NAVAL SERVICE ORGANIZATION AND THE MISSION OF THE NAVAL SERVICE

I. National Military Structure. The President of the United States serves as the Commander in Chief (CinC) of all U.S. military

forces. The President is responsible to the citizens of the United States for maintaining a military that performs our nation’s security needs.

The Secretary of Defense is the principal defense policy adviser to the President and is responsible for the formulation and execution of general defense policy. Subordinate to the Secretary of Defense are the individual service secretaries, including the Secretary of the Navy.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff advise the CinC. There are six four-star officers on the Joint Chiefs of Staff: 1. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Adm Michael G. Mullen, USN

2. Vice-Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. James E. Cartwright, USMC3. Commandant of the Marine Corps Gen. James T. Conway, USMC4. Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Gary Roughead, USN5. Chief of Staff of the Army Gen. George Casey, USA6. Chief of Staff of the Air Force Gen. Norton A. Schwartz, USAF

The Chairman is the principal military adviser to the President, Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council (NSC); however, all JCS members are military advisers by law.

Since the National Security Act of 1947, the Joint Chiefs of Staff serve as planners and advisers, although they have no executive authority to command combatant forces.

The National Security Act of 1947 also established the National Security Council to consider national security issues that require Presidential decision. The National Security Council is formed of four statutory members: the President, the Vice President, the Secretary of State, and the Secretary of Defense. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) and the Director of National Intelligence serve as statutory advisers to the NSC.

II. Department of the Navy Leadership.The Secretary of the Navy has authority over both the Navy and Marine Corps. The Secretary of

the Navy is responsible for conducting all the affairs of the Department of the Navy, including: recruiting, organizing, supplying, equipping, training, mobilizing, and demobilizing. The Secretary also oversees the construction, outfitting, and repair of naval ships, equipment, and facilities.

The Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) is the senior military officer in the Navy. The CNO is a four-star admiral and is responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for the command, utilization of resources, and operating efficiency of the operating forces of the Navy and of the Navy shore activities assigned by the Secretary. ADM Gary Roughead is the current CNO.

The Commandant of the Marine Corps (CMC) is the senior military officer in the Marine Corps.The Commandant is a four-star general and is responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for the command, utilization of resources, and operating efficiency of the operating forces of the Marine Corps. Gen James T. Conway is the current CMC.

III. Chain of Command.

Administrative Chain of Command

The administrative chain of command is tasked with manning, training, and equipping forces and is responsible for personnel management, supply, services, maintenance, certification, and other matters not directly related to the operational chain of command.The Navy administrative chain of command is: 1. President of the United States____________________________ President Barack H. Obama 2. Secretary of Defense___________________________________ The Honorable Robert M. Gates 3. Secretary of the Navy___________________________________ The Honorable Ray Mabus

1

4. Chief of Naval Operations_______________________________ Admiral Gary Roughead 5. Component Commanders - responsible for the administrative control of all Fleet elements assigned to their geographic area (e.g. COMLANTFLT, COMPACFLT). 6. Force Commanders - establish policy, control funds, and perform all administrative functions intheir respective warfare specialties. a. Ships: COMNAVSURFFOR b. Air: COMNAVAIRFOR c. Subs: COMSUBFOR 7. Type Commanders - establish policy, control funds, and perform all administrative functions intheir respective warfare specialties in their geographic area. a. Ships: COMNAVSURFLANT and COMNAVSURFPAC b. Air: COMNAVAIRLANT and COMNAVAIRPAC c. Subs: COMSUBLANT and COMSUBPAC 8. Group Commanders - responsible to Type Commanders (TYCOM) for administrative control of similar types of Fleet elements (e.g., carrier, cruiser-destroyer, etc.) in homeport areas. 9. Squadron Commanders - responsible to Group Commanders for administrative control of a squadron of similar ship types. 10. Unit Commanders - ship or aviation squadron Commanding Officers responsible to squadron commanders for administrative control of their ship.

Operational Chain of Command

The operational chain of command is tasked with using the forces provided by all four services to carry out the orders of the National Command Authority. The Navy operational chain of command is: 1. The President of the United States (with the Secretary of Defense, and the JCS acting as advisors.) 2. Unified Commanders - (EUCOM, CENTCOM, USPACOM) 3. Component Commanders - responsible to unified commanders for the tactical employment of naval forces in their assigned geographical region. (COMLANTFLT, COMPACFLT) 4. Numbered Fleet Commanders – 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 7th See Below for more information. 5. Designated Task Force Commanders - Used for multi-Battle Group forces (ie. CTF60, Commander, Task Force 60) 6. Task Group Commander - Battle Group Commanders (CTG60.1, CTG60.2, CTG75.2, etc.) 7. Task Unit Commander - Warfare Commanders within the Battle Group (CTU60.1.1, CTU75.2.3, etc.) 8. Task Element Commander - An individual ship or group of ships with a special purpose such as a Surface Action Group (SAG). (CTE60.1.1.2, CTE75.2.3.2, etc.)

IV. Unified Commanders

Unified Combatant Commands are composed of forces from two or more services, have broad and continuing missions and are normally organized on a geographical basis. The number of unified combatant commands is not fixed by law and may vary from time to time. There are currently ten unified commands; Six have regional responsibilities, and four have functional responsibilities. Regional Responsibilities:

1. U.S. European Command (EUCOM)- US forces in Europe and parts of the Middle East. Headquartered at Patch Barracks in Stuttgart, Germany. 2. U.S. Pacific Command (PACOM)- US forces in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean areas. Headquartered at Camp H. M. Smith in Honolulu, HI. 3. U.S. Southern Command (SOUTHCOM)- US forces in Central America and South America. Headquartered in Doral (Miami),, FL.

2

4. U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM)- US forces in the Middle East. Headquartered at MacDill AFB in Tampa, FL.

5. U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM)- U.S. Forces in Africa. On February 6, 2007, President Bush and Defense Secretary Robert Gates announced the creation of U.S. Africa Command. Previously held under the realm of EUCOM, the new AFRICOM enables DoD to better focus its resources to support and enhance existing U.S. initiatives that help African nations, the African Union, and the regional economic communities succeed. The command began its independent operations on 1 October 2008. Headquartered at Kelley Barracks in Stuttgart, Germany.

6. U.S. Northern Command (NORTHCOM)- Homeland defense and also serve as head of the North American Aerospace Defense Command, a U.S.-Canada command. NORTHCOM's area of operations include the United States, Canada, Mexico, parts of the Caribbean and the contiguous waters in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Headquartered at Peterson AFB in Colorado Springs, CO.3

Functional Responsibilities:

7. U.S. Special Operations Command (SOCOM)- Directs special forces activities for all US Forces. Headquartered at MacDill AFB in Tampa, FL.

8. U.S. Transportation Command (TRANSCOM)- Directs all air and sea transportation resources. Headquartered at Scott AFB in St. Clair County, IL. 9. U.S. Strategic Command (STRATCOM)- All air, land, and sea based strategic forces and Space forces. Headquartered at Offutt AFB in Omaha, NE. 10. U.S. Joint Forces Command (USJFCOM)- US forces in the Atlantic Ocean areas and responsible for transforming U.S. military forces. Headquartered in Norfolk, VA.

UNIFIED COMMANDS

3

V. Fleet Commanders

Unified Naval Component and Headquarters Operational Fleet(s)Navy forces are divided into numbered Fleets and assigned to unified commands.

OPERATIONAL FLEET (S)

AREA OF OPERATION

HEADQUARTERSOF FLEET CDR

FLAG SHIP UNIFIED COMMAND

SECOND Atlantic Ocean Norfolk, Virginia USS IWO JIMA

USJFCOM

THIRD Eastern and Central Pacific

Point Loma, San Diego, California

N/A PACCOM

FOURTH Caribbean Ocean, surrounding waters of Central and South America

Mayport, Florida N/A SOUTHCOM

FIFTH Middle East (Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf)

Manama, Bahrain N/A CENTCOM

SIXTH Mediterranean Sea Naples, Italy USS MOUNT WHITNEY

EUCOM

SEVENTH Western Pacific and Indian Ocean

Yokosuka, Japan USS BLUE RIDGE

PACCOM

VI. A COOPERATIVE STRATEGY FOR 21ST CENTURY SEAPOWER

Never before have the maritime forces of the United States—the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard—come together to create a unified maritime strategy. This strategy stresses an approach that integrates Seapower with other elements of national power, as well as those of our friends and allies. The security, prosperity, and vital interests of the United States are increasingly coupled to those of other nations. Our Nation’s interests are best served by fostering a peaceful global system

4

comprised of interdependent networks of trade, finance, information, law, people and governance. The United States Seapower will be globally postured to secure our homeland and citizens from direct attack and to advance our interests around the world. We do this to accomplish six important tasks:

1. Limit regional conflict with forward deployed, decisive maritime power.2. Deter major power war.3. Win our Nation’s wars.4. Contribute to homeland defense in depth.5. Foster and sustain cooperative relationships with more international partners.6. Prevent or contain local disruptions before they impact the global system.

To successfully implement this strategy, the Sea Services must collectively expand the core capabilities of U.S. Seapower to achieve a blend of peacetime engagement and major combat operations capabilities. The core capabilities include our forward presence, deterrence capability, Sea control, power projection, maritime security and humanitarian assistance and disaster response. This strategy is derived from a thorough assessment of the Nation’s security requirements. It does not presume conflict but instead acknowledges the historical fact that peace does not preserve itself.

5

6

U.S. NAVAL SERVICE ENLISTED

I. Introduction Enlisted Sailors of our modern Navy have a higher level of training and education than ever before. Many of our Sailors have acquired college credits and degrees either before entering the Navy or as a result of self-development. Today the Navy requires unprecedented technical proficiency and expertise of its enlisted Sailors. Officers are tasked with leading these motivated individuals and developing them into a cohesive team with mission accomplishment as the highest priority. Given the quality and diversity of these sailors, officers will find leading them both challenging and rewarding. The trust and professionalism shared between an officer and his or her Sailors starts with an appreciation and respect for the value of these individuals and a desire to know them beyond their productivity levels. Therefore, it is essential that each officer learn about his or her Sailors, how they are trained, and how they are advanced

II. Rates, Rating , and Paygrade Everyone in the Navy is either nonrated, rated, or a commissioned officer. Men and women who enlist in the Navy begin as nonrated personnel. A combination of experience and specialized training will allow them to move up into a rated category and to advance through a number of levels. Rated personnel are called “petty officer.” Nonrated and rated personnel together are refereed to as “enlisted personnel.”

Paygrade Everyone wearing a Navy uniform has a paygrade. A paygrade defines a person’s relative standing in the Navy and of course, determines how much money he or she will be paid. A new recruit enters the Navy as an E-1 which is the first enlisted paygrade. Paygrades E-1 through E-3 are the nonrated paygrades, meaning that they are not tied to a specific occupation. However, based upon screening and testing, they are placed within a broad occupational category – known as a general apprenticeship (such as seaman, airman, fireman, hospitalman, or constructionman – for advancement through the nonrated paygrades. Specific advanced occupational training leads to advancement into the rated paygrades (E-4 through E-9).

General Apprenticeship Color of StripeSeaman (SN) White on Black/Black on WhiteHospitalman (HN) White on Black/Black on WhiteAirman (AN) GreenConstructionman (CN) Light BlueFireman (FN) Red

Rating A rating is an occupational specialty in the Navy. Before qualify for a rating, a Sailor must work through the general apprenticeship levels (E-1 through E-3) or attend a service school. A Sailor seeking to advance into a specific rating is considered a “striker” and is required to achieve a significant level of experience and/or training toward a particular rating to be formally recognized as a “designated striker.” A rating abbreviation is formally assed to the general rate and paygrade (i.e. BMSA, YNSR, etc…). There are three categories of ratings, general, service, and emergency. The general ratings are occupations for paygrades E-4 through E-9. Each general rating has a distinctive badge. Examples are OS, GM, ET. Service ratings are those general ratings that are subdivided into specific services. Examples are Gas-turbine systems Technician (GS), which is subdivided into GSE (electrical) and GSM (mechanical). Emergency Ratings can be created in times of war or national emergency and are ratings not normally needed by the Navy. There are currently no emergency ratings active today. The following is a list of ratings found on the yard and which you are expected to know:

AB (Aviation Boatswain’s Mate) CS (Culinary Specialist)AG (Aerographer’s Mate) CT (Cryptologic Technician)AM (Aviation Structural Mechanic) DC (Damage Controlman)AT (Aviation Electronics Technician) EO (Equipment Operator)AW (Aviation Warfare Systems Operator) ET (Electronics Technician)

7

BU (Builder) GM (Gunner’s Mate)HM (Hospital Corpsman) OS (Operations Specialist)IT (Information Systems Technician) RP (Religious Programs Specialist)LN (Legalman) ST (Sonar Technician)MM (Machinist’s Mate) YN (Yeoman)MU (Musician)

For a more inclusive list, visit: http://www.navy.mil/navydata/navy_legacy_hr.asp?id=259

Petty Officers E-4 to E-6 are considered to be non-commissioned officers (NCOs), and are specifically called Petty Officers in the Navy. Petty Officers perform not only the duties of their specific career field but also serve as leaders to junior enlisted personnel. They must take responsibility for their subordinates, address grievances, inform the chain of command on matters pertaining to good order and discipline, and may even have to place personnel on report. The title Petty Officer comes from the French word petit or something small. In medieval England, villages had several "petite" or "petty" officers who were subordinate to major officials. Thus, Petty Officers are assistants to senior officers. Petty Officers are identified by a combination of letters and /or numbers that represent the individual’s paygrade and rating. This is known as an enlisted personnel’s rate. The first two or three letters represent the general or service rating; the number or letter(s) following indicate the paygrade. An enlisted person who identifies him/herself as BM2 Smith, would be a Boatswain’s Mate Second Class. The “Boatswain’s Mate” is the general service rating and the 2 is the paygrade.

Chief Petty Officers E-7 to E-9 are still considered NCOs, but are considered a separate community within the Navy, unlike other branches of service. They have separate berthing and dining facilities (where feasible), wear separate uniforms similar in appearance to a commissioned officer uniform, and perform separate duties. Advancement to Chief Petty Officer (E-7) or above requires a peer review by existing Chief Petty Officers beyond the normal examination score and performance evaluation process. The proper form of address to a Chief Petty Officer is "Chief", "Senior Chief", or "Master Chief" according to their rating. In the U. S. Navy, the Chief is specifically tasked, in writing, with the duty of training Junior Officers (Ensign, Lieutenant (j.g.), Lieutenant, and Lieutenant Commander) — one of the major differences between a Chief in the Navy and his counterparts in the senior NCO corps in the Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force.

CMCAfter obtaining Master Chief Petty Officer, servicemembers may choose to further their career by becoming a Command Master Chief Petty Officer (CMC). A CMC is considered to be the senior-most enlisted service member within a command, and is the special assistant to the Commanding Officer in all matters pertaining to the health, welfare, job satisfaction, morale, utilization, advancement and training of the command's enlisted personnel. CMC insignia are similar to the insignia for Master Chief, except that the rating symbol is replaced by an inverted five-point star, reflecting a change in their rating from their previous rating.

Uniform Insignia Enlisted personnel will wear rating badges or insignias on all uniforms with the exception of non-rated personnel when wearing utilities and coveralls. Insignias and badges with no rating specific markings will be worn on utilities or coverall for E-4 and above personnel. Personnel in paygrades E-7 through E-9 wear collar devices (i.e. gold anchors with USN and fouled chain). A Senior Chief will have one silver star above the anchor, and a Master Chief will have two silver stars. Chief Petty Officers are always referred to as “Chief,” “Senior Chief,” or “Master Chief.” When wearing either the peacoat or outer jacket, rating badges or collar devices will be worn with the exception of non-rated personnel. An E-4 (Petty Officer Third Class) wears one chevron on his/her rating badge, an E-5 (Petty Officer Second Class) has two, and an E-6 (Petty Officer First Class) has three.

8

The insignia show below is for that of a Boatswain’s Mate (BM). The crossed anchors below the “crow” identify the individual as a BM on the rating badge. Notice the star in the place of the anchors on the insignia of the Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy. The star shows the individual is a CMC.

Non-Commissioned Officer and Enlisted Rate Structure of the United States NavyMaster Chief

Petty Officer of the Navy

Master Chief Petty Officer

Senior Chief Petty Officer

Chief Petty Officer

Petty Officer First Class

E-9 E-9 E-8 E-7 E-6

Petty Officer Second Class

Petty Officer Third Class Seaman Seaman

ApprenticeSeaman Recruit

E-5 E-4 E-3 E-2 E-1

No insignia

III. Naval Enlisted Classification (NEC) Codes NEC is a special code used to identify a skill, knowledge, aptitude, or qualification not included in general or service rating training. For example, not all Boatswain’s Mate (BM) are qualified tugmaster. They would go through the qualification process and earn the NEC BM-0161. This tells the detailer – the administrative personnel at Navy Personnel Command (NAVPERSCOM) in Millington, TN, who match individuals to specific assignments (billets) in the Navy- that this particular Sailor can be assigned the tugmaster billet anywhere in the Navy. With few exceptions, NECs are assigned to personnel by the Enlisted Personnel Management Center (EPMAC) in New Orleans. There are six type of NEC codes: entry series, rating series, special series, alphanumeric, numerical, and planning.

IV. Service Schools For some ratings, graduation from a particular service school is necessary for advancement. Selection for a service school depends on the rate, time in service, current duty assignment, school quotas, and the operational schedule of the Sailor’s unit. The five types of enlisted service schools are: 1. Class A – Provides the basic technical knowledge required for job performance and further specialized training. An NEC may be awarded to identify the skill. 2. Class C – Advanced skills and techniques needed to perform a particular job are taught. An NEC may also be awarded to identify the level of skill. 3. Class E – Designated for professional education leading to an academic degree. 4. Class F – Trains fleet personnel who are en route to, or are members of ships’ companies. Also provides individual training such as refresher, operator, maintenance, or technical training of less than 13 calendar days. A NEC is not awarded. 5. Class R – This is the basic school that provides initial training after enlistment, also known as “boot camp” or “recruit training.” It prepares the recruit for early adjustment to military life by inculcating basic skills and knowledge about military subjects. Class R schooling for all recruits is now conducted at Recruit Training Center, Great Lakes, IL.

9

V. Enlisted Advancement Advancement in the Navy means better pay. More privileges, greater responsibility, and increased pride. Advancement to petty officer rate in the Navy are made through centralized competition.

General Requirements. 1. Advancement to E-2 and E-3 is based on Time-In-Rate (TIR), 9 months in length, and performance.2. Advancement to E-4 through E-9 is based on a combination of time in service, TIR, awards, performance (evaluations), and score on the annual/semi-annual exams held in March and September for E04 through E-6. For E-7 the advancement exam is held annually, in January. A selection board is convened in July and results are posted in early August. For E-8 and E-9, advancement is bases on performance and board selection.3. Meet all appropriate citizenship or security clearance requirements for advancement in certain rates or ratings.4. Fulfill special requirements for certain ratings.5. Meet all physical readiness/body fat standards.6. Be recommended by the Commanding Officer.

10

XV: USMC History and Traditions

I. Origins

Birth of the Marine Corps The US Marine Corps is a direct descendent of the British Royal Marines, who were founded in 1664. When the 2nd Continental Congress drew up plans for a Navy, it also established a Continental Marine Corps. On 10 November 1775, Congress passed the following resolution: "Resolved that two battalions of Marines be raised, that particular care be taken, that no persons appointed to office, or enlisted into said battalions, but such are good seamen, or so acquainted with maritime affairs as to be able to serve to advantage by sea, when required...that they be enlisted and commissioned for the present war between Great Britain and the colonies, unless dismissed by Congress. That they be distinguished by the names of the 1st and 2nd battalions of American Marines. Tun Tavern is recognized as the birthplace of the Marine Corps. Located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania it was established as the recruiting Headquarters of the newly formed Marine Corps. As these new recruits were to form the Corps, each man had to bring his own rifle with him in order to enlist. Samuel Nicholas, a Philadelphia merchant, was commissioned a Captain and ordered to raise the required number of Marines to form the two battalions. He is considered the first traditional Commandant of the Marine Corps.

II. History and Traditions

First Amphibious Landing The attack on New Providence, Bahamas was led by Samuel Nicholas and was the first amphibious raid in the history of the Marine Corps. Landing on 3 March 1776, the Marines made the first amphibious assault, taking the British defenders completely by surprise. The British withdrew from Fort Montague and the Marines captured the fort without firing a shot.

Early Traditions Quatrefoil – One of the traditions, which evolved from the late 1700s and early 1800s, was the use of

the Quatrefoil. It enabled our sharpshooting Marines in the riggings of sailing ships to distinguish between friend and foe. Our boarding parties attached a cross design piece of rope to the top of their covers. From this evolved the Quatrefoil, today the cross-shaped braid is worn on top of the Officer's barracks cover.

Leatherneck – The Marines long-standing nickname "Leatherneck” goes back to the leather collar, or neckpiece, which was worn from 1775 to 1875, that was intended to ensure the Marines kept their heads erect, and to protect their necks from sword slashes. The high collar on the blue dress uniforms commemorates it today.

Rank Of Sergeant Major – In 1798 Congress established the rank of Sergeant Major. The first Sergeant Major in the Marine Corps was Sergeant Major Archibald Sommers.

Marine Corps Band – The Marine Band was also established in 1798 and has played for every president except George Washington. Thomas Jefferson gave them the nickname "The President's Own".

The Barbary Pirates WarIn 1801 the ruler of Tripoli declared war on the US because of our refusal to pay extortion money for the

protection of the US ships sailing in the Mediterranean Sea. The US felt that enough protection would be provided to our ships by the presence of Marines aboard.

Attack On Derna, Tripoli – On 1805 Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon, with a force of seven Marines, joined the rightful ruler of Tripoli, Prince Hamet, in Egypt and planned the attack on Derna, Tripoli. The Marines, with 400 of Prince Hamet's men, crossed the 600-miles of Libyan Desert to attack the city. The Marines breached the walls of the city and fought hand to hand, while the navy bombarded

11

the city from the harbor. When the city surrendered, the Marines raised the "Stars and Stripes" over a captured fortress in the Old World.

Mameluke Sword – As a token of gratitude, Prince Hamet presented the Mameluke sword to Lieutenant O'Bannon. A replica of that sword was adopted for use and carried by all Marine officers. The Mameluke Sword is the oldest weapon still in use today by any of the US Armed Forces.

The 5 th Commandant. Grand Old Man. Archibald Henderson was appointed the 5th Commandant of the Marine Corps in 1820 and remained commandant until 1859, a period of 38 years. The "Grand old man of the Marine Corps," as he is often called, introduced higher standards of personal appearance, training, discipline, and strived to have the Marine Corps known as a professional military force, capable of more than just sea and guard duties.

The Mexican War Colonel Henderson was still Commandant in 1846 when the US found itself at war with Mexico, over territorial disputes in the southwest. Throughout the war, Marines served with naval squadrons in the Gulf of Mexico and along the coast of California. In the first year of the war they fought the Mexicans in California. In the second year of the war they joined forces with the Army and landed at Vera Cruz en route to the capitol, Mexico City. The landing at Vera Cruz on 9 March 1847 was the first American large scale amphibious landing.

Battle Of Chapultepec – Stiff resistance was met near the outskirts of Mexico City. Chapultepec was a fortress that sat on top of a high plateau, which dominated the area. The Mexicans had heavily reinforced this fortress, knowing that it was their last line of resistance before Mexico City. The Marines participated in a bloody battle to capture this fortress.

The Scarlet Stripe – The red scarlet trouser strip first appeared on uniform trousers in 1798, and reappeared in 1840 and 1859, partly as a result of the military fashions of the day. The popular story, which cannot be supported by fact, is: In the battle of Chapultepec, 90% of the Marine officers and noncommissioned officers were casualties. Thirteen of the twenty-three Marine officers participating in this battle were decorated for bravery. Thus the scarlet stripe, or "blood stripe", worn today on the blue dress trousers is to commemorate all the officer and noncommissioned officer casualties at the battle.

Marine Corps Emblem During the post-Civil War period in 1868, the 7th Commandant Brigadier General Jacob Zeilin adopted the Marine Corps emblem. The emblem consisted of an eagle with spread wings sitting on top of a globe of the Western Hemisphere with an anchor in the background. The emblem is symbolic:

The eagle symbolizes the nation. The globe symbolizes worldwide service. The anchor symbolizes naval traditions.

The Marine Corps emblem was modified in 1950 with the anchor being fouled (the addition of the rope).

The Boxer Rebellion At the turn of the century a society known as the "Boxers" were formed in China. They were dedicated to the elimination of all Westerners from China and proceeded to attack Americans, Europeans, and their delegations. For actions of heroism during the Boxer Rebellion, thirty-three Marines were awarded the Medal of Honor. One of them was Private Dan Daly who single-handedly held off wave after wave of Boxers attacking his post. He would go on to become one of the greatest heroes in Marine Corps history.

Banana WarsOur involvement in Central America was known as the "Banana Wars" because the main export from

this region was bananas. Even while fighting the Germans in Europe, the Marines served as the enforcer of our country's policies in Central America.

Panama – In 1903, Panama was a primary concern of the US. The Colombian government held control over the area of Panama, while the natives who lived in the area pressed for independence. The US quickly recognized the Panamanian's cause, and supported their fight for independence with the condition that the US would be able to build the Panama Canal.

12

Vera Cruz – In 1914, Mexico was the hot spot for the Marines. Marines were once again back in Vera Cruz, just as they had been in 1847. Several battalions of Marines landed at Vera Cruz when relations between Mexico and the US deteriorated. The whole force, under the command of Colonel John A. Lejeune took the city after many long hours of house-to house fighting. As the fighting died down, negotiations between the US and Mexico began.

Haiti – Also in 1914, unrest was brewing in Haiti. The possibility of European intervention brought out the United States Marines. The Marines landed at Cape Haitian, and plans were drawn up to restore the country and re-establish the government. A group of rebels and bandits called "Cacos" had been responsible for many of Haiti's problems. Sweeps were conducted of main cities, and the bandits were either disarmed or sent to jail.

Two Medal of Honor Recipients – While enroute to attack a Caco fortress, Marines under Major Butler were betrayed by their guide and ambushed. As relentless attacks continued through the night, the Marines realized they needed more firepower. Gunnery Sergeant Dan Daly slipped out of the Marine's defensive perimeter and through enemy lines to retrieve a machinegun that was lost in a river during the first few minutes of fighting. Daly returned with the machinegun and at daybreak the Marines attacked, chasing the bandits from their fortress and burning it to the ground. Gunnery Sergeant Dan Daly was awarded his second Medal of Honor for his actions in Haiti. Fort Reviere was the last bandit stronghold in a mountain fortress in the jungle. Major Butler led a twenty-four-man detail across an open area toward a drainpipe he knew led into the middle of the Caco stronghold. As the detail reached the drainpipe, they found the opening. Without hesitation a Marine by the name of Sergeant Ross Tams along with Private Gross and Major Smedley Butler took the lead, and made a dash down the drainpipe, followed closely by the rest of the Marines. Moving quickly through the drainpipe, Sergeant Tams shot the sentry guarding the opening. The three Marines emerged from the pipe and attacked seventy bandits with pistols and knives. Soon the rest of the detachment arrived, and fierce hand-to-hand combat ensued. When the fighting ended, fifty Cacos lay dead and the Marines captured the fortress. Tams, Gross and Major Butler all were awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions. This was Major Butler's second Medal of Honor.

Development of Marine Corps Aviation The development of Marine aviation began in 1912. 2nd Lieutenant Alfred A. Cunningham was the first Marine to earn naval aviation wings. Lieutenant Cunningham worked to establish Marines as aviators and is considered the father of Marine Corps aviation.

The Marines Enter World War I (1917). The Marine Corps underwent a drastic transformation in Word War I from a small force of anti-guerrilla fighters to a large conventional force capable of sustained combat. Showing its versatility, the Marine Corps made the change without losing its traditional pride and fighting spirit. To have enough troops to cross the Atlantic Ocean with the expeditionary forces in World War I, the Marine Corps had to expand its numbers dramatically. The Marines fielded two brigades to fight in Europe. Patriotism across the country was high at the beginning of World War I. Recruiting posters went up, soliciting young Americans to join in the fight. A famous Marine slogan, "First to Fight", made its first appearance on Marine recruiting posters at the beginning of the war. The slogan, "First to Fight", points out that Marines have been in the forefront of every American war since the founding of the Corps. After landing in France, the 4th Marine Brigade moved into a quiet section of trenches in the spring of 1918. After 54 days of trench warfare, the Marines pulled out and received orders to protect Paris. They met the Germans at a place called Bois de Belleau (Belleau Wood). As Marines moved to the front, retreating French soldiers encouraged them to "fall back… retreat…" telling them that advancement was impossible. In classic Marine fashion Capt. Lloyd Williams reportedly answered, "Retreat hell, we just got here!" As Marines took up positions along the Paris-Metz road, the Germans fortified positions in Belleau Wood. By 6 June, the Marines had slowed the German assault, and were poised for a counterattack. On the morning of 6 June, one battalion of Marines launched a fierce frontal assault for a prominent hill and secured it by noon. As soon as the hill was secured, three more battalions set out across an open wheat field located between the hill and the edge of the town of Bouresches. Despite a fierce hail of lead, the Marines continued to fight. Gunnery Sergeant Dan Daly led one of the charges across the wheat fields. To inspire his Marines, he was heard to say, "Come on, you sons of bitches! Do you want to live forever?" By evening, the Marines destroyed the German defensive line and pushed the Germans out of Bouresches.

13

For five days the battalions pushed forward until 12 June when the last German defensive line was broken. The woods, except for a small corner, were controlled by the Marines. On 13 June, the Germans counterattacked, only to be repelled as Marine sharpshooters dropped the German attackers at 400 yards. In massive assaults, the Germans kept coming behind a wall of mustard gas. The Germans met death and failure against the Marines. At Belleau Wood, the 4th Marine Brigade suffered enormous casualties while saving Paris from the Germans. The French commander ordered Belleau Wood renamed as "Bois de la Brigade de Marine," the Woods of the Marine Brigade and the French government awarded the 4th Marine Brigade France's highest award, the Croix de Guerre.

Devil Dog – German soldiers feared the Marines, calling them "Teufelhunden" or "Devil Dog", a name which is still used by Marines to this day. The German high command classified the Marines as "Shock Troops," a classification reserved only for the finest military organizations.

Post-World War I During and after World War I, the Banana Wars continued in Central America and the Caribbean. Marines were consistently called upon to protect American interests and provide security in such places as Haiti, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. During this same period the concept of close air support was implemented for the first time and the serious study of the amphibious assault was undertaken. This study generated the first Manual for Landing Operations.

Thirteenth Commandant – Perhaps the most significant event of this period was the appointment of Major General John A. Lejeune as the 13th Commandant of the Marine Corps. His major accomplishments as Commandant include:i. Guiding the Corps toward the amphibious assault role.ii. Establishing the Marine Corps Institute.iii. Enhancing the officer corps through the Company Grade Officer's School and the Field Grade

Officer's School.iv. Organizing Headquarters Marine Corps.

Women In The Corps – Women entered the ranks of the Marine Corps for the first time in 1918, when 277 reservists and Women Marines joined the Corps, beginning with Opha Mae Johnson.

Mail Guards – In 1921, robberies and fraud beset the US Mail Service. Presidential Order dispatched Marines to post offices, railroad stations, and postal trucks and trains to protect the mail. Marines guarded the mail for four months, and not one piece of mail was stolen. Again in 1926, Marines were sent to guard the mail and again they achieved the same results.

Amphibious Development During the 1920s the advanced base concept was being studied as the future role of the Marine Corps. To lend credence to the advanced base concept, General Russell established the Fleet Marine Force (FMF) in 1933. Lieutenant Colonel Ellis, a progressive thinker and visionary, was preparing ideas 20 years ahead of his time. His ideas and those of others greatly contributed to important developments and changes to the Marine Corps that took place before Word War II.

The charter for the FMF was published between the US Naval Fleet and the newly formed FMF. Publication of the "Marine Manual for Landing Operations" established the first guidelines for

conducting amphibious operations. Development of the Higgins boat, as the first truly successful landing craft for combat, allowed

Marines to conduct amphibious operations with greater success.

The Island Hopping Campaign of World War II

Guadalcanal On 7 August 1942, the First Marine Division, consisting of 16,000 Marines, made the first amphibious landing of World War II. This was the first time that the principles established by the 1938 Fleet Training Publication 167 were applied. When the Marines came ashore, the Japanese launched a sea attack against the US Navy amphibious ships. The operation was not yet complete when the Navy decided to withdrawal from Guadalcanal with thousands of Marines and critical equipment aboard. Instead of spearheading an offensive operation, the Marines assumed a defensive perimeter until the rest of the Marines aboard the ships could return. By February of 1943, the Marines had full control of Guadalcanal. The US now concentrated on the offensive in the Pacific.

14

Tarawa The island of Betio belonged to a group of islands called Tarawa Atoll from which the battle took its name. The islands consisted of coral formations surrounded by reefs nearly 1,000 yards in width. There were over 4,800 Japanese on Tarawa manning 32 large coastal artillery pieces, 106 machine guns, and 14 tanks. On 20 November 1943, the 2d Marine Division attacked Tarawa. The reefs surrounding the island stopped the majority of the landing craft. The Marines waded to the shore, some 500 hundred yards distant, in the face of machine gun and mortar fire. Despite the intense hail of fire, individual Marines stubbornly made their way ashore and gained a foothold on the beach. They spent the day getting the remainder of the division ashore and establishing a perimeter on the beach. The next morning reinforcements made it ashore and produced the thrust needed to drive the enemy from its positions. The 2d Marine Division captured Tarawa at the cost of 1,100 dead and 2,300 wounded Marines. The significance of Tarawa was that the Japanese commander claimed, "a million men assaulting for a hundred years could not take Tarawa". It took the Marines just 76 hours. Only 17 Japanese surrendered; the rest fought to the death. The US Marine Corps learned two important lessons from the Battle for Tarawa:

Higgins Boats. The Marine Corps relied heavily on the Higgins Boat up to this point in the war. At Tarawa these flat-bottom boats became stuck on the coral reefs, forcing Marines to wade ashore under murderous fire.

Landing Vehicle Tracked (LVT). The 2d Marine Division had brought along an experimental amphibious landing craft, the Landing Vehicle Tracked. They were tracked vehicles with the capability of riding over coral reefs and continuing to shore. There were only 93 LVTs at Tarawa, not enough to transport the Marines to shore as quickly as needed. After Tarawa the United States Marine Corps adopted the exclusive use of the LVT.

Iwo Jima Iwo Jima was needed in order to provide a clear flight path for American B-29 strategic bombers. The Japanese spent almost 20 years preparing for the defense of this island. On the morning of 19 February 1945, the men of the 4th and 5th Marine Divisions landed on Iwo Jima. It was the largest Marine amphibious landing to date, and the costliest. The Marines sustained more than 26,000 casualties while fighting the 21,000 Japanese soldiers that defended the barren, rugged terrain. Many of the 1500 caves and pillboxes on the island had reinforced walls ten feet thick. In recognition of the Marines’ heroism in the battle on Iwo Jima, Navy Admiral Chester A. Nimitz said, "Among the Americans who fought and died at Iwo Jima, uncommon valor was a common virtue." During this battle Marines raised the American flag on Mount Suribachi. An Associated Press photographer, Joe Rosenthal, snapped a picture, which has taken its place with the most famous pictures and paintings of our country's history. This picture was the inspiration for the Iwo Jima Memorial in Washington D.C.

Okinawa The final great land offensive in the Pacific area was the invasion of Okinawa by the combined forces of the Marine Corps and the Army. The Marine Corps landed the First and Sixth Marine Divisions on the western beaches of Okinawa, with the Second Marine Division held in reserve. Defending this mighty fortress were 117,000 Japanese. However, on 21 June 1945, after three months of fighting, Japanese resistance ended. The successful conquest of the island of Okinawa enabled our ships, planes and submarines to tighten the blockade around Japan's home islands.

The Korean War

The Pusan Perimeter After World War II, Korea was split, North and South, along the 38th parallel. The North became Communist and the South became a Democratic Republic. In the summer of 1950, North Korean troops supplied with Russian and Chinese equipment and advisors crossed the 38th Parallel attacking South Korea. The US Army’s 24th Division was immediately dispatched from Japan along with other United Nations (UN) forces.

15

The South Korean and US Army’s 24th Division was pushed back to a small perimeter around the port city of Pusan. Within days, the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade sailed from San Diego for Pusan. This rapid deployment of a combat ready Marine contingent again displayed the Marine Corps' concept of being a "Force in Readiness". The North Korean onslaught was so swift and powerful that by the time the Marines arrived on 2 August 1950, elements of the US Army were already surrounded within the Pusan Perimeter. The 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, composed of the 5th Marines and MAG-33, was used to plug holes in the perimeter defense. The Marines then pushed the North Koreans back 26 miles along the left flank. On 8 August, a call came to pull the Marines back to the Pusan perimeter. Seventy-five miles to the north, the North Koreans pushed across the Naktong River and threatened the entire perimeter. As the Marines moved in as a blocking force, the North Korean division attacked.The following day the 3d Battalion, 5th Marines attacked the left flank of the North Korean division and the rest of the regiment soon took the ridges overlooking the river. On 3 September the North Koreans attacked the perimeter again. The 5th Marines moved in and, after three days of tough fighting they pushed the North Koreans back 6 miles, securing the perimeter.

The Battle for Inchon Nearly all high-ranking officials in the Department of Defense, including the Joint Chiefs of Staff, opposed the decision to land at Inchon. It was considered too difficult, too risky and almost impossible. The landing at Inchon was unlike any of the landings during World War II. There were several obstacles to overcome. The city of Inchon had tidal variation of 33 feet, was surrounded by large mud flats and, an island fortress named Wolmi-do protected it. Lastly, Inchon was surrounded by an 8-foot sea wall, which the Marines had to scale from their landing craft. On 15 September 1950, the Marines fought for the city in hand-to-hand combat, using flame-throwers, and any weapon at their disposal. After 2 days of fighting the Marines captured Inchon and prepared to advance onto the South Korean capital of Seoul.

The Battle for Seoul As the North Koreans withdrew, the Marines pushed forward into the city. 10,000 Korean soldiers defended Seoul, but the 5th Marines cleared every street in the city. General MacArthur’s plan worked perfectly and the North Korean Army suffered a devastating defeat. The North Koreans were destroyed by the massive firepower of the Marines. Seoul was taken on 26 September after 3 days of heavy fighting.

The Battle for the Chosin Reservoir The Marines pushed north for the Yalu River toward the border between North Korea and Communist China as winter arrived. As the Marines moved north through the frozen mountainous terrain, the Communist Chinese Forces (CCF) prepared to move south. The Marines marched to the west of a man-made reservoir called Chosin. Colonel Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller was there as the commanding officer of the 7th Marines. On the night of 2 November, just south of the Chosin Reservoir, the 12th Chinese Communist Division attacked the 7th Marine Regiment who was the lead element for the 1st Marine Division. The Marines fought off the attack for five days until the Chinese broke contact and simply disappeared. On 27 November, eight Chinese Divisions out-flanked the Marines. The Army units on the Marine’s left flank were crumbling and the Marines were dangerously exposed. The UN forces crumbled and retreated. The Marines were left alone with their supply lines cut off, 70 miles from the sea. There was only one choice for the Marines, to fight their way back down the supply lines to the sea. This is when General Smith, Commanding officer of the 1st Marine Division, stated, "We are not retreating, we're just attacking in a different direction." It was a testament of the Marines’ fighting spirit. As the 1st Marine Division began their controlled withdrawal from the Chosin Reservoir, the weather became just as fierce as the enemy. As the Marines withdrew from the Chosin Reservoir, they took all of their men and equipment, evacuated all the dead and wounded, and left nothing to aid the Chinese divisions. Reaching the port city of Hungnam was considered a miracle. The 1st Marine Division was the only unit to come out of the Chosin Reservoir intact. Colonel “Chesty” Puller was awarded his fifth Navy Cross at the Chosin Reservoir for his leadership and bravery. Chesty Puller is the only Marine who has been awarded five Navy Crosses.

16

In February, plans for a new offensive were drawn up. The Marines acted as the spearhead for the assault and pushed north. As the Marines pushed north they did so without air cover. Higher headquarters decided to pull the close air support away from the Marine Division for employment elsewhere. As a result, casualties began to increase all along the front. The UN halted ground offensive operations, and planned to bomb the Chinese out of the war. The war quickly came to a stalemate. For several months, Marines conducted limited operations. The overall situation changed little in the months to come as the Chinese offered to negotiate. A truce was signed on 27 July 1953.

Three Developments from the Korean War Use of lightweight body armor in the latter stages of the war. This is the origin of the flak jackets used

in the fleet today. Introduction of the thermal boots. Because of the intense cold, frostbite injuries, and the problem of

fighting in an arctic environment, all Marine replacements for Korea were sent to Bridgeport, California for extensive cold weather training prior to departure for Korea.

Introduction of the helicopter into a combat environment. The Marine Corps pioneered the doctrine of Vertical Envelopment; also known as the helicopter assault.

Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps In 1957, the 21st Commandant, General Pate, established the billet of Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps as the Commandant’s senior enlisted advisor. The first Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps was Sergeant Major Bestwick.

The Vietnam War

Gulf of Tonkin Incident As early as 1952, Americans were involved in South Vietnam. By 1955, sufficient American military personnel were present in Vietnam to form the United States Military Assistance Advisory Group. In 1962 a Marine helicopter squadron was ordered into Vietnam with the mission to support the Vietnamese in their struggle against the Viet Cong. The buildup had begun, and by 1964 there were approximately 16,000 Americans in Vietnam, in both advisory and support positions. North Vietnamese PT boats fired upon the destroyer USS Maddox on 2 August 1964. Two days later, another American war ship, the USS Turner Joy, was also attacked by North Vietnamese forces. This became known as the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. In both instances, American forces destroyed the enemy craft in retaliation. On 7 Aug 1964, Congress passed the “Gulf of Tonkin Resolution” which gave President Johnson the authority to retaliate against the Communists in North Vietnam.

Da Nang. As air strikes went deeper into North Vietnam, the Americans established an airbase in the northern part South Vietnam at Da Nang. The US suspected the Viet Cong would attack this air base, so the Marine Corps were called in to protect it. On March 8, 1965 the 9th Marine Expeditionary Brigade landed at Da Nang, they were the first ground combat forces to deploy to South Vietnam.

Beginning of Offensive Operations Initially, there were two conflicting strategies on how to conduct the war. The first of these was the Army's “search and destroy” missions against the Viet Cong. The second was the Marine strategy called the "Ink Blot". This strategy involved establishing coastal enclaves, such as Da Nang, and then gradually expanding through "clear and hold" operations. One of the most effective tactics the Marines used in winning the trust of the Vietnamese people was the Combined Action Platoon (CAP). CAPs consisted of a South Vietnamese Popular Forces platoon of 38 men combined with a US Marine rifle squad and a medical corpsman.

17

Operation Starlite In late July of 1965, intelligence reports indicated that the 1st Viet Cong Regiment, some 2,000 strong, was preparing to attack Chu Lai. Acting on this information, the Marines initiated the first regimental-sized operation since the Korean War; 7th Marines took on the mission. On 18 August 1965, a three pronged attack named Operation Starlite was launched. One battalion attacked on foot from the north, another battalion conducted a helo borne assault from the west, and a third conducted an amphibious assault from the southeast. Each battalion converged on the 1st Viet Cong Regiment at the same time. The significance of Operation Starlite was that the Marines dealt the Viet Cong its first major defeat of the war and denied the Viet Cong sanctuaries along the coast.

Khe Sanh. The Quang Tri province bordered the demilitarized zone (DMZ) and was one of the key objectives of the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) in 1967. Defense of the DMZ was centered on the Khe Sanh combat base; the NVA had to control this base in order to control the province. Northwest of Khe Sanh was a group of hills, #881 North and South, that overlooked the base and was used by the NVA to launch mortar and rocket attacks. The 2d and 3d Battalions of the 3d Marine Regiment attacked the NVA to push them off the high ground. This engagement later referred to as the "hill-fights", cost the NVA 940 well-trained troops. The significance of the “Hill Fights” was that the Marines denied the NVA control of Quang Tri Province and at the same time enhanced the security of Khe Sanh.

Tet Offensive In search of a victory, the NVA conducted a large-scale operation that coincided with the Vietnamese Lunar New Year called Tet. The main objectives of the Tet Offensive were to capture the Vietnamese cities of Saigon, Hue, Khe Sanh, and Da Nang. The NVA managed to infiltrate and gain control of Hue city. The Marines had to fight house-to-house and street-to-street to retake the city; it was the first time since Korea that the Marines fought in this manner. After twenty-four days of fighting, the NVA forces were defeated and the city secured. The NVA had to find another way to take Khe Sanh. Khe Sanh came under siege by three NVA divisions during January 21 to March 30, 1968. As the NVA bombarded Khe Sanh day and night, they cut off supply routes to the beleaguered base. Marine aircraft flew daily missions to supply the Marines and to provide close air support. The NVA had invested over 25,000 troops in the offensive and suffered over 8,000 casualties. Senior military leadership believed that if the NVA had overrun Khe Sanh and gained control of the Quang Tri Province, they would have had an unobstructed invasion route into the two northern-most provinces of South Vietnam. Tet related battles continued for four more months, but the communists suffered a stunning defeat and lost more than 80,000 NVA casualties. However, the Tet offensive provoked a political crisis in the US that changed the Vietnam War.

Marine Scout Sniper Program GySgt Carlos Hathcock, a Marine sniper with 93 confirmed kills, gained notoriety for his outstanding marksmanship. He once recorded a kill from two thousand five hundred meters using an M2 .50 caliber machinegun. He and other Marines clearly demonstrated the worth of snipers as a cost efficient and highly effective tool in combat. As a result, sniper training became a permanent part of the USMC organization.

Lebanon On 25 August 1982, the 32d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) landed in Beirut, Lebanon. The country was engaged in an intense civil war between various political factions. The 32d MAU's mission was to help evacuate the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to help stabilize the situation. By 31 August, all of the PLO members were evacuated from the city of Beirut. After completing their mission, the 32d MAU departed the city. When the civil war worsened, the Marines returned to Lebanon and conducted a combined surface and helicopter landing into the Beirut International Airport. On 23 October 1983 the Marine barracks at the Beirut International Airport was bombed. At 0622 that Sunday morning, a suicide terrorist drove a five-ton truck loaded with explosives into the lobby of the Marine barracks. The resulting explosion leveled the

18

four-story building used by the Marines as a barracks and headquarters. 241 Marines and Sailors died in the attack.

Grenada In October 1983, President Reagan ordered a joint Marine and Army force to land on the small Caribbean island of Grenada. The President was concerned about the safety of American lives and the deteriorating political situation. Operation "Urgent Fury" began at 0500 on 25 October. Marines from the 24th MAU, embarked aboard the USS Guam, landed ashore in order to rescue American medical students held captive in Grenada. By 28 October, all organized resistance had ceased and the mission was accomplished.

Panama Relations between Panama's leader Manuel Noriega and the US government deteriorated in the 1980’s due to his alleged drug involvement and election fraud. On 20 December 1989, President Bush ordered US forces to invade Panama and to apprehend Manuel Noriega. This operation was named Operation "Just Cause". The mission had several objectives: To install the rightfully elected officials in the Panamanian government, to apprehend Noriega and bring him to justice, and to restore peace to the Panamanian people. Marine and Army units searched Panama City for days trying to capture the evasive Noriega. Noriega sought refuge in the Vatican embassy, which was then surrounded by US forces. After a 12-day stalemate and through the use of psychological warfare, Noriega surrendered to American forces. After Noriega's deportation, the duly elected government was installed as the ruling government of Panama.

Persian Gulf War On 2 August 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein ordered his armed forces to invade its southern neighbor Kuwait and annex it as Iraq's 19th province. Immediately, President Bush ordered a military buildup in the region in concert with the government of Saudi Arabia to halt further aggression by Hussein. The deployment of US forces was called operation "Desert Shield." During "Desert Shield", Marines at sea helped enforce a maritime blockade of Iraqi shipping. The Navy and Marine Corps team conducted many highly publicized amphibious "rehearsals" to show the Iraqis their capabilities. Because of these demonstrations, the Iraqis committed three divisions to defending the Kuwaiti coast against an amphibious landing. Coalition forces, headed by the US armed forces took up positions in the Persian Gulf and the surrounding countries. Operation Desert Storm was the largest combat operation in Marine Corps history. On 16 January 1991 the war began. The US first established air supremacy and then started the ground campaign. The 1st and 2d Marine Divisions’ mission was to conduct a frontal attack through two Iraqi minefield/obstacle belts. The Marine forces at sea executed an amphibious demonstration, done to divert Iraqis' attention to the fake amphibious landing. The Army was then able to hit the Iraqis with a "left hook", advancing around their left flank deep into Iraq. The abandoned Saudi frontier town of Al-Khafji was the site of the first ground engagement with Iraqi forces. Operation Desert Storm was a success. The 100-hour battle proved the lethal effectiveness of our well-trained and disciplined Marines.

Somalia Somalia is an East African nation that lost half a million people to starvation and drought in the late 1980’s. Somalia's government disintegrated after an uprising of armed warrior clans began in the north in 1988. By 1991, anarchy reigned as fourteen clans vied for control. The Marines landed in Mogadishu on 9 December 1992. Their mission was to secure the port complex, airport, and the abandoned US Embassy. Once ashore, Marines broke the gridlock of food distribution and established humanitarian relief sectors in central and southern Somalia. By 1993 the Marines successfully stopped the widespread starvation. The UN took command of the operation and the Marines withdrew. After a two-year absence, the Marines returned in 1995 during Operation United Shield. The UN failed to restore order to Somalia so they called on the US to help withdraw UN forces from the country. The Marines were engaged in 27 firefights during the evacuation of UN forces.

19

USMC PERSONNEL, TRAINING, AND INDIVIDUAL WEAPONS

I. Culture and Mentality The close integration of dissimilar Marine units stems from an organization culture centered around the infantry. Every other Marine capability exists to support the infantry. Unlike many Western militaries, the Corps remained conservative against theories proclaiming the ability of new weapons to win wars independently. For example, Marine Aviation has always been focused on close air support and has remained largely uninfluenced by airpower theories proclaiming that strategic bombing can single-handedly win wars.

This focus on infantry is matched with the fact that “Every Marine is a rifleman,” emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All enlisted Marines receive training first and foremost as a rifleman; all officers receive training as infantry platoon commanders. The value of this culture has been demonstrated many times throughout history.

II. Officer Ranks Marine Corps officer ranks are subdivided into company-grade officers (0-1 to 0-3), field-grade officers (0-4 to 0-6), and generals (0-7 to 0-10). Warrant Officers, who come primarily from the senior Non-Commissioned Officer ranks, provide leadership and training in specialized fields and skills.

III. Enlisted Ranks Enlisted Marines in the pay grades E-1 to E-3 make up the bulk of the Corps’ ranks. Although they don’t technically hold leadership ranks, the Corps’ ethos stresses leadership among all Marines, and junior Marines are often assigned responsibility normally reserved for superiors.

20

Those in the pay grades E-4 and E-5 are Non-Commissioned Officers (NCOs). They primarily supervise junior Marines and act as a vital link with the higher command structure, ensuring that orders are carried out correctly. Marines E-6 and higher are Staff Non-Commissioned Officers (SNCOs), charged with supervising NCOs and acting as enlisted advisors to the command.

The E-8 and E-9 levels each have two ranks per pay grade, each with different responsibilities. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks are command-oriented, with Marines of these ranks serving as the senior enlisted Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding officer in matters of discipline, administration, and morale and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specific MOS. First Sergeants typically serve as the senior enlisted Marine in a company, battery, or other unit at similar echelon, while Sergeants Major serve the same role in battalions, squadrons, or larger units.

The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is a unique rank conferred on the senior enlisted marine of the entire Marine Corps, personally selected by the Commandant of the Marine Corps. The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps wears unique chevrons with an Eagle, Globe, and Anchor at the center, flanked by two five-point stars.

IV. Training Every year, approximately 1600 new Marine officers are commissioned, and 38,000 recruits accepted and trained. Basic training for Marine Corps takes place at the following locations:

Officer: The Basic School Marine Corps Base Quantico, VAEnlisted: Marine Corps Recruit Depot MCRD San Diego, CA

MCRD Parris Island, SC

21

Officers Following commissioning, all Marine commissioned officers, regardless of accession route or further training requirements, attend The Basic School (TBS) at Marine Corps Base Quantico, VA. There, they spend six months learning to command a rifle platoon. The Basic School is an example of the Corps’ approach to furthering the concept that “Every Marine is a rifleman.”

Enlisted Enlisted Marines attend recruit training, or boot camp, at either MCRD San Diego or MCRD Parris Island. Women only attend the Parris Island depot, in the Fourth Recruit Training Battalion, while males who train at Parris Island comprise the First through Third Battalions. Historically, the Mississippi River served as the dividing line which delineated who would be trained where. All recruits must pass an Initial Strength Test to start training. Marine recruit training is the longest among the American military services; it is 13 weeks long, compared to the U.S. Army’s 9 weeks. Following recruit training, enlisted Marines then attend the School of Infantry training at Camp Geiger or Camp Pendleton, generally based upon where the Marine received their recruit training. Infantry Marines begin their Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) training immediately within the Infantry Training Battalion (ITB), while Marines in all other MOSs train for 29 days with the Marine Combat Training (MCT), learning common infantry skills, before continuing on to their MOS schools.

IV. Rifle Platoon Organization The goal of all initial Marine Corps training is to make each Marine a competent element of a Rifle Platoon, either as a platoon commander or a platoon member.

MissionThe primary mission of a Marine Rifle Platoon is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy by fire and maneuver or to repel his assault by fire and close combat.

CharacteristicsThe rifle platoon is the basic maneuver element of the rifle company.  Its characteristics are essentially those of the rifle company.  EmploymentThe rifle platoon usually fights as part of the rifle company.  When circumstances require, it can be appropriately reinforced to operate independently for limited periods

1. In the attack the platoon's rifle squads, assisted by organic and/or external supporting fires, maneuver to positions from which they can close with and destroy the enemy.

2. In the defense, the rifle platoon defends as part of the rifle company.  Assisted by non-organic planned fires, it organizes to deny the enemy access to terrain by use of organic fires and close combat.   Rifle platoon makeupThe platoon has a triangular structure composed of three rifle squads.  Each squad is a balanced group consisting of three fire teams.

1 Platoon = 3 rifle squads = 9 fire teams

The USMC summarize its fire team organization with the mnemonic “ready-team-fire- assist”, the following being the arrangement of the fire team when in column:

Rifleman – acts as a scout for the fire teamTeam Leader – team lead and act as grenadier carrying the M203 grenade launcherAutomatic Rifleman – carries the M249 SAW and serves as second in command for the fire team

22

Assistant Automatic Rifleman – carries extra ammunition

Headquarters element of a Rifle platoonThe headquarters element of a rifle platoon consists of a platoon commander, platoon sergeant, Hospital Corpsman and a radio operator.

1. Platoon Commander is responsible to the company commander for the training, combat efficiency, discipline, administration, and welfare of his platoon.  Everything the platoon does or fails to do in garrison or in combat is the platoon commander's responsibility.  He is also responsible for the first echelon maintenance, safeguarding, and economical use of all equipment on charge to the platoon and its individual members.

2. Platoon Sergeant, as second in command, performs the duties assigned by the platoon commander. He assumes command in the absence of the platoon commander. He assists in all aspects of supervision and control of the platoon.

V. Basic Weapons of a Rifle Platoon The basic infantry weapon of the USMC is the M16 assault rifle family, with a majority of Marines being equipped with the M16A2 or M16A4 service rifles, or more recently the M4 carbine – a compact variant. Suppressive fire is provided by the M249 SAW. In addition, indirect fire is provided by the M203 grenade launcher in fire teams.

M16A2 / M16A4 Service Rifle

This is an A2

This is an A4

Primary Function: Infantry WeaponCaliber: 5.56x45mm NATOLength: 39.6 inchesEffective Range: Area TGT – 800 meters, Point TGT – 550 metersRate of Fire: Rapid Rate is 45 rds/min and sustained is 12-15 rds/min

23

24

M249 Squad Automatic Weapon

Primary Function: Infantry Weapon – hand-held light machine gunCaliber: 5.56x45mm NATOLength: 41 inchesEffective Range: Area TGT - 1,000 meters, Point TGT – 800mRate of Fire: Cyclic 850 rds/min, Rapid 200 rds/min, Sustained 85 rds/min

M16A4 w/M203 Grenade Launcher

M203Caliber: 40mmEffective Range: Area TGT - 350m, Point TGT - 150 metersRate of Fire: 7-9 rounds/min

25

M4 Carbine

Primary Function: Infantry Weapon *Caliber: 5.56x45mm NATOLength: 33 inchesEffective Range: Area TGT – 600 meters, Point TGT – 500 metersRate of Fire: 750-900 rounds/min

*The United States Marine Corps has ordered its officers (up to the rank of lieutenant colonel) and NCOs to carry the M4A1 carbine variant instead of the M9 Beretta pistol.

26

WARFARE COMMUNITIES OF THE FLEET AND MARINE FORCES

I. Mission of the U.S. Navy

The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, and maintaining freedom of the seas.

As a part of this mission, the United States Marine Corps (USMC) is responsible for providing power projection from the sea, utilizing the mobility of the U.S. Navy to rapidly deliver combined-arms task forces to global crises.

II. Operational Mission AreasTo achieve this mission, operations are focused in but not limited to the following major areas:

1. ANTI-AIR WARFARE (AAW) The detection, tracking, destruction or neutralization of enemy air platforms and airborne weapons.

2. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE (ASW) The detection, tracking, and destruction or neutralization of enemy submarines.

3. ANTI-SURFACE SHIP WARFARE (ASU) The detection, tracking, and destruction or neutralization of enemy surface combatants and merchant ships.

4. CLOSE AIR SUPPORT (CAS) Fire support for troops in contact with enemy forces.5. COMBAT SEARCH AND RESCUE (CSAR) Operations carried out to retrieve, rescue and

provide assistance to downed aircrews or allies behind enemy lines6. COMMAND, CONTROL, AND COMMUNICATIONS (CCC) Providing communications and

related facilities for coordination and control of external organizations or forces, and control of own unit's capabilities.

7. COMMAND AND CONTROL WARFARE (C2W) The integrated use of computer network operations (CNO), psychological operations (PSYOP), military deception (MILDEC), operations security (OPSEC), electronic warfare (EW), and physical destruction; mutually supported by intelligence, to deny information to, influence, degrade, or destroy adversary C2 capabilities while protecting friendly C2 capabilities against such actions.

8. FLEET SUPPORT OPERATIONS (FSO) Naval forces and designated shore facilities providing supporting services other than logistics replenishment to fleet units.

9. INTELLIGENCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND RECONNAISSANCE (ISR) The collection, processing, and evaluation of information to determine location, identification, and capability of hostile forces through the employment of reconnaissance, surveillance, and other means.

10. THEATRE AIR AND MISSILE DEFENSE (TAMD) – As more nations gain the ability to use ballistic and cruise missiles, defending friendly forces against these threats has become increasingly important. Currently, the emphasis is the protection of forward-deployed forces via evolved, long-ranged Standard Missiles and a reconfigured SPY-1 radar system.

11. STRIKE WARFARE (STW) The destruction or neutralization of enemy targets ashore through the use of conventional or nuclear weapons. This includes, but is not limited to, strategic targets, building yards, and operating bases from which the enemy is capable of conducting air, surface, or subsurface operations against U.S. or allied forces.

12. MARITIME INTERDICTION OPERATIONS (MIO) – Boarding, inspection, and seizure (if necessary) of vessels suspected of smuggling, piracy, terrorism, or sanction violations. MIO operations are conducted by trained Boarding Teams consisting of the ship’s crew and supported by embarked aircraft (SH-60 B) and Coast Guard Law Enforcement Detachments (LE Dets).

27

13. MINE WARFARE (MIW) The use of mines for control/denial of sea or harbor areas, and mine countermeasures over, under, or upon the surface.

III. Warfare Communities To achieve this mission, the Fleet utilizes the following warfare communities:

1. Surface Warfare2. Amphibious Warfare (Surface and Marine Corps assets)3. Undersea Warfare (Submarine and Mine assets)4. Air Warfare5. Special Warfare (SEALs)6. Expeditionary Warfare (EOD, Construction, Riverine)7. Cyber Warfare / Information Dominance 8. Space Warfare

We will define and discuss the majority of these communities in the following chapters.

IV. Maritime Strategy

The following summary of our Maritime Strategy is found at http://www.navy.mil/maritime/. Visit this same site to find the document in its entirety.

“A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower” was presented by the Chief of Naval Operations and the Commandants of the U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Coast Guard at the International Seapower Symposium in Newport, R.I. on Oct 17, 2007. 

The result of over a year’s work, this new enduring strategy will apply maritime power to the crucial responsibility of protecting U.S. vital interests in an increasingly interconnected and uncertain world. 

Signed for the first time by the service chiefs of all three sea services, the strategy draws the Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard even closer together in working to protect and sustain the American Way of Life.

The Maritime Strategy is about Security, Stability and Seapower

Security: Maritime forces are first line of defense with ability to deploy quickly, reach difficult locations

Prosperity: 70% of the world is water, 80% of the world lives on or near the coastline and 90% of our commerce sails across it. Any disruption in that chain caused by instability has a direct impact on American quality of life.

Seapower: The unifying force and common denominator that enables global security stability and prosperity.

This strategy clearly articulates that our sea services operate across the full spectrum of operations; raising the prevention of war to a level equal to the conduct of war. We believe that preventing wars is as important as winning wars.

Maritime forces will be employed to build confidence and trust among nations through collective security efforts that focus on common threats and mutual interests in an open, multi-polar world.

28

Although our forces can surge when necessary to respond to crises, trust and cooperation cannot be surged. They must be built over time so that the strategic interests of the participants are continuously considered while mutual understanding and respect are promoted.

United States Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard will act across the full range of military operations to secure the United States from direct attack; secure strategic access and retain global freedom of action; strengthen existing and emerging alliances and partnerships and establish favorable security conditions.

Expanded Core Capabilities of Maritime Power

1. Forward Presence2. Deterrence3. Sea Control4. Power Projection5. Maritime Security6. Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Response

29

SURFACE WARFARE

I. Mission Definition

To provide combat ready ships to the fleet; and to supply those ships and supporting commands with the leadership, manpower, equipment, training, and material needed to achieve operational excellence and conduct prompt, sustained combat operations at sea to ensure victory.

The surface fleet is able to conduct a myriad of operations in both peace and war-time environments. These varied missions range from homeland security (Operation Noble Eagle) to theatre ballistic missile defense (TBMD) and include the following operations and their associated equipment:

1. Maritime Interdiction Operations (MIO) 2. Naval Surface Fire Support (NSFS) 3. Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) 4. Anti-Air Warfare (AAW) 5. Anti-Surface Warfare (ASUW) 6. Theatre Air and Missile Defense (TAMD) 7. Strike Warfare (STW) 8. Command and Control Warfare (C2W)

II. Capabilities

Advancements in technology and strategy have allowed the surface fleet to become a much more dynamic force. Ship classes are no longer built around a single mission area; they are built to specialize in one warfare area but must be able to operate in several additional roles. Modern surface ships possess many unique capabilities listed below.

1. Stealth – New ship classes such as the DDG-51 ARLEIGH BURKE class destroyers employ an angled superstructure, radar absorbent and reflective material (PCMS), and reduced emissions to significantly reduce the radar cross section of the ship, making it much more difficult to acquire on radar. 2. Endurance – Utilizing two primary power sources, either gas turbine or steam plants, modern surface warfare platforms have ranges as long as 6000 nautical miles at 20 knots. These ranges are greatly extended by the ability to refuel and at sea. 3. Firepower – Includes gun mounts, cruise missiles, surface to air missiles, self-defense weapons, and surface to surface missiles.

4. Mobility – Because over two thirds of the world’s surface is ocean and eighty percent of the world’s population lives within 100 nautical miles of the coast, naval forces are a potent deterrent to potential adversaries since such forces can arrive quickly and remain indefinitely. This presence also reminds potential adversaries of U.S. military capability and resolve to enforce international law.

5. Communication – The surface fleet utilizes several means of communication in order to provide and employ classified and unclassified voice, messaging, data and video information from every available source in order to effectively execute the mission. The two primary means used to provide ships, submarines, aircraft and ground forces operating worldwide in support of Naval and joint missions necessary information are data transmission via LINK 4A, LINK 11, and LINK 16, and voice transmission via Satellite COMMS, HF, UHF, and EHF.

30

IV. Surface Platforms/Equipment

In addition to the following platforms, there are several other types of ship that fall under the realm of surface warfare to include, amphibious, replenishment, and coastal patrol ships, and mine sweepers. These platforms will be covered in later professional topics.

CG-47 TICONDEROGA Class Guided Missile CruiserVisual Identification Hurricane bow, split superstructure with two SPY array faces forward and two aft.

Two masts, with the smaller forward and larger aft. Two sets of stacks, one aft of each mast. 5in/54 cal gun forward and aft.Note – for CG-47 to 51, two Mk-26 dual rail launchers instead of Mk-41 VLS

Mission Primary: AAW, Secondary: StrikeWeapons 2 Mk 45, 5in/54 cal dual purpose guns (1 fwd, 1 aft)

CG-47 to 51, 2 Mk-26 dual rail launchers (1 fwd, 1 aft)CG-51 and up, 2 Mk-41 VLS (1 fwd, 1 aft) 2 Mk-16 20mm Phalanx CIWS (port and stbd)2 Mk-32 NATO torpedo tubes2 Mk-141 quadruple Harpoon canisters

Mission Specific Capabilities SPY-1D Air Search Radar, Mk-7 AEGIS combat systemCrew Size 24 officers, 340 enlisted

FFG-7 OLIVER HAZARD PERRY FrigateVisual Identification Hurricane bow, Mk-13 single rail launcher, single long box-like superstructure,

single mast, Mk-75 76 mm gun mount, aft stack, 1 Mk-16 CIWS, helo deck aftMission Primary: ASW, Secondary, ASUWWeapons 1 Mk-13 single rail launcher

Mk-75 76 mm gun mount1 Mk-16 20mm Phalanx CIWS (aft)2 Mk-32 NATO torpedo tubes

Mission Specific Capabilities SQS-56 sonar, SQR-19 TACTASCrew Size 16 officers, 185 enlisted

DDG-51 ARLEIGH BURKE Class Guided Missile DestroyerVisual Identification Open bow, single 5in/54 cal or 5in/62 cal dual purpose gun fwd, single

superstructure, four SPY array faces on superstructure, swept mast, two separate sets of stacks (1fwd, 1 aft). Helo deck aft. DDG 79 and following, 2 SH-60s

Mission Primary: AAW, Secondary: ASUW/StrikeWeapons 1 Mk-45 5in/54 cal or 5in/62 cal dual purpose gun

2 Mk-41 VLS (1/2 cell fwd, full cell aft)2 Mk-16 20mm Phalanx CIWS (fwd and aft)2 Mk-46 NATO torpedo tubes2 Mk-141 quadruple Harpoon canisters (DDG-78 and below)

31

Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile (DDG-79 and following)Mission Specific Capabilities SPY-1 Air Search Radar, AEGIS combat systemCrew Size Varies based on Modernization : 28 officers, 254 enlisted

CVN-68 Nimitz Class Aircraft CarrierAircraft 1 Carrier Air Wing (85 aircraft)Crew Complement Ship’s Company: 3,350; Air Wing: 2,480Power Plan Two Nuclear Power Plants, four shaftsArmament Multiple NATO Sea Sparrow, Phalanx CIWS, and Rolling Airframe Missiles

(RAM)

V. Amphibious Platforms

Whidbey Island (LSD-41)-Class Dock Landing ShipVisual Identification Solid block superstructure. Boat/Aircraft crane starboard side

Lift capability Capable of carrying 4 Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCACs), or 3 LCU, or 64 AAV.

Crew 413 crew (22 officers) : Marine Detachment: 402 plus 102 surge.

32

Mission: Whidbey Island, commissioned in 1985, was the first of this new class of versatile durable dock landing ships. Their ability to ballast down and flood a well deck makes possible the loading at sea of amphibious warfare craft and their cargo. LSDs also can accommodate a sizable number of troops. The first of a variant of LSD 41, Harpers Ferry, which has grater cargo carrying capacity, improved facilities for embarked troops and greater operating range, was funded in fiscal year 1988; three sister ships were funded in fiscal years 1990, 1991 and 1993, respectively. The final ship of the class, Pearl Harbor, was commissioned in May 1998. The Navy is currently developing a midlife upgrade program which is desgined to extend the ships service life out to 40 years. Execution of upgrade packages is scheduled to begin in 2008 and be completed by 2012.

San Antonio (LPD 17)-Class Amphibious Transport Dock

Visual Identification Two stacks, single mast. Hilo hanger on flight deck. Swept fwd mast. Battle bridge and crew bridge.

Lift capability Capacity 2 CH-53E or 2 MV-22 or 4 CH-46 Sea Knights, UH/AH-1 Hueys on the flight deck. 2 LCAC or 1 LCU; 18 AAVs or 14 EFVs in the well deck.

Crew 360 ship’s crew(28 officers) + Up to 800 Embarked Troops

Mission: LPDs are used to transport and land Marines, their equipment and supplies, by embarked air cushion or conventional landing craft or amphibious assault vehicles, augmented by helicopters or vertical take off and landing aircraft. These ships support amphibious, special operations or expeditionary warfare missions.

Austin (LPD-4)-Class Amphibious Transport Dock

Visual Identification Two stacks, single mast. Boat and Aircraft crane stbd side. Helo hanger on flight deck. Exposed life rafts on the hull.

Lift capability Capacity for up to 6 CH-46 Sea Knights on the flight deck. 17 AAVs, or 1 LCAC and 8 AAVs, or 1 LCU

Crew 426 crew (24 officers) + 900 embarked troops

Mission: LPDs are used to transport and land Marines, their equipment and supplies, by embarked air

33

cushion or conventional landing craft or amphibious assault vehicles, augmented by helicopters or vertical take off and landing aircraft. These ships support amphibious, special operations or expeditionary warfare missions.

Wasp (LHD-1)-Class Amphibious Assault Ship

Visual Identification Flight deck along the main deck. Elevator port side. Superstructure amidships starboard side. Sterngate. Largest amphibious warship.

Lift capability Capable of carrying 3 Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCACs). 12 CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters; 4 CH-53E Sea Stallion helicopters; 4 AH-1W Super Cobra helicopters.6 AV-8B Harrier attack aircraft; 3 UH-1N Huey helicopters (planned capability to embark MV-22 Osprey).

Crew 1,108 crew (104 officers) + 1,894 embarked troops

Mission: The LHDs provide the Marine Corps with a means of ship to shore movement by helicopter in addition to movement by landing craft. LHDs – which have extensive storage capacity and can accommodate LCACs – have participated in major humanitarian assistance, occupation and combat operation in which the United States has been involved. They served as launching platforms for Marine Corps Expeditionary forces to Afghanistan in Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001-2002 and to Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003. During the latter operation and continuing today, LHDs serve as “Harrier Carriers,” launching AV-8B attack aircraft against targets inside Iraq.

34

Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC)Visual Identification Large black skirt. Two large propellers one port aft and one stbd aft.Lift capability Capable of carrying 24 troops and 1 MBTCrewc

5

Mission: The LCAC is a high – speed, over the beach, fully amphibious landing craft. LCAC’s air-cushion capability allows it to proceed inland to discharge cargo on dry, trafficable beaches, thus reducing buildups of troops, equipment and other material in the surf zone. The landing craft is capable of carrying a 60 – 75 ton payload. LCAC is unrestricted by tides, beach gradients or surf conditions, allowing it to access more than 70 percent of the world’s beach areas. LCACs are carried by LHAs, LHDs, LPDs and LSDs.

VI. Current Projects 1. The Zumwalt-class destroyer (DDG-1000) is a planned class of United States Navy destroyers, designed as multi-mission ships with a focus on land attack. The Zumwalt-class destroyers are multi-role and designed for surface warfare, anti-aircraft, and naval fire support. The destroyer is being designed to require a smaller crew and be less expensive to operate than comparable warships. It will have a wave-piercing tumblehome hull form whose sides slope inward above the waterline. This will reduce the radar cross-section, returning much less energy than a more hard-angled hull form. Originally 32 ships were planned for the class, but this was cut down to three to be built currently.

2. The CG(X) program, is split into two classes, fourteen Zumwalt-sized "escort cruisers" and five 23,000 ton ballistic missile defense (BMD) ships. There has been political pressure for some or all of these ships to be nuclear powered, which would give them the hull classification symbol of CGN(X).

3. The America class(LHA-6) amphibious assault ships are planned to replace the Tarawa class. Based on the USS Makin Island (LHD-8), the LHA-6 will be a gas turbine powered ship supporting a Marine Expeditionary Brigade with launch capacity for MV-22B Osprey tiltrotors, helicopters, and F-35B STOVL strike fighters.

To increase the number of accommodated aircraft, it will feature greater hangar space but not the well decks that are used to house landing craft on the Tarawa and Wasp class amphibious assault ships. The first ship is due to be delivered in 2013. At displacement of 45,000 tons and carrying a complement of strike fighters, it can serve in the small carrier role.

35

The typical aircraft complement for the America class is expected to be twelve MV-22B Ospreys, eight AH-1Z Vipers, ten F-35Bs, four CH-53Ks and four Navy MH-60S "Knighthawks". The exact makeup of the ship's aircraft complement will vary according to its mission.

4. Developing Platform: Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) - The LCS is an entirely new breed of U. S. Navy warship with versatile war fighting capabilities optimized for littoral coastal missions. Operational experience and analyses indicate potential adversaries will employ asymmetric means to deny U.S. and allied forces access into critical coastal regions including strategic choke points and vital economic sea leans. The LCS is specially designed to defeat such “anti-access” threats, which include fast surface craft, quiet diesel submarines and various types of mines.

The ship’s focused- mission design will offer combatant commanders both the required war fighting capabilities and flexibility to ensure maritime dominance and facilitate unencumbered joint expeditionary force operations. While complementing the primary missions of larger Navy surface combatants, LCS will feature advanced networking capability to share tactical information with other Navy aircraft, ships, submarines and joint units.

In 2004, the Navy contracted two industry teams, one lead by Lockheed Martin and the other by General Dynamics, to develop final system designs for a fast, agile and networked surface combatant sea frame.

Freedom Class Littoral Combat Ship (LCS-1)

Independence Class Littoral Combat Ship (LCS-2)

36

SUBMARINES AND UNDERSEA WARFARE

I. Mission of the Submarine Force.

As stated by the CNO's Submarine Warfare Division, the U.S. Submarine Force has several goals: (1) to maintain its role as the world's preeminent Submarine Force; (2) to aggressively incorporate new and innovative technologies to maintain dominance throughout the maritime battlespace; (3) to promote the multiple capabilities of submarines and develop tactics to support national objectives through battlespace preparation, sea control, supporting the land battle and strategic deterrence, and; (4) to fill the role of the Joint Commanders' stealthy, full spectrum expeditionary platform.

II. History

The first military submarine was the American-built Turtle (1775). Designed and built by the patriot David Bushnell, the hand-powered, egg-shaped device accommodated a single man. It is thought to be the first submarine capable of independent underwater operation, and the first to use a screw for propulsion. During the American Revolutionary War, Turtle attempted to sink a British warship, HMS Eagle (flagship of the British blockaders), moored in New York harbor. However, Turtle failed.

During the American Civil War, confederate forces revived the submarine concept. On February 18, 1864, the Confederate States Submersible, the CSS Hunley, performed the first successful military submarine mission when she sank the USS Housatonic, just off Charleston Harbor. Hunley performed her submerged attack against Housatonic using a spar torpedo (an explosive charge mounted on a long pole sticking out of Hunley's bow). Though her attack was successful, Hunley sank following the engagement and her entire eight-man crew perished.

Submarines first made a significant military impact in World War I. U-boats (German submarines) were central to the German naval strategy. In fact, a torpedo fired from a German U-boat sank the ocean liner RMS Lusitania (May 7, 1915), which directly precipitated entry of the U.S. into WWI; American leaders could not tolerate the threat of unrestricted submarine warfare against civillian shipping traffic. The fleet of American diesel submarines was used primarily for coastal defense. However, after 1917, some American boats drew assignments to hostile European waters. These boats conducted offensive, open-sea operations from the Azores and Bantry Bay in Ireland, supporting the Allied effort to maintain open sea lanes along the European coast and in the approaches to the British Isles.

World War II produced significant improvements in the design and operation of submarines worldwide. Side-stepping the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany built a large submarine fleet in the runup to the war. Their "wolfpack" tactics proved devasting to Allied military and civillian ships in the European theatre. The U.S. submarine fleet employed the extremely reliable Gato, Balao, and Tench classes to score the most complete victory of any force in any theater of the war, operating in every naval theatre. In spite of a hesitant beginning due to the Pearl harbor surprise and difficulties with defective torpedoes, the submarine force destroyed 1,314 enemy ships for 5.3 million tons (including 8 aircraft carriers and over 200 warships), which translated into fifty-five percent of all enemy ships sunk. Out of 16,000 submariners, the force lost 375 officers and 3,131 enlisted men in fifty-two submarines, the highest casualty rate of any U.S. service branch in the 1939-1945 conflict.

Following WWII, the Cold War redefined the mission of the submarine. Against the rising threat of nuclear war with the Soviet Union, several critical design improvements transformed the U.S. submarine fleet. Most notably, these improvements included: (1) The tear-dropped hull shape. First developed for conventional diesel-electric submarines, the tear-dropped hull allowed much greater submerged operating speeds and higher propulsion efficiency. (2) Nuclear powered propulsion. Due in large part to the efforts of ADM Hyman Rickover (USNA ‘22), “Father of the Nuclear Navy,” the Naval Nuclear Power Program was born. On January 17th 1955, Commanding Officer Eugene Wilkinson spoke the famous words

37

"underway on nuclear power" to launch the first nuclear powered submarine, USS Nautilus (SSN-571), on her maiden voyage. Within three years, Nautilus sailed to the North Pole and shattered virtually every submarine distance, speed, and endurance record. Nuclear power continues to afford U.S. submarines nearly unlimited operational endurance. Nuclear powered submarines can remain submerged nearly indefinitely, limited only by their capacity to store food.

During the 1960s, strategic planners parsed the submarine force into two distinct components, ballistic missile (SSBN) submarines and fast attack (SSN) submarines. For SSBNs, the United States and the Soviet Union both developed submarine launched nuclear weapons. These weapons began as surface-launched cruise missiles, but soon improved to underwater-launched ballistic missiles. American SSBNs continue to uphold the nuclear deterence role, forming the most survivable element of the U.S.'s nuclear triad (the other two elements being land-based ballistic missiles and air-dropped nuclear ordinance). SSNs assumed the role of protecting SSBNs to ensure successful execution of the nuclear deterence mission. Equally important, SSNs assumed the offensive role of detecting and countering any foreign ballistic missile submarines. Fast attack submarines tracked, photographed, and collected acoustic data on Soviet submarines and conducted highly specialized and sensitive missions for national security.

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Cold War ended. Responding to the Soviet nuclear threat had been costly, both in terms of fiscal expenditure and operational pace. However, despite the heavy demands of the Cold War, the U.S. has only lost two nuclear powered submarines. In contrast, the Soviets lost a total of nine submarines during the Cold War. The two lost nuclear powered U.S. submarines are:

1. USS Thresher (SSN-593). Thresher was lost on April 10th 1963, during a deep diving sea-trial off the coast of Massachusetts. Exact details of her loss remain unclear. However, a U.S. Navy Court of Inquiry concluded Thresher most probably suffered from: (1) a severe flooding casualty due to defective seawater piping, followed by (2) plugging of her emergency blow system due to expansion cooling and freezing of water in her high pressure air system, rendering her attempt at an emergency blow useless. Thresher's loss resulted in the SUBSAFE program, which enforces rigorous accountability over construction and maintenance of key submarine seawater boundary systems.

2. USS Scorpion (SSN-589). Scorpion was lost in May, 1968, returning to Norfolk from Rota, Spain. The conditions of her loss are much less clear than for Thresher. However, based on acoustic evidence, scientists working for the U.S. Navy have proposed she suffered either a collision or an inadvertent weapon detonation.

III. Operations/Mission:

Peacetime Operations: Peacetime deployment of submarines helps demonstrate U.S. interest in particular regions and supports U.S. national defense by providing a flexible forward presence. The stealth advantage offered by submarines gives the President the ability to demonstrate interest in a specific region at a specific time. Until the appointed time, a submarine can simply remain quietly submerged. During peacetime, submarines can operate independently, but they also frequently support carrier strike groups, surface task forces, and operate in conjunction with other submarines.

Strategic and Conventional Deterrence: Both strategic ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) and fast attack submarines (SSN) participate in the mission of deterrence. The primary role, peacetime or otherwise, of the SSBN continues to be nuclear deterrence. Under the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), our constantly present nuclear strike capability dissuades other nuclear powers from launching nuclear attack against the United States. Additionally, as a conventional deterrent, the SSN provides an ever-present, though rarely seen, asset that can exert pressure on any would-be threat with minimal risk to U.S. forces.

38

Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR): Attack submarines perform a broad spectrum of surveillance and intelligence roles. Some examples of ISR missions include stealthy interception of enemy cell phone communications and gathering intelligence on foreign port operations. Though the SSN force has been cut by nearly 40 percent since 1994, the volume of ISR mission tasking directed to the Submarine Force has more than doubled. The submarine’s ISR capability stems from its stealth; a submarine can enter an area and watch and listen without being counter-detected. Satellites and aircraft are also used for ISR. However, they suffer from several disadvantages. They typically have limited stay times, and their observations are particularly susceptible to weather and cloud cover. Additionally, satellites and aircraft are severely limited in their ability to detect underwater activity. Because submarines are close to the action, they can capture signals that are too enveloped in background noise for our satellites to detect. Also, submarines can position themselves to capture line-of-sight transmissions (cell phone communications) or observe over-water tests that would otherwise elude detection.

Special Operations: SEALs and other small-unit special operations forces (including joint forces) operate in conjunction with the submarine force. The dive chambers on SSNs and SSGNs (SSGNs were designed with special operations capabilities specifically in mind) have the ability to “lock-out” special operators while submerged. SSNs and SSGNs can also externally carry special operations equipment, such as the Dry Deck Shelter/SEAL Delivery Vehicle (DDS/SDV, a mini-submersible meant to transport operators from the host submarine to the beach), rigid-hull inflatable boats (RHIBs), and other munitions and supplies. Special operations teams can access the external equipment after locking out and carry it to the beach. SSNs and SSGNs can also collect real-time tactical intelligence for relay to forces ashore and can conduct reconnaissance of coastal areas in advance of amphibious operations. Finally, the SSN or SSGN can recover special operations units once efforts ashore are complete. In short, submarines form the ideal platform for inserting, supporting, and extracting small special operations units when surprise or secrecy is essential.

Precision Strike: Submarines fire the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM), either from torpedo tubes or from vertical launch systems (VLS), to perform the critical job of precision strike. The TLAM provides high accuracy and a standoff attack range of more than 650 miles. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, submarines were responsible for about one third of Tomahawk cruise missile strikes. The execution of this role by submarines has greatly expanded since the recent conversion of four SSBNs into SSGN submarines. SSGNs are designed to act as formidable TLAM strike platforms. Each SSGN can carry up to 154 Tomahawk cruise missiles, the equivalent capacity of an entire Carrier Strike Group.

Sea Denial: Preventing enemy use of the seas – be it warship activity or merchant shipping – has always been and continues to be an important mission for submarines. Submarines can perform sea denial missions in a variety of scenarios, from general war against a major maritime power, to blockages of specific enemy ports. Attacks against enemy surface ships or submarines can be part of a war of attrition (where the object is to destroy as much of the opposing naval fleet and merchant shipping as possible), or such attacks can be directed against specific isolated targets. As an example of an attrition campaign, during WWII, the U.S. submarine force sank more than half of Japan's merchant vessels, as well as a large number of warships.

IV. Platforms

Fast Attack Submarines (SSN)

Fast Attack submarines are designed to: (1) seek and destroy enemy submarines and surface ships; (2) conduct precision strike with Tomahawk cruise missiles; (3) project power ashore by delivering and supporting Special Operation Forces; (4) carry out Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) missions; (5) support Carrier Strike Groups; and (6) engage in mine warfare.

There are three classes of SSNs now in service. They are: Los Angeles class (SSN 688 -- SSN 773). Los Angeles class boats are the backbone of the

submarine force with forty-five now in commission. Thirty-one of the Los Angeles class are equipped with

39

12 Vertical Launch System tubes for firing Tomahawk cruise missiles.Seawolf class (SSN 21 -- SSN 23). Commissioned on July 19, 1997, USS Seawolf (SSN 21)

represents the first in a class of boats that are exceptionally quiet, fast, well armed, and equipped with advanced sensors. Though lacking Vertical Launch Systems, the Seawolf class has eight torpedo tubes, which can also fire Tomahawks, and can hold up to 50 weapons in its torpedo room. The third ship of the class, USS Jimmy Carter (SSN 23), has a 100-foot hull extension called the multi-mission platform. This hull section provides for additional payload to accommodate advanced technology used to carry out classified research and development and for enhanced warfighting capabilities.

Virginia class (SSN 774 -- SSN 784). The Navy is now building the next-generation SSN, the Virginia (SSN 774) class. Five of the planned thirty are already in service. The Virginia class has several innovations that significantly enhance their capabilities with an emphasis on littoral operations. These include: (1) a fly-by-wire ship control system that provides improved shallow-water ship handling; (2) enhanced special operation forces support systems; (3) a reconfigurable torpedo room, which can house either torpedoes and Tomahawks cruise missiles, or a large number of special operation forces and all their equipment for prolonged deployments; (4) a large lock-in / lock-out chamber for divers; (5) traditional periscopes have been supplanted by two Photonics Masts that house color, high-resolution black and white, and infrared digital cameras atop telescoping arms; and (6) through the extensive use of modular construction, open architecture, and commercial off-the-shelf components, the Virginia class is designed to remain state-of-the-practice for its entire operational life through the rapid introduction of new systems and payloads.

The advantages of an SSN over a conventionally (diesel-electric; SSK) powered submarine are (1) longer range, (2) significantly longer endurance since fuel is not a limiting factor, (3) higher speeds, and (4) capable of sustained submerged operations since it does not have to run a diesel engine at periscope depth or on the surface to recharge batteries. However, there are a few modern diesel submarines labeled as air independent propulsion (AIP) that produce or carry air for combustion in their diesel generators, thus minimizing advantage (4) above. West Coast SSNs are home-ported in Pearl Harbor, HI, San Diego, CA, and Guam while East Coast SSNs are home-ported in Groton, CT, and Norfolk, VA.

SSN-688 and 688I Los Angeles class Attack SubmarinesVisual Identification Flight I and II have fairwater planes otherwise referred to as sail planes, and flight III have

bow planes. Flight II and III have 12 Vertical Launch Tubes in the bow.Mission ASW/ASUW/Sea Denial/ISR/Strike/Offensive Mining/Special OpsWeapons MK 48 ADCAP Torpedoes – 4 Torpedo Tubes

UGM-109 Tomahawk Cruise MissilesMission Specific Capabilities

Can fire Tomahawks from VLS tubes or torpedo tubesOutfitted with special mast to conduct ISR

Crew Size 14 Officers, 120 Enlisted

Figure 1 and 1b: Los Angeles Class Fast Attack Submarine [Left to Right – 688 (I/II), and 688I (III)]

40

SSN-21 Seawolf Class Attack SubmarineVisual Identification Larger than the Los Angeles Class.

Tapered front of sail. All have bow planes.Mission ASW/ASUW/Sea Denial/ISR/Strike/Special OpsWeapons MK 48 ADCAP Torpedoes – 8 Torpedo Tubes

UGM-109 Tomahawk Cruise MissilesMission Specific Capabilities

Can fire Tomahawks only from torpedo tubes.

Crew Size 14 Officers; 126 Enlisted

Figure 2: Seawolf Class Fast Attack Submarine

SSN-774 Virginia Class Attack SubmarineVisual Identification Larger than Los Angeles class, smaller than Seawolf class.

Tapered front of sail. All have bow planes.Mission ASW/ASUW/Sea Denial/ISR/Strike/Offensive Mining/Special OpsWeapons MK 48 ADCAP Torpedoes -- 4 Torpedo Tubes

UGM-109 Tomahawk Cruise MissilesMission Specific Capabilities

Can fire Tomahawks from VLS tubes or torpedo tubes.Contains modules that can be replaced based on the specific mission requirements.

Crew Size 14 Officers; 120 Enlisted

Figure 3: Virginia Class Fast Attack Submarine

41

Ballistic Missile Submarines (SSBN)Since the 1960s, strategic deterrence has been the SSBN’s primary mission, providing the United

States with its most survivable and enduring nuclear strike capability. There is only one type of SSBN in service, the Ohio class submarine.

“Boomers,” as SSBNs are often called, serve as a virtually undetectable launch platform for intercontinental ballistic missiles. They are designed specifically for stealth and the precision delivery of nuclear warheads. Ohio class SSBNs have the capability to carry up to 24 submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), each having multiple independently-targeted warheads. The exact number of missiles carried by each boat varies in a classified manner, at or below a maximum set by various strategic arms limitation treaties. The SSBN’s primary weapon, the Trident missile, was built in two versions. The first generation missile, Trident C-4, has been phased out of service and replaced by the larger, longer-range, and more precise Trident II D-5.

The first eight submarines (SSBN 726 to 733) were initially built to only carry the C-4 missile. The first four Ohio class (SSBN 726 through SSBN 729) ended their strategic deterrent mission in the early 2000s when they began the conversion process into guided missile submarines, or SSGNs. SSBN 730 through 733 have been retrofitted to carry the D-5 missile. SSBN 734 to 743 were designed from the beginning to carry the D-5 missile and continue to execute their primary mission of strategic deterrence.

The Ohio class design allows the submarines to operate for 15 or more years between major overhauls. On average, the submarines spend 77 days at sea followed by 35 days in-port for maintenance. Each SSBN has two crews, Blue and Gold, which alternate manning the submarines while on patrol. This maximizes the SSBN’s strategic availability while maintaining the crew’s training readiness and morale at high levels. The Ohio class is the largest type of submarine ever constructed for the U.S. Navy, and is second only to the Russian Typhoon-class in mass and size. West Coast Boomers are home-ported in Bangor, WA, and East Coast Boomers are home-ported in King’s Bay, GA.

SSBN-726 Ohio Class Ballistic Missile SubmarineVisual Identification Fairwater planes otherwise known as sail planes

Large “turtleback” hull designHull stays dry while riding on the surface

Mission Primary: Strategic DeterrenceSecondary: ASW/ASUW/Sea Denial/ISR

Weapons 24 Trident II D5 SLBM TubesMK 48 Torpedoes -- 4 Torpedo Tubes

Mission Specific Capabilities

Carries up to 24 SLBMs. Large platform and deck allows for potential special ops after completion of strategic mission.

Crew Size 15 Officers, 140 Enlisted

Figure 4: Ohio Class Ballistic Missile Submarine

Guided Missile Submarines (SSGN)The first four of the Ohio-class SSBNs were converted into guided missile submarines (SSGN).

Ohio class SSGNs provide the Navy with an unprecedented combination of precision strike and special operation mission capability within a stealthy, clandestine platform. Armed with tactical Tomahawk Land

42

Attack Missiles and equipped with superior communications capabilities, each SSGN is capable of directly supporting dozens of Special Operation Forces (SOF).

The SSGN conversion includes the installation of vertical launching systems (VLS) in a configuration dubbed "multiple all-up-round canister" (MAC). On each SSGN, 22 of the 24 missile tubes hold 7 Tomahawk cruise missiles, for a total capacity of 154 TLAMs. If the maximum number of TLAMs were loaded, one Ohio class SSGN would carry an entire Carrier Strike Group's equivalent of cruise missiles. The 2 remaining missile tubes act as lock-out chambers to be used by special forces personnel. An SSGN can berth a team of 66 SOF personnel for up to 90 days. The MAC tubes can also be used to carry and launch UAVs or UUVs, giving the ship remotely controlled "eyes & ears," allowing the ship to act as a forward-deployed command & control center. SSGNs can alse carry the Dry Deck Shelter/SEAL Delivery Vehicle (DDS/SDV), in support of SOF.

Like SSBNs, SSGNs also use two crews, Blue and Gold, which alternate to increase the platform's operational tempo. West Coast SSGNs are home-ported in Bangor, WA. East Coast SSGNs are home-ported in King's Bay, GA.

SSGN-726 Ohio Class Guided Missile SubmarineVisual Identification Fairwater planes otherwise known as sail planes

Large “turtleback” hull designHull stays dry while riding on the surface

Mission ASW/ASUW/Sea Denial/ISR/Strike/Offensive Mining/Special OpsWeapons MK 48 Torpedoes -- 4 Torpedo Tubes

UGM-109 Tomahawk Cruise Missiles -- Maximum 154Mission Specific Capabilities

Specialized to support SOF missions.Large Tomahawk Cruise Missile payload for precision strike.

Crew Size 15 Officers, 144 Enlisted, 66 SOF personnel

V. Combat Systems

Weapons

Mk-48 and Mk-48/ADCAP(ADvanced CAPability) Torpedoes: The Mk-48 is the principal heavyweight Anti-Submarine and Anti-SUrface ship torpedo in the U.S. inventory. It is an acoustic-homing torpedo, having its own onboard SONAR to seek and destroy enemy contacts. SSBNs carry the original Mk-48 torpedo, but all SSNs carry the Mk-48 ADCAP. The ADCAP modification includes improvements in speed and accuracy, more sophisticated SONAR, all digital guidance and control systems, and increased range. A single Mk-48 is capable of sinking most of the world’s warships. The torpedo is designed to detonate underneath a ship, creating a steam void below the ship that breaks the ship’s keel. The Mk-48 follows a pre-programmed search routine and uses an active seeker head to hunt and destroy its target, and can be controlled by a guidance wire from the submarine.

UGM-109 Tomahawk Cruise Missile: The Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) is an all-weather, long range, subsonic cruise missile used for land attack warfare. U.S. submarines can launch the Tomahawk cruise missile either from a standard 21" diameter torpedo tube, or from a Vertical Launch System (VLS, used by the improved Los Angeles class, Virginia class, and SSGN submarines). The most common Tomahawk cruise missile is a conventional 1,000-lb, unitary warhead. However, some are configured to release combined effects bomblets (anti-airfield), and some carry tactical nuclear warheads.

Trident II (D5) Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM): Trident II (D5) missiles are deployed in Ohio- class SSBN submarines, each carrying up to 24 missiles. The Trident II (D5) is a three-stage, solid-propellant ballistic missile with a range of more than 4,000 nautical miles. The missile’s range is increased by the aerospike, a telescoping, outward extension that reduces frontal drag by about 50 percent. Trident II is launched by the pressure of expanding gas within the launch tube. When the missile attains sufficient distance from the submarine, the first stage motor ignites, the aerospike extends and the boost

43

stage begins. Each missile carries multiple nuclear warheads, housed in multiple independent re-entry vehicles (MIRVs), which launch from the missile and are independently targeted.

Sensors

SONAR: Unless it is using its periscope, a submerged submarine has no optical window to the outside world. To locate contacts, to locate the ocean floor, and for targeting purposes, a submarine uses SONAR (SOund NAvigation and Ranging). SONAR is similar to RADAR, but it relies on acoustic signals rather than electromagnetic signals. SONAR can function in two modes: active (used less frequently) and passive (constantly employed). In active SONAR, the submarine emits a pulse of sound. The pulse travels through the water, reflects off the target and returns to the submarine. Onboard computers interpret the reflected pulse to determine the bearing and range to a contact. Passive SONAR involves passively listening to sounds -- like the noise generated by a merchant's engines, or the noise of another submarine's screw chopping through the water. SONAR is also used for navigational purposes. By identifying known features on the ocean floor, a submarine can keep track of her location.

There are many variants of SONAR hardware and software. The most advanced SONAR suite in the U.S. submarine force is called Acoustic Rapid Commercial-Off-The-Shelf Insertion (ARCI, spoken “AR-key”). The ARCI program is a phased effort to provide the submarine force with a common SONAR suite, more capable and flexible than earlier designs. ARCI’s open-system architecture (OSA) exploits commercial processing developments and employs complex algorithms that could not previously be accommodated. Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) based processors and OSA allow onboard computing power to grow at nearly the same rate as commercial industry. This facilitates regular updates to both software and hardware with minimal impact on submarine scheduling.

Fire Control: This computer system takes raw data from various sources including multiple SONAR systems, the periscopes, radio, torpedoes still connected by wire, and manual inputs. The fusion of this information is managed by the control-room watch team to build the tactical picture and to communicate with the submarine’s weapons. Fire Control implements algorithms to help determine the most likely range, course and speed of each contact from all of the raw inputs.

When it becomes necessary to shoot a torpedo, Fire Control is used to program the torpedo with the appropriate pre-set parameters for the environment and the contact. It also tells the weapon where to look for the target and how to get there. At the time of fire, Fire Control sends the electrical signals to the torpedo tube to launch the weapon. After shooting, Fire Control continues to update the torpedo with refined targeting solutions via the torpedo’s guidance wire. Fire Control is also used to plan cruise missile strikes and it downloads flight plan and targeting information to Tomahawk cruise missiles prior to launch.

44

AIR WARFARE

I. MissionNaval aircraft support all missions and operations of the U.S. Navy. The capabilities of naval aircraft are too vast to limit their use to one specific mission. As such,

The mission of naval aviation is to deploy combat capable forces forward fully responsive to the needs of the Nation.

II. History During the twentieth century, commonly called "The American Century," few military organizations played a more crucial role than Naval Aviation. In war at sea, eclipsing the battleship as the decisive weapon, aircraft carriers projected their powerful air wings over vast expanses of water, striking with surprise at enemy fleets and land bases, then disappearing with equal swiftness. In times of peace, the carrier and her battle group provided American political leaders a flexible, always ready and potent way to respond to regional crises wherever and whenever American vital interests were threatened. "Where are the carriers?" has been the first question asked by American presidents at the start of every national security crisis since the end of World War II. (http://www.navalaviationmuseum.org/AboutMuseum/MuseumHistory.aspx, accessed 30 Nov 2009)

The Navy's interest in airplanes as a naval weapon dates back to 1898. Several naval officers became members of an inter-service board. Their job was to observe and investigate the military possibilities of the new flying machine. In 1908 and 1909, naval officer observers were present at the public demonstrations staged by the Wright brothers. (NAVEDTRA 14014, Ch 1, 1-2)

In 1910, LT T.G. Ellyson became the first naval officer selected for flight training. Ellyson underwent instruction with Glenn Curtiss, the producer of the first practical hydroplane and early aircraft developer. It was a Curtiss pilot by the name of Eugene Ely who made the first shipboard takeoff from the USS Birmingham in 1910. Ely would later become the first pilot to successfully land an aircraft on the deck of a ship. Just one year later having successfully completed training, LT Ellyson demonstrated the ability to launch a plane utilizing a newly devised compressed air catapult. (NAVEDTRA 16138-H, Ch 17, 1-2)

The first naval air station was located right here in Annapolis, MD at Greenbury Point in 1911. The first aircraft carrier, USS Langley, was commissioned in 1922 by converting an old collier to a flat top ship. (NAVEDTRA 14014, Ch 1, 1-2)

Naval aircraft did see action in WWI, but it wasn’t until WWII that naval aviation gained prominence. While naval aviation saw action in both European and Pacific theaters, it was the performance at the battle of Midway that solidified their position of importance. Having destroyed all four Japanese carriers, naval aviators turned the war in the Pacific from defensive to offensive. From that point onward, the center of the fleet became the aircraft carrier instead of the battleship. (NAVEDTRA 16138-H, Ch 17, 1-2)

Naval aviation has continued to grow in distinction and popularity over the past few decades. From operations in Desert Storm, Iraqi Freedom, and Enduring Freedom to humanitarian assistance at home and abroad, naval aircraft and aircraft carriers have assumed prominent roles and responsibilities.

Naval aviation has also been at the cutting edge of aerospace expeditions, from the first successful crossing of the Atlantic by an aircraft, exploration of the Arctic and Antarctic, and journeys of discovery into outer space. The common denominator for those who participated in this exciting history was their training in a sleepy little Southern city on the Gulf of Mexico: Pensacola, Florida, the site of the nation's first naval air station. Since 1914, it was here that the fledglings tested their mettle against the demands of flying aircraft. They learned the unique skills required to fly from ships at sea, find distant targets and return to their

45

moving, rolling and pitching "airfield," often in bad weather and frequently at night. (http://www.navalaviationmuseum.org/AboutMuseum/MuseumHistory.aspx, accessed 30 Nov 2009)III. Operations

The primary function of naval aviation is to closely coordinate with other naval forces in maintaining command of the seas. Accomplishing this task takes five areas of focus:

1. Eyes and ears of the fleet. Naval aviation has over-the-horizon surveillance equipment that provides vital information to our task force operation.

2. Protection against submarine attack. Antisubmarine warfare operations go on continuously for the task force and along our country's shoreline. This type of mission includes hunter/killer operations to be sure of task force protection and to keep our coastal waterways safe.

3. Aid and support operations during amphibious landings. From the beginning to the end of the operations, support occurs with a variety of firepower. Providing air cover and support is an important function of naval aviation in modern, technical warfare.

4. Rapid logistic support for ground forces. Logistic support aircraft strongly support the mobility of the ground forces. Providing logistic support aircraft is another required function of naval aviation.

5. Search and rescue operations. During sea missions, the possibility of a downed aircraft or man overboard always exists. Search and rescue helps reduce the number of lives lost.

Naval aviation conducts its primary mission through the following operations:1. ANTI-AIR WARFARE (AAW) 2. ANTI-SURFACE SHIP WARFARE (ASU) 3. ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE (ASW) 4. CLOSE AIR SUPPORT (CAS)5. COMBAT SEARCH AND RESCUE (CSAR)6. COMMAND, CONTROL, AND COMMUNICATIONS (CCC) 7. COMMAND AND CONTROL WARFARE (C2W)8. FLEET SUPPORT OPERATIONS (FSO)9. INTELLIGENCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND RECONNAISSANCE (ISR)10. MINE WARFARE (MIW)11. STRIKE WARFARE (STW)

The numerous naval aviation operations are carried out by multiple aviation platforms. In general, there are two categories of aircraft, Fixed Wing and Rotary Wing. Within those categories, aircraft are developed with specific missions in mind. Fixed wing naval aviation assets can be further classified into one of two groups: Carrier Aviation or Maritime Aviation. A fuller explanation of each classification follows:

IV. Fixed Wing Aviation

Carrier AviationMission: To provide a credible, sustainable, independent forward presence and conventional deterrence in peacetime, to operate as the cornerstone of joint/allied maritime expeditionary forces in times of crisis, and

46

to operate and support aircraft attacks on enemies, protect friendly forces and engage in sustained independent operations in war.

Aircraft Carrier: With over 5,000 personnel, the current Nimitz Class nuclear powered aircraft carrier (CVN) directly supports of 75-95 aircraft from 7-8 squadrons deployed onboard. The squadrons work together under the direction of the Carrier Air Wing. Each aircraft and squadron serves a unique and necessary role in the conduct of the overall mission.

Carrier Air Wing Elements:

Strike Fighter (VFA)

F/A-18 A/C HornetRole:AAW / STW / CAS / ASU

The F/A-18 Hornet is the Navy’s combat tested maritime strike fighter. It can typically escort itself to the target, drop precision ordinance, and escort itself back home. The Hornet is an exceptional fighter both in maneuverability and weaponry as well as a superb strike aircraft.

Distinguishing Features:

Oval shaped air intakes.Single cockpit canopy.

Crew: 1 PilotResponsibilities: Pilot: Responsible for all operations to include aviating, navigating,

communications, and weapons employment.

F/A-18 E/F Super HornetRole:AAW / STW / CAS / ASU

The FA-18 E/F is being introduced into the fleet to replace the F-14 Tomcat and the older F/A-18C/D Hornets. Like the F/A-18A/C, the Super Hornet is maritime strike fighter. However, the Super Hornet has a greater range, service ceiling, max speed, payload, reliability, and an improved electronics suite over the original Hornet.

Distinguishing Features:

Rectangle shaped air intakes. 35% larger surface area than F/A-18A/C.Single (E model) or Dual (F model) cockpit canopy.

47

Crew: E: 1 Pilot F: 1 Pilot / 1 NFO as a Weapons System Officer (WSO)Responsibilities: Pilot: Aviating, Air-to-Air Weapons Employment

WSO: Communications, Navigation, Air-to-Ground Weapons Employment

Electronic Attack (VAQ)

EA-6B ProwlerRole:C2W / STW

The EA-6B Prowler provides an umbrella of protection for strike aircraft, ground troops and ships by jamming enemy radar, electronic data links and communications.

Distinguishing Features:

2 tandem seating cockpits. Permanently mounted refueling probe on bulbous nose.Jamming pods under wings with “football” suite or receivers on top of vertical stabilizer.

Crew: 1 Pilot / 3 NFOs as Electronic Counter Measure Officers (ECMO)

Responsibilities:Pilot: Fly aircraft and evade possible threats.ECMO: Operate weapons systems including jammers and AGM-88 HARM missiles; perform mission commander and co-pilot duties

Airborne Early Warning (VAW)

48

E-2C HawkeyeRole:CCC /C2W / INT / AAW

The E-2C Hawkeye is the Navy's all-weather, carrier-based tactical battle management airborne early warning, command and control aircraft.

Distinguishing Features:

Twin turboprop engines.Large rotating radar dome on spine of aircraft.

Crew: 2 Pilots / 3 NFOsResponsibilities: Pilot: Aviating, navigating, and threat avoidance.

NFO: Mission Commander, sensor operator, Airborne Command and Control

Fleet Logistics Support (VRC)

C-2 GreyhoundRole:FSO

Provides critical logistics support to Carrier Strike Groups. Its primary mission is carrier onboard deliver (COD) of cargo, mail and passengers between carriers and shore bases.

Distinguishing Features:

High wing. Twin turboprop engines.

Crew: 2 Pilots / 2 Enlisted AircrewResponsibilities: Pilot: Aviating and safety of aircraft and crew

Co-Pilot: Navigating, CommunicationAircrew: Loadmasters for cargo and passengers

Maritime Aviation

Mission: To conduct global patrol, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions in a maritime role under the command of land- based forces. Maritime patrol and reconnaissance promotes regional security and enhancement of theater security cooperation through close interoperation with allied forces, friendly nations, and other U.S. military services.

Maritime Elements:

Patrol (VP)

49

P-3C OrionRole:ASW / ASU / STW/ CCC / INT

Originally designed as a land-based, long-range, anti-submarine warfare (ASW) patrol aircraft, the P-3C's mission has evolved in the late 1990s and early 21st century include intelligence/surveillance/reconnaissance (ISR) of the battlespace, either at sea or over land; possesses strike capabilities with SLAM, Maverick, and unguided munitions.

Distinguishing Features:

4 large turboprop engines on low-wing aircraft.Large Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD) boom protruding from aft of aircraft.

Crew: 3 pilots / 2 NFOs / 4-6 Enlisted Aircrew / nominal crew is 12 total

Responsibilities:Pilot: Responsible for the safety of flight during all mission phases. May act as Mission Commander.NFO: One Tactical Coordinator (TACCO) that typically serves as the Mission Commander; one Navigator / Comms Officer (NAV COM); possibly one other that is strictly the Mission Commander or a trainee for the other two positions.Aircrew: Operates optical / acoustic / non-acoustic sensor systems.

Fleet Air Reconnaissance (VQ)

E-6A/B MercuryRole: TACAMO (Take Charge and Move Out): TACAMO links the NCA with nation’s

50

CCC nuclear forces (Bombers, ICBM’s, SSBN’s, Tankers) by relaying EAM’s.Distinguishing Features:

Boeing 707 airframe with 4 large turbofan engines.

Crew: 3 Pilots / 3 NFOs as Navigators/ Airborne Communications Officers (ACO) / 10 Enlisted Aircrew

Responsibilities:Pilot: Responsible for the safety of flight during all mission phases. May act as Mission Commander. Flying duties include aerial refueling and operating inunmanned airfields.ACO: In charge of Communications Central. Releasing Authority for all message traffic. May act as Mission Commander.

EP-3E (ARIES II)Role:INT / C2W / CCC

SIGINT (Signals Intelligence): The Navy's only signals intelligence (SIGINT) reconnaissance aircraft. It uses sensitive receivers and high-gain dish antennas and exploits a wide range of electronic emissions from deep within targeted territory.

Distinguishing Features:

P-3 with canoe-like dome on spine and underbelly of aircraft; multiple protruding antennas over fuselage and wings.

Crew: 3 pilots / 3 NFOs / 14 Enlisted Aircrew

Responsibilities:Pilot: Responsible for the safety of flight during all mission phases. May act as Mission Commander.NFO: One Senior Evaluator (SEVAL) that typically serves as the Mission Commander; one Tactical Evaluator (EVAL) that is the SEVAL Trainee; one Navigator / Comms Officer (NAV COM); possible one other that is strictly the Mission Commander or a trainee for the other two positions.Aircrew: Operates the various sensor systems and normally two in-flight techs.

V. Rotary Wing

The workhorses of the Navy, rotary wing aircraft employ over 70% of Naval Aviators. Helicopters carry out missions ranging from cargo and personnel transport to Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR), while others play vital roles in sea control, surface surveillance, or mine countermeasure operations.

Anti-Submarine Light (HSL) – Transitioning to HSM and MH-60RHSL squadrons utilize the SH-60B and traditionally deploy on DDG’s, FFG’s, and CG’s. HSL squadrons are tasked with over the horizon targeting (OTH-T) and vertical replenishment.

51

SH-60B/MH-60R SeahawkRole:

ASW / ASU / FOS / CSAR

The SH-60B/R are the helicopters employed by the HSL and HSM communities. The primary missions of the B/R are anti-submarine and anti-surface warfare. Ancillary missions include search and rescue, vertical replenishment, counter-narcotics operations, and command and control operations. The R variant is currently replacing the B variant as the multi-mission helicopter for the future. The R will have updated radar and sonar systems, a glass-cockpit configuration, and will adapt the “dipping” sonar currently found in the SH-60F.

Distinguishing Features: SH-60B: Sonobuoy chutes on left side of the cabin and Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD) mounted on right side of the tail pylon.MH-60R: No MAD, dipping sonar dome.

Crew: 1Pilot / 1 Co-pilot as Airborne Tactical Officer (ATO) / 1-2 Enlisted Aircrew

Responsibilities:Pilot: operate aircraftATO: supervise tactical situation/direct pilot and SOAircrew: act as sensor operator/runs radar and sonar computers

Anti-Submarine (HS) – Transitioning to HSC and MH-60SThe SH-60F and HH-60H are assigned to HS squadrons and traditionally deploy on aircraft carriers. Their duties include: antisubmarine warfare (ASW), search and rescue, airborne utility services, and combat search and rescue.

HH-60F/H/S SeahawkRole:

ASW / ASU / FOS / CSAR / MIW

The F/H/S variants of the H-60 are currently used by the HS and HSC communities. The HS community specifically utilizes the H/F models, but will eventually use only the MH-60S. The SH-60F is designed to conduct anti-submarine warfare. It uses both a “dipping” sonar dome and a payload of buoys to detect subsurface contacts. The HH-60H is used primarily for combat search and rescue and anti-

52

surface warfare missions. The MH-60S is very similar to the HH-60H but boasts updated avionics and a glass cockpit system. The S variant is currently used primarily for search and rescue and vertical replenishment. When the HS community completes the transition to the MH-60S they will lose anti-submarine capabilities. The HSL/HSM communities will assume the role of the anti-submarine platform in the CSG/ESG.

Distinguishing Features: SH-60F: dipping sonar/no FLIRHH-60H:FLIRMH-60S:no FLIR

Crew: 1Pilot / 1 Co-pilot / 2 Enlisted Aircrew

Responsibilities:Pilot: Operate aircraftCo-pilot: Navigation/Tactical mission controlAircrew: SH-60F – operate SONAR, tracking of targetsHH-60H – Crew Chief/Aerial Gunners and Ground Rescue Element in CSAR

Sea Combat Support (HSC)With the disestablishment of the Navy’s Combat Support (HC) squadrons comprised of H-3 and CH-53 helicopters, HS squadrons have assumed the additional responsibilities of the HC community and formed the HSC community. The newer MH-60S is the aircraft of choice for the HSC community.

MH-60S Seahawk

Mine Countermeasures (HM)Capable of transporting 55 troops or 32,000 pounds of cargo, the MH-53 Sea Dragon remains the armed forces largest and most capable transport helicopter.

53

MH-53E Sea DragonRole: Airborne Mine Countermeasures (AMCM), with secondary missions of

vertical shipboard delivery and assault support.Distinguishing Features:

99 feet in overall length, it’s longer than a C-130 Hercules!6 blade rotary wing.

Crew: 2 pilots / 1-2 Enlisted AircrewResponsibilities: Pilot: aviating, communicating

Co-Pilot: supervise tactical situation, direct pilot and SOAircrew: sensor operator, act as loadmasters

VI. The Future of Naval Aviation

Fixed Wing

Carrier Aviation:While the mission and objectives of carrier aviation will closely remain the same, the equipment with which the Navy conducts the mission will continually develop as new technology emerges.

Aircraft Carrier CVN-21 marks the next generation of aircraft carriers. The first of this new line of super-carriers will be CVN-78 with a planned delivery of 2015. While capabilities will remain closely the same, new technology and equipment will improve the affordability and flexibility of this enormous asset. Some of the key upgrades include electromagnetic catapults (Nimitz class carriers use steam generated from the nuclear reactors) and advanced arresting gear.

Strike Fighter (VFA)The F/A-18E/F Super Hornet will be joined by the F-35C Lightning II as the replacement for

the aging F/A-18A/C starting in 2013. The F-35C will be used by the Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force.

F-35C Lightning II

Electronic Attack (VAQ)Starting in 2009 the E/A-18G Growler will replace the aging EA-6B Prowler by 2015 as the only

dedicated electronic warfare aircraft. It will retain the fighter capabilities of the Super Hornet.

54

E/A-18G Growler

Airborne Early Warning (VAW) With significant radar and avionics upgrades, the much improved E-2D Advanced Hawkeye will

replace the older model Hawkeyes beginning in 2011.

E-2D Advanced Hawkeye

Fleet Logistics Support (VRC)The C-2 Greyhound will continue to provide Carrier Onboard Delivery.

Maritime Aviation:While the mission and objectives of maritime aviation will remain closely the same, the introduction of the Multi-Mission Maritime Aircraft (MMA) will provide a greater combat capability from a smaller force. Additionally, unmanned aircraft such as the Broad Area Maritime Surveillance (BAMS) aircraft will complement the MMA in the conduct of the maritime mission.

Patrol (VP / VPU)A derivative of the Boeing 737, the P-8A Poseidon multi-mission maritime aircraft (MMA) will

dramatically improve anti-submarine and anti-surface warfare capabilities. The MMA is scheduled to begin replacing the P-3C fleet in 2013.

55

P-8 MMA

Fleet Air Reconnaissance (VQ)The E-6B Mercury and EP-3E will remain the fleet’s primary assets for SIGINT and strategic

communications.

Rotary WingTwo new H-60 variants, the MH-60R and MH-60S, will replace the aging H-60 and MH-53 fleet. The transition will involve restructuring the Navy’s current squadrons and the assumption of mine countermeasure duties as well as missions formerly assigned to the S-3 Viking.

Sea Combat Support (HSC)The MH-60S Seahawk will continue to be the workhorse of the HSC community.

Sea Mine Countermeasures (HSM) Replacing the remaining SH-60B and SH-60F aircraft by 2016, the MH-60R Seahawks assigned

to HSM squadrons will perform the same missions as previous HSL and HM squadrons.

56

Bibliography

Airman Non-resident Training Course NAVEDTRA 14014, revised 2003. Naval Education and Training Development Center (pub), United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, 1984.

Naval Orientation NAVEDTRA 16138-H, prepared by BMCS Neif F. Padgham, revised 1984. Naval Education and Training Development Center (pub), United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, 1984.

Naval Aviation Museum website www.navalaviationmuseum.org

Commander Naval Air Forces website www.cnaf.navy.mil/

57

STRIKE WARFARE

I. Mission Definition

Strike Warfare is the use of tactical aircraft and/or cruise missiles against land targets in an offensive power projection role.

II. Purpose of Strike Warfare

Strike warfare gives the US Navy an offensive power projection capability that can be used either by itself or in combination with expeditionary forces. In either capacity, its makes possible precision guided strikes on enemy targets. When used by itself, strike warfare can be used to attack key enemy infrastructure and command and control elements, which can disrupt the enemy’s forces. When used in conjunction with expeditionary forces, strike warfare can be used to support tactical objectives of ground combat units, as well as attacks aimed at disrupting enemy infrastructure and command.

The Importance of Precision - The key to modern strike warfare is precision. The Navy has moved away from “dumb” ordinance and towards precision guided weaponry. Newer weapons such as the JDAM, JSOW, and SLAM-ER allow aircraft to drop guided ordinance exclusively while cruise missiles, specifically the TLAM, are also precision guided weapons. These guided systems are of limited use without precise information about the targets. New technologies combine both satellite imagery along with long range radar maps of the targets to provide clear targeting data for the GPS and INS guided strike weapons to follow.

From World War II to Persian Gulf I air raids were designed as multi-day operations that would repeatedly return to a target until it was sufficiently damaged, since delivering ordinance to the strike area did not ensure that the target was destroyed. With the introduction of all precision weaponry, specific aim points within a target can be selected for destruction in any given sortie. This allows strike planners to create a number of desired effects with a strike package. Instead of bombing a refinery until it was taken out of service, a precision strike package can have the objective of disrupting refinery production for a certain number of days.

Precision strike capabilities are vital in today’s current War on Terrorism. Strike aircraft are continually tasked with providing Close Air Support (CAS) to friendly forces in the forward theaters of operation. Soldiers and Marines in urban environments rely heavily on strike assets to provide both a timely and accurate response. Precision weapons employment mitigates the possibilities of fratricide and limits overall collateral damage.

Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) – The objective of this type of operation is to neutralize enemy anti-aircraft abilities to allow general air superiority over a target area. This can be specifically achieved by destroying either air defense weaponry such as missile and guns, or by destroying enemy radar and thereby effectively blinding anti-aircraft weapons.

58

III. Basic Overview of Strike Options

Naval Surface Fire Support (NSFS) – NSFS is conducted in association with expeditionary warfare and comprises all methods of attacking shore targets with surface ship weapons systems. These methods include naval gunfire, missiles, and rockets delivered by naval surface forces in support of amphibious operations. Cruisers and destroyers can conduct shore bombardment with 5-inch guns at ranges of over 10 nm. Most cruisers and destroyers have strike-capable cruise missile systems. Cruise missile strikes from surface combatants can be conducted independently or integrated with other types of strike. For example, a strike of cruise missiles from combatants and tactical attack aircraft from a carrier is an effective combination.

TACAIR – Aircraft that can be fitted to serve in an attack role. The F/A-18 C/D and E/F are all capable of conducting any type of strike mission, and can carry most munitions listed below. The EA-6B Prowler plays an essential role in the suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) in support of strike missions.

Cruise Missiles – A cruise missile is an unmanned, self-propelled, guided weapon delivery vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift over most of its flight path. The primary cruise missile currently used by the Navy against on-shore targets is the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM).

59

Advantages DisadvantagesTactical Aircraft (TACAIR)

Greater PayloadTarget Selection CapabilityFlexibilityBattle Damage AssessmentCan be used for Close Air Support/Armed Reconnaissance missionsReusable

Human componentShorter Range (without refueling)Limited Deep Strike capability

CRUISE MISSILES Deep strike capabilityNo chance of losing pilotsHigh AccuracyMultiple launching platforms

No Battle Damage AssessmentNo target selection capabilitySmall PayloadHigh cost per shot (~$1 million)

IV. Airborne Weapons

High-speed Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM) – HARMs use a passive seeker that homes on the emitted electromagnetic radiation of enemy radar. They are effective as a Suppression of Enemy Air Defense (SEAD) weapon, able to home in on land and sea-based search and Surface to Air Missile (SAM) guidance radars, effectively blinding enemy anti-aircraft systems.

Standoff Land Attack Missile, Extended Range (SLAM-ER) – This weapon was developed from the Harpoon anti-shipping missile and is intended for use on land targets. It uses GPS for mid-source guidance and infrared for terminal guidance, in addition to data link capabilities that allow human course correction during flight. Its range is over 150 nautical miles and it is useful against well defended targets where aircraft might be at risk.

60

Joint Stand-Off Weapon (JSOW) – JSOW is a glide weapon that uses GPS satellite information for guidance. It has stand-off capability from 15 nautical miles for a low altitude launch to up to 40 nautical miles with a high altitude launch. It is designed to be effective against both land and sea targets in any daylight and weather conditions. It uses INS/GPS guidance for midcourse navigation and infrared guidance for terminal homing.

Laser Guided Bombs (LGB) – LGB’s have a laser seeker that that guides the bomb onto its target. The target must be “painted” with a laser, which can be done by the launching aircraft, another aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or ground units. With the target “painted” the laser seeker in the nose of the bomb guides on the reflected laser light and follows this path directly to the target.

Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) – JDAM is a kit that is installed to bombs in the existing inventory. It uses a GPS/INS guidance system. An advantage over LGBs is that it has the ability to attack point targets in bad weather, extending the scope of potential aircraft operations. It can upgrade several types of “dumb” bombs that are currently in the Navy’s inventory. The weapon can be released from any altitude with the aircraft moving in any direction (climbing, descending, level flight, banking, etc.)

Types of Warhead – Airborne bombs can have many different types of warhead suitable for use on different types of target. Many of these ordinance types can be fitted with the JDAM kit to enhance their capabilities. In addition the JSOW can carry many of these different types of warhead.

General Purpose Bombs – GP bombs are the most basic, inexpensive type of ordnance used in strike warfare. A computer onboard the aircraft determines when the aircraft should release the bombs; once they are released, gravity takes over and they arc down toward their targets. Iron bombs are used most effectively against unhardened structures.

61

Retarded General Purpose Bombs – High drag general purpose bombs are similar to the “Slick” iron bombs with one extra feature. Attached to the bomb casing is a high-drag tail assembly that decreases the speed of the bomb when it is dropped, allowing the dropping aircraft to escape the blast area when flying at low altitude. The high-drag tail assembly uses either a “ballute” (parachute like bag) or metal vanes to produce the high drag. High drag bombs are effective against the same targets as the “Slick”, or low drag, GP bombs.

Cluster Bombs – Cluster bombs are free-fall bombs that deploy multiple “bomblets” on a target area. When a cluster bomb is dropped on a target, the bomb breaks open, dispensing many smaller shaped-charge bomblets. Since these bomblets fall over a relatively large area, they are more effective against spread-out targets. The various types of cluster bombs are made to carry a wide range of different bomblets, each suited to attack certain targets, such as armor, personnel, structures, radar sites, and runways.

Fuel Air Explosive Bombs – When dropped, the bomb releases gases into the atmosphere, forming a highly explosive mixture. A delayed-action fuse ignites the gases, causing the contaminated air to burn. This fireball of burning gas rapidly expands, incinerating the target area. In the open air, this is sufficient to set off mines, and flatten soft structures, parked aircraft, and personnel. However, in an enclosed space, the effect is magnified, blowing apart the walls, floor, and roof of the structure.

Penetrator Bombs – These bombs are specifically designed for hardened or subterranean targets. The bomb casing is made thicker and from higher strength steel, especially in the nose. A Hard Target Smart Fuze (HTSF) uses an accelerometer and timer to determine when to detonate. It can be set for a variety of modes which will trigger from various conditions such as detection of a void, achievement of preset depth, or time delay from impact. Penetrator bombs also frequently have larger warheads to do more damage to well fortified or deeply buried targets.

62

V. Tomahawk Land-Attack Missile (TLAM)

The Tomahawk is a long-range cruise missile developed by the US Navy for both surface and submarine launch against land targets. TLAM C designates the “conventional” unitary warhead and TLAM D designates the “dispenser” warhead for bomblet delivery. The TLAM can be launched from the Mk-41 VLS launcher carried on the CG-47 Ticonderoga-class cruisers and DDG-51 Arleigh Burke-class destroyers. In addition it can be launched by all US attack submarines, either from torpedo tubes, or specially designed vertical launch tubes. Some of the SSBN-726 Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines have been converted to cruise missile launching platforms, with their ballistic missile tubes replaced by TLAM vertical launch tubes.

Guidance – Guidance systems for the Tomahawk consists of an Inertial Navigation System (INS), Terrain Contour Matching (TERCOM), Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation (DSMAC) and Global Positioning System (GPS).

63

64

USMC STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

I. Mission Definition The seven-part Mission of the Marines is defined by the National Security Act of 1947, amended in 1952.

1. Provide Fleet Marine Forces with combined arms and supporting air components for service with the United States Fleet in the seizure or defense of advanced Naval bases, and for the conduct of such land operations as may be essential to the execution of a Naval campaign.

2. Provide detachments and organizations for service on armed vessels of the Navy and security detachments for the protection of naval property at naval stations and bases.

3. Develop, in coordination with the Army, Navy, and Air Force, the doctrine, tactics techniques, and equipment employed by landing forces in amphibious operations.

4. Provide Marine forces for operations, in coordination with the Army, Navy, Air Force, according to the doctrine established by the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

5. Develop, in accordance with the Army, Navy, and Air Force, the doctrine, procedures, and equipment for operations.

6. Expand peacetime components to meet wartime needs according to the joint mobilization plans.

7. Perform such other duties as the President may direct.

II. USMC Mission Competencies

MAGTF operations are built upon a foundation of five special core competencies. The direct result of more than 225 years of expeditionary experience, these five core competencies define the essence of the unique Marine institutional culture as well as their role within the national military establishment. Core competencies are developed from inherent Marine missions, such as expeditionary amphibious operations, and drive Marines to develop specific sets of skills while executing special roles and missions.

1. Warfighting Culture and Dynamic Decision-making: Marines focus on the force of human resolve and utilize technology to leverage the chaos and complexity of the battlefield. From early on, Marines are instilled with a determination to accomplish the mission. Warfighting Culture and Dynamic Decision-making: Marines focus on the force of human resolve and utilize technology to leverage the chaos and complexity of the battlefield. 2. Expeditionary Forward Operations: Marines are continuously deployed around the world near potential trouble spots where they can deter aggression, respond quickly, and resolve crises whenever called. The naval character and strategically mobile presence enhance cultural and situational awareness of potential operating areas. 3. Sustainable and Interoperable Littoral Power Projection: Today’s scalable MAGTFs can access the world’s littoral regions on short notice, responding quickly with a force tailored to the mission at hand. Their partnership with the Navy provides significant organic sustainment capabilities from the sea and reduces a theater commander’s requirement to dedicate lift assets to early entry forces. 4. Combined Arms Integration: Marines pioneered development of concepts such as close air support and vertical envelopment. MAGTFs constantly blend the art and science of commanding, controlling, training, and executing combined arms operations from air, land, seas and space. Marines understand the logic and synergy of joint and multinational forces under the ‘Single Battle’ concept. 5. Forcible Entry from the Sea: Together, the Navy and Marines provide the Nation with its primary capability to rapidly project and sustain combat power ashore in the face of armed opposition. MEFs,

65

reinforced by maritime prepositioned assets when required, allow the US to protect its worldwide interests, reassure allies, and fortify other elements of national power.

III. Basic Structure and Organization

The Marine Corps' minimum peacetime structure shall consist of not less than three combat divisions, three aircraft wings, and such other combat, aviation, and other land services as may be organic, therein. The Marine Corps will also maintain a fourth division and air wing in the reserve. The operating forces of the Marine Corps are currently organized into:

(1) Marine Corps Forces Command (MARFORCOM) with headquarters in Norfolk, VA(2) Marine Corps Forces Pacific (MARFORPAC) with headquarters in Camp Smith, HI (3) Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC) with headquarters in Camp Lejeune, NC.

The operating forces comprise the forward presence, crisis response, and combat power that the Corps makes available to U.S. unified combatant commanders. The Marine Corps has established three permanent combatant-level service components in support of unified commands with significant Marine forces assigned: U.S. Marine Corps Forces (MARFORCOM), U.S. Marine Corps Forces Pacific (MARFORPAC), and U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Special Operations Command (MARSOC). The Commander, MARFORCOM is assigned to the Commander, U.S. Joint Forces Command (JFCOM). He provides the 2d Marine Expeditionary Force (II MEF) and other unique capabilities to JFCOM. Likewise, the Commander MARFORPAC is assigned to the Commander, U.S. Pacific Command. He provides I and III MEFs to PACOM. The Commander, MARSOC is assigned to the Commander, Special Operations Command (SOCOM). He provides assigned forces to SOCOM. The following is a basic outline of the Marine Corps’ organization and structure:

1. Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF): For operations and training, Marine Forces will be formed into Marine Air-Ground Task Forces (MAGTFs). The MAGTF is the basic structure of deployed Marines and can operate across a full spectrum of conflicts, including amphibious operations. They have no standard structure, but rather are constituted as appropriate for the specific situation/mission. The MAGTF provides a single commander the optimum combined-arms force for the situation he or she faces. As the situation changes, it may of course be necessary to restructure the MAGTF. Regardless of its size, a MAGTF is always comprised of four elements:

1.) Ground Combat Element (GCE): Infantry (battalion, regiment, or division) augmented with tank, artillery, LAV, AAV, combat engineers and reconnaissance assets.

2.) Air Combat Element (ACE): Contains aircraft to support the tactical situation. Tactical helicopters with fixed wing assets for close air support

3.) Combat Service Support Element (CSSE): Provides all necessary logistical support to the MAGTF including: Transportation, Engineering, Embarkation, Medical/Dental, and Headquarters and Service.

4.) Command Element (CE)

Although a MAGTF is a task organization tailored to a specific mission, there are three basic types of MAGTFs: the Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), the Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB), and Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF). All MEUs complete Special Operations Capable (SOC) qualifications prior to going afloat. There is also the designation of Special Purpose MAGTF for any unit size, including up to the whole Marine Corps.

66

2. Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF): The MEF is the principal war fighting element in the active force structure of the Marine Corps and is usually commanded by a Lieutenant General. The size and composition of a deployed MEF varies depending on the needs of the mission. Each MEF has one to three Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU) assigned to it that deploy throughout the globe.

3. Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB): A MEB, usually led by a brigadier general, is built around a reinforced infantry regiment, an aircraft group and a Service Support Group. Capable of rapid deployment and employment via amphibious or airlift methods, it is the first echelon of a Marine Expeditionary Force.

4. Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU): The smallest task force unit, the MEU has approximately 2,200 personnel and is built around a reinforced infantry battalion, a composite aircraft squadron and a support group. It is commanded by a colonel and is routinely deployed with an Amphibious Ready Group. The ground element of a MEU is a Battalion Landing Team (BLT), comprised of a reinforced infantry battalion of approximately 1,200 Marines, including three Rifle Companies. The aviation unit of a MEU is a reinforced medium helicopter squadron.

5. Marine Division: There are three Marine divisions in the active force and one in the reserve. It is the largest Marine ground combat organization of a MEF and is usually commanded by a major-general.

6. Marine Air Wing (MAW): The largest Marine aviation organization of the MEF, each MAW has a unique organizational structure and is commanded by a brigadier general.

7. Marine Aircraft Group (MAG): Similar to an Air Force Wing and commanded by a colonel, a MAG is the smallest aviation unit that is designed for independent operations.

8. Marine Logistics Group (MLG): Formerly called Force Service Support Group, the MLG provides responsive, quality logistics support to a MEF, other Marine, joint, and combined forces and federal agencies, as directed, through expeditionary means, forward basing, and global sourcing.

CO Personnel and Ships

Self-Sustain-ability

Ground Combat Element (GCE)

Aviation Combat Element (ACE)

Combat Service Support Element (CSSE)

MarineExpeditionaryUnit (MEU)

Col 1,500-3,0002-4 amphibiousships

15 days BattalionLanding Team(BLT)

Marine MediumHelicopter Squadronaugmented to acomposite helicoptersquadron

MEU Service SupportGroup (MSSG) – formedfrom a Marine Logistics Group (MLG)

MarineExpeditionaryBrigade (MEB)

BGen 7,000-12,000;up to 25amphibiousships

30 days RegimentalLanding Team(RLT)

Marine AircraftGroup (MAG) -multiple squadrons ofrotary wing aircraft

Brigade Service SupportGroup (BSSG)–formed from the Marine Logistics Group (MLG)

MarineExpeditionaryForce (MEF)

LtGen 30,000-40,000

60 days MarineDivision

Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW) - will containall types of aircraft

Marine LogisiticsGroup - established at sea and ashore

67

IV. Locations

Locations of Major Air/Ground ElementsI MEF: Camp Pendleton, CAII MEF: Camp Lejeune, NCIII MEF: Camp Courtney, Okinawa, Japan

I Marine Air Wing: MCAS Butler, Okinawa, JapanII Marine Air Wing: MCAS Cherry Point, NCIII Marine Air Wing: MCAS Miramar, CA

I Marine Division: Camp Pendleton, CAII Marine Division: Camp Lejeune, NCIII Marine Division: Camp Courtney, Okinawa, Japan

I MLG: Camp Pendleton, CAII MLG: Camp Lejeune, NCIII MLG: Camp Smedley Butler, Okinawa, Japan

MEU Locations 1. West Coast/1st Marine Division: 11th, 13th, 15th MEUs; deploys to the Pacific and Persian Gulf 2. East Coast/2d Marine Division: 22nd, 24th, 26th MEUs; deploys to the Mediterranean Sea and Persian Gulf 3. Overseas/ 3d Marine Division: 31st MEU; deploys to the Western Pacific

**MEUs are not standing units. The command element of a MEU is a standing command. The units that comprise the GCE, ACE, and CSSE rotate after each scheduled deployment. Each particular unit is “chopped” or attached to a MEU for a period of approximately 18 months

Marine Corps Reserves Marine Forces Reserve (MARFORRES) is located in New Orleans, Louisiana, and serves as the headquarters for all Marine Reservists and Reserve units. MARFORRES provides policy, guidance, direction, and support to 104,000 Reserve Marines throughout the U.S. The four subordinate commands of MARFORRES are the 4th Marine Division, the 4th Marine Aircraft Wing, the 4th Marine Logistics Group, and the Marine Corps Mobilization Command in Kansas City, Missouri.

V. Marine Corps Leadership

Marine Corps Leadership: The Marine Corps is commanded by the Commandant of the Marine Corps (CMC). He is assisted in his duties by the Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps (SMMC). They serve a four-year term of duty by the direction of the President. The current billet holders at print are:

34th CMC: General James T. Conway, USMC.16th SMMC: Sgt. Maj. Carlton W. Kent, USMC.

68

69

USMC OPERATIONS AND PLATFORMS

I. Operations

1. Expeditionary Operations – An expedition is a military operation conducted by an armed force to accomplish a specific objective in a foreign country. Expeditionary operations encompass the entire range of military operations, from humanitarian assistance to forcible entry in a major theater war. The defining characteristic of expeditionary operations is the projection of force into a foreign setting. Successful expeditionary operations require—

Expeditionary Mindset. Tailored Forces Forward Deployment. Rapid Deployment. Expeditionary Basing. Forcible Entry. Sustainment. (MCDP 1-0, pp. 2 – 4-5)

2. Force Projection – Forward-deployed MAGTFs, with their range of capabilities, are designed to enable the joint force commander to resolve crises and win conflicts. MAGTFs are uniquely suited to support the national security strategy by rapidly projecting the required capability into a foreign setting to abate the crisis. This capability is central to the United States ability to safeguard its national interests. Forward-deployed MAGTFs are prepared to meet a wide array of challenges in their AO. Their presence and engagement activities help to shape the crisis area. Finally, MAGTFs respond with appropriate force or capabilities to defeat the enemy, restore order or provide humanitarian relief. The Marine Corps conducts force projection primarily through the use of MAGTFs conducting expeditionary operations employing three primary methods: (MCDP 1-0, pp. 2 – 5-6)

Amphibious operations. MPF operations. Combination of the above methods.

3. Amphibious Operations – Joint Pub (JP) 3-02, Joint Doctrine for Amphibious Operations, defines an amphibious operation as a military operation launched from the sea by an amphibious force embarked in ships or craft with the primary purpose of introducing a landing force ashore to accomplish the assigned mission. Amphibious operations require a high degree of training and specialized equipment to succeed. Marine Corps forces are specifically organized, trained, and equipped to deploy aboard, operate from, and sustain themselves from amphibious ships. They are specifically designed to project land combat power ashore from the sea.

4. Sustained Operations Ashore – The Marine Corps also has the capability to operate independent of the sea to support sustained land operations ashore with the Army or coalition partners. The Marine Corps conducts sustained operations ashore to provide the joint force commander four options when fighting a land operation. (MCDP 1-0, pp. 2 – 12)

II. Amphibious Warfare

An amphibious operation is a military operation launched from the sea by naval and landing forces embarked on ships or craft, involving a landing on a hostile or potentially hostile shore.

Amphibious Warfare along with Special Operations, Mine Warfare, and Explosive Ordinance Disposal are subsumed under the Navy’s new Expeditionary Warfare Division. This division identifies the naval and amphibious capabilities required by the Navy of 2010 and beyond. The Expeditionary Warfare Division ensures the Navy is capable of accomplishing the following missions: sea control and maritime supremacy, power projection, strategic deterrence, forward naval presence, and strategic sealift.

70

In support of these roles, specifically power projection and forward naval presence, Expeditionary Strike Groups (ESG) have been formed. An ESG is comprised of a traditional Amphibious Ready Group and embarked Marine Expeditionary Units (MEUs) as well as Cruiser/Destroyer escorts. The ESG Commanders are either an Admiral or Brigadier General, who are embarked on one of the ships with a supporting staff. The Navy and Marine Corps team provide the nation the only vehicle for self-sustaining forcible entry into regions where U.S. access is contested. Amphibious forces must be capable of performing a wide range of missions, from providing humanitarian assistance and disaster relief to engaging in major combat operations such as occurred during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Additionally, these forces can be configured and deployed to operate at various levels of conflict and in multiple theaters simultaneously. Because they are sea-based with a command element, amphibious forces greatly expand the available response options. They are particularly well placed to provide a demonstration of U.S. commitment and resolve to friends and allies as well as adversaries.

Three-ship Amphibious Ready Groups – consisting of a large-deck amphibious assault ship (LHD or LHA), and amphibious transport dock (LPD), and a dock landing ship (LSD) – carry the MEU and the helicopters and amphibious assault vehicles that transport Marine combat and support elements ashore. They also support the operations of the MEU’s vertical/short take-off and landing aircraft, both helicopter and fixed-wing that provide the MAGTF with integrated air support.

Phases of Amphibious War fare (E.M.P.R.A.)

1. Embarkation: The embarkation phase is the period during which the forces, along with their equipment and supplies, are loaded aboard assigned shipping.

2. Movement: Different elements of the ATF (Amphibious Task Force) move from points of embarkation to the Amphibious Operations Area (AOA) during the movement phase. This stage is completed when the various elements of the ATF arrive at their assigned positions in the AOA. During the movement to the objective area, the Navy uses deceptive measures to confuse the enemy as much as possible. Some of these tactics include: dispersion of forces, movement along separate routes, and the use of radio silence combined with electronic deception. In a modern assault, a battle group would be employed to defend the ATF. With this protection, the ATF would move towards the objective area.

3. Planning: The planning phase encompasses the period extending from the issuance of the initiating directive by the establishing authority until embarkation. While planning occurs throughout the entire operation, it is normally dominant in the period before the forces embark the ship. Effective logistics and combat service support are absolutely critical to the success of any amphibious operation. All considerations that lead to a successful operation should be dealt with in the planning phase, but may be modified by the results of the rehearsal. These considerations include, but are not limited to: anticipated enemy strength, climate and terrain, communication capabilities, length of supply lines, assembly and embarkation, and target dates.

4. Rehearsal: Rehearsals are necessary to ensure the operation runs smoothly, and changes to the plan can be made based on the outcome of the rehearsals. A rehearsal may consist of an actual landing or may be conducted as a command post exercise. During the rehearsal phase, the prospective operation is practiced for the purpose of testing communications, timing of operations, evaluating combat readiness, and ensuring all echelons are familiar with the plans.

5. Assault: The action phase can consist of any type of amphibious operation. Since the assault is the most difficult and the primary type of action, it will be discussed here. The assault phase begins when the ATF arrives in the operational area and is capable of beginning the ship-to-shore movement, and it ends with the accomplishment of the ATF mission. The assault sequence is:

a. Preparation of the landing area by supporting arms (gunfire support, TACAIR, and cruise missile strikes) as well as recon, minesweeping, underwater demolitions, destruction of beach obstacles, and air

71

strikes. b. Ship-to-shore movement of the Landing Force c. Air and surface assault to seize the beachhead and designated objectives d. Provision of supporting arms and logistics/combat service support throughout the assault e. Landing the remaining elements for conduct of operations as required.

NOTE: The order of these phases can be modified if an ATF is forward deployed or completing a follow-on mission. The sequence then becomes embarkation, planning, rehearsal, movement, and action. In the rapidly changing international environment, this flexibility is necessary for the success of amphibious warfare.

Adjacent Operations

1. Subsidiary Landings: Conducted outside main objective area to support the main effort. This operation can occur before or after the main landing. The purpose of subsidiary landings can be to: a. Capture a specific position for use in the main landing. b. Capture an area to deny its use to the enemy in harming the main effort c. Induce a hostile reaction that will favor the main effort through deception.

2. Supporting Operations: Conducted to support the main landing in various ways. Normally conducted outside the area of operations of the main landing force. Examples of supporting operations are: a. Assistance in gaining or maintaining air, ground, or naval supremacy b. Psychological and unconventional operations

Types of Amphibious Operations

The five different types of amphibious operations are amphibious assault, withdrawal, demonstration, raid, and other amphibious operations. Each phase has a different objective.

1. Amphibious Assault: The purpose of the amphibious assault is the establishment of an Landing Force on a hostile or potentially hostile shore.

2. Amphibious Withdrawal: The amphibious withdrawal involves the extraction of forces by sea in ships or craft from a hostile or potentially hostile shore. A withdrawal from a hostile shore can be made as a result of a termination of an operation or the redeployment of units to different areas. This is predetermined but the amphibious withdrawal is based on the situation as well as tactical and strategic considerations.

3. Amphibious Demonstrations: Amphibious demonstrations are conducted to deceive the enemy with the exception of deluding the enemy into a course of action favorable to us. Several steps are taken to make the enemy believe that a landing force is actually taking place. It can even include a partial ship-to-shore movement.

4. Amphibious Raids: An amphibious operation involving a swift incursion into, or a temporary occupation of, an objective, followed by a planned withdrawal. Raids are conducted for such purposes as: Inflicting loss or damage, creating a diversion, executing deliberate deception operations, destroying enemy information gathering systems to maintain operational security, and capturing/evacuating individuals/material. 5. Other Amphibious Operations: The capabilities of amphibious forces may be especially suited to conduct other types of operations, such as noncombatant evacuation operations and foreign humanitarian assistance.

III. Weapons and Platforms

72

Aside from the personal weapons of the rifleman, here are some of the additional weapons and platforms utilized by the Marine Corps.

M240G Medium Machine Gun

Maximum effective range: 1.1 miles (1.8 kilometers) on tripod mountMaximum range: 2.31 miles (3.725 kilometers)Rates of fire: Cyclic-650-950 rounds per minute / Rapid-200 rounds per minute / Sustained-100 rounds per minute

MK19 40mm Machine Gun, MOD 3

Maximum range: 2200 metersMaximum effective range: 1600 metersRates of fire: Cyclic-325-375 rounds per minute / Rapid-60 rounds per minute / Sustained-40 rounds per minute

M2 .50 Caliber Heavy Machine Gun

Maximum effective range: 2000 meters with tripod mountMaximum range: 4.22 miles (6.8 kilometers) Cyclic rate of fire: 550 rounds per minute

73

Tube Launched, Optically Tracked, Wire Guided (TOW) Missile Weapon System

Maximum effective range: 2.33 miles (3.75 kilometers)

M224 60mm Lightweight Mortar

Maximum effective range: 2.17 miles (3490 meters)Rates of fire: Maximum-30 rounds/minute / Sustained-20 rounds/minute

M-252 Mortar 81mm Mortar

Range: 5,600 metersRate of fire: 15 rounds/min sustained

74

High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) (M998 Truck)

High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) (M1151A1 ECV Armament Carrier)

Primary functions: The HMMWV provides a variety of wheeled vehicle platforms. These are cargo/troop carrier, armament carrier, TOW missile system carrier, shelter carrier and two ambulance variants (2- and 4-litter).

Light Armored Vehicle-25 (LAV-25)

Primary function: Provide strategic mobility to reach and engage the threat, tactical mobility for effective use of fire power, fire power to defeat soft and armored targets, battlefield survivability to carry out combat missions. Range: 410 miles (660.1 kilometers)Speed: 62 mph (99.2 km/hr)Swim speed: 6 mph (9.6 km/hr)Crew: Driver, gunner, commander and 6 troopsArmament: M242 25mm chain gun, M240 7.62mm machine gun mounted coaxial to the main gunVariants: There are numerous versions of the LAV-25. Each variant is fitted with equipment, personnel, and armament specific to the mission. The variants are: LAV-AT (Anti-Tank), LAV-M (Mortar), LAV-R (Recovery), LAV-L (Logistics), LAV-AD (Air Defense), and MEWSS (Mobile Electronic Warfare Support System)

75

Mine-Resistant Ambush-Protected (MRAP) Vehicle

Primary function: MRAP Vehicles are V-shaped hulled, raised chassis, armored vehicles with blast resistant underbodies designed to protect crews from mine and IED blasts as well as fragmentary and small arms threats.

M198 155mm HOWITZER

Primary function: Provides field artillery fire support for all Marine Corps Air Ground Task Force organizations.Maximum effective range: conventional ammunition-22,400 meters (13.92 miles) / rocket-assisted projectile-30,000 meters (18.64 miles)Rate of Fire: Maximum-4 rounds per minute/ Sustained-2 rounds per minuteCrew: 9 enlisted

M777 Lightweight 155mm HOWITZER

Improvements: Over 7,000 lbs lighter than the M198 due to titanium construction and hydraulic operation. It emplaces three times faster, displaces four times faster, traverses 32 percent more terrain worldwide and is 70 percent more survivable than the M198.

76

M1A1 Main Battle Tank

Primary function: Main battle tank (MBT)Caliber: 120mm (M256 main gun) capable of delivering both kinetic energy (sabot) and chemical energy (heat) rounds.Commander's Weapon: M2 .50 Caliber Machine GunLoader's Weapon: 7.62mm M240 Machine GunCoaxial Weapon: 7.62 M240 Machine GunCruising Range: 289 miles (465.29 kilometers) without NBC system / 279 miles (449.19 kilometers) with NBC systemSpeed: Maximum: 42 miles (67.72 kilometers) per hour (Governed) / Cross Country: 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) per hourCrew: 4 – driver, loader, gunner, and tank commander.

Assault Amphibian Vehicle Personnel Model 7A1 (AAVP7A1)

Description: The AAVP7A1 is an armored assault amphibious full-tracked landing vehicle. The vehicle carries troops in water operations from ship to shore, through rough water and surf zone. It also carries troops to inland objectives after ashore.Crew: 3Cruising Range: Land at 25 MPH: 300 Miles / Water at 2600 RPM: 7 HoursCruising Speed: Land: 20 to 30 MPH / Water: 6 MPHMaximum Speed Forward: / Land: 45 MPH / Water: 8.2 MPHMaximum Speed Reverse: Land: 12 MPH / Water: 4.5 MPHCapacity: 21 Combat Equipped MarinesArmament and Ammunition: HBM2 Caliber.50 Machine Gun and MK 19 MOD3 40 MM Machine GunVariants: There are two other versions of the Assault Amphibious Vehicle, each fitted with equipment, personnel, and armament specific to the mission. The variants are: AAVC7A1 (Command Model) and the AAVR7A1 (Recovery Model).

77

AH-1W Super Cobra

Primary function: Attack helicopterSpeed: 147 knots (169.05 miles per hour) in basic combat attack configurationRange: 256 nautical miles (294.4 miles) in basic combat attack configurationCeiling: 18,700 feet (5703.5 meters) in basic combat attack configuration (limited to 10,000 feet (3050 kilometers) by oxygen requirements)Crew: 2 pilotsArmament: One 20MM turreted cannon with 750 rounds; four external wing stations that can fire 2.75"/5.0" rockets and a wide variety of precision guided missiles, to include TOW/Hellfire (point target/anti-armor), Sidewinder (anti-air) Sidearm (anti-radar).

UH-1N

Primary function: Utility helicopterSpeed: 121 knots (139.15 miles per hour) at sea levelCeiling: 14,200 feet (4331 meters) (limited to 10,000 feet (3050 meters) by oxygen requirements)Range: 172 nautical miles (197.8 miles)Crew: 2 pilots, 2 crewmenArmament: M-240 7.62mm machine gun or the GAU-16 .50 caliber machine gun or the GAU-17 7.62mm automatic gun. All three weapons systems are crew-served, and the GAU-2B/A can also be controlled by the pilot in the fixed forward firing mode. The helicopter can also carry two 7-shot or 19-shot 2.75" rocket pods.

78

AH-1Z Viper UH-1Y Venom

Upgrades: The H-1 Upgrades Program (UH-1Y/AH-1Z) replaces the current two-bladed rotor system on the UH-1N and AH-1W aircraft with a new four-bladed, all composite rotor system that is coupled with a sophisticated, fully integrated, state of the art cockpit. The UH-1 and AH-1Z also incorporate a new performance-matched transmission, a four-bladed tail rotor and drive system, and upgraded landing gear. Additionally, structural modifications to the AH-1Z provide the aircraft with six weapons stations, two more than the AH-1W. The advanced cockpit, common to both new aircraft, reduces operator workload, improves situational awareness, and provides growth potential for future weapons and joint interoperability. The cockpit integrates on-board planning, self-contained navigation, and night targeting and weapons systems in mirror-imaged crew stations.

CH-53D/E Sea Stallion/Super Stallion Helicopter

Primary function: Transportation of equipment and supplies during the ship-to-shore movement of an amphibious assault and during subsequent operations ashore.Manufacturer: Sikorsky AircraftSpeed: D - 130 knots (149.5 miles per hour) / E - 172.5 miles per hour (150 knots)Range: 690 miles (600 nautical miles)Armament: Two XM-218 .50 cal machinegunsCrew: 3

79

MV-22 Osprey Tiltrotor

Primary function: Amphibious assault transport of troops, equipment and supplies from assault ships and land bases.Description: The V-22 Osprey is a multi-engine, dual-piloted, self-deployable, medium lift, vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) tiltrotor aircraft designed for combat, combat support, combat service support, and Special Operations missions worldwide. It will replace the Corps' aged fleet of CH-46E and CH-53D medium lift helicopters.Range: 200nm Pre-Assault Raid with 18 troops or Land Assault with 24 troops / 50 nm (x2) Amphibious Assault / 50 nm External Lift Operations with 10,000 lb loadCruise Airspeed: 240 kts (MV-22)

F/A-18A/C/CN Hornet

Primary function: Intercept and destroy enemy aircraft under all-weather conditions and attack and destroy surface targets.Cruise speed: High subsonic to supersonicCombat radius: Fighter mission - 400 nautical miles (460 miles) / Attack mission: 575 nautical miles (661.25 miles)Armament: Nine external wing stations, comprising two wingtip stations for an assortment of air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons, including AIM-7 Sparrows, AIM-9 Sidewinders, AMRAAMs, AGM-84 Harpoons and AGM-65 Maverick missiles; two inboard wing stations for external fuel tanks or air-to-ground stations; two nacelle fuselage stations for Sparrows or AN/AAS-38 Forward Looking Infrared Radar (FLIR) pods; and a center station for fuel tank or air-to-ground weapons. Air-to-ground weapons include GBU-10 and -12 laser guided bombs, Mk 80 series general purpose bombs, and CBU-59 cluster bombs. AN M61 20mm six-barrel gun is mounted in the nose and has a McDonnell Douglas director gunsight.Crew: 1 pilot

80

F/A-18D Hornet

Primary function: Attack and destroy surface targets, day or night, under all weather conditions; conduct multi-sensor imagery reconnaissance; provide supporting arms coordination; and intercept and destroy enemy aircraft under all weather conditions.Cruise speed: High subsonic to supersonicCombat radius: Fighter mission - 400 nautical miles (460 miles) / Attack mission - 575 nautical miles (661.25 miles)Armament: Nine external wing stations, comprising two wingtip stations for AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles; two outboard wing stations for an assortment of air-to-air and air-to-ground weapons, including AIM-7 Sparrows, AIM-9 Sidewinders, AMRAAMs, AGM-84 Harpoons and AGM-65 Maverick missiles; two inboard wing stations for external fuel tanks or air-to-ground stations; two nacelle fuselage stations for Sparrows or AN/AAS-38 Forward Looking Infrared Radar (FLIR) pods; and a center station for fuel tank or air-to-ground weapons such as GBU-10 and -12 laser guided bombs, Mk 80 series general purpose bombs, and CBU-59 cluster bombs. An M61 20mm six-barrel gun is mounted in the nose and has a McDonnell Douglas director gunsight.Crew: 2 – pilot and weapons and sensors officer

AV-8B Harrier II

Primary function: Attack and destroy surface targets under day and night visual conditions.Combat radius: Close Air Support - 163 nautical miles (187.45 miles) with 30 minutes time on station / interdiction - 454 nautical miles (522.45 miles)Armament: Seven external store stations, comprising six wing stations for AIM-9 Sidewinder and an assortment of air-to-ground weapons, external fuel tanks and AGM-65 IR and AGM-65E Laser Maverick missiles; one centerline station for DECM pod or air-to-ground ordnance. A GAU-12 25MM six-barrel gun pod can be mounted on the centerline and has a 300 round capacity with a lead computing optical sight system (LCOSS) gunsight. Capable of carrying MK-82 series 500lbs bombs, MK-83 series 1000lbs bombs, GBU-12 500lbs laser guided bombs, GBU-16 1000lbs laser guided bombs, CBU-99 cluster munitions, AIM-9M  sidewinders.Crew: 1 pilot

81

EA-6B Prowler

Primary function: Airborne Command and Control (C2W) support to Fleet Marine Forces to include electronic attack (EA), tactical electronic support (ES), electronic protection (EP) and high speed anti-radiation missile (HARM).Speed: Maximum - .99 mach / cruise - .72 machCeiling: 40,000 feet (12,186 meters) Range: Unrefueled, combat configuration - 850 nautical miles (977.5 miles) / Refueled -unlimited (crew fatigue factor - approximately 8 hours)Armament: ALQ-99 Tactical Jamming System (TJS); High Speed Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM)Crew: 4 - pilots and electronic countermeasures officers

KC-130J Hercules

Primary function: Versatile four-engine, tactical aerial refueler for fixed, rotor, and tilt wing arircraft. And assault support. The KC 130J increases speed by 20% and range by 35% over earlier variants. It also features an improved air-to-air refueling system and a state of the art flight system.Crew: 2 pilots, 1 navigator/systems operator, 1 flight engineer, 1 first mechanic, 1 loadmaster (total of 6)

82

IV. Emerging Concepts and TechnologiesConcepts enable decision-makers the ability to identify capabilities and changes to doctrine, organization, training, and education to create a force for the future. Future operational concepts are general descriptions of how military forces intend to fight in the future. Services and the joint community have relied increasingly on operational concepts as the “engines” for their combat development processes. These concepts also furnish the intellectual basis for experimentation and force development. Increasing technological advancements will expedite the creation of capabilities articulated in emerging concepts. Technologically advanced systems will enhance the United States military forces’ ability to exploit critical vulnerabilities and rapidly defeat centers of gravity. These centers of gravity will be located and identified using modern sensors and sophisticated intelligence collection and analysis. Some of the advanced systems that will provide the enhanced capability to conduct operations are advanced sensors and information systems; tilt rotor aircraft; vertical and short take-off aircraft; air-cushion vehicles and other hovercraft; high-speed shallow-draft ships; and the advanced amphibious assault vehicle. (MCDP-1, p. 2 – 13)

Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle (EFV)

F-35 Lightening (Joint Strike Fighter) STOVL (Short Take-Off, Vertical Landing)

83

NAVAL SPECIAL WARFARE

I. Warfare Definition

Special Operations is characterized by the use of small units with the unique ability to conduct military actions that are beyond the capability of conventional military forces. These operations often require covert, clandestine, or low visibility capabilities. Special operations differ from conventional operations in degree of physical and political risk, operational techniques, mode of employment, independence from friendly support, and dependence on detailed operational intelligence and indigenous assets.

II. History and Traditions

Emerging from the foundation set by Scouts and Raiders, Naval Combat Demolition Units, and Underwater Demolition Teams, modern SEAL Teams were first commissioned in January of 1962 by President John F. Kennedy. Their requirement was solidified by actions in Vietnam where they advised Vietnamese forces, conducted Direct Action missions, and participated in multiple downed pilot rescues. Naval Special Warfare (NSW) forces have participated in every major conflict since then including Operation JUST CAUSE in Panama, Operations DESERT SHIELD/STORM in Iraq and Kuwait, Operation RESTORE HOPE and TF RANGER in Somalia, and other conflicts from South America, to the Balkans to Haiti to OEF and OIF.

Organized as the maritime component of US Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), Naval Special Warfare has become a leading Special Operations asset in the current war on terror in all environments. The backbone of NSW has been the SEALs (SEa, Air and Land) and SWCC (Special Warfare Combatant-Craft Crewmen) personnel, volunteer operators put through rigorous training programs like BUD/S and SWCC School respectively.

To read more about the history of Naval Special Warfare, go to http://www.navsoc.navy.mil/history.htm.

III. Operations and Capabilities

SEAL TeamsSEAL Teams are comprised of 3 Troops with 2 platoons assigned per Troop (6 platoons/Team), a Command and Control Element, and a support element that is deployable en masse to stage overseas for extended periods of time. SEAL Officers lead the various units, with the first leadership assignment being Squad Commander after the training pipeline is completed. While leading experienced, combat proven enlisted SEALs is challenging for newly trained officers, senior enlisted provide backing and sound advice for young JOs. SEAL Officers then progress to Platoon Commander (LT) and Troop Commander (LCDR), all challenging assignments leading SEALs. The SEAL elements are trained to infiltrate their objective areas by fixed and rotary winged aircraft, Navy surface ships and submarines, vehicles, underwater or on foot. Their ability to conduct clandestine, high-risk missions and provide real-time intelligence offers decision makers excellent situational awareness and provides multiple options to conduct warfare.

SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team (SDVT)This team is specifically trained to use the Mk-8 SDV as an underwater, clandestine insertion and extraction platform. The Mk-8 is launched out of a DDS (Dry Deck Shelter) which is attached to several

84

Navy submarines. SDV Teams train for and are just as capable for the same missions as other SEAL Teams, but focus specifically on insertion and extraction using this specialized platform. SEAL Officers lead SDV Platoons and conduct some of the most challenging missions in NSW.

Special Boat Team (SBT)Special Boat Teams are manned by SWCC, an all enlisted force commonly known as “boat guys”. Junior Surface Warfare Officers with their SWO qualification pin are eligible to become Special Boat Team Operators after their first tour. Although SWCCs are not SEALs, they have an extremely important role in NSW. The primary mission of SBTs is the insertion and extraction of SEAL elements. They are also involved in coastal and riverine missions. The platforms they use include the Mk-V and the 11 meter Rigid-hull Inflatable Boat (RIB). Junior SEAL officers and/or SWCC Chiefs often command 8-man SBT detachments like the 11m MCADS (Maritime Craft Aerial Delivery System) det, an air-dropped boat package for quick over the horizon interdiction operations.

Naval Special Warfare Missions

Direct Action: Short-duration strikes and other small-scale offensive actions taken to seize, destroy, capture or recover in denied areas. Direct Action involves ambush, combat swimmer ship attacks, combat search and rescue, close quarters combat (CQC), and visit board search and seizure (VBSS).

Special Reconnaissance: Acquiring information concerning the capabilities, intentions and activities of an enemy. Special Reconnaissance involves counter-sniper operations, hydrographic reconnaissance, and listening and observation posts.

Unconventional Warfare: Operations conducted by, through and with surrogate forces that are organized, trained, equipped, supported and directed by external forces. Unconventional Warfare involves training foreign guerrilla forces or other clandestine operations.

Counter Terrorism: Counter Terrorism involves the prevention, deterrence, and response to terrorism.

Foreign Internal Defense: Providing training and other assistance to foreign governments and their militaries to enable the foreign government to provide for its country’s national security. Foreign Internal Defense involves training the security forces of other nations in areas such as internal peacekeeping/law enforcement, border defense, counter-drug operations and military strategy.

Naval Special Warfare Training

BUD/S (Basic Underwater Demolition/SEALs) is the first step towards becoming a SEAL. The training takes place in Coronado, CA and lasts at least 6 months, with officers and enlisted training together. BUD/S is comprised of First Phase, highlighted by Hell Week and Hydrographic Reconnaissance; Second Phase, where students become proficient in open and closed circuit diving; and Third Phase, the culmination of BUD/S with an emphasis on small arms, demolitions and tactics. Each phase is designed to severely test the candidate’s leadership and physical and mental abilities. In addition to the daily physical challenges at BUD/S, officers are expected to lead throughout the training.

Upon completing BUD/S, graduates must complete SQT (SEAL Qualification Training) which lasts up to 12 months or more, involving extreme environment survival techniques, urban warfare, High Altitude Low Opening (HALO) parachute training, and many other skill sets. After completing SQT, sailors will receive the NSW warfare designator, also referred to as the Trident. New SEALs then report to their command and could be deployed overseas to combat shortly thereafter or enter the Troop training cycle, an 18 month work-up in preparation for deployment.

85

VI. Naval Special Warfare Craft:

Mark VIII SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV)Mission The electrically powered Mk VIII SEAL delivery vehicle is designed to deliver up to six

combat swimmers and their equipment. The Mk VIII is a `wet' vehicle, meaning that when it submerges the hull is completely flooded, the swimmers wearing underwater breathing apparatus (UBA). The vehicle is carried in a dry deck shelter aboard a US submarine.

Payload Equipment for up to six combat swimmersSpeed 6 kts.Range 70 milesCrew 6 (Two operators, Four passengers)

Mark V Special Operations CraftMission Used to carry Special Operations Forces (SOF), primarily SEALs and combat swimmers, into

and out of operations where the threat to these forces is considered to be low to medium. They also support limited coastal patrol and interruption of enemy activities.

Range 500+ NMSpeed 50 knots (max), 35 knots (cruise)Payload 5 + 16 troops, 4 zodiacs, multiple heavy weapon mounts

86

11M NSW RIB (Rigid-Hull Inflatable Boat)Mission High speed, high buoyancy extreme weather craft used to carry Special Operations Forces

(SOF), primarily SEALs, into and out of maritime operations. They also support coastal patrol and interdiction of enemy activities. Fully interoperable with MK V SOC Combat Boat.

Range 200+ NMSpeed 45+ KnotsPayload 5 + 8 troops, 2 zodiacs, 2 heavy weapon mounts

Mine-Resistant Ambush Vehicle (MRAP)Mission Ground mobility vehicle used to carry SEALs in a variety of terrain. The vehicle is designed to

protect the crew from explosive events.Range 420 milesSpeed 60+ mphPayload 8 personnel and gear

87

V. Future Capabilities

Naval Special Warfare continues to execute some of the most dynamic missions for DoD. Future officers will work in diverse environments Helmand Province in Afghanistan to the Horn of Africa, and need to be culturally attuned to a variety of regions. The focus of NSW and USSOCOM is persistent engagement with our partners and allies around the world. The Commander, USSOCOM, wants a special operator that can work in a joint and interagency environment, act as a diplomat for our country, and continue to represent the best quality warrior in the military.

88

EXPLOSIVE ORDNANCE DISPOSAL

I. Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD)

The mission of Navy EOD is: To provide the Fleet with the capability to detect, identify, render safe, recover, evaluate, and dispose of explosive and/or hazardous ordnance items that have been fired, dropped, launched, projected, or placed in such a manner as to constitute an increased danger to operations, installations, personnel, or material.

The EOD core competency encompasses the ability to render safe the following types of Unexploded Ordnance (UXO):

-Ground Ordnance (projectiles, rockets, grenades, landmines)-Air Ordnance (bombs, missiles, aircraft explosive hazards, and dispensed munitions)-Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)-Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) (chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons)-Underwater Ordnance (mines, torpedoes, and depth charges)

II. EOD History & Overview

The Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) community was officially organized as a warfare community in July of 1978 as the Special Operations Community, but the core missions and skills of EOD had been going on for many years before-hand. A need for ordnance disposal skills was recognized during WWII, as German and Japanese military operations left behind large quantities of dud-fired ordnance. Mine Disposal School was founded in May 1941, and Bomb Disposal School was founded in January 1942 by (then) LT Draper Kauffman, based in large part on the British Bomb Disposal model. The first two Navy EOD commands were established in 1953.

Today, all four services have EOD Technicians, all of whom are trained at Naval School, Explosive Ordnance Disposal (NAVSCOLEOD). Navy EOD is organized somewhat differently than the other services in that EOD is its own warfare community in the Navy; in the other services, it is a component of larger communities. Additionally, Navy EOD Technicians must go through more training than EOD Technicians from other services, enabling them to operate in more environments. Navy EOD exists today as the only special operations capable (Land, Sea, Air) Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technicians.

The Navy EOD community is primarily focused around the core competencies of EOD; Underwater Mine Countermeasures (UMCM), Combat Expeditionary Support (CES), Special Operations Forces (SOF) support, Anti-Terrorism/Force Protection (AT/FP), and Navy Dive and Salvage Support Operations. Navy EOD units can deploy as a shipboard detachment with a Carrier or Expeditionary Strike Group, or as a land-based asset assigned to an Army or Marine Corps unit. Additionally, Navy EOD units are special operations capable, specifically and uniquely tasked with support to Naval Special Warfare (NSW) and Army Special Forces (SF).

89

III. EOD Competencies & Missions

There is a common misperception that Navy EOD’s operational environments include only diving on underwater ordnance. This perception is far from the truth; diving is only one mission area in which Navy EOD Technicians have expertise. Today, most Navy EOD deployments are land based with ground combat units and performing offensive operations:

Mine Countermeasures (MCM)MCM is made up of three components: EOD personnel (UMCM), surface units (SMCM), and air units (AMCM). EOD personnel are specifically tasked with detecting and diving on armed underwater ordnance and conducting Render Safe Procedures (RSPs). Additionally, EOD personnel render safe dud-fired mines, torpedoes, and depth-charges, as well as conducting searches for and RSPs on limpet mines.

Special Operations Forces (SOF) Support Navy EOD Technicians lend their expertise to SOF units to ensure they achieve mission success. The skills learned in the EOD training pipeline lend themselves to participation in these types of operations. Navy EOD Technicians will participate in advanced training with the SOF unit they are assigned to in order to support the entire spectrum of operations with which that unit may be tasked. Anti-Terrorism/Force Protection (AT/FP)/U.S. Secret Service Support AT/FP is a natural extension of the counter IED skills EOD Technicians learn. Many EOD Officers assigned to afloat staffs serve as, or work in close conjunction with the AT/FP Officer. EOD Technicians regularly perform U.S. Secret Service support in order to mitigate and eliminate explosive hazards. Additionally, some EOD Shore Detachments work in conjunction with local, state, and federal bomb disposal agencies to combat terrorist threats.

Expeditionary Diving and SalvageExpertise in diving is a vital skill needed for the prosecution of underwater ordnance. All Navy EOD Technicians are Navy Divers and are trained in open-circuit SCUBA and the Mk-16 Mod 1, a computerized re-breather with low magnetic properties.

Though they fall under EOD command, some Navy Divers are not EOD qualified, but instead get advanced training as Second Class Divers, First Class Divers, Diving Medical Technicians, and Master Divers, specializing in surface supplied diving, open/closed circuit SCUBA, and diving medicine. These Divers may be assigned to a Mobile Diving & Salvage Unit, to an EOD Mobile Unit, or another EOD command.

III. EOD Organization

The Type Commander (TYCOM) for Navy EOD is the Commander, Naval Expeditionary Combat Command (NECC). Under the NECC, Navy EOD forces are divided into 2 Groups. Each group contains 4 or 5 Mobile Units (EODMU), which are comprised of companies and platoons, and a reserve Mobile Unit, referred to as an EOD Operational Support Unit (EODOSU). The EOD platoon consists of one officer and six to eight enlisted EOD Technicians. Each Group also contains a Training & Evaluation Unit (EODTEU) and a Mobile Diving & Salvage Unit (MDSU). There are other EOD major commands that do not fall under one of the Groups, but instead fall under the NECC just as the Groups do.

90

WEST COASTCOMEODGRU ONE (Coronado, CA) EOD Training & Evaluation Unit 1 (Point Loma, CA)EODMU 1 (Coronado, CA)EODMU 3 (Coronado, CA) EODMU 5 (Guam) EODOSU 7 (San Diego, CA)EODMU 11 (Whidbey Island, WA) Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit 1 (MDSU-1) (Pearl Harbor, HI)

EAST COASTCOMEODGRU TWO (Little Creek, VA) EOD Training & Evaluation Unit 2 (Ft. Story, VA) EODMU 2 (Little Creek, VA) EODMU 4/CTF 56 (Bahrain)EODMU 6 (Little Creek, VA) EODMU 8 (NAS Sigonella, Sicily)EODOSU 10 (Ft. Story, VA)EODMU 12 (Little Creek, VA)Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit 2 (MDSU-2) (Little Creek, VA)

*Additionally, each Mobile Unit has multiple Shore Detachments attached to it. These Shore Dets provide a fixed regional response capability and are usually located in proximity to a DOD installation.

EOD MAJOR COMMANDSNAVSCOLEOD, Naval Diving & Salvage Training Center (NDSTC), Commander Task Force 56, Center for EOD & Diving, Commander Naval Riverine Force, EOD Technology Division, and the Joint IED Defeat Organization.

IV. EOD Training Pipeline

All Navy EOD students, both officer and enlisted, participate in the exact same training pipeline, broken into four phases: EOD Diver, NAVSCOLEOD, Jump School, and EOD Tactical Training.

1. EOD Diver COI, Naval Diving & Salvage Training Center (NDSTC)All Navy EOD personnel begin training at NDSTC in Panama City, FL. There, EOD students complete the 8-week EOD Diver Course of Instruction (COI) and learn to safely use open circuit SCUBA rigs and the closed circuit Mk-16 Mod 1 SCUBA re-breather.

2. Naval School, Explosive Ordnance Disposal (NAVSCOLEOD)From Dive School, EOD students proceed to NAVSCOLEOD, at Eglin AFB, FL. Run by the Navy to provide EOD training to all four of the services, this school lasts nine months for Navy personnel, due to their additional two months of training in underwater ordnance. The school is very academically and physically intensive, especially when Navy students reach the Underwater Ordnance Division. Navy students must demonstrate capability in the following divisions in order to graduate:

-Core I-Demolition-Tools & Methods-Core II-Ground Ordnance Division

-Air Ordnance Division-Improvised Explosive Devices Division-Weapons of Mass Destruction Division-Underwater Ordnance Division

Upon graduation from NAVSCOLEOD, all personnel (officer and enlisted) are designated as Basic EOD Technicians.

3. Jump SchoolNewly graduated Basic EOD Technicians leave NAVSCOLEOD and report immediately to parachute training at either Ft. Benning, GA, or Otay Mesa, CA. EOD Technicians reporting to Ft. Benning will complete the Army Parachute COI, a three-week course leading to a static line parachuting qualification. EOD Technicians reporting to Otay Mesa, CA will complete the four-week Navy Parachute COI with Tactical Air Operations, leading to both a static line and military free-fall qualification.

91

EOD Tactical TrainingRegardless of which parachute COI the new EOD Technicians participate in, upon completion they report to EOD Tactical Training at EODTEU-1. There they will receive training in small arms, Helo Rope Suspension Technique (HRST) operations, Special Insertion and Extraction (SPIE) rigging, cast and recovery operations, rappelling, land warfare techniques, and advanced combat first aid. Once Tactical Training is completed, the EOD Technician reports to a Mobile Unit for assignment on a platoon.

V. EOD Warfare Qualification

Officer

When the Special Operations community was realigned as the EOD Community beginning in 2007, the Personnel Qualification Standards (PQS) (not to be confused with the training pipeline) for enlisted and officer EOD Technicians became different, much as it is throughout the rest of the Navy. Enlisted EOD Technicians retain the “old” qualification path. Basic EOD Technicians complete two years of PQS, demonstrate proficiency, and complete a board to earn their Senior EOD Technician qualification. Successful completion of an additional three years of PQS, demonstrated proficiency, training, and scenario-based boards will result in qualification as a Master EOD Technician.

The warfare qualification process is now different for officers. Like their enlisted counterparts, EOD officers graduate NAVSCOLEOD as Basic EOD Technicians. However, EOD officers no longer complete Senior and Master EOD qualifications. Instead, new EOD officers must complete a three year program of PQS, demonstrated EOD proficiency, demonstrated leadership, and complete a scenario-based oral and performance based qualification board while leading an EOD platoon. Successful completion of these requirements leads to qualification as an EOD Officer. The EOD Officer qualification badge looks exactly the same as the Master EOD Technician’s, except it is gold rather than silver/pewter.

VI. Navy Diver Classifications

Not all Sailors who are part of the Navy EOD Community are EOD Technicians. The Navy Diving community is a subset of the EOD Community. Since all Navy EOD Technicians begin their training pipeline as Navy Divers, there is a tight bond of common expertise between EOD Technicians and Navy Divers. The term “Navy Diver” is not a monolith. “Navy Diver” refers to a Sailor who has successfully completed one of several COIs offered at NDSTC (of which the EOD Diver COI is just one). Navy Divers who are not Navy EOD Technicians can have the following designations:

92

SCUBA Diver: Basic Diver. Attends one month school at NDSTC. Can not dive “decompression” dives.

Second Class Diver: Attends 4-month long training at NDSTC. 2nd Class Divers gain proficiency in SCUBA, MK-20, and MK-21, hyperbaric chamber operations, and diagnosis of diving related casualties.

First Class Diver: Former 2/C Divers who complete the 4-week 1/C Diver COI and are then qualified to supervise the dive. They have more advanced expertise in supervising hyperbaric chamber operations and diagnosing and treating diving related casualties.

Master Diver: Must be a Chief Petty Officer. These 1/C Divers return to NDSTC and complete “Master Diver evaluations” in which they are evaluated in a series of scenarios by a panel of senior Master Divers. Most candidates will fail to become Master Divers on their first attempt and will have to return a year later to try again. Master Divers are the Navy’s diving experts. Regardless of their paygrade, they are addressed as “Master Diver.” *Most enlisted Divers progress from 2/C Diver through 1/C Diver. Very few are selected as Master Divers.

Dive Medical Officer (DMO): A Medical Officer who specializes in diving related illnesses.

Dive Medical Technician (DMT): All DMTs are Hospital Corpsmen (HM) while all other enlisted Divers are rated as Divers (DV). These Divers complete the 2/C Diver COI and then complete a special DMT COI that further teaches them about the medical aspects of diagnosing and treating diving illnesses.

Diving Officer (BDO): An officer who completes the 4-month Basic Dive Officer (BDO) COI. These officers are trained in SCUBA, Mk-20, Mk-21, as well as diving and hyperbaric chamber operations and supervision. They are directly responsible to the CO for the safe and efficient running of the command diving program. Many BDOs also complete the Salvage Officer (SO) COI, qualifying them to plan and lead salvage operations.

VII. EOD-Specific Tools and Equipment

The following list is by no means all-inclusive of the equipment Navy EOD Technicians and Divers use. Rather, these are examples of some of the most commonly used pieces of equipment.

93

Foster-Miller TALON Bomb Robot

Weight: 115-156lbs Payload capacity: 100lbsArm lift: 10lbs at full extension 20lbs total liftBattery life: 2-4 hoursCameras: 3 IR-illuminated Controlled from briefcase-sized Operational Control Unit (OCU)

94

iRobot EOD Packbot Bomb Robot

Weight: 68lbs Payload capacity: 46lbsArm lift: 10lbs at full extension 30lbs total liftBattery life: 2-12 hoursCameras: 4: 2 color, 1 drive, 1

surveillanceControlled from briefcase-sized Operational Control Unit (OCU)

MK-16 Mod 1 Underwater Breathing Apparatus (UBA)-SCUBA re-breather (no bubbles; exhaled CO2 is “recycled”) with low acoustic and magnetic properties. -Electronically driven: the UBA uses 3 oxygen sensors which monitor the partial pressure of oxygen in the Diver’s breathing loop and automatically adds O2 if the ppO2 is not within pre-established parameters.-Diver monitors rig performance through a primary and secondary electronics display. -Capable of diving to 300 Feet of Sea Water (FSW).-Can use two diluent gases: N2O2 for dives 150 FSW or shallower, or HeO2 for deeper dives.

Percussion Actuated Non-electric (PAN) Disruptor

- Device used to render safe IEDs remotely without detonating them. The benefit of such a tool is that it allows Render Safe Procedures (RSPs) to be conducted while the EOD Technician is a safe distance from the IED.

95

MED-ENG EOD IX Bomb Suit- Suit provides extensive blast and fragmentation protection. Comes in multiple layers: trousers, groin protector, torso, and helmet. Incorporates a fan and full body cooling system.

References and useful EOD links:

www.eod.navy.milhttp://www.med-eng.com/ViewProduct.aspx?ProductID=299http://www.foster-miller.com/lemming.htmhttp://www.navsea.navy.mil/nswc/eodtechdiv/default.aspxhttp://www.irobot.com/sp.cfm?pageid=109https://www.netc.navy.mil/centers/ceneoddive/ndstc/https://www.npdc.navy.mil/ceneoddive/eods/http://www.eodmemorial.org/

MK-21 Surface Supplied UBA-Fulfills the Navy’s hardhat, surface supplied diving requirements for deep-sea diving & salvage.- Rig is comprised of Kirby-Morgan Superlite 17 helmet, an umbilical containing a gas hose, communications wire, and a pneumofathometer to determine depth.-Unlike older surface supplied rigs, the Diver is not enclosed in a full suit; instead he/she wears only the helmet with the attached umbilical. -For normal dives, max depth is 190 FSW on air, 300 FSW if the Diver is breathing HeO2.

96

97

RESTRICTED LINE AND STAFF CORPS

I. Fleet Support Officers

This community has gone through significant changes since it was created. Most recently, in October, 2001, two new Restricted Line communities were established, Information Professional and Human Resources, which initially was filled by Fleet Support officers. Those officers remaining in the Fleet Support Community continue to serve in roles that support the operating fleet, primarily shore billets. Focusing on a business-oriented command of a blended military-civilian complex, Fleet Support officers are experts at line management ashore of complex facilities with technical missions and multiple tenant commands at one base.

II. Restricted Line Communities

Engineering Duty Officer: EDOs apply technical expertise, practical engineering judgment, and business acumen to the research, development, design, acquisition, construction, life cycle maintenance, modernization, and disposal of ships and submarines and their associated warfare support systems. EDOs work in Fleet Maintenance & Industrial Management (50%), Acquisition (20%), and Systems Engineering (30%).

Aerospace Engineering Duty Officer: AEDOs provide professional management and technical direction in the entire air weapon system acquisition process from design to production and later product improvements of Naval aircraft, spacecraft, and weapons. Over one-third of AEDO billets are flying billets. AEDOs test and evaluate new aircraft, weapons systems, and weapons in various stages of development. Throughout a career, the AEDO will have billets in: (1) operational support activities; (2) headquarters; (3) research, development, test, and evaluation; and (4) manufacturing and production.

Aerospace Maintenance Duty Officer - AMDOs provide full time direction in the development, establishment, and implementation of maintenance and material management policies and procedures for the support of naval aircraft, airborne weapons, attendant systems and related support equipment.  The community includes approximately 500 officers. In addition to working in fleet maintenance organizations throughout the fleet, AMDOs are very much involved in all aspects of material acquisition and support as top-level Program Managers in NAVAIR and as Commanding Officers of the Naval Aviation Depots.   AMDOs and AEDOs are combined into a new, single competitive category at the Captain level.

Naval Intelligence: Naval Intelligence provides tactical, operational and strategic intelligence support to U.S. naval forces, joint services, multi-national forces, and executive level decision-makers. Naval Intelligence Officers have a wide variety of technical and non-technical academic backgrounds, including political science, modern history, physical and natural sciences, and the liberal arts.  There are approximately 1,350 Naval Intelligence Officers.

Information Warfare: Formerly known as Cryptology, there are over 800 Navy Information Warfare officers, who perform Naval Information Operations functions as directed by the Chief of Naval Operations afloat and ashore, and National Signals Intelligence tasks assigned by the Director, National Security Agency at NSA facilities ashore. These functions include: -Information Operations (IO, comprised of Electronic Warfare-EW, Operational Security-OPSEC, Military Deception-MILDEC, Computer Network Operations-CNO, and Psychological Operations-PSYOP) support on board ships, submarines and aircraft and ashore -Signals Intelligence/EW tasks assigned under CNO authority (generally afloat) and DIRNSA (ashore) -Information Operations to maximize friendly use of the electromagnetic spectrum and to minimize adversary IO efforts

98

Public Affairs Officers: The Public Affairs community is responsible for "Telling the Navy Story." Navy Public Affairs comprises three functional areas: -Media Operations: PAOs work with media outlets to communicate with the American public. -Internal Communications: PAOs produce publications, briefings and video news programs to communicate with Sailors, their families, reservists, retirees and civilian employees.-Community relations: PAOs reach out to the American public through "hands-on" programs like public tours, Congressional and VIP visits and embarks, speaking engagements, open houses and special events.

PAOs serve at sea, ashore, and in joint assignments, and are always deployed where Navy news is being made. All PAOs join the community through lateral transfer. Today there are about 190 officers in this community, the smallest in the Restricted Line.

Navy Oceanographers: The Naval Oceanography community collects, analyses, and then distributes data about the ocean and the atmosphere to Navy forces operating all over the world. Naval oceanographers are first on the scene - either literally in survey ships, or figuratively through computer prediction programs - in any military operation. There are approximately 430 Oceanography officers. They assist the war fighter in taking tactical advantage of the environment. They support the operational fleet from a variety of platforms. This can range from local area weather forecasting in support of aircraft carrier operations to optimizing the use of a sonar system in accordance with prevailing underwater sound conditions.

Information Professionals: The Information Professional Community is responsible for offensive and defensive Navy information operations to support requirements of theatre and operational commanders and national policy makers. They provide expertise in information, command and control, and space systems through the planning, acquisition, operation, maintenance, and security of systems that support Navy operational and business processes. Presently, there are billets for 535 officers.

Human Resources: The Human Resources community plans, programs, and executes life-cycle management of the navy’s most important resource – its people. The primary focus will be on the human resources system: the combined elements of manpower, personnel, training, and recruiting. There are billets for 570 officers in this community, under the direction of the Chief of Naval Personnel.

III. Staff Corps Communities

There are five Navy Staff Corps communities: Medical, Supply, Civil Engineer, Judge Advocate General, and Chaplain.

Medical Community: All officers in the Medical, Medical Service, Dental, and Nurse Corps are licensed medical professionals and are organized under the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.

Medical Corps: The Medical Corps consists of commissioned doctors who are responsible for maintaining the general health of personnel in the naval service. These doctors provide medical services, and administer hospitals, sick bays, and other medical facilities in the Navy. For squadrons of small ships, a medical officer may serve the entire squadron. Large ships usually have their own medical officer.

Medical Service Corps: This is the most highly diversified Corps within the Medical Community. Officers in this corps are specialists in clinical, scientific, and administrative health care fields. The Medical Service Corps now has approximately 2,600 officers. Health care scientists and clinical care specialists make up about 60 percent of the total Corps, serving in 22 different specialties including aerospace physiology, psychology, physical therapy, optometry, biochemistry, and radiation health, while health care administrators comprise the remaining 40 percent.

Dental Corps: Commissioned dentists provide dental services on shore and onboard large ships. Dental Corps officers are responsible for surgery, orthodontics, preventing and controlling dental disease, and supervising dental hygiene. Many small ships do not have dental officers.

99

Nurse Corps: As professional registered nurses, Nurse Corps officers use nursing expertise to accomplish the health services mission. Today, there are approximately 5,200 active duty and reserve Nurse Corps officers. They care for many patients whose illnesses and injuries are no different from those found in civilian facilities.  They also care for those with battle injuries or conditions resulting from fleet operations, chemical/biological warfare, or parasite-infested environments. 

Supply Corps: Supply Corps officers handle the supply phases of naval logistics. The broad responsibilities of the Supply Corps are closely related to those of many executive positions in private industry and embrace such areas as financial management, inventory control, transportation, procurement, data processing, and personnel services, including feeding U. S. naval forces and operating the Navy's Exchanges. The 2,900 Supply Officers are the business managers of the Navy and they are responsible for the supply support of the ships of the active fleet and hundreds of naval shore installations. The most important responsibility of the Supply Corps is the worldwide, integrated Navy Supply System, which gets the Fleet what it needs, where and when it needs it.

Civil Engineer Corps: Naval Officers of the CEC supervise and execute construction projects, infrastructure repairs, facility support contracts, real estate management, nature resource management, environmental remediation, and many other aspects of facilities engineering. As engineering managers in highly visible positions supervising numerous skilled personnel, they perform functions that are usually reserved for the most senior engineers in the private sector. CEC Officers work in one of three areas: construction contract management, public works, or the Seabees. Contract management officers are involved in all aspects of construction contracts. In public works, they are responsible for the operation and maintenance of complex facilities and utility systems found at shore activities. The Seabees consist of highly skilled personnel, schooled in both construction and defensive combat. Seabees may be deployed around the world to perform contingency construction, provide humanitarian relief, support amphibious operations, or accomplish important construction tasks.

Judge Advocate General Corps: The JAG corps was established in 1967 and is composed of lawyers who provide legal services to commands, service members, and their families. The Judge Advocate General directs an organization of more than 730 judge advocates in addition to other enlisted and civilian personnel, and provides legal and policy advice to the Secretary of the Navy in all legal matters.

Chaplain Corps: Officers in the Chaplain Corps are ordained ministers of various denominations and religions recognized by the Department of Defense. They provide religious ministries to naval service personnel and families, including worship services, religious education, pastoral counseling, and basic promotion of spiritual and moral welfare. Chaplains work on shore, on ships, and in the field with all branches of the naval service. Lateral transfers into the Chaplain Corps are not allowed.

Medical Corps Dental Corps Nurse Corps Medical Service Corps

Civil EngineerCorps

Chaplain Corps(Christian)

Chaplain Corps(Jewish)

Chaplain Corps(Muslim) Supply Corps Judge Advocate

General's CorpsIII.The Limited Duty Officer and Chief Warrant Officer Programs

100

Limited duty officer and chief warrant officer are two separate programs which provide the Navy with officer technical managers and technical specialists who exercise leadership in key positions throughout the service.  Both programs provide the opportunity for outstanding senior enlisted personnel to compete for a commission without need for a college degree.  Combined, these two communities make up more than eleven percent of the officer corps.

Limited Duty Officers (LDOs) - As officer technical managers of the Line or Staff Corps, LDOs progressively advance within broad technical fields related to their former enlisted ratings.  They fill leadership and management positions at the ensign through captain level that require technical background and skills not attainable through normal development within other officer designators.  LDOs serve as, but are not limited to serving as, division officers, department heads, OICs, XOs and COs, ashore or afloat. LDOs wear identical rank structure to that of Unrestricted Line officers.

Navy BandOfficers in the Navy Band are Limited Duty Officers who started their careers by enlisting in the Navy Band. Enlisted personnel must be at least an E-6 in order to apply. Upon commissioning, they are assigned to one of fourteen bands, and will rotate every two to three years. Senior billets are those with the Navy Band, Washington, and the US Naval Academy Band.

Chief Warrant Officers(CWOs) - Today, as commissioned officers of the line or staff, Navy CWOs possess the authority and are qualified by extensive experience and knowledge to direct the most difficult and exacting operations within a given occupational specialty. Although intended primarily as technical specialists, CWOs may also serve as division officers, department heads, OICs, X0 and CO, ashore or afloat. Like Staff Corps officers, CWOs wear special insignia above the rank devices on their shoulder boards and sleeves to indicate their field of expertise. The ranks of CWO start at CWO2 and end at CWO5.

Chief Warrant Officer Rank Structure of the United States NavyCWO5 CWO4 CWO3 CWO2

V. Differences between Unrestricted Line, Restricted Line, and Staff Corps OfficersUnrestricted Line officers serve in all warfare communities in the United States Navy and are eligible for command opportunities both at sea and ashore. These are the primary officer communities in the Navy.

Restricted Line Officer communities provide highly specialized, technical services that directly support the missions of the United States Naval Service. Restricted Line officers are not generally eligible for command at sea; however, they may command auxiliary vessels and various shore activities. Restricted Line officers wear rank insignia identical to those of Unrestricted Line officers.

Officers in the Staff Corps provide various highly specialized services necessary to Naval bases, service members, and their families. Staff Corps officers may command auxiliary vessels and various shore activities, and may also attain command within their own corps. Unlike Line officers, Staff Corps officer wear their grade (rank) insignia on the right collar, and their corps insignia device on the left collar. The corps insignia replaces the star worn by line officers on sleeves and shoulder boards.

101

COMPUTER NETWORK OPERATIONS

I. Foundation – Information Operations

Complimentary to kinetic action in war, Information Operations (IO) are essential for information superiority and success in conflict.

IO is the integrated employment of the core capabilities of Electronic Warfare (EW), Computer Network Operations (CNO), Psychological Operations (PSYOP), Military Deception (MILDEC), and Operational Security (OPSEC), in concert with specified supporting and related capabilities, to influence, disrupt, corrupt or usurp adversarial human and automated decision making while protecting our own.

With the increase in global connectivity and availability of technology, Computer Network Operations (CNO) has become increasingly important and will be the focus on this chapter.

II. History

US Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM) was established by the Secretary of Defense in October 2009 as the first joint command charged with operational command of the cyber domain. It falls directly under US Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) and reflects a shift in military strategy as a response to international threats in the digital realm. FLTCYBERCOM (10th FLEET) is the Naval component of that command.

FLTCYBERCOM Mission: “To serve as central operational authority for networks, intelligence, cryptology/SIGINT,

information operations, cyber, electronic warfare, and space in support of forces afloat and ashore; operate a secure, interoperable Naval network; coordinate Navy’s operational requirements for intelligence, information operations, networks, cryptology/SIGINT, and space capabilities.”

102

II. Operations

Warfighters in the Air, Land, and Sea environments heavily rely on the Global Information Grid (GIG) for information communication and dissemination. CNO is comprised of computer network attack, computer network defense, and related computer network exploitation enabling operations which take place in, and around, the GIG in both physical and cyber space:

Cyberspace - A global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures, including the Internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded processors and controllers.

Cyberspace Operations - The employment of cyber capabilities where the primary purpose is to achieve objectives in or through cyberspace. Such operations include computer network operations and activities to operate and defend the Global Information Grid.

Global Information Grid (GIG) – The globally interconnected, end-to-end set of information capabilities, associated processes and personnel for collecting, processing, storing, disseminating, and managing information on demand to warfighters, policy makers, and support personnel. The Global Information Grid includes owned and leased communications and computing systems and services, software (including applications), data, security services, other associated services and National Security Systems.

Computer Network Attack (CNA) – Actions taken through the use of computer networks to disrupt, deny, degrade, or destroy information resident in computers and computer networks, or the computers and networks themselves.

Computer Network Defense (CND) – Actions taken to protect monitor, analyze, detect, and respond to unauthorized activity within the Department of Defense information systems and computer networks.

Computer Network Exploitation (CNE) – Enabling operations and intelligence collection capabilities conducted through the use of computer networks to gather data from target or adversary automated information systems or networks.

III. Computer Network Defense

Information Assurance (IA) is a measure or combination of measures that protect and defend information and information systems by ensuring availability, integrity, authentication, confidentiality, and non-repudiation. This includes providing for restoration of information systems by incorporating protection, detection, and reaction capabilities. Network Defenders strive for:

1. Availability – Timely, reliable access to data and information systems for authorized users, and precludes denial of service or access.

2. Integrity – Protection of information against unauthorized modification or destruction.3. Authentication – Verifying the identity of an individual or entity and the authority to access

specific categories of information.4. Confidentiality – The protection of both sensitive and classified information from unauthorized

disclosure.5. Non-repudiation – Assurance to the sender of data with proof of delivery and to the recipient of the

sender’s identity, so that neither can later deny having processed the data. The United States classifies and protects its information so that only the right people see the right data at the right time. The United States government classification system is established an executive order issued by the President. The current executive order lays out the system of classification, declassification, and handling of national security information generated by the U.S. government and its employees and contractors, as well as information received from other governments.

103

The desired degree of secrecy about such information is known as its sensitivity. Sensitivity is based upon a calculation of the damage to national security that the release of the information would cause. The United States has three main levels of classification: confidential, secret, and top secret. Each level of classification indicates an increasing degree of sensitivity. Thus if one holds a top-secret security clearance, one is allowed to handle information up to the level of top-secret including secret and confidential information. If one holds a secret clearance, one may not then handle top-secret information, but may handle secret and confidential classified information.

Unclassified – Unofficial or potentially official information which does not require the application of security safeguards, but the disclosure of which may be subject to control for other reasons.

Confidential – National security information or material that requires protection and the unauthorized disclosure of which could reasonably be expected to cause damage to national security.

Secret – National security information or material that requires a substantial degree of protection and the unauthorized disclosure of which could reasonably be expected to cause serious damage to national security.

Top Secret – National security information or material that requires the highest degree of protection and the unauthorized disclosure of which could reasonably be expected to cause exceptionally grave damage to the national security.

Regardless of sensitivity level, information that is classified may be given only to people with the appropriate clearance and a valid need to know the information. Having a Top Secret clearance does not give one access to all documents classified at that level. In addition, dissemination of information is often compartmentalized, requiring special additional clearance requirements to reduce the number of people who have access to extremely sensitive data. Special clearances are required for access to cryptographic and nuclear secrets.

The GIG consists of multiple networks of different classification. The DoD’s Non-secure Internet Protocol Router Network (NIPRNET) consists of millions of computers connected to the internet with complete access to the World Wide Web. The DoD also maintains a separate network called the SIPRNET (Secret Internet Protocol Router Network) which is not connected to the Internet, but uses the same technology as the internet. The SIPRNET is used to store and transmit classified information up to the secret level. Likewise the DoD maintains other separate networks that use the same technology as the internet but are also separated into different data classifications.

An applicable tactic the DoD uses to protect its networks is a layered defense called Defense in Depth. Defense in Depth is the stationing of mutually supporting defense positions designed to absorb and progressively weaken attack, prevent initial observations of the whole position by the enemy, and to allow the commander to maneuver the reserve.

104

In the cyber environment, it keeps its applications up to date with security patches and other fixes to prevent the application from harming the network or allowing data to be shared with the wrong parties. Further, it restricts certain applications that are known to either be very vulnerable or those that are commonly used to exploit DoD networks. For the same reasons, the DoD dictates the operating system (host) allowed on each network. Then, it places physical technology in the inside and perimeter of each of its networks to act as a gate keeper, allowing only authorized network traffic in and out of the network. With physical access to communications and computer equipment, enemies of the DoD could easily penetrate our defenses and get unauthorized access to data. Finally, the DoD puts policies and procedures in place to prevent unauthorized access to data and to ensure that each DoD mission is performed as expected.

IV. Computer Network Attack

Attacking a network may be for many reasons including: financial gain, intelligence gathering, sabotage, mission disruption, or gaining a foothold within a network for future actions. While many of these attacks have a technical component that will not be covered in this chapter, most attacks start with a person who has a computer and an account on a DoD network. Some common attacks are listed below, with associated defenses to protect against these attacks. NOTE: The most vulnerable parts of the network are the people who use the system.______________________________________________________________________________

Attack: Social Engineering

Description: An attacker finds information from public sources that, when pieced together, can be used to break into a system.

Defense: Recognizing available personal public information and controlling it.

Example: An acquaintance gets access to your Facebook page, sees personal information, USNA information, or summer training information, and can now collate open source intelligence (OSINT) based off of that information or pose as you while contacting a website “help desk” to get access to other websites.______________________________________________________________________________

Attack: Phishing

Description: A high-tech scam that uses e-mail or websites to deceive you into disclosing your credit card numbers, bank account information, Social Security Number, passwords, or other sensitive information. This is not only personally dangerous, but also places DoD networks at risk.

105

Defense: Pay close attention to e-mails or web sites asking for personal or system information. Rarely are these legitimate e-mails. Verify all requirements for personal information over the phone, in person or using an independent means of verification. Rather than hitting reply (which may not go to the person you think) or simply clicking on the link, actually find their e-mail address and type it.

Example: You get a legitimate looking e-mail from Navy Federal Credit Union noting that, for security reasons, you need to update your account. When you go to that link it asks you your name and account number, possibly the last 4 digits of your social security number, and for verification it asks you your Mother's maiden name or other personal information. From this data, the attacker has access to a wealth of information.

____________________________________________________________________________

Attack: Spoofing and Redirection

Description: Unauthorized use of legitimate Identification and Authentication (I&A) data, however it was obtained, to mimic a subject different from the attacker. Impersonating, masquerading, piggybacking, and mimicking are forms of spoofing.

Defense: Always look to see if the link matches the expected link. Type in the complete URL of the website; don't click on links in e-mail.

Example: You get an e-mail that looks like it comes from the Commandant that says to click on a link for a recent policy update. When you click on the link, it takes a while to open. When it does, the policy is either blank or clearly not from the Commandant. Although you ignore it, an attacker has loaded a program on your system which logs every keystroke, so they now have access to all of your passwords and key documents.

______________________________________________________________________________

Attack: Software Vulnerability/malware

Description: A single program can have millions of lines of code making it very difficult to secure every line. Hackers use vulnerabilities in existing programs, or create their own programs, to break into systems and gain access to unauthorized data

Defense: Keep your security patches and antivirus signatures up to date.

Example: You notice that your virus checker takes about two minutes to load. Not wanting to wait, you disable your virus checker and use the internet. You have likely "infected" your system with programs designed to allow an attacker to gain full access to your system and data.

______________________________________________________________________________

Attack: Password Cracking

Description: Passwords are stored as encrypted characters for most applications. If an attacker has access to the location where these passwords are stored they can break them either by brute force (going through every combination) or by pre-computing all possible combinations and looking up the encrypted characters and matching it to the pre-encrypted password.

Defense: Make password cracking far more complex by using passwords of greater than 14 characters, using phrases or letters from the first word of every phrase rather than a single word; ensuring your password makes use of upper and lower case letters, numbers and special characters; using a different password for different applications so that if one is compromised, the attacker does not have access to all of your systems.

106

Example: In Microsoft Windows, a password of 14 characters of a-z, A-Z and 0-9 can be cracked in less than a minute due to readily available lookup tables. Assume a password of 14 of the same characters. By adding 2 special characters (!@#$%^&*(), that password could increase the same password cracking effort to months or even years.

______________________________________________________________________________

Attack: Intercepting Traffic

Description: All network traffic that is not encrypted can be fully read by an attacker with readily available free software; including passwords, personal data and key mission data.

Defense: Ensure you are using "secure", meaning encrypted, network traffic any time you are putting personal information, passwords or sensitive information into forms on the network. If given a message that a site certificate may not be valid, click into the information to discover who signed the data (most military sites are signed by DoD, VeriSign for non-DoD Sites). If not a valid site, do not click on that link or put in the personal information.

Example: You go to your Navy Knowledge Online site, and get a message that the certificate may not be valid. You click into the certificate and see that it has been signed by abc.com not the Department of Defense as noted below. That site is likely a "phishing" site, trying to gain information that you would normally put into the real Navy Knowledge Online. NOTE: “https://” not “http://” is an indicator of a secure website.______________________________________________________________________________

Attack: Security Hopping

Description: An attacker has access to one machine; they use that information to gain access to other machines on the same network or different networks using the same passwords.

Defenses: Use different passwords for different systems; Never disable the security features of your USNA accounts, since these accounts are connected (outside the Academy) to Navy and DoD networks.

Example: You disable your virus checking for two minutes while going to a web site. Without your knowledge software loaded to your computer, an attacker takes control of your machine and a common printer to which that computer is attached. The attacker the connects to another computer connected to that networked printer and continues this process until he connects to a Navy computer outside the Academy. If enough people in this chain bypass security measures, it doesn't take long for the attacker to have control of thousands of Navy computers with valuable logistics and ship movement information.______________________________________________________________________________

Attack: Improper use of a CAC

Description: A Common Access Card (CAC) provides physical and/or electronic identification.

All DoD employees are issued a Common Access Card. Your midshipman ID is a CAC. In addition to key personal information like your fingerprint, Social Security number, birthday, and military service information, it also contains private encryption keys embedded in the gold seal. These encryption keys (or certificates) enable users to log onto certain sensitive DoD sites that would be otherwise denied to those without Common Access Card’s. Loosing a CAC puts the entire DoD network at risk since only a single point of entry is needed for an intruder to attack it and jump to "secure" sites throughout the entire DoD.

Defenses: If you loose your CAC (even if you find it later in a public place where an attacker could have copied it), you should report it immediately.

107

108