Unit VIII. Motivation and Emotion 1

EmotionEmotions are our body’s adaptive response of the whole

organism. Emotions involve physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience..

Expression of Emotions is Adaptive ■Darwin speculated that

our ancestors communicated with facial expressions in the absence of language. Nonverbal facial expressions led to our ancestors survival.– Surprise widens our eyes,

enabling us to take in more information.

– Disgust wrinkles the nose, closing it to foul odors.

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Theorist Basic Emotions

PlutchikAcceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust, joy, fear, sadness, surprise

ArnoldAnger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire, despair, fear, hate, hope, love, sadness

Ekman, Friesen, and Ellsworth Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise

Frijda Desire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder, sorrow

Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy

IzardAnger, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, guilt, interest, joy, shame, surprise

James Fear, grief, love, rage

McDougallAnger, disgust, elation, fear, subjection, tender-emotion, wonder

Mowrer Pain, pleasure

Oatley and Johnson-Laird Anger, disgust, anxiety, happiness, sadness

Panksepp Expectancy, fear, rage, panic

TomkinsAnger, interest, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, joy, shame, surprise

Watson Fear, love, rageWeiner and Graham Happiness, sadness

Controversy

1) Does physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience?

2) Does cognition (thinking) precede emotion (feeling)?

• I see a bear -> I tremble -> I am afraid• Perception -> physical response -> emotion

• Emotions are a response to what is happening to the body• Value

– – first attempt to explain the process– - includes an interpretation aspect

• Cannon and Bard challenged James-Lange theory• Emotions do not come about as a response to physical

responses– Emotions and physical responses occur at the same time– I see a bear -> I am afraid and tremble

• Value– Early scientific look at emotions– Advanced understanding of process

• Problem– Doesn’t include interpretative – part of the process

Schachter-Singer– Schachter-Singer

• Emotions we feel depend on– Out internal physical state– The external situation– Psych Files

•Limbic System (Amygdala)-Flight or fight responses– -evidence-lesioning (cutting) or electrically stimulating

parts of the lymbic system

•Reticular Formation-Located in brain stem-works w/thalamus and amygdala to monitor info– In detecting threats, the ret.form sets off heart

accelerate, respiration increases

Unit VIII. Motivation and Emotion 4

Hemispheric Contributions to Emotion■ Central focus of emotion■ Interprets events and associates them with

memories and feelings■ Lateralization of emotion

– Right hemisphere—negative emotions,such as anger and depression

– Left Hemisphere—positive emotions

Physiological DifferencesPhysical responses, like finger temperature and movement of facial muscles, change during fear,

rage, and joy.

Activity of the left frontal lobe (happy) is different from the right frontal lobe (depressed) for emotions.

Observing activity in the amygdala, we can distinguish between anger and rage.

Role of Autonomic Nervous System■ Parasympathetic-dominates in pleasant emotions

■ Sympathetic—startling or unpleasant emotions– Ie-A car coming towards you

■ Brain alerts the body by means of messages carried along pathway sof the sympathetic system

■ Messages direct adrenal glands to release stress hormones, raise heart, and blood pressure

■ Directs certain blood vessels to constrict, diverting energy to the voluntary muscles and away from the stomach andintestines (the “knot” in your stomach)

Physiological SimilaritiesPhysiological responses related to the

emotions of fear, anger, love, and boredom are very similar.

Excitement and fear involve a similarphysiological arousal.

M. G

recco/ Stock Boston

Cognition and Emotion

What is the connection between how we think (cognition) and how we feel

(emotion)?Can we change our emotions by changing

our thinking?

Cognition Does Not Always Precede Emotion

A subliminally presented happy face can encourage subjects to drink more than when

presented with an angry face (Berridge & Winkeilman, 2003).

Emotions are felt directly through the amygdala (a) or through the cortex (b) for

analysis.

The amygdala sends more neural

projections up to the cortex than it receives

back, leading our feelings to often

hijack our thinking.

Analyzing Emotion

Analysis of emotions are carried on different levels.

Catharsis Hypothesis

Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release or

“catharsis.”

Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement it is habit-forming.

Research has not supported the catharsis hypothesis.

Cultural & Gender Differences

1. Boys respond to anger by moving away from that situation, while girls talk to their friends or listen to music.

2. Anger breeds prejudice. The 9/11 attacks led to an intolerance towards immigrants and Muslims.

3. The expression of anger is more encouraged in cultures that do not promote group behavior than in cultures that do promote group behavior.

Happiness

People who are happy perceive the

world as being safer. They are able to make decisions easily, are more

cooperative, rate job applicants more

favorably, and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied

lives.

Feel-Good, Do-Good PhenomenonWhen we feel happy we are more willing

to help others.

Emotional Ups and Downs

Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative

moods stay more or less the same throughout the day.

Stress and Stressors

A stressor is a thing that causes a person to experience stress. Stress is not merely a stimulus or a

response. It is a process by which we appraise and cope with environmental threats and challenges.

When short-lived or taken as a challenge, stressors may have positive effects. However, if

stress is threatening or prolonged, it can be harmful.

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The Stress Response System

Our initial stress response is a fight-or-flight response:•epinephrine and norepinephrine from the inner adrenal glands,

• increasing heart and respiration

rates, •sugar and fat

mobilized• natural pain

killers released

General Adaptation Syndrome

According to Selye, a stress response to any kind ofstimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes

through three phases.

Long term stress, exhaustion, etc…

Stress & Susceptibility to DiseaseA psychophysiological illness is any stress-

related physical illness such as hypertension and some headaches.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is a developing field in which the health effects

of psychological, neural, and endocrine processes on the immune system are

studied.

PART II. Motivation

26

Motivation

Motivation is a need or desire that

energizes behavior and directs it

towards a goal.

Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock

that pinned him down.

Ralston describes itAron Ralston

AP Photo/ R

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ews, Judy W

algren

Achievement Motivation• Achievement motivation is defined as a

desire for significant accomplishment.• Motivation to achieve differs from person

to person.• People with a high need to achieve tend

to: • choose tasks that allow for success, yet• still require skill and effort, and• keep persisting until success is achieved.

Types of MotivationDrive-Motivation that is assumed

to have a strong biological component. Important in reproduction and survival Ie-Hunger and thirst

Motive-learned urges-achievement or playing video games

Intrinsic V. Extrinsic motivation Engages in an activity for their own

sake without any outside reward Rewards for actions

Perspectives on Motivation

Four perspectives used to explain motivation include the following:

1. Instinct Theory (replaced by the evolutionary perspective)

2. Drive-Reduction Theory3. Arousal Theory4. Hierarchy of Motives

Motivation in Evolutionary PsychologyInstincts are patterns of behavior that are inherited and

unlearned. Instincts generally serve to help survival.Examples: ■Salmon swim upstream to reproduce – survival of species.■Rooting of human infants – survival of individual.

Evolutionary Theory of Motivation Under Darwin’s influence, early theorists viewed motivation as resulting in purposeful behavior that is ultimately directed toward the fundamental goal of evolutionary fitness, and as being controlled by instincts.

When it became clear that people were naming, not explaining, various behaviors by calling them instincts, this approach fell into disfavor.

Drives and IncentivesWhen the instinct theory of motivation failed, it was

replaced by the drive-reduction theory. Drive-reduction theory says: a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a

drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. Our goal is homeostasis, internal stability.

Incentive•Our needs push our behavior•Incentives pull us toward behavior that reduces our drives.

•Incentives are positive or negative stimuli

Optimum Arousal

Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it.

Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the

absence of a need-based drive.

Harlow

Primate Laboratory, U

niversity of Wisconsin

Randy Faris/ C

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A Hierarchy of Motives

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that

certain needs have priority over others.

Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs

such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition.

(1908-1970)

Hunger

When are we hungry?

When do we eat?

When there is no food in our stomach.

When we are hungry.

How do we know when our stomach is empty?Our stomach growls. These are also called

hunger pangs.

Body Chemistry & the BrainLevels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines.

These receptors send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain.

Hypothalamus produces the hormone orexin.

•Reminder: Hypothalamus directs maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions.

Rat Hypothalamus

Hypothalamic Centers

The lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating. The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in

the LH, which leads rats to eat ravenously.

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger

(stimulation). Destroy the VMH, and the animal eats excessively.

Hypothalamus & Hormones

Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase

Hypothalamus

Increases hunger

Ghrelin increase Stomach Increases

hungerInsulin increase Pancreas Increases

hungerLeptin increase Fat cells Decreases

hunger

PPY increase Digestive tract

Decreases hunger

The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.

Set Point

Manipulating the lateral and the ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat.” Heredity influences set

point and body type.

If weight is lost, food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is

gained, the opposite takes place.

The Psychology of Hunger

Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with

retention, amnesia patients eat frequently if given food (Rozin et

al., 1998).

Eating DisordersAnorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a

normal-weight person (usually an adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still

feels overweight.

Reasons for Eating Disorders

1. Sexual Abuse: Childhood sexual abuse does not cause eating disorders.

2. Family: Younger generations develop eating disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern. Family also tends to be highly competitive, high-achieving and protective.

3. Genetics: Twin studies show that eating disorders are more likely to occur in identical twins rather than fraternal twins.

Obesity

http://ww

w.cyberdiet.com

A disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems. For women, obesity is linked to late-life Alzheimer’s and brain tissue loss.

Social Effects of Obesity

When women applicants were made to look overweight, subjects were less willing

to hire them.• Obesity, especially among women, have a 25% increase in likelihood of depression and anxiety.

• 9 in 10 surveyed that were once obese said they would rather have a leg amputated than be obese again.

Summary

Sexual MotivationSexual motivation is nature’s clever way of

making people procreate, enabling our species to survive.

To understand sexual motivation we must consider both the internal and external stimuli.

The Physiology of SexMasters and Johnson (1966):382 female voluteers, 312 male volunteers agreed to participate in a study in which they were observed in a laboratory setting during masturbation and sexual intercourse.Their results were used to gather information about the human sexual response cycle

The Physiology of Sex

Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response cycle as consisting of four

phases:Phase Physiological Response

Excitement

Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.

Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure.

OrgasmContractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release.

Resolution

Engorged genital release blood. Male goes through refractory phase. Women resolve slower.

Estrogen and TestosteroneFemale animals “in heat” express peak levels of estrogen.

Female receptivity may be heightened with estrogen injections.

• Women are more likely to have sex when close to ovulation (increased testosterone)

• Men show increased testosterone levels when socializing with women.

Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than on animals.

The Psychology of Sex

Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In that sense, sex is not a

need because if we do not have sex, we do not die.

Imagined Stimuli

Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with

spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire.

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External Stimuli■In studies, both men and women become sexually aroused when browsing through erotic material.

■Can sexually explicit material have adverse effects on its viewers?

Research says – YES!

External StimuliDepictions of women being strong-armed into sexual situations and consequently enjoying it, increase male viewers willingness to be sexually aggressive with women.

After viewing sexually explicit images or videos, men and women report:

Feeling less attracted to girlfriend/boyfriend or wife/husband.

Feeling less satisfied with their own sexual partner.

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual

relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or either sex.

Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual

Origins of Sexual Orientation

Homosexuality is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers,

genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather than environmental factors.

Homosexual parents

Cynthia Johnson/ Tim

e magazine

Sexual Orientation: Biology