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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MICROMORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SAPROLITES FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
CHNG LOI PENG
FP 2002 3
EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MICROMORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SAPROLITES FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
By
CHNG LOI PENG
Thesis Submitted in Fu lfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Agricultural Science in the Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
May 2002
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfi l lment of the requirement of the degree of Master of Agricultural Science
EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MICROMORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SAPROLITES FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
By
CHNG LOI PENG
May 2002
Chairman : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hamdan Jol
Faculty : Agriculture
Saprolite is defined as soft, massive, friable, isovolumetrically weathered bedrock
that retains the fabric and structure of the parent rock (Pavich , 1 986). It is the
transitional material between hard rock and the solum and has characteristics of
both the parent rock below and the soil above it (Daniels et al., 1 984). Saprol ite
is currently being used for the on-site treatment and disposal of household
wastewater (Vepraskas et al. , 1 996) and storage of some radioactive wastes
(Vepraskas and Williams, 1 995). Due to extensive housing development, suitable
soils for septic systems are being depleted (Schoeneberger et al. , 1 995) . Thus, a
greater demand is being placed on the use of saprolite for wastewater disposal
purposes.
The objectives of th is study are (1 ) to study the physical and micromorphological
characteristics of different saprol ites, (2) to study the saturated hydraul ic
conductivity of different saprolites, and (3) to correlate the saturated hydraulic
conductivity with the physical characteristics and develop models to predict Ksat
for different type of saprolites for wastewater treatment.
IV
The hydraulic conductivity was carried out in the laboratory using metal core rings
(7.62 cm internal diameter x 4 cm long) and double-ring infiltrometer were used in
situ . To determine the physical properties, standard method is employed for the
particle size distribution, bulk density, particle density, total porosity, penetration
resistance, and water retention capability. Micromorphology and scanning electron
microscopy were used to observe the microfabrics. The pore size distribution
was analyzed using an image analyzer and pore shape was also determined .
The result obtained from this study shows that granite saprol ite has the highest
hydraulic conductivity, while basalt saprol ite has the lowest hydraulic conductivity
value in both laboratory and in situ methods. There are several factors that govern
the K , namely the clay and sand content, porosity, pore shape and pore sizes. sat
Both pore size and shape analysis influenced the Ksat' especially the mesopores,
Me (30 � 75 um) and macropores, Me (> 75 um) and vugh and channel shapes. A
l inear equation was derived from al l the data obtained from the saprolites. The
best model to predict the Ksat of saprol ites is:
Ksat = 1 6.859 - 0 . 1 82 etc - 0 . 1 83 ewp - 0 . 1 28 Si + 0 . 1 1 2 MOist
whereby, etc and ewp
is the moisture content retained at 9.8 kPa (field capacity)
and 1 500 kPa (permanent wilting point), Si is the silt content, and MOist is the air
dried moisture content, respectively.
The results obtained from the micromorphology, generally agreed with the results
obtained from the physical properties. Granite saprolites has a higher coarse
materials than other saprol ites. It has spongy to intergrain to intergrain channel
microstructure. The presence of weathering "resistant" minerals such as feldspar
and quartz are abundant. Basalt saprol ites, the reverse micromorphology
characterics of granite was observed.
v
From this study, shale and basalt saprolites can be used for on-site wastewater
treatment because of its slow to very slow rate (approximately 0.2 - 0.4 cm hr-1 )
that provides ample time for bacteria and viruses to be removed from the effluent
by filtration or adsorption onto particle surfaces and ample time for organic to
stabilize the wastewater. The granite and schist saprolite can also be used for on
site wastewater treatment if modifications are made by adding a low permeabil ity
base (a composite l iner) and a protective filter layer over the high permeability
material (USEPA, 1 988).
The use of wastewater instead of distilled water and study of the chemical reactions
or chemical characteristics in future studies should be done. It is to determine the
true capability of these saprolites for wastewater treatment.
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains
PENILAIAN CIRI-CIRI FIZIKAL DAN MIKROMORFOLOGI SAPROLIT UNTUK PROSES RAWATAN AIR BUANGAN
Oleh
CHNG LOI PENG
Mei 2002
Pengerusi : Prof. Madya Dr. Hamdan Jol
Fakulti : Pertanian
Saprolit ditakrifkan sebagai lembut, rapuh , isoisipadu batuan terluluhawa yang
mengekalkan fabrik dan struktur bahan induknya (Pavich , 1 986). la merupakan
bahan transisi di antara batuan dan solum dan mempunyai ciri kedua-dua bahan
induk di bawah dan tanah diatasnya (Daniels et a/. , 1 984). Saprolit kini sedang
digunakan untuk proses pembuangan air buangan perumahan secara setempat
(Vepraskas et a/. , 1 996) dan penyimpanan bahan radioaktif (Vepraskas dan
Wil l iams, 1 995). Disebabkan oleh pembangunan perumahan yang pesat, tanah
yang sesuai untuk sistem septik adalah berkurangan (Schoeneberger et a/., 1 995).
Maka, bertambahlah permintaan untuk rawatan air buangan pada bahan saprolit.
Objektif kajian ini ialah ( 1 ) untuk mengkaji ciri-ciri fizikal dan mineralogikal ke
atas jenis-jenis saprolit (2) untuk mengkaji konduksi hidraulik tepu (Ksat) ke atas
jenis-jenis saprolit, dan (3) untuk menghubung-kait di antara konduksi hidraul ik
tepu dengan ciri-ciri fizikalnya dan menerbitkan persamaan untuk jenis-jenis
saprolit untuk rawatan air buangan .
VI I
Hidraul ik konduktiviti tepu ditentukan di makmal dengan menggunakan gelang
besi (7 .62 cm diameter dalaman x 4 cm panjang) dan double-ring infiltrometer
digunakan in-situ . Untuk mengkaji ciri-ciri fizika l , cara piawaian digunakan untuk
menentukan tekstur, ketumpatan pukal , ketumpatan jisim, jumlah liang-liang, dan
tahap pemegangan air. Mikromorfologi dan elektron mikroskop digunakan untuk
menghayati mikrofabriknya . Tabu ran saiz l iang-l iang dija lankan dengan
menggunakan penganalisis imej dan bentuk l iang-liang juga ditentukan.
Keputusan diperolehi dalam kajian ini menunjukkan granit saprolit mempunyai
tahap Ksat yang paling tinggi , manakala basalt saprolit mempunyai Ksat yang
terendah di dalam ujikaji di makmal dan in situ . Terdapat beberapa faktor yang
mempengaruhi Ksat' iaitu peratusan lempung dan pasir, jumlah liang-liang, bentuk
dan saiz l iang- l iang . Ked ua-d ua saiz dan bentu k l iang-l iang d i dapati
mempengaruhi Ksat' terutamanya meso-l iang, Me (30.$ 751lm) dan makro-l iang,
Me (>75 Ilm) , bentuk vugh dan channel. Satu persamaan l inear telah diperolehi
daripada kesemua data-data daripada saprolit. Persamaan yang terbaik untuk
menjangka K t saprolit ialah: sa
Ksat = 1 6 .859 - 0. 1 82 etc - 0 . 1 83 ewp - 0 . 1 28 Si + 0 . 1 1 2 MOist
di mana, etc dan efC ialah kandungan kelembapan pad a kapasiti muatan , 9.8 kPa
dan 1 500 kPa (takat kelayuan maksima), S. kandungan kelodak, dan M I oist
kandungan kelembapan kering udara.
Pad a amnya, pemerhatian dari segi mikromorfologi adalah selaras dengan
keputusan yang diperoleh daripada sifat fizikal saprolit. Granit saprolit mempunyai
lebih banyak bahan kasar berbanding dengan saprolit yang lain. la mempunyai
ciri sponge ke intergrain channel mikrostruktur. la juga mempunyai mineral yang
"tahan" lu luhawa banyak seperti feldspar dan kuartz. Untuk basalt saprolit ,
pemerhatian mikromorfologi adalah terbalik berbanding dengan granit saprol it.
VI I I
Daripada kajian in i , saprolit syel dan basalt boleh digunakan untuk proses
perawatan air buangan secara on-site kerana mempunyai nilai �at yang perlahan
kepada amat perla han (Iebih kurang 0.2 - 0.4 cm jam-1) yang memberi lebih masa
kepada penyingkiran bakteria dan virus daripada efluen secara penapisan atau
penyerapan ke atas partikel. Granit dan schist saprolit juga boleh digunakan untuk
proses perawatan enapcemar secara on-site jika modifikasi secara penambahan
satu bahan asas yang mempunyai permeabiliti yang rendah pada bahagian dasar
(a composite liner) dan lapisan fi lter perlindungan ke atas permeabiliti yang tinggi
(USEPA, 1 988) .
Penggunaan air buangan patut digunakan selain daripada air sul ing, kajian ke
atas kesan kimia atau ciri-ciri kimia patut dijalankan pad a kajian pad a masa
depan. In i adalah untuk mengetahui kemampuan yang sebenar saprolit ke atas
air buangan.
IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge generous individuals whose valuable support made this
study a success and the completion of this thesis possible. I am immensely
indebted to them and my only means of repaying them is to express a heartfelt
gratitude and a sincere appreciation.
Foremost is to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Hamdan Jol, Chairperson
of the Supervisory Committee, who provided me scholarly insights, professional
guidance and knowledge, moral support and understanding when I needed them
the most. To Associate Professor Dr. Mohd. Mokhtaruddin Manan and Dr. Che
Fauziah Ishak, members of the Supervisory Committee, for their guidance,
understanding and constructive comments. Sincere appreciation also goes to
Associate Professor Dr. Siti Zauyah Darus, for her help, comments and guidance.
My sincere thanks.
Special thanks go to all lecturers, and laboratory staffs in the Department of Land
Management and especially to Pn. Pauziah in the Micromorphology laboratory,
for their invaluable help in the analyses of my samples. They well always be
remembered with gratitude.
To my friends, Mr. Neo Sye Peng , Mr. Tai Kin Leong, and other post graduate
students in the faculty, for their generosity and countless invaluable help which
made my work in the laboratory and field bearable and pleasant. I also wish to
thank all my friends especially, Mr. Lee Choon Keat, Mr. Yeoh See Hon , and Pak
Fauzi for their help, cooperation , support, and encouragement in my difficult and
depressing moment in finishing th is work.
X
I certify that an Examination committee met on 1 7th May 2002 to conduct the final examination of Chng loi Peng on his Master of Agricultural Science thesis entitled "Evaluation of Physical and Micromorphological Properties of Saprolites for Wastewater Treatment" in the accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1 980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulation 1 981 . The committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows:
JAMAL TALlB, Ph.D. Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman)
HAMDAN JOl, Ph .D . Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
MOHD. MOKHTARUDDIN ABDUL MANAN, Ph .D . Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
CHE FAUZIAH ISHAK, Ph .D . lecturer Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
SHAMSHER MOHAMAD RAMADILI, Ph.D. Professor/Deputy Dean, School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Date:
XI
This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia has been accepted as fulfil lment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science.
AIN I IDERIS, Ph.D. ProfessorlDean, School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Date: 12 SEP 1002
XI I
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which , have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
CHNG LOI PENG
Date:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
APPROVAL SHEETS
DECLARATION FORM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Tropical Geomorphology and Soils 2 .2 Peninsular Malaysia 2 .2 .1 Geomorphology of Peninsular Malaysia 2.2 .1.1 Introduction 2.2 .1 .2 Mountains 2.2 .1.3 Steep Hil ls 2.2 .1.4 Low Hills 2.2 .1.5 Coastal Plain 2.2.1 .6 Limestone Areas 2 .2 .1.7 Drainage 2.2.1.8 Deep Weathering 2.2 .1.9 Macro Landforms 2 .2 .2 Relief 2.2.3 Climate 2.2 .4 Temperature 2.3 Hydraulic Conductivity 2.3 .1 Introduction 2.3.2 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity 2.4 The Importance of Saturated Conductivity in Wastewater
Treatment Plant Design 2 .4 .1 Land Treatment of Wastewater 2 .5 Soil Physical Properties That Influences The Saturated
Hydraulic Conductivity for Wastewater Treatment
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2.5 . 1 Texture 1 6 2.5.2 Rock Fragments 1 6 2.5.3 Soil-Water Characteristic Curve 1 8 2.5.4 Pore Shapes and Sizes in Relation to Water Movement 1 9 2.5.4 . 1 Classification of Pore Sizes 2 1 2.5.5 Effect of Wastewater on Soil/Saprol ite 22 2.5.5 . 1 Inorganic Compounds 22 2.5.5.2 Organic Compounds 24 2.6 Saprolite 25 2.6 . 1 Introduction 25 2.6.2 Morphology of Saprolite 26 2.6.3 Physical Properties of Saprolites 26 2.6.4 Saprolite Colour 27 2.7 Studies of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprol ites
for Wastewater Treatment 27 2.8 Multiple Linear Regression 28
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS 29
3 . 1 Location of Study 29 3.2 Sampling Procedures 30 3 .2 . 1 Morphological Zonation 30 3.2.2 Sampling of Saprolite Materials 30 3.3 Laboratory Analysis 32 3 .3 . 1 Preliminary Treatment of Bulk Samples 32 3.3.2 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity 32 3.3.3 Particle Size Distribution 33 3 .3.4 Bulk Density 33 3.3.5 Particle Density 34 3.3.6 Total Porosity 35 3.3.7 Saprol ite-Water Retention Curve 35 3.3.8 Scanning Electron Microscopic Observations 36 3.3.9 Saprolite Thin Sections 36 3.3 . 1 0 Pore Size and Pore Shape Analysis by Using an Image
Analyzer 36 3 .4 Field Analysis 38 3.4. 1 Infiltration Rate 38 3.5 Statistical Analysis 38
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 40
4 . 1 4 . 1 . 1 4 . 1 .2 4 . 1 .3 4 . 1 .4 4.2 4.2 . 1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.3 4.4 4.5 4 .5 . 1
4.6 4.7
4.7 . 1 4.7.2 4.7.2 . 1 4.7.2.2
Morphological Characteristics 40 Granite Saprol ite 40 Schist Saprol ite 40 Shale Saprolite 42 Basalt Saprolite 42 Physical Properties of Saprolites Studied 44 Particle Size Distribution and Gravel Distribution 44 Bulk Density 46 Total Porosity and Moisture Content 47 Saprolite Water Retention Capabil ity 48 Pore Size and Pore Shape Distribution of Saprolites 50 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprol ites Studied 52 Micromorphology of Saprol ites 54 Qual itative Relationship Between Micromorphology and Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprolites 54 Scanning Electron Microscope Observations 60 The Relationship between Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity and Physical Properties of Saprol ite 60 Correlation Analysis 60 Regression Analysis 62 Regression Analysis of The Overall Saprolites Studied 64 Regression Analysis for Individual Saprolites Studied 66
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
5 . 1
5.2
5.3 5.4
The Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of The Saprol ites Studied Influence of the Physical and Mineralogical Properties Towards the Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Multiple Linear Regression Recommendations
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
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69 70 71
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LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
1 . Classification of hydraulic conductivity values (USEPA, 1 977) 1 4 2. Comparison of Site Characteristics for Land Treatment
Processes (USEPA, 1 977) 1 5 3. Terms for Describing Rock Fragments (Soil Survey Division
Staff, 1 993) 1 7 4. Different Classifications of Pores Based on Their Equivalent
Cyl indrical Diameter 23 5. Selected Physical Properties of Saprolites 45 6. Qualitative Relationship Between Micromorphology Properties
and Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprolites 55 7. Correlation Analysis Between The Physical Parameters and
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Different Saprolites 63 8. Regression Model Summary of The Overall Saprolites Studied 65 9. The Summary of the Models Developed for Saprolites Studied 66
1 0. Regression Model Summary of The (a) Granite Saprolite, (b) Schist Saprolite, (c) Shale Saproltie, and (d) Basalt Saprol ite 67
Figures
1 . 2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
7.
8(1 ) .
8(2).
9.
1 0 .
1 1 . 1 2.
1 3 .
14 .
1 5.
1 6.
1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9.
20.
LIST OF FIGURES
Rel ief of Peninsular Malaysia (Law, 1 970). Model of the micro-landforms in four test areas in Peninsular Malaysia (De Dapper, 1 985). Soil Water Characteristic Curves for Several Soils (Taylor and Ashcroft, 1 972). Schematic Diagram of Pore Shapes; i . Vughs; ii. Channels; iii. Planes (Ringrose-Voase ad Bul lock, 1 984) Morphological Zonation of a Weathering Profile (Zauyah, 1 986) Schematic diagram of the constant head method (Klute and Dirksen , 1 986) Shape measurements made on objects in ImagePro® Plus: (A) area shaded), (B) perimeter (dashed l ine), and (C) length (feret diameter: along major axis of object. The Locations of the Studied Saprolite; (a) and (b) Granite Saprolite, and (c) and (d) Schist Saprol ite Locations of the Studied Saprolite. (e) and (f) Shale Saprolite, and (g) and (h) Basalt Saprol ite The Pattern of Moisture Retention Characteristics of Saprol ites Studied The Mean Distribution of (A) Different Pore Size Classes, (B) Different Pore Shape Classes Infiltration Rate of Saprolites Conducted Insitu Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Saprolites in the laboratory Micromorphology of Granite Saprolite: (A) and (B) Spongy Microstructure at 1 0X; (C) and (D) Pedofeatures of Ferruginous Amorphous Materials of Pores at 63X. Micromorphology of Schist Saprol ite: (A) and (B) Spongy Microstructure at 1 0X; (C) and (D) Unaltered Quartz Grains and Some Black Nodules at 63X Micromorphology of Shale Saprolite: (A) and (B) Fissure Microstructure at 63X; (C) and (D) The Fine Materials are Dark Brown and Presence of Opaque Minerals at 63X Micromorphology of Basalt Saprol ite: (A) and (B) Fissure Microstructure at 1 0X; (C) and (D) The Opaque Minerals are Probably Hematite and Fe-gels, and The Pores are Sometimes Interconnected The Microfabric Characteristics of Studied Saprol ites at 500X "Booklets" of Kaolin ite in Basalt Saprol ite Variabil ity of The Observed Ksat and The Predicted Ksat of the Saprol ites Studied The Variabil ity of the Observed and Predicted Ksat of (a) Granite Saprolite; (b) Schist Saprolite; (c) Shale Saprolite; and (d) Basalt Saprol ite
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Soil is the weathered and unconsolidated outer layer of the earth's surface and is
one of the three natural reservoirs where toxic and refractory pollutants can
accumulate. The potential of a soil site for waste treatment may be determined in
part by the soil's physical and chemical characteristics. A soil is a complex
arrangement of primary minerals and organic particles that differ in composition ,
size, shape and arrangement. The pores or voids between the particles transmit
and retain air and water. The soil is capable of treating organic materials, inorganic
substances and pathogens in wastewater by acting as a filter, exchanger, adsorber
and a surface on which many chemical and biochemical processes may occur.
The combination of these processes acting on the wastewater as it passes through
the soil produces water of acceptable quality for discharge into the groundwater
under the proper conditions.
Approximately 18 million housing units or 25 % of all housing units in the US dispose
their wastewater using on-site wastewater treatment. These systems include a
variety of components and configurations. The most common is the septic tank or
soil adsorption system. Federal , state and local govemment have refocused their
attention on rural wastewater disposal and more particularly on wastewater system
affordable by the rural population. On-site systems are gaining recognition as a
viable wastewater management alternative that can provide excellent, reliable
service at a reasonable cost, while sti l l preserving environment quality (Soil
Conservation Service, 1 95 1 ) .
As the soil available for conventional septic systems decreases, onsite wastewater
disposal on saprolite is gaining popularity (Vepraskas and Will iams, 1 995). The
2
evaluation of saprolite for wastewater disposal includes measuring its saturated
hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) (Amoozegar et al. , 1 991 ) . The Ksat values can be used
to estimate the amount of land area needed for the disposal and treatment of
sewage. It is also used by hydrologists , water resources engineers and
environmental soil scientists to estimate the intemal drainage of soils, for designing
subsurface drainage and liquid waste disposal systems and for assessing non
point source pollution (Mbagwu , 1 995) . Studies of hydrological properties and
erodibility of soils have, for long, been objectives of pedological research and are
available for soils from most parts of the world . In contrast, similar investigations
for saprolites and , particularly, of the whole regolith , referred to as a soil-saprolite
complex, are few (Scholten et al. , 1 997).
Saprolite is defined as soft, massive, friable, isovolumetrically weathered bedrock
that retains the fabric and structure of the parent rock (Pavich , 1 986) . It is the
transitional material between hard rock and the solum and has characteristics of
both the parent rock below and the soil above it (Daniels et al. , 1 984) . It retains
the original rock's structure, foliation and jointing , but its bulk density can be as
low as one-half that of the original rock (Pavich et al. , 1 989). Saprol ite is easily
crushed to sand , silt and clay sized particles (Schoeneberger and Amoozegar,
1 990).
In Peninsular Malaysia, saprolite is exposed near to the surface as a result of
water erosion and occasional landslipping (Whitmore and Burnham, 1 969;
Burnham, 1 989) and mechanical land clearing and deep terracing during the early
stages of steep land preparation for perennial crops cultivation (Burnham, 1 989).
Eswaran and Wong ( 1 978) observed that the roots of perennial crops such as
rubber and oil palm, planted on bench-terraces, are frequently growing in the
saprolite.
3
Saprolite is currently being evaluated for the on-site treatment and disposal of
household wastewater (Vepraskas et al. , 1 996) and storage of some radioactive
wastes (Vepraskas and Williams, 1 995). Due to extensive housing development
with on-site wastewater disposal systems in the rural areas (Hoover and
Amoozegar, 1 988), su itable soils for septic systems are being depleted
(Schoeneberger et al. , 1 995). Thus, a greater demand is being placed on the use
of saprolite for wastewater disposal purposes.
The objectives of this study are ( 1 ) to study the physical and micromorphological
characteristics of d ifferent saprolites, (2) to study the saturated hydrau lic
conductivity of different saprolites, and (3) to correlate the saturated hydraulic
conductivity with the physical characteristics and develop models to predict Ksat
for different type of saprolites for wastewater treatment.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Tropical Geomorphology and Soils
The tropical climate has caused deep weathering due to extensive chemical
weathering, leaching, and abundance of organic matter (Pedro, 1 968). The tropic
is also the place of tectonically stable land areas. It is assumed to have long
durations of weathering and low rates of denudation ( Isahak, 1 993).
The tropical landscape commonly consists of soils of the age from amongst the
youngest (e.g. Entisols and Inceptisols) to the oldest (e.g. U ltisols and Oxisols).
The tropical soil is normally considered to be deep, red, acidic soi l , wel l drained
and lacking distinct horizons. This soil is often associated with the order Oxisols
of the Soil Taxonomy system (Soil Survey Staff, 1 975; Suol and Eswaran, 1 978).
2.2 Peninsular Malaysia
2.2 . 1 Geomorphology of Peninsular Malaysia
2.2. 1 .1 Introduction
The summary on the geomorphology of Peninsular Malaysia is extracted mainly
from Zauyah (1 986) unless otherwise indicated . The topography of the Peninsular
Malaysia is dominated by a series of eight prominent mountain ranges alternating
with valleys (Figure 1 ) . They are aligned in a general NNW-SSE direction. The
most important of these ranges is the Main Range, which has an average width of
45 to 65 km and extends southwards for about 500 km from the Thai border in the
N
1 0 �..r !OD'�' \ I
�EN(RI\L PHY�I!}GFUPHf o �OO$!Of plo.OI Q'ld 10 .. Imoen \0- (5 ftI! • =Iood 9'o,ns �nd 10 .. !!Hroces(O-75r.!) !li'� n!e.m.diJ1! vn< Nq".' 'tff(!Ct$ [6 -75 '11\ � �Qlhn.q I� ,�. �'II} lof'd', �o- 150 m) lei H,III ond lTo,in1aln,;c\'" 150.»
101
Figure 1: Relief of Peninsular Malaysia (Law, 1970).
5
S".J j, r�"
Ctun(!
6
north. Most of these ranges are formed of granitic rocks and often, peaks around
2000 m high are present. Occasionally, however, resistant quartzite also forms
some peaks e.g. Gunung Tahan (21 78 m), the highest peak in the Peninsular.
Extensive alluvial plains developed from the widespread alluvial deposition during
the Quatemary period, occur along both the east and west coasts of the Peninsular.
These alluvial plains consist of fluvial plains, peat swamps, marine, estuarine and
brackish water clayey deposits and sandy beach ridge complexes.
Lawrence (1 972) divided the topography of Peninsular Malaysia into four distinct
zones; e.g. mountains, steep hills, low hills, and coastal plains. However, another
important feature of the geomorphology especially in the northwest and west central
parts of the Peninsular is the typical karst topography.
I n the upland areas, denudation and degradation are the most important
geomorphic processes while in the lowlands, aggradation by rivers and the sea
dominate. Mass soil movement or soil creep is also a very important process.
2.2. 1 .2 Mountains
Most of the mountains are developed over granites but occasionally some
mountains over sedimentary rocks also occur. The mountains rise to altitudes in
excess of 1 00 m with slopes generally in the 25° - 35° but locally they approach
45°. These mountains are characterized by steep valley walls, numerous waterfalls
and rapids and small remnant of upland plateau indicate a youthful stage of erosion.
7
2.2 . 1 .3 Steep H ills
Like the mountains, they are developed mostly on granite. They occur peripherally
to the mountains either as spurs of the main mass or as outlying isolated hi l ls .
They may rise to 300 m with slopes of 1 50 -300• Some of these areas have been
planted with rubber.
2.2. 1 .4 Low Hil ls
The altitude in these areas may be up to 250 m, but in the south it is often less than
1 00 m. The low hi l ls are extensive, lying in a continuous belt around the central
highlands. Most of these areas have been used for agriculture having been planted
with rubber, oil palm, and fruit trees.
2.2. 1 .5 Coastal Plain
The broad coastal plain of Holocene riverine and marine alluvium has low to almost
no relief and lies between the low h il ls region and the sea. The alluvium has fi lled
the floors of the seaward valleys of the low hil ls and "fingers" into the low hil ls of the
interior where it forms river plains and terraces. On the average, the coastal plain
has widths varying between 20 and 30 km.
2.2. 1 .6 Limestone Areas
Tower-like limestone hills occur in northwest and west central parts ofthe Peninsular
(GobbeU, 1 965; Tjia, 1 973). These form a typical tower karst geomorphology.
These hi l ls rise abruptly from the alluvial plains and often reach elevations of up to
600 m. These hills are usually honeycombed by caves and old river channels. The
orig in of these caves is attributed to the work of rivers flowing along joints and/or