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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH
FK 2012 77
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIN MINE TAILING SAND FOR
GREENSAND CASTING MOULD
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIN MINE TAILING SAND FOR
GREENSAND CASTING MOULD
By
AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in
Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
October 2012
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DEDICATION
TO WHOM THEIR TRUE LOVE AND SUPPORT WERE BEHIND MY SUCCESS; MY FATHER, MOTHER, WIFE, SON, DAUGHTERS,
BROTHERS, SISTERS AND TO THE SOUL OF MY GRANDFATHER,
HJ KASIM, THE PERSON WHO ENCOURAGED ME TO PURSUE
THIS STUDY. MAY ALLAH BLESS HIM AND GRANT HIM PEACE.
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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of
the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIN MINE TAILING SAND FOR
GREENSAND CASTING MOULD
By
AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH
OCTOBER 2012
Chair: Professor Shamsuddin bin Sulaiman, PhD
Faculty: Engineering
Tailing sand is the residue from tin extraction, containing between 94% to 99.5% silica.
It is abundant especially in Kinta Valley of state of Perak, Klang Valley of state of
Selangor and certain areas in Johor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang in Peninsular
Malaysia. Many abandon tailing sand dump areas are easily to access due to the reason
of transportation of tin and at present most of them have been covered by bushes even
though there are efforts to convert the land for agriculture, industrial and housing estate.
The worst scenario is issue of illegal activities of tailing sand mining including sand
stealing. The purpose of this research is to investigate the mechanical properties of
tailing sand as aggregate for making greensand casting mould. Five samples from
Tronoh and Tanjung Tualang in Perak state; Batang Berjuntai in Selangor; Jemaluang in
Johor and Gambang in Pahang were gathered.
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The experiments for this investigation are strictly obeying the American Foundrymen
Society (AFS) standard of procedures. The investigation involved the process of;
identifying locations for sampling of tailing sand with high content of silica in
Peninsular Malaysia, conducting the mechanical sieve grading to identify the size
spread, plotting the grain size distribution and calculating the average grain size. Further
on with classifying the grain shape, the clay grade, the effects of controlled additions of
clay (bentonite) and water and determining the working range on the mechanical
moulding properties of tailing sand. The investigation involved comparing the
mechanical properties of the tailing sand to mould sand taken from RCS Manufacturing
Sdn. Bhd., the company supplying mould sand to the Proton Casting Plant, manufacturer
of engine components in Malaysia and the requirement for foundry sand applications
listed by Foseco Ferrous Foundryman‟s Handbook (Foseco).
The size spread, grain size distribution, average grain size and grain shape of tailing
sand matched the Foseco requirement and RCS, which are well sorted and uniform,
within the required size (217 to 281 µm) and has sub angular with compound sphericity
shape. Test on the clay grade showed that clay grade is between 0.47% -2.07%, which
resembles the true clay value in the sand.
Cylindrical test piece specimens dimensioning of Ø50 mm×50 mm in height from
various sand–clay-water ratios, were produced by applying three ramming blows of
6.666 kg each using Ridsdale-Dietert metric standard rammer. The specimens were
tested for green compression strength using Ridsdale-Dietert universal sand strength
machine and permeability number with Ridsdale-Dietert permeability meter. Before the
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tests were conducted, the moisture content was measured using AND MX50 moisture
analyser.
The working range for samples with 2.9% by weight (wt) of water addition were at
allowable clay content ranged from 2.5-5.0wt% where green compression strength
ranged from 25 kN/m2 to 43 kN/m
2 and permeability number from 63 to 225. The
samples with 4.8wt% of water addition have the working range at the allowable clay
content ranged from 4.0-6.5wt% where the green compression strength ranged from 35
kN/m2 to 52 kN/m
2 and permeability number from 76 to 252.
The working range for samples bonded with 3.8wt% of clay were at allowable moisture
content ranged from 3.0-4.0wt% where the green compression strength ranged from 20
kN/m2 to 48 kN/m
2 and permeability number from 90 to 255. If bonded with 7.4wt%
clay, the allowable moisture content ranged from 3.5-6wt% where the green
compression strength ranged from 33 kN/m2 to 70 kN/m
2 and permeability number from
70 to 220.
Finally, the investigation indicated that tailing sand is suitable as foundry sand for
making greensand casting mould where the allowable clay and moisture content of
tailing sand samples are within the range in application for making greensand casting
mould for ferrous and non-ferrous metal.
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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah.
SIFAT-SIFAT MEKANIKAL PASIR BEKAS LOMBONG TIMAH UNTUK
ACUAN TUANGAN PASIR LEMBAP
Oleh
AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH
Oktober 2012
Penyelia: Professor Shamsuddin bin Sulaiman, PhD
Fakulti: Kejuruteraan
Pasir bekas lombong adalah sisa tinggalan dari pengambilan timah yang kandungan
silikanya adalah di antara 94% hingga 99.5%. Ianya banyak terdapat terutamanya di
Lembah Kinta di negeri Perak, Lembah Klang di negeri Selangor dan kawasan tertentu
di negeri Johor, Negeri Sembilan dan Pahang di Semenanjung Malaysia. Kebanyakan
longgokan pasir bekas lombong mudah untuk dijejaki disebabkan kemudahan untuk
mengangkutkan timah dan sekarang kebanyakan telah dilitupi semak samun walaupun
ada usaha untuk mengubahnya sebagai tapak pertanian, industri dan perumahan. Tujuan
kajian ini adalah untuk menyiasat sifat-sifat mekanikal pasir bekas lombong sebagai
aggregat untuk pembuatan acuan tuangan pasir lembap. Lima sampel dari Tronoh dan
Tanjung Tualang di negeri Perak; Batang Berjuntai di negeri Selangor; Jemaluang di
negeri Johor dan Gambang di negeri Pahang dikumpulkan
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Penyelidikan dijalankan adalah mematuhi prosedur piawai dari American Foundrymen‟s
Society (AFS). Penyelidikan ini melibatkan penentuan lokasi untuk pengambilan sampel
pasir bekas lombong yang mengandungi kandungan silika yang tinggi di Semenanjung
Malaysia, menjalankan pengredan ayakan mekanikal untuk menentukan sebaran saiz,
agihan saiz bijian dan pengiraan purata saiz bijian. Seterusnya ialah pengkelasan bentuk
bijian, gred tanah liat dan kesan-kesan bahan kawalan iaitu tanah liat (bentonite) dan air
ke atas sifat-sifat mekanikal acuan pasir bekas lombong. Penyiasatan juga melibatkan
perbandingan sifat-sifat mekanikal acuan pasir bekas lombong dengan pasir acuan yang
diambil dari RCS Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd., syarikat yang membekalkan pasir acuan
untuk Proton Casting Plant, pengeluar komponen injin kereta di Malaysia dan kehendak
bagi applikasi pasir foundri yang disenaraikan oleh Foseco Ferrous Foundryman‟s
Handbook (Foseco).
Sebaran saiz, agihan saiz bijian, purata saiz bijian dan bentuk bijian adalah menepati
kehendak Foseco dan RCS, dimana teragih seragam dengan baik, berada dalam saiz
yang dikehendaki (217 µm ke 281 µm) dan mempunyai bentuk separa bersudut yang
agak bulat. Ujian gred tanah liat menunjukkan mereka mempunyai peratus gred tanah
liat yang boleh diterima iaitu antara 0.47% -2.07%.
Spesimen ujian berbentuk selinder yang berukuran Ø50 mm×50 mm tinggi dari pelbagai
nisbah pasir-tanah liat-air dihasilkan melalui hentaman 6.666 kg menggunakan
„Ridsdale-Dietert metric standard rammer‟. Spesimen kemudian diuji kekuatan
mampatan lembap menggunakan „Ridsdale-Dietert universal sand strength machine‟ dan
nombor ketelapan menggunakan „Ridsdale-Dietert permeability meter‟. Sebelum ujian
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dilaksanakan, kandungan kelembapan diukur menggunakan penganalisa kelembapan
model AND MX50.
Julat kerja bagi sampel yang ditambah air sebanyak 2.9% berdasarkan berat (wt) adalah
pada kandungan tanah liat dibenarkan dari julat 2.5wt% ke 5.0wt% di mana kekuatan
mampatan lembap berada pada julat 25 kN/m2 ke 43 kN/m
2 dan nombor ketelapannya
dari 63 ke 225. Jika sampel ditambah 4.8wt% air, julat kerjanya adalah pada kandungan
tanah liat dibenarkan pada 4.0wt% ke 6.5wt% di mana kekuatan mampatan lembapnya
berada pada 35 kN/m2 ke 52 kN/m
2 dan nombor ketelapannya dari 76 ke 252.
Julat kerja bagi sampel yang diikat dengan 3.8wt% tanah liat adalah pada kandungan
kelembapan dibenarkan dari 3.0wt% ke 4.0wt% dimana kekuatan mampatan lembapnya
dari 20 kN/m2 ke 48 kN/m
2 dan nombor ketelapan adalah dari 90 ke 255. Jika diikat
dengan 7.4wt% tanah liat, julat kerjanya berada pada kandungan kelembapan dibenarkan
dari 3.5wt% ke 6wt% di mana kekuatan mampatan lembapnya dari 33 kN/m2 ke 70
kN/m2 dan nombor ketelapannya dari 70 ke 220.
Akhir sekali, penyelidikan menunjukkan pasir bekas lombong adalah sesuai dijadikan
pasir acuan bagi pembuatan acuan tuangan pasir lembap dengan kandungan tanah liat
dan kelembapan yang dibenarkan adalah dalam julat yang biasa diamalkan dalam
applikasi pembuatan acuan pasir tuangan lembap untuk logam ferus dan bukan ferus.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of Allah, most gracious, most merciful, all praise and thanks are due to
Allah, and peace and blessings be upon His Messenger, Muhammad SAW. I would like
to express the most sincere appreciation to those who made this work possible;
supervisor, member of supervisory committee, technicians, my family and friends.
I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Shamsuddin Sulaiman for providing me the opportunity
to complete my PhD studies under his valuable guidance, for the many useful advise and
discussions, for his constant encouragement and guidance, and for co-authoring and
reviewing some of my publications, where his practical experience and technical
knowledge made this research and those publications more interesting and relevant. In
addition, special thanks extend to the supervisory committee members; Dr. B.T. Hang
Tuah bin Baharudin, Dr. M.K.A Ariffin and Dr. Vijay. I am grateful for their willingness
to serve on my supervisory committee, constant encouragement, helpful advice and
many fruitful discussions.
I am grateful to Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia for offering me the scholarship
and FRGS for pursuing the PhD degree and for funding this research at Universiti Putra
Malaysia.
Thanks and acknowledgements to my parents, wife and children who deserve my
deepest appreciation. I am grateful for the countless sacrifices they made to ensure that I
could pursue my ambition and always being there for me.
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Last but not the least; very thanks to all the technicians especially Mr. Saifuddin for their
meaningful help during the experiments in the laboratories and also to Mr Ng Hwa Kian,
Executive Director of RCS Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd., the company supplying mould
sand to Proton Casting Plant for his kind contribution of RCS mould sand.
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I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 29th
October 2012 to conduct
the final examination of Azhar Bin Abdullah on his thesis entitled “Mechanical
Properties of Tin Mine Tailing Sand for Greensand Casting Mould” and the in
accordance with the Universities and University College Act 1971 and the Constitution
of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U. (A) 106] 15 March 1998. The committee
recommends that the student be awarded the Doctor of Philosophy.
Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:
Mohd Sapuan B. Salit, PhD
Professor
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Napsiah Bt. Ismail, Ph.D
Professor
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Internal Examiner)
Tang Sai Hong, Ph.D
Associate Professor
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Internal Examiner)
C.R. Chatwin, Ph.D
Professor
Department of Engineering and Design
University of Sussex
United Kingdom
(External Examiner)
SEOW HENG FONG, PhD
Professor and Deputy Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date:
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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of the Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been
accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The
members of the supervisory committee were as follows:
Shamsuddin bin Sulaiman, PhD
Professor
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
B.T. Hang Tuah bin Baharudin, PhD
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
Mohd Khairol Anuar bin Mohd Ariffin, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
T.R.Vijayaram, PhD
Principal Lecturer
Faculty of Engineering and Technology (FET)
Multimedia University
(Member)
BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD
Professor and Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date:
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DECLARATION
I declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations, which
have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously, and is not
concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia or other
institutions.
________________________
AZHAR BIN ABDULLAH
Date: 29 October 2012
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION ii
ABSTRACT iii
ABSRAK vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ix
APPROVAL SHEETS xi
DECLARATION xiii
LISTOF TABLES xxi
LIST OF FIGURES xxiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxvii
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
Problem Statement 2
Objectives of the Research 4
Scope of the Work 4
Thesis Layout 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Sand Casting 8
2.2.1 Greensand 9
2.2.2 Drysand 11
2.2.3 Chemical Bonded Sand 12
2.3 Foundry Sand Minerals 13
2.3.1 Silica Sand 14
2.3.2 Zircon Sand 16
2.3.3 Chromite Sand 16
2.3.4 Olivine Sand 18
2.3.5 Comparison of Foundry Sand Minerals 18
2.4 Silica Sand in Malaysia 19
2.4.1 Natural Silica 20
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2.4.2 Tailing Sand 21
2.5 Mechanical Properties of Foundry Sand
2.5.1 Introduction 24
2.5.2 Mechanical Grading: Grain Size 25
Distribution and Average Grain Size
2.5.3 Classification of Grain Shape 30
2.5.4 Determination of Clay Grade 31
2.5.5 Moisture Test 32
2.5.6 Green Compression Strength 33
2.5.7 Permeability Number 35
2.5.8 Control Additions 37
2.5.8.1 Clay 37
2.5.8.2 Water 42
2.6 Summary 45
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Assumption and Precautions 50
3.3 Sampling 51
3.4 Selection of Graded Fractions as Specimen 52
Sand
3.5 Mechanical Sieve Grading 52
3.5.1 Grain Size Distribution 54
3.5.2 Calculation of Average Grain Size 54
3.6 Classification of Grain Shape 55
3.7 Determination of Clay Grade 56
3.8 Preparation of the Mixture and Test Piece 57
3.9 Moisture Content 60
3.10 Green Compression Strength 60
3.11 Permeability Number 62
3.12 Making a Greensand Mould 64
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4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction 68
4.2 Grain Size Distribution 68
4.3 Average Grain Size 78
4.4 Grain Shape 81
4.5 Clay Grade 89
4.6 Green Compression Strength 90
4.6.1 Effect of Clay on the Green 90
Compression Strength
4.6.2 Effect of Moisture on the Green 97
Compression Strength
4.7 Permeability Number 103
4.7.1 Effect of Clay Content on the Permeability 103
Number
4.7.2 Effect of Moisture Content on the 109
Permeability Number
4.8 Working Range for Optimum Green Compression 116
Strength, Permeability Number, Allowable Clay
and Moisture Content.
4.8.1 Tailing Sand Samples Added with 116
2.9wt% of Water
4.8.2 Tailing Sand Samples Added with 120
4.8wt% of Water
4.8.3 Tailing Sand Samples Bonded with 125
3.8wt% of Clay
4.8.4 Tailing Sand Samples Bonded with 130
7.4wt% of Clay
4.9 The Greensand Casting Mould 135
4.10 Summary 136
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5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
5.1 Introduction 140
5.2 Conclusion 141
5.3 Thesis Contribution 143
5.4 Recommendation 143
REFERENCES 144
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Chemical Composition and Reserve 152
of the Tailing Sand from the Identified
Locations.
APPENDIX B: Grain Shape of Mould Sand from RCS 153
Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd., AFS, Foseco
and Other Tailing Sand Samples.
APPENDIX C: Grain Size Distribution for Chelford 60 154
Silica Sand ((sand commonly used in the
UK as a base sand and for resin bonded
moulds and cores)
APPENDIX D: Grain Size Distribution for Typical Grading 155
of Sand Suitable for Iron or Steel Casting
according to Foseco Requirement.
APPENDIX E: Grain Size Distribution for RCS 156
Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd.
APPENDIX F: Clay Content and Green Compression 157
Strength for Tailing Sand Samples
Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt% of Water.
APPENDIX G: Effects of Clay Content on Green 159
Compression Strength for Mould Sand
from RCS Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. Added
with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt% of Water.
APPENDIX H: Green Compression Strength Curves for 160
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Tailing Sand Samples Compared to RCS.
Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt% water.
APPENDIX I: Moisture Content and Green Compression 161
Strength for Tailing Sand Samples.
Bonded with 3.8wt% and 7.4wt% of Clay.
APPENDIX J: Effects of Moisture Content on Green 163
Compression Strength for RCS. Bonded with
3.8wt% and 7.4wt% of Clay.
APPENDIX K: Green Compression Strength Curves of 164
Tailing Sand Samples Compared to RCS.
Bonded with 3.8wt% and 7.48wt% Clay.
APPENDIX L: Permeability Number for Tailing Sand 165
Samples. Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt%
of Water.
APPENDIX M: Effects of Clay Content on Permeability 167
Number for Mould Sand from RCS
Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. Added with 2.9wt%
and 4.8wt% of Water.
APPENDIX N: Comparison on Permeability Curves for 168
Tailing Sand Samples with RCS.
Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt% Water.
APPENDIX O: Permeability Number for Tailing Sand 169
Samples. Bonded with 3.8wt% and 7.4wt%
Clay.
APPENDIX P: Effects of Moisture Content on the 171
Permeability Number for Mould Sand from
RCS Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. Bonded
with 3.8wt% and 7.4wt% Clay.
APPENDIX Q: Comparison on Permeability Curves for 172
Tailing Sand Samples to RCS. Bonded
with 3.8wt% and 7.4wt% Clay.
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APPENDIX R: Clay Content, Green Compression Strength 173
and Permeability Number for Tailing Sand
Samples. Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt%
of Water.
APPENDIX S: Working Range for Optimum Green 177
Compression Strength, Permeability Number
and Optimum Allowable Clay Content for
Mould Sand from RCS Manufacturing
Sdn. Bhd. Added with 2.9wt% and 4.8wt%
Water.
APPENDIX T: Moisture Content, Green Compression 179
Strength and Permeability Number for
Tailing Sand Samples. Bonded with
3.8wt% and 7.4wt% of Clay.
APPENDIX U: Working Range for Optimum Green 183
Compression Strength, Permeability
Number and Optimum Allowable Moisture
Content for Mould Sand from RCS
Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd. Bonded with
3.8wt% and 7.4wt% Clay.
APPENDIX V: Paper A: The Effect of Bentonite Clay on 185
Green Compression Strength for Tailing
Sands from Old Tin Mines in Perak State,
Malaysia for Making Greensand
Casting Mould.
APPENDIX W: Paper B: Effect of Moisture on the 191
Permeability of Tailing Sand Samples from
Ex-Tin Mines in Perak State, Malaysia.
APPENDIX X: Paper C: Testing for Green Compression 197
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Strength and Permeability on the Tailing
Sand Samples Gathered from Ex Tin Mines
in Perak State, Malaysia.
BIODATA OF STUDENT 203
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 204