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Universitext

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Universitext

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Andries E. Brouwer • Willem H. Haemers

Spectra of Graphs

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Department of Econometrics Department of Mathematics

ISBN 978-1-4614-1938-9 e-IS BN 978-1 -4614-1939-6 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-1939-6 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 05Exx, 05Bxx, 05Cxx, 05Dxx, 15Axx, 51Exx, 94Bxx, 94Cxx

or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.

to proprietary rights.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the writtenpermission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connectionwith any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar

The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they arenot identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011944191

Andries E. Brouwer

Eindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven

Willem H. Haemers

and Operations ResearchTilburg UniversityTilburg

ISSN 0172-5939 e-ISSN 2191-6675

The NetherlandsThe Netherlands

© Andries E. Brouwer and Willem H. Haemers 2012

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Preface

Algebraic graph theory is the branch of mathematics that studies graphs by usingalgebraic properties of associated matrices. In particular, spectral graph theorystudies the relation between graph properties and the spectrum of the adjacencymatrix or Laplace matrix. And the theory of association schemes and coherentconfigurations studies the algebra generated by associated matrices.

Spectral graph theory is a useful subject. The founders of Google computedthe Perron-Frobenius eigenvector of the web graph and became billionaires. Thesecond-largest eigenvalue of a graph gives information about expansion and ran-domness properties. The smallest eigenvalue gives information about independencenumber and chromatic number. Interlacing gives information about substructures.The fact that eigenvalue multiplicities must be integral provides strong restrictions.And the spectrum provides a useful invariant.

This book gives the standard elementary material on spectra in Chapter 1.Important applications of graph spectra involve the largest, second-largest, or small-est eigenvalue, or interlacing, topics that are discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. After-wards, special topics such as trees, groups and graphs, Euclidean representations,and strongly regular graphs are discussed. Strongly related to strongly regulargraphs are regular two-graphs, and Chapter 10 mainly discusses Seidel’s work onsets of equiangular lines. Strongly regular graphs form the first nontrivial case of(symmetric) association schemes, and Chapter 11 gives a very brief introduction tothis topic and Delsarte’s linear programming bound. Chapter 12 very briefly men-tions the main facts on distance-regular graphs, including some major developmentsthat have occurred since the monograph [54] was written (proof of the Bannai-Itoconjecture, construction by Van Dam and Koolen of the twisted Grassmann graphs,determination of the connectivity of distance-regular graphs). Instead of workingover R, one can work over Fp or Z and obtain more detailed information. Chapter13 considers p-ranks and Smith normal forms. Finally, Chapters 14 and 15 returnto the real spectrum and consider when a graph is determined by its spectrum andwhen it has only few eigenvalues.

In Spring 2006, both authors gave a series of lectures at IPM, the Institute forStudies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics, in Tehran. The lecture notes were

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vi Preface

combined and published as an IPM report. Those notes grew into the present text, ofwhich the on-line version still is called ipm.pdf. We aim at researchers, teachers,and graduate students interested in graph spectra. The reader is assumed to befamiliar with basic linear algebra and eigenvalues, but we did include a chapter onsome more advanced topics in linear algebra, such as the Perron-Frobenius theoremand eigenvalue interlacing. The exercises at the end of the chapters vary from easybut interesting applications of the treated theory to little excursions into relatedtopics.

This book shows the influence of Seidel. For other books on spectral graphtheory, see CHUNG [93], CVETKOVIC, DOOB & SACHS [115], and CVETKOVIC,ROWLINSON & SIMIC [120]. For more algebraic graph theory, see BIGGS [30],GODSIL [172], and GODSIL & ROYLE [177]. For association schemes and distance-regular graphs, see BANNAI & ITO [21] and BROUWER, COHEN & NEUMAIER

[54].

Amsterdam Andries BrouwerDecember 2010 Willem Haemers

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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

1 Graph Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Matrices associated to a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 The spectrum of a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2.1 Characteristic polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 The spectrum of an undirected graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3.1 Regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3.2 Complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3.3 Walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3.4 Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.3.5 Spanning trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.3.6 Bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.3.7 Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4 Spectrum of some graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.4.1 The complete graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.4.2 The complete bipartite graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.4.3 The cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.4.4 The path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.4.5 Line graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.4.6 Cartesian products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.4.7 Kronecker products and bipartite double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.4.8 Strong products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.4.9 Cayley graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.5 Decompositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.5.1 Decomposing K10 into Petersen graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.5.2 Decomposing Kn into complete bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . 12

1.6 Automorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.7 Algebraic connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.8 Cospectral graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.8.1 The 4-cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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1.8.2 Seidel switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.8.3 Godsil-McKay switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.8.4 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.9 Very small graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.1 Simultaneous diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.2 Perron-Frobenius theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.3 Equitable partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.3.1 Equitable and almost equitable partitions of graphs . . . . . . 252.4 The Rayleigh quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.5 Interlacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262.6 Schur’s inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.7 Schur complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282.8 The Courant-Weyl inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.9 Gram matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.10 Diagonally dominant matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.10.1 Gersgorin circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.11 Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333.1 The largest eigenvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.1.1 Graphs with largest eigenvalue at most 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343.1.2 Subdividing an edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353.1.3 The Kelmans operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.2 Interlacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.3 Regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373.4 Bipartite graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.5 Cliques and cocliques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.5.1 Using weighted adjacency matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.6 Chromatic number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.6.1 Using weighted adjacency matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.6.2 Rank and chromatic number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.7 Shannon capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.7.1 Lovasz’s ϑ -function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.7.2 The Haemers bound on the Shannon capacity . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.8 Classification of integral cubic graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463.8.1 A quotient of the hexagonal grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.8.2 Cubic graphs with loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.8.3 The classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.9 The largest Laplace eigenvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503.10 Laplace eigenvalues and degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.11 The Grone-Merris conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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3.11.1 Threshold graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533.11.2 Proof of the Grone-Merris conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.12 The Laplacian for hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563.12.1 Dominance order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.13 Applications of eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583.13.1 Ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593.13.2 Google PageRank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593.13.3 Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603.13.4 Graph drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613.13.5 Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613.13.6 Graph isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623.13.7 Searching an eigenspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.14 Stars and star complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633.15 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

4 The Second-Largest Eigenvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674.1 Bounds for the second-largest eigenvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674.2 Large regular subgraphs are connected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684.3 Randomness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684.4 Random walks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694.5 Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.6 Toughness and Hamiltonicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.6.1 The Petersen graph is not Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724.7 Diameter bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724.8 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4.8.1 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744.8.2 Perfect matchings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.9 Block designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774.10 Polarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

5 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835.1 Characteristic polynomials of trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835.2 Eigenvectors and multiplicities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855.3 Sign patterns of eigenvectors of graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865.4 Sign patterns of eigenvectors of trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875.5 The spectral center of a tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885.6 Integral trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

6 Groups and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936.1 Γ (G,H,S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936.2 Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936.3 Non-Abelian Cayley graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946.4 Covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

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6.5 Cayley sum graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976.5.1 (3,6)-fullerenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

7 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017.1 Embeddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017.2 Minors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027.3 The Colin de Verdiere invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027.4 The Van der Holst-Laurent-Schrijver invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

8 Euclidean Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058.2 Euclidean representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058.3 Root lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

8.3.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078.3.2 Root lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088.3.3 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

8.4 The Cameron-Goethals-Seidel-Shult theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118.5 Further applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

9 Strongly Regular Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159.1 Strongly regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

9.1.1 Simple examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159.1.2 The Paley graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169.1.3 Adjacency matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179.1.4 Imprimitive graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179.1.5 Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1189.1.6 The half case and cyclic strongly regular graphs . . . . . . . . . 1189.1.7 Strongly regular graphs without triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199.1.8 Further parameter restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209.1.9 Strongly regular graphs from permutation groups . . . . . . . . 1219.1.10 Strongly regular graphs from quasisymmetric designs . . . . 1219.1.11 Symmetric 2-designs from strongly regular graphs . . . . . . . 1229.1.12 Latin square graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229.1.13 Partial geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

9.2 Strongly regular graphs with eigenvalue −2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249.3 Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259.4 Cocliques and colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279.5 Automorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299.6 Generalized quadrangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

9.6.1 Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299.6.2 Constructions of generalized quadrangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309.6.3 Strongly regular graphs from generalized quadrangles . . . . 1319.6.4 Generalized quadrangles with lines of size 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

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9.7 The (81, 20, 1, 6) strongly regular graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329.7.1 Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1339.7.2 Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349.7.3 Independence and chromatic numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359.7.4 Second subconstituent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

9.8 Strongly regular graphs and two-weight codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369.8.1 Codes, graphs, and projective sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369.8.2 The correspondence between linear codes and subsets of

a projective space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1379.8.3 The correspondence between projective two-weight

codes, subsets of a projective space with two intersectionnumbers, and affine strongly regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

9.8.4 Duality for affine strongly regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409.8.5 Cyclotomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

9.9 Table of parameters for strongly regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439.9.1 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

9.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

10 Regular Two-graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15110.1 Strong graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15110.2 Two-graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15210.3 Regular two-graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

10.3.1 Related strongly regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15510.3.2 The regular two-graph on 276 points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15610.3.3 Coherent subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15610.3.4 Completely regular two-graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

10.4 Conference matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15810.5 Hadamard matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

10.5.1 Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16010.6 Equiangular lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

10.6.1 Equiangular lines in Rd and two-graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16110.6.2 Bounds on equiangular sets of lines in Rd or Cd . . . . . . . . . 16210.6.3 Bounds on sets of lines with few angles and sets of

vectors with few distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

11 Association Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16511.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16511.2 The Bose-Mesner algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16611.3 The linear programming bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

11.3.1 Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16911.3.2 The code-clique theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16911.3.3 Strengthened LP bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

11.4 The Krein parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17011.5 Automorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

11.5.1 The Moore graph on 3250 vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

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11.6 P- and Q-polynomial association schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17311.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

12 Distance-Regular Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17712.1 Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17712.2 Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17812.3 Primitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17812.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

12.4.1 Hamming graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17812.4.2 Johnson graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17912.4.3 Grassmann graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18012.4.4 Van Dam-Koolen graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

12.5 Bannai-Ito conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18012.6 Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18112.7 Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18112.8 Degree of eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18112.9 Moore graphs and generalized polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18212.10 Euclidean representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18312.11 Extremality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18312.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

13 p-ranks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18713.1 Reduction mod p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18713.2 The minimal polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18813.3 Bounds for the p-rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18813.4 Interesting primes p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18913.5 Adding a multiple of J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19013.6 Paley graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19113.7 Strongly regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19213.8 Smith normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

13.8.1 Smith normal form and spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19513.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

14 Spectral Characterizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19914.1 Generalized adjacency matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19914.2 Constructing cospectral graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

14.2.1 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20114.2.2 Partial linear spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20214.2.3 GM switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20214.2.4 Sunada’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

14.3 Enumeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20414.3.1 Lower bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20414.3.2 Computer results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

14.4 DS graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20614.4.1 Spectrum and structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

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14.4.2 Some DS graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20814.4.3 Line graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

14.5 Distance-regular graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21214.5.1 Strongly regular DS graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21314.5.2 Distance-regularity from the spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21414.5.3 Distance-regular DS graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

14.6 The method of Wang and Xu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21714.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

15 Graphs with Few Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22115.1 Regular graphs with four eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22115.2 Three Laplace eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22315.3 Other matrices with at most three eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

15.3.1 Few Seidel eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22415.3.2 Three adjacency eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22515.3.3 Three signless Laplace eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

15.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

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