

p r e c i p i t a t e of manganese II hydroxide,

If t h e white p r e c i p i t a t e i s obtained, t h e r e was no

dissolved oxygen i n t h e sample and t h e r e i s no need t o

proceed fu r t he r , A brown p r e c i p i t a t e shows t h a t oxygen

was p resen t and reac ted w i th t h e Manganese I1 hydroxide,

The brown p r e c i p i t a t e i s b a s i c Manganese f~ oxide

Upon t h e addi t ion of t h e ac id , this p r e c i p i t a t e i s

dissolved f onning Manganese I V sulphate

There i s an immediate react ion between this canpound

'2nd the K I previously added, l i b e r a t i n g iod ine and

resu l t ing i n the iodine co lou ra t im of t h e water.

~ n ( ~ 0 ~ ) ~ + 2 K I -- MnS04 + K2S04 + 12.

The quanti ty of iodine l i b e r a t e d by these react ions i s

equival erlt t o t h e quanti ty of oxygen present i n t he

sample. The quantity of iodine i s determined by

t i t r a t i n g a p o r t i an of t k soluti.cn with a standard

s o lu t i on of Na2S20j.

The thi osulp hate solut ion was made of such strenght

that 1 ml = 0.2 mg of oxygen. The e r ro r due t o n i t r i t e s

is introduced a t t he t i m e the solut ion was made acidic

with tctraoxosulphate V I acid. I n an acid medium,

n i t r i t e s reac t with potassium iodide, l i b e r a t i n g

i odine.

I f t h e reacticxl was carrplete a t t h i s point , t he e r ro r

due t o n i t r i t e s i n most cases would not be s ignif icant .

Howevers, i f t h e sample i s allowed t o s tand exposed t o

a i r , t he oxygen which dissolves w i l l r e a c t wi th t h e

N 2 0 2 , again producing the n i t r i t e

2N 0 + 2H20 + O 2 - 4HNo2 2 2

T h i s w i l l again 1iberai;c more iodine, Should this cycle

b e repeated a s ignif icant number of t imes, t h e e r r o r

introduced would soon b ecorne very la rge . The continuous

reac t ion can b e ~ n i n i ~ n i z e d by an immediate and rap id

t i t r a t i o n of t h e sample a f t e r it i s exposed to t h e air.

The r e a c t i o n s by which t h e e f f e c t of n i t r i t e s i s

el iminated by means of sodium azide, added i n t h e

a1 k a l i n e KT, a r e as follows,

2AaN + H2S04 - 3 21W3 + Na2S04

mu2 + i f l 3 N20 + N* + H 0 2

In t h e Kideal-Stewart moclifl.cation, t h e n i t r i t e s , i r o n

and organic mat ter a r e f i r s t oxidized by potassium

p ermanganate and excess p ermanganate removed wi th

potassium oxalnte, Care must always b e taken n o t t o

add too g r e a t an excess of t h e o x a l a t e 01: an e r r o r w i l l

b e introduced i n t h e final r e s u l t .

3,0 BIoCIII~YICNJ 0nK;jlJI iID4ANU (BOD) -- --- ------ The I31>D detemninatIoi~ i s a measure of t h e o x y g ~ ~ i

required t c : , ox.idi.7.e the orgar i i ,~ matter i n a sample,

through t h e agency o f rnicroscop.S.c organisms ( b a c t e r i a ) ,

T h e t e s t corls.ls-ts of the de-twminat,i.on of d isso lved

oxygen p r i o r 4x3 and .follcrwi.ng a pe r iod of incubat.tnn a t

2 0 ' ~ . The incubat ion p e r i o d i s u a m l l y 5 days. I f t h e

oxygen demand of %he r,rm~ple Is g r e a t e r than t h e

a v a i l a b l e d isso lved oxygen, a d i l u t l o n i s made, The

amount of d i l u t i o n depends upon t h e oxygen demand and

must be such that an apprec iable mount of d isso lved

oxygen ( 1.5 t o 2.0 ppm minimum) remains a f t e r t h e

inc,ubat.i.on period,

There a r e a number of f a c t o r s which in f luence t h e

r a t e 0 4 oxida t ion of organic mat ter by b a c t e r i a and

hence t h e 5-day oxygen demand, The d i l u t i n g water

( i f t h e r e i s d i l u t i o n ) , PI-I value and b a c t e r i a content

ar*e t h e most important,

I t i s important t o n o t e thxt 5-day BOD docs n o t

r ep resen t t h e t o t a l tlemaid of t h e sarnple f o r oxygen,

Some samples of water and sewage have an immediate

oxygen demand and it i s sometimes d e s i r a b l e t o know t h e

quant i ty of t'his immedia-t;e demand. The demand i s due

t o t h e presence of e a s i l y oxid izable substances such

as H2S, i r o n etc. The immediate o e g e n demand may b e

determined f som two d isso lved oxygen determinations. 24

T h e oxygen demand of a sample cah b e calculated a t

any period from the bi-ochemicab oxygen clemuid deter-

mination fallowing tht. metlmd t h a t

where A = ppm ROD i n i t h l l y determined.

B = percent denxt~d sati.sfied i n the period used

a s obtained from a biochenical oxidation t a b l e

C = percent clcnland s a t i s f i e d i n t h e period

desired. a s obtained from the tab le mentioned

ab oveo

PROCEDURE FOR DETn34INiCl'ION OF BOD

The ROD o f t h e samples were determined a f t e r 5 days

of the DO determination.

BOD = In i t i - a l DO - 110 a f t e r 5 days.

The method used was t!le Rideal- Stewart modification

of t he Winkler ' s method of DO determinati.on,

When a chemical l i k e K2Cr207 i s used t o oxidize t h e

water during measurement of i t s oxygen demand, then it

i.s called the chernicSL oxygen demand ((%ID). T h i s work

does not cover t h e determination of CODo

METI-{OD: 250 m l of the water sample was measured i n t o a

4Q0 m l beaker. 10 rl of a 176 so lu t ion of hydroxylanine

hydrochl.oride was then a d d e d fallowed by t h e addi t ion

of 20 ml. of benzidine 11yWochlorj.de~ The content of

t h e beaker was then s t i r r e d vigorously and t h e

p r e c i p i t a t e allowed to s e t t l e .

The solut ion w a s then f i l t e r e d through a f i l t e r

paper and t h e beaker washed thQrough3-y with s m a l l amounts

of cold d i s t i l l e d water. The f i l t e r paper was pie rced

i n t h e funnel. and t h e p r e c i p i t a t e washed from t h e paper

t o t h e o r i g i n a l beoker with about 20Q m l of d i s t i l l e d

water, The beaker con-txmt was then heated t o b a i l i n g

t o dissolve,

3 drops of phenolplithalein w a s added and t h e

so lu t ion t i t r a t e d with 0.05M N a u H so lu t ion u n t i l t h e

f i r s t permanent pink colour w a s obtained,

CALaCULATI ONS:

r n l o f O.O5M N a U H used x 9.6 = ppm sulp hate ( so4).

CIiENE S I R Y OF THE PRuCFSS. 24

F e r r i c i r o n r e a c t s wi th benzidine hydrochloride t o

g ive low r e s u l t s i n t h e sulphate determination.

6 2

Ferrous i r o n does no t react i n this rn~mer. HydroxyL

amine hydrocf-iloride i s added to reduce the i r o n t o t h e

f e r rous s t a t e skloulrl it; b e p resen t in sufficient

quan- t i t ies t o interfere g r e a t l y with t h e determination.

Benzidine hyclrochiloride r e a c t s with sulphates i n

hydrockil.oric acid so lu t ion t o fom a s l i g h t l y so luble

compound o f benzidine and s u l p h r i c ac id ,

T h i s compound i s f i l t e r e d and washed e n t i r e l y f r e e

of excess hydrochlor5c acid. The amount of H2S04 in t h e

compound i s then determined by t i t r a t i o n with standard

3 , g . Z C I % ~ R I D E L L - - ~ = VULUMETRIC.

METHOD: 50 m l of t h e sample was p i p e t t e d i n t o a

porce la in evaporating dish, About same quant i ty of

d i s t i l l e d water was $..so p u t i n t o a second dish fo r a

color comparison. Then 1 ml of K2Cr204 i nd i ca to r

was added t o each. S tandard

L &NO3 so lu t ion was then added t o t h e sample

from a b u r e t t e drop by drop with cons tant shaking u n t i l - - - - - -

t h e f i r ~ t - ~ e f i M e n € reCdLsh-calorakf on- appea~ed, - T h i s -

w a s a l so determined by comparison wi th t h e d i s t i l l e d

water blank. €41 of l g N O j used was then recorddd.

( M I of AgN03 used - 0.12) x 500 = ppm chloride ('3.-).

M1 of sample

C H M I STRY O F THE METHOD. 24

I n t h e above procedure, t h e chlor ide of t h e sample

was determined by t i t r a t i o n with a standard & N O j

solut ion i n t h e presence of K2Cr204 indicator . The

chloride i s p rec ip i t a t ed as AgCl ( a white ~ ~ t ) ,

NaCI + &NO3 NaN03 + &Cl.

H S i n t e r f e r e s with t h e react ion, p r ec ip i t a t i ng black 2

s i l ve r su l f i de

H2S + ZAgN07 = k 2 S + 2WQ3 J

CAI~CULATI ON S

1 ml of &No3 = 0.5 mg chloride r ad i ca l

(ml of AgNo3 s o h used - 0.2) x 0.5 =

a g chloride i n sample.

MI A ~ N O ~ s o h x 0.5 x 1,000 = trig chlor ide per l i t r e

Ml of sample

= ppm. excess

A correct ion of 0.2 ml i s made f o r t h e L &NO3 required

to produce a not iceable amount of red p rec ip i t a t e , The end

point of t h e t i t r a t i o n i s reached when a red p r e c i p i t a t e of

s i l v e r ckrorna-t;c ( A g C r O ) first; appears owing t o t h e 4 reac t ion of a s l i g h t excess of &NO3 with IKI-O4

X

3. 9 .3 NITRATE NXTRCGL;TJ

N i t r a t e s are the final, oxidat ion products of t h e

0rganl.c nitrogera compounds. They may b e d.etemined

in two ways.

(1) By seducing them t o ammonia wi th nascent

hydrogen. The reduc-tion t a k e s p l ace i n a hydrochloric

a c id so lu t ion which immediately converts t h e NH t o 3 ammonium chloride.

f NaNo3 + 8 H + 2i IC1 = NHL+C1 + N a C 1 + 3H20.

The ammonia i s then determined by t h e ammonia n i t rogen

method and converted t o n i t r a t e nitrogen.

( 2) By t h e d i su l f on ic acid method, D i su l fon ic ac id

i s prepared by t r e a t i n g p hen01 with s u l p h r i c aci. d;

C5%0H + Z R 2 a 4 = c ~ I $ ( ~ H ) 2( SO H) + 2H20. 3 2.

When n i t r a t e s are t r e a t e d wi th d i su l fon ic a c id and t h e

res t i l t ing so lu t ion mad.e d - l r a l ine with NaOH, a yellow

compound i s produced. The compound i s t h e sodl.wn salt

of p i c r i c a c id formed by t h e n i t r a t i o n o f t h e p h m l . - p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - -

The colour produced by this compowld in the sample is

compared w i t h KNO, stand.ards -treated in a similar manner. J

I n this work, -the ~ , m ~ l f o n i c acid method was used

to t e s t f o r t h e presence of ni t ra te nitrogen.

No yellow colour was produced.

T h i s shows t h a t -there i.s no organic ni t ragen

compounds i n s i d e the water samples, The implication i s

t h a t there i s no faecal. deposi t ion i n t h e water,

CIlAPTER 4

RESJLTS MID DISCUSSION

Table 4: Aesults of the ana lys i s on samples from Rivers %do, o j i , and Ebenebe Lake.

PARAMETERS

Na

K Ca

Mg Mn

Cu

Zn

Fe Pb

Cd

N i

C r

Conductivity

PH

Chloride

N i t r a t e

Sulp hate

DO

BOD Tem e ra tu re

Pot,

DODO SOP I

2, 150 0,400

30 733

0.972

1 0 373 0, 173

6, 368 0,0000

N i l

0,610

115

7.0

Trace

Trace

Trace

7.90

0070

28, 05

0,550 0,400

00 333 0,020

0,580

0, 153

0,181

0.577

0,001

N i l

N i l

N i l

290

6.58

0.577

N i l

0,216

11.75

0.90

28, 05

IN S

O J I AFTER THERM. ST

0,750 0,600

0,486

0,044

0,463

0, 191

0,188

00 529

0,001

N i l

N i l

N i l

400

6.20

0.78

N i l

0, 396

12.20

0.80

AJALI S.P.4

3, 900 3,400

a* 369

0,164

N i l

0, 141

0.173

0,636

0,001

N i l

N i l

N i l

550

6,2O

0.18

N i l

0, 75 5.33

3.75

N i l as used here implies t h a t t h e metal i s below

dc tec t i m l i m i t .

67

T h e cancunt;ration of heavy metals i n t h e samples

t e s t e d summarj.l.y do n o t g i v e i n d i c a t i o n of any inc idence

of po l lu t ion ,

of mare ixzteresl; i s the concentrat ion of t h e

p resen t ly known hazardous meta ls whose lamps were

a v a i l a b l e i n t h e a n a l y t i c a l labora tory , These metals,

Cd and Pb a r e almost below de tec t ion limits. Cadmium

which i r; notor ious ly known f o r t h e hyper-excretion of

calcium and softening of bones, i - k a i - i t a i disease

records n i l , while Pb h s a concent ra t ion of 0,001 in

all and this i s almost neg l ig ib le . The only metals tha t

showed high c~r icen t ra t ions were I4n and C r i n DODO River,

But a thorough survey of t h e banks of this r i v e r showed

no s ign of dumping of b ~ d u s t r i a l . o r sewage i n t o it.

T t could t h e r e f o r e me,m t h a t t h e s e meta ls a r e contained

i n t h e s o i l s from where they were leached i n t o t h e

River, There was no luzoclic s t r i p p i n g voltammetry t o

find ou t the spec ies of C r present ,

The pH l e v e l s f o r a l l t h e r i v e r s a r e almost

n e u t r a l except f o r o j i a f t e r thermal s ta t3on and t h e

A3a.i end of Ebenebe Lake, But f i s h e s were seen a t

t h e l a t e r and k i d s were a l s o seen swimming about a t t h e

t ime of c o l l e c t i o n of samples from this l a k e . T h i s

means t h a t t h e water i s n o t LiReLp ta b e pol luted.

The di.sso1vec.l oxygm of all. t h e samples f a l l

within t h e s e t l eve l s , The ROD vaLues f o r t h e samples

are much lower than -that s e t by the WIQ f o r drinking

water, Very high BOD value impl ies po l lu t ion , But

t h e low va lues here show t h e a b s r ~ c e of b a c t e r i a

ac t ion t h a t indicate organic po l l u t i on from i n d u s t r i e s

o r sewage cFisposal.

There were no weeds growing on top of t h e r i ve r s ,

I n o the r words, t h e r e i s no po l l u t i on from a g r i c u l t u r a l

chemicals like f e r t i l i z c r s and wee&kil.lers o r

p e s t i c i d e s leached f rorn nearby f a r m s i n t o t he se

surf ace waters,

The Ca and Mg content of Dodo shows t h a t it i s

harder than t h e o the r r i v e r s b u t t h e va lue s a r e still

very much within permiss ib le l i m i t s , Generally all

t h e samples a r e s o f t b u t t h e s l i g h t l y high Ca content

of Dodo i s as a r e s l l t of l a r g e CaC03 depos i t s along

t h e course o f t h e River. A t t h e surroundings of t h e

Nark l in t Medi-cal Complex and. Hemason B i s c u i t s , one

sees p i ece s of CaCO excavated from the'gsound i n t h e 3 process of carrying ou t construct ion works.

Or ig ina l ly , t h e hardness of water was understood t o

be a measure of t h e capaci ty of water f o r p r e c i p i t a t i n g

soap, Where-as soap is d i r e c t l y p r e c i p i t a t e d by t h e

ca2+ and M ~ ~ ' i o n s commonly p resen t in water,

o t h e r polyvalent rne"td.s ,such as Al., Zn, Mn, Sr and f even H i o n s < d s o p r e c i p i t a t e soap, Therefore t h e s e

metals have t o be reclconeci wi th i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e

o v e r a l l hardness of a water sample, But a t imes l i k e

i n this case, hardness can be determined i n terms of

C a and Mg only, t h e assumption being t h a t t h e o the r

metals a r e i n less s i g n i f i c a n t amounts,

The high content of i r o n i n t h e tes t samples may

explain t h e reason behind. t h e colours shown by the

r i v e r s ; Mamu and Dodo a r e brownish while A j a l i and

o j i look greenish. There was no Anodic s t r i p p i n g

v o l . t m e t e r t o &ff e r e n t i a t e t h e spec ies o r valencies

of I r o n present , T h e co lours can a lso b e due t o

organic matter, The p u r e s t waters have a b l u e colour

when viewed :i.n g r e a t depth and by transmi-tted l i g h t ,

The preserzce of organic mat ter can modify this colour

t o green, yellow o r brown.

Anions; ch lo r ides , ,sulphates, n i t r a t e s are t r a c e

e s p e c i a l l y a t River Dodo.

I t should b e po in ted o u t -;;hat t h e tests c a r r i e d

ou t here a r e n o t exhaustive, The major reason being

t h e l i m i t a t i o n s posed by t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y of

ins t ruments and reagents. The metals d e t e m i n e d by

Atomic Absorption Spectrometer a r e t h e ones whose

i; con~parison of t h e r e s u l t s ci:~txined from t h i s

asse.ssmci.~t s t i ~ d y and t h e val!les set by t , l ~ e 'iJor1,d

1ie;tl-th ~jr.~.mi.sa-t;ion has. n o t shown -t;lia-f; t h e r e i s an

inci(ic3l1~ of poll- ati ion i n any of t he a.wf ace waters

samp3.ed. '.Chis does n o t however imply tin-1; t h e r e i s

no corl.tr-uxin a-tion of some r i v e r s i n Ana-nl~ r a S ta te ,

'j.'!lere i s need f o r caut ion i n t h e i s s u e of waste

tlis-posd in t h e s t a t e because most of the l o c d

cornnz~u~i-t;i e s and sub-urban s draw t1lei.r domestic waters

d i r c c t l y from these r i v e r s o

~'imzecl w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t i e s from -the Federal..

:i.hvj. ronii~ ~ ~ l t i ~ l - Pro tec t ion Ag en.cy an cl -1;lie S t a t e

Govem!n cll.t, t h e h a m b r a S t a t e Erwironm m - t a l San i t a t ion

Authority, ASESA, has ' a l r eady s e t i t s gu ide l ines and

stCmtlarcl.s on how b e s t t h e i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e s t a t e

should hatidle t h e i r wastes,, I f propcr s u ~ v e i l . l a n c e

and monitoring i s kept , t h e r e i s good hope, Again,

assessment s t u d i e s such a s has been done here should

b e perii>c!icdly c a r r i e d o u t .to ascertcu'n the qilal- i t ies

of tiiese r i v e r s .

Tl~e p r a c t i c e whereby some i n d u s t r i e s l i k e Ehenite,

~ ~ ~ ~ e , 31ugu discharge t h e i r was-tes t r e a t e d o r

untreated. i n t o r i v e r s with t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e r e w i l l

b e a clil1.1-Lion t o ex t inc t ion shod-cl b e cii scoura~ed, .

i 5 : Some World. Ilealth Organi satioil 2tandard Valu9s -- 2 o r Drinking !Vat e r ( Conc en-1;ration s i n Dlgl' except p ~ ) .

Copp el.'

%i1c

I ron

L e ad

C hrolniwn ( crG')

CaChiwn

Bioc'rleinical Oxygen i_)ernand

111_---

Highest Desirable Level

- w p m -

'75 ~ o t more t~ 3inE/mJ i f t h e r e are 250 mg/dm:

2- 2- So4 . If SO^, is

le s, Mg LIP t o ~ 5 0 r n ~ ; / 3 dm may b e allowed. 0.05

00 05

5.0

0.1

Preferably a t l e a s t 5

i~laxjmum ?emi s s i b l e L eve1 - 605 - 902

I- SulJ;!CX: I n t e r n a t i o n a l Standards f o r ' ilrinlcing Vater wro, 1971.

' b e 6: ALubiZ i ty of Oxygen in Fresh :later Exposed -t;o I lry Atmosphere containing 20.9;'; uxyg en at 13arometric Pressure of 7& ~xn I J g

- ?pi :c--T-" Iji s sol-ved Temp. o f

oxygen, water, OC mrr /dm

Table 7: -fork S ta te '$later Pollution JonZrci board Classif ication of Zresh :;ktW*

Tests - Tern?. '7

Turbidity, TTJ

. - ; \ot t o exceed

::at t o exceed - - . .a% to 3- - -,.c eed ::at t o 3::ceed - - , Jo t t o 2xceed

r marks

A.4

I

Water iJses ~ arinking water a f i t e r app roval . 3i sirif + c t with additional trea+ m e r l t i f n e c e s s d t o rmove natural i $p~r i t i e s . I

Drinking water i: sub Jected t o a?prov;&. I

B ~ t - ~ g or a ~ y l e s s e r use. I

Fiskii-g o r an-y l e s s e r use I

I

Agriculture, I~&.s t~ ia2 cooling o r I n d u s t r i d

ro ce si water olr my l e s s e r usee I

76

REFERENCES

Daily Times, Friday June 29th 1990 p. 28.

The Guardian, Monday June 17th 1991 pp 20 - 22.

Holdgate, M. W. (1979) A Perspective of Enviranmental Pollution. Cambrid e University Press Londm E pp 1 7 - 23, 151 - I I.

Cllson Theodore and Burgess, F. J., (1967) Po l lu t ian and Marine Ecology. N e w York. In te r sc ience Publishers p. 260.;

Sinacore, J. S. and Sinacore, A. C., (1987) 3rd Edi t i an. Macrnillan Publishing Canpany Inc. N e w York, pp 243 - 245.

Wagner, R. I-L (1974) Environment and Man. W. W. Nnr tcm and Canpany. N e w York, p. 28.

Andersan, C. L., M~rtm, sR. F., and.Green, L. W. (1978) The C. V. Mosby Ccmpany St. L o u i s . 3rd Edition, pp 208, 236, 240 - 244.

Gordon, M. B. and Strauss, W. (1981) Air P o l l u t i m Control. P a r t IV. Wiley - I n t e r s c i ence Publicat ion pp83 84.

Counhlin. R. W.. Sarofim, A. Fo and Weinstern, N. J. (1972) ker ~ o l l u t i o n and Its Cmtrol . American I n s t i t u t e of Chemical mgineers (AICHE). No. 126,

McCaul J. and Crossland J, (1974) Water Pollution. Harcourt Brace J w o n w i c h Inc. New York, pp 24 - 32, 53.

Hanlon, J. C. (1974)- 'pLblic Health. 6th Edition. C. V. Mosby Canj?any fie LOUIS, p. 3 5.

Green, M. E. and Turk, A. (1978) sa fe ty i n work in^, with Chemicals. Macmillan ~ u b l i s k h g Canpany Inc. New York, p.

Chemistry i n Bri tain. Volume 16, No. 6, June 1980.

Johnstan, R. (1976) Marine Pollut ion. London. Academic Press , pp lab - 187.

Moore, W, J. and Moore, A. E., (1976) Ehviranmentd Chemistrv. Academic P re s s N e w York, P . 399.

Jenkins, S. H, ( ~ d i t o r ) (1981) Adyances i n Water Pol lut ion Research ~ r o c e e d i n ~ s 7 I n t e r n a t i mal ~mf'ercnce. San Francisco. Pcrgamm Press Oxford, 1-25/1 t o 1-26/61

Ehvironment; The dan e r s ahead. Newswatch June 11th 1990. pp 1 - 17.

I1Trace Gas Trends and t h e i r Po ten t ia l Roles I n climate changet!, Journal of G e q hysical Research June 20th 1985.

Contu, A., Sechi, N., Sarr i tzu , G., Loizzo, A., Volterra, L., Schintu, M, , (1987) ttEutrophicatian i n Water Supply Reservou~s: General Impacts an Potable ~ a t k E @repa ra t i an, Journal of- water Po l lu t ian Research and Cmtrd. Rio de Janeiro, p.1191.

World Health Okganizaticin (1971 ) I n t e r n a t i a n d Standards f o r Drinking Water.

Pr ice , W. J, (1974) Analytical Atanic Absorptian t c t r m e t r . Pye unxcam Limited Cambridge.

Heyden and ons Limited Landon, pp 1 - 8. - Skoog, D o A. and 'dest, D o M. (1971) Pr inc ip les of Instrumcrltal Analysis. New York. Rinehart and Winston, p. 119.

Cooke, P. (1973) Atomic Absorption Spectranetry. Pye Unicam Ltd. Cambridge, pp 11 - 39.

Furmarl, H. N. (ed. ) (1962) Standard Nethods of Chemical Analysig. 6 t h - did on, - Vol. 1 - The danen t s . 1). Van N ostrand Canpany Inc. Princeton N e w Jersey pp 2455 2 2461..

Welcher, F a J, (ed.) (1962) Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis'. 6 t h Edition. Vol. 2 - Industrial. and Natural Products, D. V.N. Ccxnpany Inc, Princetan,

Apprwed Methods .for Physical and Chemical Exarninatims of Water (19bO) Recanmendaticms of a - - - -- -- J o i n t Canmittee of ~ e p r e & m i a t i v e s of t h e ~ n s t i t u t e of Water IWgi.neers and The Royal Society of Chemistry p. 90

33. Whipplo and. Whipple ( I '31 I ) " S t a t e Sanitation". . .

Jou rna l o f American ~llernicd. - ~ o c i e t y . PP 3 3 , 36%.

31. P r a t i , L. Pavanello rvld Pesaririn P. (1971), Assessment of E;urf ace :la-t;cr w.ali . t ;y by a

79 AF'PENDIX

A SURVEY OF INCIJSTRI& POLLUTION I N ANAMBRA STATE - I I INTRoWCTION:

Anambra s t a t e does n o t have g i a n t and complex

i n d u s t r i e s a s a r e seen a-1; Lagos and Port-Harcourt,

But t h e r e a r e s t i l l some l a r g e s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s in

t h e s t a t e ,

The s t a t i : ; t i c s d i v i s i o n of Anambra S t a t e ' s

D'Iini s t r y of Finance and Economic Planning has c l a s s i f i e d

" l a rge s c a l e u manufacturing i n d u s t r i e s a s i n d u s t r i e s

employing t e n (10) o r more persons working f u l l o r

par t- t ime, b u t whose annual income mostly comes from

t h e i n d u s t r y i n which they a r e employed in. I

I n this survey, no s e r v i c e indus t ry , example

cons t ruc t ion company i s l i s t e d .

1.2 AIMS OF SJRVXY

The ob jec t ive of this study i s t o f i n d o u t t h e

names and l o c a t i o n s of all t h e manufacturing i n d u s t r i e s

i n Anarnbra S t a t e , t h e i r raw materia1.s; products and

most important ly t h e l ike-composition of t h e wastes

which they t u r n o u t i n t o t h e environment, These wastes

are u s u a l l y i n t h e form of gases , l i q u i d s o r so l ids ,

The work i s a l s o aimed a-t f ind ing out; how t h e s e

i n d u s t r i e s dispose t h e i r wastes; with o r withnut p r i o r

t r e a t n e a t .

80

1.3 SIGNIFICAiiCE OF TiIE S ' I JDY

The survey w i l l help t o assess t h e ~ t h t v ? s ide of

i n d u s t r i a l deve1opme:r:rlC i n .banb r a S ta te par titularly.

I t can a l so be of use i n aclvicj.ng the c i t i zens ,

govermerlt and indus'tri-%lists on how b e s t t o handle t h e

problem of i n d w t r i a l po l lu t ion so t h a t we do no t

develop a t t h e expense of our environment and l ives .

Ehvironmentsl consciousness and monitoring by agencies

t o curb abuses can a l so b e developed from t h e r e s u l t of

t h e survey,

1,4 AREA AND SCOPE OF STUDY

The study a rea i s iharibra S ta te of Nigeria

(See Fig. 2), I t there fore covers a l l t h e 29 l o c a l

government a reas of -the s t a t e ,

A survey of i ndus t r i e s , t h e i r raw mater ia ls ,

products and po l lu t an t s was made. No ana ly t ica l work

was ca r r ied on the wastes/ef f luents .

Anambra Sta te i s one of t he twenty one (21) s takes

of Nigeria, loca ted between l a t i t u d e s 5'42' and 7'08~

and longitudes 6'38' and 8*301 East of t he Equator and

Greenich Meridian respectively. I t s c a p i t a l , Ehugu, i s

t h e o ldes t coal mining town i n West Africa where coal

was found i n 1909.* The s t a t e has a moderate temperature

ranging between 72.4'~ and 87.5'~ (22.4'~ - 30.83'~),

3 a mean annual, r a i n f a l l of 181,61 an and a r e l a t i v e

humidity of 89% (6.OO a.rn,j arid 6& (12.00 p.m,), 2,3

Contrary t o t h e popular b e l i e f i n many oversea

coun t r i e s , it i s t h e humidity ra , ther thew t h e temperature

t h a t causes ciiscomfort; t o new comers, Indeed

Washington Do C. j. s much h o t t e r i n June and J u l y than

Rapid growth in populat ion, u rban i sa t ion and t h e

gradual p r o l i f e r a t i o n of i n d u s t r i e s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s

of t h e s t a t e has changed 'the morphology of Anambra S t a t e

from t y p i c a l African l o c a t i o n t o a modern s t a t e of r a p i d

economy and i n d u s t r i , d growth, The people of t h e state

known f o r t h e i r merckkmdise a r e now tu rn ing i n t o

manufacturing wi th t h e e s t a b l i sbment of i n d u s t r i e s i n

severa l p a r t s of t h e s t a t e ,

A s e a r l i e r mentioned only i n d u s t r i e s employing n o t

l e s s than t e n persons were surveyed, Service i n d u s t r i e s

and cons t ruc t ion companies a r e excluded,

I , 5 RESEARCH/SURVEY TECENI WE AND LIMITATIONS

The time of this survey covered t h e p e r i o d s from

February 1990 t o June 1991. I t involved a l o c a l

government by l o c a l government count of i n d u s t r i e s ,

t h e i r raw m a t e r i a l s a d p o l l u t a n t s i f any.

I t involved personal c ~ n t a c t s wi th individual. s,

personnel and q u a l i t y con t ro l o f f i c e r s of i n d u s t r i e s ,

I-ocal government i n d u s t r i d o f f i c e r s , and o f f i c i a l s of

Anambra S t a t e Env i ro rm~nta l San i t a t ion Agency ( ASESA) ,

V i s i t s and ccsnsultations were &so made t o t h e S t a t e ' s

Minis t ry of I n d u s t r i e s and t h e I n d u s t r i a l Training

Fund (ITF) establ.iskments in t h e s t a t e , No ques t ionnai re

was involved i n this work,

The main problem encountered i n t h e survey was

t h a t of t r a n s p o r t , followed by t h e f a c t t h a t a t most

of the i n d u s t r i e s , t h e author was rece ived w i t h

suspicion o r n o t allowed t o come c l o s e a t all, Some

o f f i c i a l s of these i n d u s t r i e s had t h e erroneous not ion

t h a t t h e exerc ise was by government agents t o spy and

o b s t r u c t t h e smooth riming of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s ,

1.6 DEFINITION OF TdDIS

The following terns a r e hereby defined f o r c l a r i t y ,

A. MANUFACTURING IIJDlJSTKY - The term indus t ry

desc r ibes a wide range of a c t i v i t i e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t

o p e r a t i o n d process l i k e ex t rac t ion , processing and

assembly serv ices . The process involves t h e t r ans -

f ormatlon of products such as t h e conversion of f l o u r

i n t o bread o r scraps i n t o s t e e l rods and cover b o t h

8 3

small., medium and l a r g e s c a l e processing, t h e s e being

undertaken in a factory. o r m i l l , 4

H . '1;3JVIRONMEXT: - The environment compri ses of the

landscape we see and enjoy, t h e air we brea the , the

streams which provide man and l i v e s t o c k wi th

f a c i l i t i e s such as bat;hiny, dr inking e tc , 5 9 6 I t &s

important t o n o t e t h a t ,my a c t i v i t y on e a r t h that

di s turb s t h e d e l i c a t e n a t u r a l balances of t h e environ-

ment causes pollution.,

C. INDUSTRTAL ARzA/LY'~'ATE - According to t h e United

Nations l k p a r t m s ~ t 01 Economic and Social, Affa i r s , an

i n d r ~ s t r i a l a r e a / e s t a t e i s used t o des ignate a planned

c l u s t e r i n g of i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s o f fe r ing s tandard

f a c t o r y b u i l d i n g s e rec ted i.n advance of demand and a

v a r i e t y of servi.ces and f a c i l i t i e s ; as a r u l e t h e

e s t a t e se rves p r i n c i p a l l y t o promote small scale

i n d u s t r i e s a d o f f e r s improved si tes as an i n c e n t i v e

f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h e n t of i n d u s t r i e s of all types and

s i zes ; though genera l ly f o r l a r g e and medium scale

i n d u s t r i e s , 7

In Nigeria , i n d u s t r i a l e s t a t e s / a r e a s a r e

sponsored, f inanced and managed by t h e S t a t e and

Federal Governments. They serve as t h e most po ten t

i n c e n t i v e employed lay goveinment i n Niger ia i n t h e i r

i n d u s t r i a l l o c a t i o n p o l i c y designed t o minimize t h e

p erenial and expernsi.ve p rob l m s of industr ia l . l a n d

a c q u i s i t i o n , reduce t h e c o s t of developmental infra-

s t r u c t u r e e s p e c i a l l y f o r indj-vidual and f o r e i g n p r i v a t e

i n v e s t o r s and a t t h e sane time f o s t e r sap id

i n d u s t s i ali zat-i-on i n %he country, '*' 1t w i l l a l s o a c t

as a way of co-ordinatiiig and r econc i l ing claims on

urban l a n d f o r i n d u s t r i a l and o the r purposes- in a way

t h a t environmental q u a l i t y avld convenience t o local

f a c i l i t i e s , h e a l t h and s a f e t y are all achieved. 10

I n d u s t r i a l areas in Niger ia v a r y i n s i z e from

24.30 hec ta res i n Gusau Sokoto S t a t e t o 10.2 hec ta res

i n Trans- Ainadi nea r Port- IIarcourt ( See Table), 11

Tab1.e 9: S I Z E S OF INDUSTRIAL AREAS I N N I G E H I A ~ -__I__

Location -- -

Kano (1st)

Kmo (2nd)

I ke j a

Kaduna

T r a n s - h a d i

Rnene 1st

Emene 2nd

ibca ( ilectares) 1 at

SOURCE: U.N. .Department of Economic & Social Affairs.

Very r e c e n t l y , works have been c a r r f ed o u t on

p o l l u t i o n i n s e v e r a l p a s t s of Nigeria. m e of such

p r o j e c t s which was undertaken by t h e Niger.Lan

Environmental Study Action Team (NEST) and t h e I n t e r -

n a t i o n a l Develc~pmeit Research Centre, I O R C , Canada on

t h e e n v i r o m a ~ % a l condi'bions of Nige r i a has r evea led

t h a t s t e a d i l y , b u t with i nc reas ing s a p i d i t y i n r e c e n t

yea r s , human and i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s a c r o s s t h e

country have beem re~ider..Lng p rogres s ive ly unusable t h e

v a s t network of i n l m d ground water systerrrs t h a t are

r e l i e d upon as f r e s h water sources by v i r t u d l y all

segments of -this c o u i t r y b ppopulati on, 12

f%igh r i s k i n d u s t r i e s i d e n t i f f ed by t h e s tudy

inc lude d i s t i l - l e r i es, pulp rmd paper m i l l s , f e r t i l i z e r

p l a n t s and brewer ies which in v a r i o u s ways con ta in

p o t e n t i a l l y t o x i c elements in t h e i r wastes. The

p r o f i l e a lso confirms t h a t a l l t h e s e i n d u s t r J es

discharge t h e i r ef f 1 u m - f ; ~ without prl.o$ t r ea tmen t i n t o

r i v e r s , e s t u a r i e s , L x o o n and t h e sea, I n Benin C i ty

f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e 36-months p r o f i l e quotes e r e c e n t

s tudy on t h e e f f e c t s of a 'thick b l ack e f f l u e n t

discharged from two b rewer i e s i n t o Ikpoba River,

(j'ther inl-aad water bodies that have been i d e n t i f i e d

t o have been heavily po l lu ted i n this manner a r e t h e

41-10 River i n Maidug~rr i (Borno S ta te ) , t h e D e l i m i

River ( ~ o s ) , the Asa Dam ( l l o r i n ) and. t h e Ogunpa

River badan an) as well a s Aba River Imo Sta te* 12

The Ike ja 1nd1- st rial. Zs ta te i n Lagos also

recorded s lmi lar disc1xwe;es i n t o t h e waters of I y a

Alaro and Shasha Rivers which run through t h e es ta te ,

The colouris of these r i v e r s have now been turned

permanently i n t o a bluish-green by the e f f luen t s from

t h e neigkbonring h d u s - h i e s . iligh contents of Na, Pb

compounds have a l so been recorded i n t h e r ivers . The

waters from these r i v e r s which now have high heat l e v e l s

cannot be used f a r any domestic purpose and do not;

support any form of aquat ic l i f e within a d is tance of

a t l e a s t t h r ee ki lometres downstream from t h e e f f l uen t

discharge points.

The presence of water hyacinths a t t h e Lagos,

ogun and Ondo Lagoon systems have a l so been t raced t o

b e from et(trophication from f e r t i l i z e r s , pes t i c ides ,

herbicides and ce r t a in p l a n t n u t r i e n t s such as n i t r a t e s ,

and phosphates used in nearby fams a s we11 a s detergents

from laundry s e m i c e s , ~

E. 0. oladipo of Depcvltment of- Geography, ABU,

Zari a r evea l s t h a t a study of t h e ancient univers i ty

town of I l e - H e , oya S-tate Ifshows t h a t dust rxmbilisatim

r e su l t i ng from vehicular a c t i v i t y produces suspended

p a r t i c u l a t e matter and high emission of Cv2 per

vehicle-kilcmeter t h i t a r e higher than those of London,

Ehgland. Oladipo ' s other f ind ings were f ightening.

According t o h i m by 1986, Nigeria was f l a r i n g 16.8

mil l ion an3 of na tura l gas a year, resul-ting i n annual

emissions of 2,700 t o m e s of p a r t i c u l a t e matter, 160

tonnes of oxides of sd-pnw, 5,400 tormes of CO and

27,000 t ~ n n e s of oxides of nitrogen. He caps a l l this

with a p o r t r a i t of Tzombe, a flow s t a t i o n where gas

f l a r i n g has l e d t o lOOC/; lass i n the y i e ld of a l l crops

cu l t iva ted abou-k 2QO metres away from t h e s t a t i on , 45%

l a s s f o r those about €90 metres away and 10% f o r .those

one krn from t h e f lraree 13914

Acrid fumes m d gr i . t ty dusts from fac tory chimneys

a r e common s i t e s around our majar indust r ies . Again

t h e expansion of highways in Nigeria has given r i s e t o

loca l ized contaminati.on by Pb of farms which a r e of ten

s i tua ted along major. highways. The Pb r e su l t i ng from

t h e pe t ro l addi t ives , t e t r a e t h y l lead, would become a

heal th hazard since a considerable percentage of f reslz

f r u i t s and vegetables a r e ra i sed on t h e f r i nges of high-

ways f o r ease of t ranspor ta t ion and. d i s t r ibu t ion ,

Professor Oswl-bkun of t h e Universi t;y College

Hospi tal , Ibadan, repor ted cases of poisoning clue t o

g m n a l i n 253 and of tteucepk133itis tremens caused by

food contamination by organophosphorous i n s e c t i c i d e s , -I5

In Anambra State, a study conducted by Inyang

P. E,B. an the environmental condi t ion of Ehugu gave

i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t CI), a gaseous p o l l u t a n t of n o t e i s

being produced by burn t cod. which a l s o produces SO2

a:; a r e s u l t of a c t i v i t i e s of locomotives and t h e

smelting of scrap i r o n f o r severa l purposes. Inyang

a l s o noted t h a t t h e r a i n water a t Emgu i s s l i g h t l y

acidic and t h a t t h e r e a r e more occurrence of smogs in

the urban c e n t r e s of t h e s t a t e . 1Us study a l s o revealed

t h a t Rivers I.3kulu at Enugu and N k i s i a t trnitsha now

rece ive i n d u s t r i a l and sewage d ischarges without

ob s t r u c t i o n from nearby i n d u s t r i e s and r e s i d e n t i a l

areas. q6 Disappearance of f i s h e s have a l s o been

repa r t ed i n sur face waters rece iv ing streams o r i g i n a t i n g

from 'the coal mines.

~ v i r o n m e n t d d i s a s t e r s taken toge the r wi th

Niger ia ' s growing indus t r . ia l iza t ion wi th i t ; s considerable

p o t e n t i a l f o r environmental abuse, have l e d l o c a l ear th-

watchers and n a t u r e loving academics t o sound a k n e l l

of a r b approaching danger. This concern i s evidenced

by t h e Federal Govemr~cnt; 1)rornUgati on s f Federal

T!hvironmentd Pro tec t ion &ency a f t e r t h e Koko t o x i c

waste saga. FWA which was establ-ished by Decree 58

of 1988 has bee1 empowered. -to p o l i c e t h e Nigerian

envirorment t o ensure aa? eaforcement of a c lean,

po l lu t ion- f ree Nigerian atmosphere. S t i f f p e n a l t i e s

hb$ now been provided. :y:ainst discharge of "harmful

q u a n t i t i e s of hazardous substance i n t o t h e a i r o r upon

t h e l a n d and waters of Niger ia . . . ". The p e n a l t i e s

a r e a f i n e of NIQQ,000 o r imprisonment f o r 10 years

o r b o t h for inc3ividu.a.l and f o r corpora te bodies a

f i n e of W500,000 and an add i t iona l f i n e f o r W1,OQO

f o r everyday t h e offence subsis't;~.

The e f f o r t s of Fa3A and NEST have however

s t a r t e d y ie ld ing p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s as some companies

now p r e - t r e a t t h e i r wastes o r f i n d a l t e r n a t i v e uses

f o r them. The cases of Aswmi T e x t i l e Indus t ry a t

Lagos and o t h e r s a r e ins tances .

Aswani T e x t i l e 1ndusi;r.i es a t I so lo , Lagos produces

d i f f e r e n t types of m a t e r i a l s l i k e f i n i s h i n g mate r i a l s ,

s u i t i n g mate r i a l s , shir-Ling, check and African p r i n t s .

During t h e productiori of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s c a l l e d " f r e s h

m a t e r i a l s M , t h e r e a r e some damaged m a t e r i a l s c a l l e d

V A R L V I l . Some years ~ C ; C I # these ya rn o r waste was

bu rn t i n an open space at; t h e fac tory . H u t now t h e

waste i s joined i;ogetl?cr and rewound in t h e machine

be fore it i s sold t o buyers who make "o jafl c l o t h used

i n carrying bab ies from it. 1 4 ~ 1 7

A t Arcee Tex t i l e LIills, Lagos, the p r a c t i c e was

burning t h e waste b u t now t h e Lagos Waste Disposal

Board comes t o ca r ry the waste 2 - 3 t imes a week,

In t h e case of p a i n t s , environmental po l lu t ion may

occur a t any stage. Acco.rding t o t h e opera t ions

Director of Interna.l;iorml. Pairi ts (West Africa Limited),

Mr. H.0, S. Kayode, tluibig app l i ca t ion , t h e use of

b rush o r r o l l e r genera l ly r e l e a s e s so lvent vapour i n t o

t h e atmosphere w u l e t h e p a i n t d r i e s o f f , During

f abri.ca.ti.on, l i k e welding flame - cu t t i ng of pa in ted

a r t i . cl-es, pigrner~ts and resin degradation products a r e

re leased into -the atinos$l.iere. M r . Kayode however s a id

t h a t dus t from pigmen-ts and extenders which might b e

crea ted during manuf a.cturing a r e recycled. The

Company s s o l i d waste ( hardened pa in t s ) a r e disposed

of through t h e L q o s S t a t e Waste Disposal Board.

A t t h e West African P a i n t s ~\ligeri.an Limited, s o l i d

wastes a r e contracted. t o t h e Lagos S t a t e Waste Disposal

Board* Waste water passes out throagh an open drainage

which l e a d s t o an ad.jouri,~ing d i t ch ,

- p p p p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

K. T. H r i scoe ? h t o r s , I solo anri Leventi s Motors

al.so show an effici-en-t waste management

A t t h e fonner, o l d e~igi.ne o i l smked o u t from v e h i c l e s

are st^ ed i n drums and. t;i.ghtly sealed. The d isposa l

i s handled by a con t rac to r and is rromally disposed

off a t a p l a s e provid.ed by -the Lagos S t a t e Waste

Disposal Board. A t t h e l a t t e r , t h e r e i s a c e n t r a l

waste drum bur ied i n t h e workshop ground where a l l

l i q u i d wastes e s p e c i d l y engine o i l a r e dra ined into.

T K s i s emp-tied every s ix months by a cont rac tor , 14

The Lagos S t a t e Jlaste Di-spasal Board on i ts own

uses t h e wastes f o r saylj.-&ary lznd fi . l . l ing such a s i n

swmq)y a reas , burrow pits etc. Large o b j e c t s a r e

cruwhed before di.sposa1 to prevent vo ids which would

t r a p gases and came uneven set t lement . The r e f u s e i s

then covered with a Layer of s o i l i n order t o prevent

f l y l a r v a from breeding on t h e r e fuse , reduce t h e ri,&

of f i r e , reduce odours, seal. t h e t i p and contain t h e

heat generated,

The Federal Environmentil P ro tec t ion Agency

(FEPA) has already se t i t s gu ide l ines and s tandards

on how b e s t i n d u s t r i e s should handle t h e i r wastes a s

well a s e f f l u m t trea-bent and pemi . s s ib le or

t o l e r a b l e l eve l s .

In Anrmbra S ta te , t h e l k t a n b r a S ta te Ellviron-

~ i~en t a l S:mj..tation Agency ( ii:j,XX) is ef rec.i;iveiy

,-;rapplin!g wi. t t-I this problem u f ~iloni-toring the

handling :mti d iqsasa l o f inclu:;.trial and sewage

';I:IS~PS.

I n d u s t r i e s i n Ancanbra 121;xLe can be grouped

i i ~ t o twenty f i v e based olz t h e ' In terna t ional

;talclard Indrl s t r i a l Classif ica-Lion ( I SIC) guide-

i r e s On t i le who1 e, -tilere re two hundred and

sixty e i g h t l a r g e s c a l e hc3.us'Lr5.es in Anamhra

, ;'L:I-te, Fig. 10,

A i r and water are 'the two major -types of

p o l l u t i o n on t h e f a s t e s t irzcrr~ase in tile s t a t e ,

1 lowever untidiness, v i b r a t i o n , nrai se a r e t h e

1~rrl.lrnark.r; of a rnaJority of t h e i n d u s t r i e s o

.'dl outstandirag f e a t u r e of some of t h e i n d u s t r i e s

i s t h a t they a r e n o t known for one kind. of product

whish atimes a r e unrelated., For i n s t a n c e Ejiamatu

Group of Companies produces d e t e r g a t s and Hot

d r inks under t h e sane roo1, i i ~ ~ i ~ ~ i ! ! f e e d and

ITotor Spare p a r t s a r e being lxxrned ou t bjr C e O o D o

I n t e r c o n t i n e n t a l Agr icul tura l and Feed I n d u s t r i e s

Limited, Nnewi.

95

naker8y /~onf ec-Linnary ' Indus t r ies (60) , plas-tj c s

and foams (?I), soaps, d s t e r g e n b , cosmetics (28) m r %

A.Lwninium Extrusi.on, L j n c a x ~ l I r o n product ( 27)

i n d u s t r i e s top t h e l i s b o f manufacturing i n d u s t r i e s in

Anambra S ta te ,

The major i n d u s t r i a l p o l l u t a n t s found i n Anambra

S t a t e come from t h e f al.lowing;

T e x t i l e I n d ~ l s t r ~ y whish nuvbes four (4) i n t h e

s t a t e . These companies discharge sodium salts,

ch lo r ides , peroxides, ox-ides of n i t rogen , hydrocarbons,

dyes and carbon monoxide i n t o t h e environment. I n t h e

spinning m i l l s of t h e vcwious t e x t i l e i n d u s t r i e s , t h e r e

a r e inadequate use of h c l u s t r i a l gadget i n e l iminat ing

cot ton f l u f f s which l e a d s t o prolong p l u f f i n h a l a t i o n

r e s u l t i n g i n p ryh inos i s ( chest- t ightening) and pa inQ

I t could a l s o l e a d t o tuberculos is . It; has a l s o bees

discovered t h a t n o i s e from t h e m i l l s looms and heat

generated from cons tant ly working machine p a r t s could

l e a d t o deafness, communication i n t e r f e r e n c e r e s u l t i n g

i n performance degradation. The non-a'uditory e f f e c t s

over a considerable number of yea r s of continuous

exposure t o this n o i s e inc lude phys io logica l d isorder

such a s hypertension, corronary di sease, u l c e r ,

migraine etc . Phys io logica l d i so rde r s manifest them-

s e l v e s a s mental. f a t i g u e , d i . s t rac t ion , syndrome, poor

96

judgement and nerrotlicim. IIeavy a i r po l lu t ion i n

t exmt i l e i ,ndus t r ies genera l ly res1.11 t i n chronic

b ronch i t i s , a l l e rgy ctc,

The p l a s t i c i ndus t r j es 1-ocated mainly a t Onitsha,

Idemil i and Ehugir IAocal Government Areas t u r n out

s o l i d organic wastes which of ten prove difficult t o

handle; partl.cles o r p i e c e s of r e s i n s , f i l l e r s ,

y l a s t i c i zers , 1-ubrican-t;s, co lorants , damaged p l a s t i c

ma t e r i a l s and c a t a l y s t s used .in production of t he se

p l a s t i c s are of ten turned out as wastes i n t a the

environment, Some o f these wastes, e spec i a l l y

p l a s t i c s , do n o t decompose e a s i l y and pose many

problems o the r than toxici-ky.

hambra S t a t e has .ten (10) p a i n t companies, These

f a c to r i es r e l e a se a considerable quant i ty of pigments

and r e s i n degradation products. The ma j o s s o l i d wastes

from p a i n t f a c t o r i e s a r e hardened pain ts . I n some of

these i ndus t r i e s , t he se s o l i d wastes a r e disposed

through t h e Anambra S t a t e Ehvironmental Sani ta t ion

Agency ( ASESA) w h i l e dus t s from pigments and extenders

which might b e c rea ted during manufacturing a r e

suction-pumped through a duct t o a p r e c i p i t a t i n g

compartment, Hence t h e accmnulated pigments are

recovered f o r use in t h e rnanuf a c t y e of pa in t s ,

The automobile i ndus t ry .is another source of

p o l l u t i o n i n Anambra LSta'tc. Apart from t h e noxious

fumes of CO heavily p1xq)ed i n t o t h e air by ca r s , t h e r e

are wtrea- ted m d n o t properly disposed wastes

generated by t h e mechanics arid companies t h a t c a r r y

ou t r e p a i r s and se rv ic ing of vehic les . The wastes

generated by t h e s e r e p a i r s a d serv ic ing c e n t r e s a r e

from o l d engine o i l s removed from c a r s when serviced,

o l d f u e l f i l t e r s , plugs, o l d o r worn-out t y r e s and

o the r u s e l e s s p a r t s of veh ic les , P e t r o l used i n

washing t h e engine block m d water used i n pa in t ing a

ca r o r washing o f f d i r t s a r e d.1 p a r t s of t h e waste.

These have o f t e n resul-ted in stagnant d i r t y clogged

g u t t e r s with thick l a y e r s of engine o i l , areas l i t t e r e d

w i t h o l d p a r t s and a i r f i l l e d w i t h t h e ,smell of carb ide

used i n panel-beating v e l r ~ i c l e s ~

A t Anambra Motor Fialufacturing Company ( ANMCO) , R?ugu, i.-t; was gathered t h a t most of c o n t r a c t o r s

a t t ached t o t h e motor hdu: ; t ry t o c o l l e c t =ld dispose

engine o i l s , eventual ly re- s e l l t o sonfe companies.

These companies now r e c y c l e t h e used o i l o r s e l l t o

some communities i n t h e r u r a l a reas f o r house use

l i k e f o r l o c a l l.anCeni. Wastes l i k e scraps, fuel-

f i l t e r s and o the r s o l i d wastes generated by motor

i n d u s t r i e s now sell. f o r good money a t some motor spare

p a r t s msrket in hnmbra Sta te ,

Most of the so9.p and de tergent f a c t a r i e s , 28 i n

d l l o ca t ed mai.rxly at Tdemili (I?), Onitsha ( 3 ) , Nnewi

( 4 ) etc, said t h a t they do no t have wastes i n their

i ndus t r i e s , The wastes tjley normally have are "recycled,

spi l . led over and reboiled. t o farm mothe r soapH. The

workers normally wear gloves, boots and o v e r a l l s i n

t h e f ac torvies because tile chemicals are so s t rong and

could affect; t h e skin. In most of t h e soap and

detergent; i n d u s t r i e s , what could b e c a l l e d waste i s

mater ia l which is s p i l l e d on the graund during

production time, These are o f ten co l l ec ted axad so ld

t o people who opera te ho'tels and do l o c a l washings,

A t the sawmills and g i a n t furniture companies

loca ted a t Idemil i , Awka, Idnewi and oni t sha , one i s

confronted with sawdust. A prolonged s t a y a t t h e

sawmills b r i ngs about an ahuse of t h e eyes, thus making

one t o sneeze pe r s i s t en t l y . M t e r a time, t h e eye

begins t o i t c h . A l l these combine t o pkoduce running

noses and bloodsimt eyes espec ia l ly among sawmillers,

13uC upon t u s palpable f e e l i n g of pol l .ut lon, these saw-

~ni.l . lers st i l l ins i s t t h a t t h e sawdust is no t in any way p p p p p p p p p p p p p - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

dmgerous t o t h e i r h e a l t h The sawdust po l l u t i on i s

however l o c a l i s e d because t h e p a r t i c u l ales, sawdusts,

do n o t t r a v e l f w from t h e m i l l s and m i l l s a r e o f t e n

l o c a t e d very f a r f roln the r e s i d e n t i d areas. A t the

sawmill.^, t h e b a r k s a r e o f t e n sold t o people w h o use

them f o r f irewoud mainly. The sawdust has a number

of uses; i n lmd reclanmati.on, i n pou l t ry keeping where

t h e sawdust i s spread on t h e ground f o r chickens, i n

f i l l i n g p i t - l a t r i n e s e tc , The excess sawdust i s

burned o f f .

Minfngs a t IThugu (cord) and 'Eriyimgba, Abakaliki

( s a l t s ) produce a c i d wastes arld some of t h e s e a r e r i c h

i n metal elements l i k e Pb, Cu, 21, A s , Mg and Fe.

Most of these are toxic at f a i r l y low concent ra t ions

and t h e impoverj s h n e n t of t h e f r e s h water l i f e of

r i v e r s i n a r e a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y mined f o r meta ls i s w d l

Imown, The c a d minins a t Enugu e s p e c i a l l y has

p o t e n t i a l s of pos.ing an acid mine drainage, Also t h e r e

i s a growing f e a r of environmental p o l l u t i o n by l e a d i n

Anambra S t a t e genera l ly due t o t h e l i t e r i n g of t h e

s t r e e t s with s torage b a t t e r i e s , and t o a l e s s e r degree

from gaso l ine burning a ~ g i n e s and smokes from o the r

f u e l s . Large amounts of t i t a n m and Nickel, are

re leased i n t o t h e air a m u , d l y by coa l , coke and f u e l

o i l burned f o r heat ing, manll-facturing and generat ing

e l e c t r i c i t y ,

A t t h e Anambra S t a t e iUumini.wn Products Company

APLUM, production of alwn.inium w i l l . r e s u l t in t h e

dumping of red mud, a mixture consisting l a r g e l y of

t h e oxides of i r on and aluminium which o r i g i n a t e s from

t h e proch~r,%ion of aluminium from bauxi te ,

Electroplnti .ng processes t h a t t ake place a t z inc

and silvery-cut1.ery i n d u s t r i e s mainly a t l d m i l i ,

Onitsha, and Nnewi proc1.uce l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of l i q u i d

wastes. The importance of t he se e l e c t rop l a t i ng

processes i n d u s t r i e s as sources of po l l u t i on however i s

d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o the ef f i c i ency with which meta ls

can b e reclaimed from t h e wastes and recycled,

A t some of the paper and pulpmill i n d u s t r i e s l i k e

Alpha a t ~ g i d i , Idemll-i Local Government Area, one i s

confxbonted wi th pulpmi l l od.our. An odour due t o

gaseous sulphur cornpounds espec ia l ly hydrogen sulphide

( H$), methyl rnercaptan (cHJH$) and dimethyl sulphide

( ( c I ~ ~ ) 2 ~ ) . These gases a r e p resen t t o t h e ex ten t of only

a few hundred p a r t s per mi l l ion i n t h e exhaust gases

from a m i l l b u t because of t h e i r i n t ense smell, they

c o n s t i t u t e a nuisance. Their low concentrat ion a l s o

causes conventional t reatment methods l i k e scrubbing

t o be expensive. 18,19

Anambra S t a t e has s ix teen (16) pou l t r y fanns and

f eed producing f ac to r i e s . A t t h e pou l t ry farms m a U y

loca t ed a t Awka and Anaocha, Fig.lQ, t h e a i r t ends t o

b e r e n t with t h e obnoxious smell of bird-droppings

which i s a. clear i l l u s - t r n t i u n of a i r p o l l u t i o n i n t h e

immediate vi. c i n i t i e s of these fac ' tor ies .

I n d u s ' t r i d locat i -ons in Atlambra S t a t e ira some

p laces have produced m-Lidy environmentso For

i n s t a n c e , the swrounclinngs around Nigers tee l Indus t ry

Ehene, Enugu a r e always s p i l l e d with broken and

awkward I-ooking m a t e r i a l s which encourage f a s t slum

development. Atimes t h e side-walks a r e l o c a t e d with

Imdnstr i d wastes and. scrap S. Outside Ehugu,

u n t i d i n e s s tends t o r e s u l t from t h e non-separation of

i n d u s t r i a l a reas from r e s i d e n t i a l areas. i n a t

Rivers ~kulu,/Etl~agu, and Nkisi,/_Onitsha have been

discovered t o b e rece iv ing sewage and i n d u s t r i a l wastes

without obs t ruc t ion frorn nearby i n d u s t r i e s and Wban

l .ocations, Ekulu f o r ;instance rece ives e f f l u e n t s

d i r e c t l y from produc-Lion s e c t o r s of Emenite, R~ugu ,

producers of asbes tos roofing shee t s uzd p r e s s u r e

pipes. 20 Poss ih le p o l l u t a n t s i n t o t h e s e r i v e r s are

ef flaients cons i s t ing of f l u i d m a t e r i a l s of chemical

and o t h e r process o r ig , ins in t h e s e i n d u s t r i e s . The

combined e f f e c t s of these chemical p o l l u t a n t s and the

use of water from t h e s e r i v e r s f o r cooling purposes

have g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d t h e aqua t i c l i v e s in t h e s e r i v e r s *

Resu l t s from f i e l d wc~rk c a r r i e d o u t by t h e author

a l s o showed t h a t despite Government Regulations, some

fishermen i n hambra Loccd- Government Area s t i l l use

Gammalin 20 in fisl4.n~ thereby causing a very

devas ta t ing pollutiorr t o the l i v e s i n t h e water bodies,

Hot water p o l l u t i o n i n ilnambra S t a t e i s predominant

where t h e r e i s thermal waste l i k e around t h e National

E l e c t r i c Power Authority, N F P A , thermal s t a t i o n a t O j i

River, and where i i i d u s t r i e s Like breweries , s t e e l and

Gas Companies discharge t h e i r wastes d i r e c t l y i n t o

nearby streams, l a k e s o r r i v e r s .

c ) n indus t r ia l . l o c a t i o n s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , Nnewi

Local Government Area has the g r e a t e s t number of motor

spare p a r t i n d u s t r i e s w h i l e Idemi l i has t h e highest

concentrat ion of soap cosmetic and de tergent

i n d u s t r i e s . Most of t h e bakery/conf ec t ionary i n d u s t r i e s

a r e n o t steady. A good number have fo lded , o r opera te

s top and s t a r t again a n a r e s u l t of f l o u r scarc i ty .

Three ( 3 ) l o c a l government areas; Idemi l i ( 6 9 ) ,

on i t sha (45) and Nnewi (44) have s i x t i (60) percent of

i n d u s t r i a l establiskmen-ts i n Anambra State . Six (6)

l o c a l government areas; Anambra, Ezeagu, I si-Uzo, I zz i ,

Ogbaru and Uzo-Uwani have no l a r g e s c a l e indus t ry

e s t a b l i s h e d i n them,

T deml 1 I, \mi-t;sha, ihewi I.ocdL government areas

stand a very bif-: l t i s ! c uf i n d u s t r i a l po l l u t i on because

o f the incr easi l r ~ rn~ui~i) e r of i n d . u s t r i e s spr inging up

i n d i f ferent ; parts 01 these l o c a l government areas .

The problem however is no-t: t h s t of e s t a b l i s h i n g

i.ndustri.es but; on t h e iron-compliance with t h e rules

and r e g d a t i u n s as re!-xards industr ial . es tabl i shnents

like the use of irrd.ustr7ial areas and treatment of

The survey a lso showed t h a t t he r e are no i n d u s t r i a l

o f f i ce r s i n local govemmen-k of f ices of t h e s t a t e ' s

i4ini s t r y of 1ntl11si;ri es except a t the Headquarter in

TO~ugu, T h e s e indus1 ; r id of fictzrs are supposed t o

e s t a h l i shnent o f inchxs-Lr'ies,

c-nly f i v e (5) Loca?.. Government Areas; mitsha,

Nnewi, Aguata, B ~ u g u , (,ji Iiiver have what could go f o r

' I ' !~dustr i .a l ~reas /~s ta- l ;es . The l a r g e s t caf these i s

Ehme Indus t r i a l Area (1.28 s q km), T h e rest are s n a l l

i n s izes. Again a gren-ter percentage of these

i n d ~ l s t r i a . 1 areas are located. too close to e i ther

There are only f i f t e en (15) i n d u s t r i e s i n Arar11bra

s t a t e where t h e S t a t e Government ei.ther has shares o r

owes wholly. The r e s t are e i t h e r p r i va t e ly awned o r

are j o i n t aren'tur8es b ctwcen indivi.ciucal s.

Some re:;.irfr?ntfal :ireas i n the State are perfora-ted

by these indus t r ies , m c l as a result, it is atimes

d i f f i c d . t t o d i s t i ngu i sh comincrci al and i n d u s t r i a l

areas from a pure iizdl~s-f;ri.al o r residential area.

T h i s snrvey of ind~ls tx ia l p o l l u t i ~ n i n Anambra

S t a t e i s 8imed a t f.iridj,~le a r t what the pollu. tants o s

wastes fsm i n d u s t r i e s are and how t h e se indi.astries

dispose of these materid,

The N ige r im iZt~lvironrnental. Stucly Action Team

( N E S T ) has a11 throi-qli bee11 ac t ing as a loca l - ea r t h

watcher in Nigeria 1ozt j . l t h e Koko t o x i c waste saga o f

1988 and t h e r~ation-wide f u r o r e t h a t t h e I t a l i a n

waste generated. Sequel t o this, the Federal Government

establi.shed t h e Federal i~hvironmental P ro tec t ion

Agency (FPA) with Decree 58 of 1988. Since t h e

incept ion of F'WA, va r ious S t a t e Governments i n

Nigeria now have -their own locax envl.ronmentd agencies,

In hambra S ta te , there i s the Anambra Sta t e

Er~vironmental San i t a t ion Agency (ASESA) which po l i c e s

t h e s t a t e ' s ~nvironmen-t aga ins t i n d u s t r i a l and even

sewage discharges.

Major urban c ~ n - t r e s of Onitsha, Enugu, Nnewi,

Nkpor, Awka and 0 ji stand g r ea t e r r i s k s of impending

i r idus t r i al pollut ion. Though t h e s i t u a t i o n has no t

gone out of hand t h e r e i s a good need f o r caution,

The problem as e a r l i e r s t a t e d i s no t t h a t t h e r e ape too

many i n d u s t r i e s i n these p l ace s b u t on t h e non-

compliance with s e t gl.1ide1.i.nc.s f o r the es t ab l i sherr t of

.i.nrlustries l i k e i n t h e use of i n d u s t r i a l areas and

proper waste mar~:~gerne:.it, For ins tance .Bneni te male,

Ehugu, producer of :~si jzstrrs roofing sheet aid p r e s s w e

p i p e s discharges i t s eff3.uen. t~ d i r e c t from productdon

uni.t i n t o t h e Fkulu itiver wi th t h e bel.ief t!mt there

w i l l be a d i l u t i o n t o extinci;i.on, A s i m i l a r th ing

occurs to Nkisi River a t (jni-tshc? where i n d u s t r i a l and

sewage d.haclmrges f i nd t h e i r ways w . i . t h u t obs t ruc t i on ,

The State Ehvi.ronrnaita1 %mitat ion Agency has

mapped o u t b i g g u l l i e s as s i tes f o r solid waste

d i sposa l . The wastes are pretreated and t h e n used f o r

l and - f i l l i ng , The agency also monitors t h e d isposa l

of ir- ldustrial wastes i n t h e s t a t e and so fa . r t he re has

not been a case of o u t s t a n d h g p o l l u t i o n i n t h e

s t a t e ,

(D m

Q t-h

t-i 3 F 0,

-

P P, 4 3 D, ct ID 9

i m

- 'u 9 0 e 0 * m

-

3:s 1 J , E l ; 0 (0 ! 5* 8; a 1 n I VI I

- (

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h I

0 i?, - IJ kd I- 1 ) ill $I P. P. 0 I-'.

I-" 3 ID Lo e

Types of I n d u s t r y

PAINTS, PUTTY

PLASTICS, FOBF;S, - CARPETS EMPTY CASSE- TTE CASSS.

VE,GETAELE C I L PROCESSING

R a w Materials

P i g m e n t s v e h i c l e ( L i n s e e d oil) B i n d e r s l i k e r e s i n s , o i l s , p l a s t i c i z e r s , s o l v e n t s l i k e t h i n n e r s , v c l a t i l e s ,

P h e n o l f o r m a l d e h y d e , f i l l e r s , p l a s t i c i z e r s l u b r i c a n t s , s t a b i l i z e r s , f i l l e r s ( c o t t o n , p a p e r , a s p h a l t , asbestos gypsum, t a lc , g ~ a p h i t e , g l a s s fibre:.

P a l m k e r n e l o i l , soya-bean o i l s , e tc ,

C a l c i u m o x i d e , C02, MgS04, CaSOa -

P r o d u c t s

Decorative p a i n t s , p u t t y f o r g l a s s e s .

Low d e n s i t y p o l y e t h e n e h i g h d e n s i t y PeE- , PVC p o l y s t y r e n e , m e l a n i n e f o r m a l d e h y d e , p.v. acetate.

Cook ing o i l s , s h o r t e n i n g s .

P o r t l a n d c e m e n t a n d c o n c r e t e p r o d u c t s l i k e c o n c r e t e e lectr ic p o l e s ,

~ a s t e s / ~ o l l u t a n t ' s and method( s ) of d i s p o s a l

P i g m e n t s w h i t e P 5 , ZnO, T i 0 2 , MgSiO , Pb 2 Co na lph thana te , pheny? m e r c u r y o ldate PSC03, PbSO*, Zn b o r a t e , L i n s e e d oil. B i n d e r s , a d d i t i v e s , h a r d e n q d p a i n t s , r e s i n ' d e g r a d a t i o n p r d u c t s ,

The s o l i d w a s t g s a r e d i s p o s e d off t h r o ~ g h ASESA,

P l a s t i c materials foam materials, c o t t o n l i n t and y a r n , I

The s o l i d w a s t e s are d i s p c s e d off t h r o h g h ASESA,

F r e e o i l , free a c i d s , a l k a l i , free s o a p , c a t a l y , s t s and b l e a c h i n g a g e n t s , v o l a t i l e a c i d s d i s c h a r o e d by s t eam a n d c o n d e n s e r s , m e t a l k from p i p e s . L i q u i d w a s t e s a r e d i s c h a r g e d i n soak-aways.

S p i l l a g e s of cernelnt s l u r r y a n d r aw m s t e r F a l s , stlack e m i s s i o n s of CO a n d p a r t i c u l a t e s , f l u e d u s t , smoke a n e a the r s a s e s l i k e S O NO , C q 2 9 c a r b o m t e s l i k e PIg?b3 uged qor s e t t i h p of cemen t , Carbojic a c i d .

T y p e s o f I n d u s t r y

CERAKICS, GLASSES, WiRBLE

PAPZR & PULP, TC!ILETRIES

Raw M a t e r i a l s

Marble (CaCG3) c h i p s , m o u l d m g powder , c l a y ,

Jumbo reels, labels

Aluminium s h e e t s , z i n c ~ o w d e r and s h e e t .

G r a i n s and d i s i n f e c t a n t s , d r u g s .

P r o d u c t s

C e r a m i c p r o d u c t : s y n t h e t i c m a r b l e ,

T o i l e t r o l l s

Alu ic in iun p r o d u c t s , Aluminium p l a t e s , s p o o n s , c u p s , g r a t t e r , f r y i n g , p a n s , p o t s - etc.

Animal f e e d s .

k k s t e s / P o l l u t a n t s a n d method( s) of d i s p o s a l

E lec t ros ta t ic p r e c i p i t a - t o r s and t a l l ch imneys are u s e d t o c o n t r o l d u s t a n d g a s e o u s e m i s s i o n s ,

P i e c e s of c l a y , and CaC03, NaSi03 a n d g a s e s from chimneys.

The g a s e o u s p o l l u t a n t s are d i s c h a r g e d t h r o u g h tall c h i m n e y s i n t o t h e air t o d i l u t e t o e x t i n c t i o n .

P i e c e s of wood a n d p a p e r , u sed c o n t a i n e r s ,

T h e s e s o l i d w a s t e s are c o l l e c t e d and i n c i n e r a t e d ,

Netal s c r a p s , p a i n t s f r om o l d v e h i c l e s , f u n e s from c h i m n e y s , n o i s e .

rn he metal s c r a F s a r e r e m e l t e d w h i l e t h e g a s e o u s p o l l u t a n t s a r e d i s c h a r g e d i n t o t h e a i r ,

Pieces of g r a i n s , f o u l smell from r o t t e n i n g f e e d s a n d b i r d s ' d r o p p i n q s ,

N o p r c p e r r e t h c d cf d i s p o s s l .

T y p e s of I n d u s t r y

MOTOF? SPARE PARTS, EGTO!? BATTERIES, T Y R Z S , TUBES

R a w M a t e r i a l s

O r d i n a r y a t m o s p h e r i c a i r , w i r e rods,

C o m p l e t e l y knocked dcwn p a r t s ,

I r o n rods, p a i n t s a n d p l a s t i c s ,

F i n i s h e d K a t u r a l a ~ d syc t t - , e t i c r uSber m a t e r i a l s p o l y n e r i c m a t e r i a l s. I r o n r o d s a n d o t h e r metals,

Metals, e n g i n e ~ ~ r t s ,

P r o d u c t s

I n d u s t r i a l g a s e s , w e l d i n g e q u i p - m e n t ~ ,

Assembled motor v e h i c l e s .

Motor s p a r e p a r t s , s w i t c h g e a r s and l a m p s ,

Cables a n d f i t t i n g s ,

F i n i s h e d machine tools,

W a s t e s / P o l l u t a n t s a n d m e t h o d ( s 1 cf disposal 1

Fumes a n d h y d r o c a r b o n sases,

The a b o v e s a re d i s c h d r c e d i n t o t h e a i r . I

O l d e n g i n e o i l s , m e t a l I

s c r a p s , s o l i d p a i n t s u s q d i n c o a t i n g s ,

The unused metal s c r a p s a r e s d d t o I J i g e r s t e e l , Emene, Enugu. I

Metal s c r a p s and n o i s e . , The s c r a p s are d i s p o s e d o f f as above or atimes are c l e a r e d by t h e ASESA.

(as a b o v e ) , I

- -

Types of I n d u s t r y

22 . SALT M I N I N G AND PRKESSLNG

22. SOAPS, DETER- GENTS, C CSDlSTICS .

23 . MEDICINQS , MEDICAL GADGETS, CrnTcX-WOOL, LINTS & BANDAGES.

Raw Materials

R a w s a l t e x c a v a t e d from t h e g round.

O i l , wax, c a u s t i c s d a , s o d a a s h , s o l v e n t s b o r a x , stearic a c i d .

D i s i n f e c t i n g s o l u t i o n s , l i g h t p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s , o p t i c a l r aw m a t e r i a l s .

P r o d u c t s

T a b l e s a l t , N a O H , c h l o r i n e , HC1.

Soaps, c a n d l e s and creams.

D i s i n f e c t a n t s , d i s p o s a b l e hypodermic s y r i n g e s .

method ( s) of d i s p o s a l

C lay , sand and s a l t s of metals l i k e Mg, Ca.

The s a l t s of metsls are r e f i n e d and s o l d w h i l e t h e c l a y and s a n d a r e c l e a r e d by p a i d c m t r a c t o r s .

F r e e o i l , free a c i d s and a l k a l i , wax, b o r a x , s o l v e n t s , free soap, s o l i d s i i k e c a t a l y s t s and b l e a c h i n g a g e n t s . Vola t i l e a c i d s d i s c h a r g e d by s team and c o n d e n s e r s , metals from p i p e s .

The l i q u i d w a s t e s a r e p a r t i a l l y t r e a t e d and d i s - cha rged i n t o t h e sewage w h i l e g a s e s are d i s p o s e d i n t o t h e air .

F r e e c o t t o n l i n t , p i e c e s of y a r n , s o l u t i o n of d e t e r - g e n t s used i n washing. The l i q u i d w a s t e s a r e c h a n n e l e d i n t o g u t t e r s w h i l e t h e y a r n s a r e s o l d t o p e o p l e who m a k e l t c j a r t c l c t h o

T y p e s of I n d u s t r y

STARCH MILLS & PHCTOCi-!EMICALS

CAiYDLES, TOmPICKs UNCLASSIFIED.

R a w Materials

R a w cassava, p a c k a g i n g materials , I n d t ? s t r i a l c h e n i c a l s .

Wax, t h r e a d , d i s i n f e c t e d woods,

P r o d u c t s

I n d u s t r i a l a n d d o m e s t i c s t a r c h and p h o t o - c h e m i c a l s ,

C a n d l e s , t o o t h p i c k s ,

W a s t e s / P o l l u t a n t s a n d m e t h & ( s ) of disposal

C a s s a v a w a s t e s a n d s p i l l a g e s o f s t a r c h s o l u t i o n s ,

The cassava p i e c e s are s o l d t o p o u l t r y a n d f i s h f a r m e r s , '

P i e c e s of wood a n d unused c o n t a i n e r s w h i c h are o c c a s i o n a l l y c o l l e c t e d a n d b u r n t ,

T h e s p i l l e d c a n d l e waxes are u s u a l l y b u r n t ,

Minis t ry of Finance and Ec man i c Planning. Eastern Regi m of Nigeria., O f f i c i a l Document No. 7, Enugu, Gcnrernment P r i n t e r , 1960.

Ckoye, T. 0. (1975) I'Enuguft , Niger ia i n Maps, .OTanata G.E.K. (ed.) , Benin City. E t h i o p a Publ i shing House Midwest Mass Canmuni ca t ion , pp 90 - 99. Udo, R. K. (1975) h i ca l Regions of Nigeria, Ibadan Heineman Ed Books Ltd., p. 3.

Ian-Hamiltm, F. E, (1977) "Models i n I n d u s t r i a l Locat.1 onI1. Models i n Geography. Chorley, R. J. (ed.) Londm Methen and Canpany Limited, pp 361 - 370.

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Authorv s Fieldwork 02/02/90 - 6/6/91.