Unit II Chapter 4 Notes

Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: p139 Focus QuestionsWhat is classical conditioning and how did Pavlov study it?

Ivan Pavlov is the originator of what is now called classical conditioning, a form of learning base primarily on stimuli that causes reflexes, such as salvation in response to food.

What basic procedures are involved in classical conditioning?In classical conditioning, the stimulus that naturally produces the reflex response is the unconditional stimulus (UCS), which is repeatedly paired with an initially neutral stimulus until the latter becomes the conditional stimulus (CS). What is learned in classical conditioning is a CS-UCS association; the original reflex response is the unconditional response (UCR), and the response produced by the CS is the conditional response (CR).

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: DEFINITIONS

Conditioning: the establishment of a relationship between stimuli and responses, or vice versa.

Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior potential as a result of experience..

Reflex: a built-in or otherwise automatic response to a specific stimulus.

Classical Conditioning:

The establishment of a relationship between two stimuli, typically one that evokes a reflex response and one that is initially neutral with regard to this response.

Unconditional stimulus (UCS):

Any stimulus that automatically and reliably produces a particular response, such as a reflex.

Conditional stimulus (CS):

An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response similar to that elicited by a UCS.

Unconditional response (UCR):

The automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditional response (CR):

the learned response to a conditioned stimulus (CS).

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an animal’s natural response to one object or sensory stimulus transfers to another stimulus. This illustration shows how a dog can learn to salivate to the sound of a tuning fork, an experiment first carried out in the early 1900s by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. For conditioning to occur, the pairing of the food with the tuning fork (step 3 in the illustration) must be repeated many times, so that the dog eventually learns to associate the two items.

Crazy Joe’s Psych 101 Notes II Prof. T.R. Tharney: PSY101 Chapter 4: pp. 1

Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning Phenomena and Applications: p142Focus QuestionsWhy is timing of the CS and UCS important in classical conditioning?

Delayed conditioning is the most effective form of classical conditioning. Less effective are simultaneous conditioning and trace conditioning. After conditioning, extinction of the CR occurs when the UCS is discontinued. Allowing time to pass and returning the subject to the apparatus is typically accompanied by spontaneous recovery.

TIMING IS EVERYTHING

In trace conditioning, the CS precedes and is terminated before the onset of the US. The onset of the CS and the US in trace conditioning is shown in figure a. Only the onset of stimuli influence learning in the present model.

A less effective version of classical conditioning, in which (CS), onset and offset precede (UCS), ), onset.

In delay conditioning, the CS is present throughout the presentation of the US. In the present model, this situation is handled identically to trace conditioning

The most effective version of classical conditioning, in which (CS) onset precedes (UCS), and the offset of both stimuli are typically at the same time.

In simultaneous conditioning, the CS and the US are presented at the same time. This does not usually result in any learning.

A less effective version of classical conditioning, in which both (CS), and (UCS), onset and offset occur at the same time.

Why is it important for the CS to “predict” the UCS?The crucial factor in classical conditioning is the consistency with which the CS predicts the occurrence of the UCS.

How do generalization and discrimination work?Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus similar to the original CS also produces CR.

Stimulus discrimination, its complement, occurs when dissimilar stimuli produce lesser CR or none at all.

How does biological predisposition affect classical conditioning?Biological predispositions are often apparent in classical conditioning. Because of pre-wiring, some CS-UCS associations can be established much more easily that others and some not at all.

Taste aversion experiments provide an example of how biological predispositions affect conditioning. The learning of taste aversion is easy for animals that naturally associate taste with food but difficult to impossible for animals that use other cues, such as visual ones for food.


Experiments:In the modern view, conditioning can be best explained by the development of expectancies—that is, what animals and humans learn is the expectation that a particular conditioned stimulus (CS) will be followed by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Classical conditioning by past events may account for many of the fears and preferences displayed by human adults—and also for physical symptoms such as unexplained headaches or nausea and the intense desire to return to drug use that is some times displayed by former drug addicts.

In Watson and Rayner’s “Little Albert” experiment, the loud sound was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the rat was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and a fear response was the (UCR), and the (CR).

In the experiment on conditioned illness in rats, the insulin was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the light and syringe were the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the coma was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).

In the experiment on conditioning the immune system in rats, the drug was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the novel taste was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and production of the antibodies was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).

In the experiments on conditioning sexual behavior in rats, normal female odors were the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the lemon scent was the conditioned stimulus (CS), and sexual arousal was the unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR).

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PHENOMENA AND APPLICATIONS: DEFINITIONS

Delayed Conditioning

The most effective version of classical conditioning, in which CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) onset precedes UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS), and the offset of both stimuli are typically at the same time.

Simultaneous Conditioning

A less effective version of classical conditioning, in which both (CS), and (UCS), onset and offset occur at the same time.

Trace Conditioning

A less effective version of classical conditioning, in which (CS), onset and offset precede (UCS), ), onset.

Extinction Disappearance of the (CR), upon discontinuance of the (UCS).

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished (CR), after the passage of time.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency of a (CR) to occur to CSs that are similar to the original CS.

Stimulus Discrimination

The tendency of a (CR) to be weaker or not occur to (CS)s that are dissimilar to the original (CS) or that have undergone extinction

ExpectanciesWhat animals and humans learn is the expectation that a particular conditioned stimulus (CS) will be followed by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).


I van Petrovich Pavlov September 26, 1849 - February 27, 1936

I. Ivan Petrovich PavlovSeptember 26, 1849 - February 27, 1936

Classical Conditioning was advanced by a serendipitous finding of Ivan Pavlov. The word serendipitous means accidental discovery. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was studying digestion when he stumbled on the phenomenon that made him one of the most famous psychologists in the twentieth century. Subsequently, Classical Conditioning is sometimes called Pavlovian Conditioning because it was discovered by Ivan Pavlov.

As a physiologist, it was Pavlov’s ambition to discover the neural mechanisms that control glandular secretions during digestion. Pavlov used dogs as his subjects as he exposed the dogs' salivary glands and measured the amount of salivation.

Pavlov's strategy was to study salivary processes in individual dogs over many test sessions. During each session, he placed dry food powder inside the dog's mouth and then collected the saliva. All went well until the dogs became experienced subjects. After several testing sessions, the dogs began salivating before being fed, usually as soon as they saw the laboratory assistant enter the room with the food powder. What Pavlov discovered was a form of learning in which one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another. In this case, the appearance of the laboratory assistant predicted the appearance of food (Carlson, 1997).

Pavlov designed experiments to discover exactly why the dogs were salivating before being given the opportunity to eat. He suspected that salivation might be triggered by stimuli that were initially unrelated to

eating. Somehow, these previously neutral stimuli came to control what is normally a natural reflexive behavior. After all, dogs do not naturally salivate when they see laboratory assistants (Carlson, 1997).

In order to understand what was controlling this unexpected behavior of salivating when the laboratory assistants were seen, Pavlov placed an inexperienced (naive) dog in a harness and occasionally gave it small amounts of food powder. Just prior to placing the food powder in the dog's mouth, Pavlov sounded a bell, a buzzer, or some other auditory stimulus (Carlson, 1997).

At first, the dog showed only a startle response to the sound. The dog salivated only when the food powder was placed in the dog's mouth. After only a dozen or so pairings of the bell and food powder, the dog began to salivate when the bell rang (Carlson, 1997).

Placing the food powder in the dog's mouth was no longer necessary to elicit salivation. When learning took place, the sound by itself was sufficient to elicit salivation. Pavlov, therefore, showed that a neutral stimulus (bell sound) can elicit a response similar to the original reflex (salivation) when the previously neutral stimulus (bell sound) predicts the occurrence of a significant stimulus (food powder) (Carlson, 1997).

Consequently, learning occurred in that there was a CHANGE in behavior due to an association between two stimuli – the Conditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Stimulus. This association between the Conditioned Stimulus and the Unconditioned Stimulus is why Classical Conditioning is also called Associative Learning.


Pavlov's ApparatusHarness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva samples. They do not cause the dog discomfort. (Carlson, 1997)

Terms Specific to Classical Conditioning 1. Elicit

2. Unconditioned Stimulus

3. Unconditioned Response

4. Conditioned Stimulus

5. Conditioned Response

Elicit: Elicit means to produce, cause or evoke a response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The prefix "un" means not; conditioned means learned; stimulus means person, place, object, event, or physical energy; therefore, an unconditioned stimulus is any stimulus which does not require learning in order to elicit or cause a behavior.

Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unconditioned response is the response that is automatically elicited, produced, caused or evoked by the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). No learning takes place when the UCS is presented. The UCR may be a reflex produced by the UCS. Reflexes are simple, unlearned, involuntary responses.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A conditioned stimulus is initially neutral. Initially, the conditioned stimulus is not capable of eliciting, producing, causing, or evoking a conditioned response. After learning takes place, the CS elicits the conditioned response (CR).

Conditioned Response (CR): A conditioned response (CR) is a response that is learned. The learning takes place because the UCS and the CS are associated together. Later, the CS comes to take on a similar capability of eliciting the CR which is similar to the UCR.

Explaining the words "conditioned" and conditional" In the Russian language, Pavlov used the adjective "uslovna" which is more properly translated "conditional" and not "conditioned". However, with the English translation, the use of the terms conditioned stimulus and conditioned response has become accepted.


CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Initially, the bell as a neutral stimulus (NS).

Meat is an unconditional stimulus (US).

Phase l: Before Conditioning (Before Learning)Before conditioning, two distinctly unrelated stimuli are selected. Pavlov discovered that the meat powder was the stimulus that naturally produced/elicited or caused the salivation. Therefore, Pavlov referred to the meat powder as the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). When presented alone, the meat powder produced, elicited, and caused the Unconditioned Response (UCR). The natural salivation produced when the food powder was placed in the dog's mouth was the Unconditioned Response. The UCR is any response that is naturally caused and does not require learning.

During this phase, Pavlov was faced with demonstrating that the Conditioned Stimulus (the bell tone) did not initially elicit a Conditioned Response prior to learning or before being associated with the UCS. Therefore, Pavlov presented the Conditioned Stimulus (bell tone) alone and the dog did not salivate. At this point, the bell tone is actually a Neutral Stimulus (NS) which becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS).

Meat and bell presented together (CS + US)

Phase II: Conditioning Phase (Learning Phase)Next, Pavlov paired the Unconditioned Stimulus and the Conditioned Stimulus (CS). During the Conditioning Phase, the CS (the bell tone) and the UCS (the meat powder) were presented together several times before the CS reliably elicited the CR.

Bell (CS) alone elicits salivation (CR).

Phase III: After Conditioning PhaseTo determine if conditioning (learning) occurred, Pavlov presented the Conditioned Stimulus alone and the dog salivated. This CHANGE in behavior towards the bell tone meant learning occurred. Initially, the dog did not salivate to the bell tone. After learning occurred, the dog salivated when the bell tone was presented.

When Classical Conditioning occurs, the CS elicits the CR, subsequently the CS predicts the occurrence of the UCS.

Bell presented without meat many times.

Bell elicits no salivation.

Phase IV: Extinction PhasePavlov observed that a previously learned response (CR) was eliminated by repeatedly presenting the CS without presenting the UCS. When extinction occurred, the CS was no longer capable of producing the CR (salivation). Zimbardo and Gerrig (1999) explained that extinction happens when the CS no longer predicts the UCS.

Here Today, Gone Tomorrow, Back Again!

After the CS (bell tone) has been presented several times without any food forthcoming, the dog's salivation response extinguished and the dog stopped salivating to the CS (bell tone) alone. However, if the CS is not presented for a period of time and then is presented, the previously learned conditioned response of salivation on hearing the tone alone will return. The dog is displaying spontaneous recovery of the response but may not salivate as much as it did when it was first classically conditioned to the CS (bell tone).

A feature of the Extinction Phase is Spontaneous Recovery which means that the Conditioned Response reappeared after the Conditioned Response had been previously eliminated. Kosslyn and Rosenberg (2003) explained that when a Conditioned Response has been extinguished, the Conditioned Stimulus will again elicit the Conditioned Response, although sometimes not as strongly as before extinction.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: Study Questions

1) __________________Conditioning

occurs when an organism learns to

associate stimuli.

a) Instinctiveb) Basicc) Classicald) Vicariouse) None of these

2) In Pavlov's original experiments, the _________________was the neutral stimulus, the ___________was the stimulus that elicited a reflex, and ______________was the reflexive response.a) Salivation; meat powder; ringing

the bellb) Bell; meat powder; salivationc) Meat powder; bell; salivationd) Meat powder; salivation; ringing

the bell

3) Any stimulus that causes a reflex

or emotional response without any

learning is a(n)

a) Instinctive response

b) Unconditioned stimulus

c) Operant stimulus

d) Rewarding stimulus

4) A neutral stimulus that through

conditioning produces a learned

response is called a(n)

a) Conditioned Stimulus

b) Coincidental Stimulus

c) Serendipitous Discoveryd) Serendipitous Response

5) Recently, when Frank kissed his wife while he was standing on the living room carpet, he felt a static electric shock. Now Frank feels mildly anxious whenever he approaches his wife to kiss her. Based on the Classical Conditioning Module, his wife is a(n) _________________ stimulus.a) Unconditioned; conditionedb) Unconditioned; neutralc) Neutral; unconditionedd) Neutral; conditioned

6) Marcia was once in a bank robbery, in which a robber pulled a gun from his inside coat pocket and held it to her face. Now, Marcia jumps every time she sees a man put his hand into his inside coat pocket. According to Classical Conditioning, the CS is:a) a robber putting a gun to Marcia’s

face.b) Marcia jumping because the gun

was put to her face.c) a man putting his hand into his

inside coat pocket.d) Marcia jumping because a man put

his hand inside his coat pocket.

7) John started a program to stop drinking alcoholic beverages. John’s doctor prescribed Antabuse which is a drug that naturally induces vomiting if the patient drinks alcoholic beverages. John decided to drink an alcoholic beverage even though he was told not to drink because the Antabuse would cause nausea and vomiting. The Antabuse caused John to vomit. Now whenever John sees an alcoholic beverage, he becomes nauseated and starts vomiting. Based on the Classical Conditioning Module, what is the UCS? What is the CS?

a) Vomiting due to the alcoholic beverage is the UCS; vomiting caused by the Antabuse is the CS.

b) Drinking the alcoholic beverage is the UCS; ingesting the Antabuse is the CS.

c) Ingesting the Antabuse is the UCS; drinking the alcoholic beverage is the CS.

8) Every Sunday, Robert visits his mother, who makes him a delicious mouth watering meal. Now, every time Robert pulls into his mother’s drive way, his mouth begins “to water”. Identify the components of the Classical Conditioning for this example.

a) The UCR is the delicious mouth watering meal.

b) The CS is when Robert’s mouth “becomes watery.”

c) The UCS is the delicious mouth watering meal.

d) The CR is turning into the driveway.

9) Mavis jumps when she hears loud noises. This semester, Mavis has a professor who walks into the classroom and slams her books down on the desk which causes Mavis to jump. Now when Mavis sees this professor, Mavis winces. The UCS is:

a) wincingb) jumpingc) loud noisesd) the sight of the professor

10) Mandy is allergic to Monosodium glutamate (MSG) which causes her to become severely nauseated. Yesterday, Mandy became extremely nauseated after eating at Joe’s Restaurant which uses MSG in its recipes. Now when she drives past Joe’s Restaurant she feels nauseated.

a) The UCR is being nauseated from eating food with MSG.

b) The UCR is the sight of Joe’s Restaurant.

c) The UCR is the sight of MSG container.

Practice Identifying the Classical Conditioning Components

After reading the following real world scenario, practice identifying the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR.

Scenario I:

Margaret's pediatrician directed her to bring her baby, Martha, to the pediatrician's office. Initially, when Martha went to the doctor, the doctor was wearing a white lab jacket. During the first visit, the doctor examined Martha. Martha laughed and smiled. On the second visit, the pediatrician who was wearing the same white lab jacket gave Martha her first immunization shot which caused Martha to cry. On subsequent visits to the doctor, Martha cries as soon as she sees the doctor wearing a white lab jacket.

The UCS is?

a) The laughing and smiling

b) White lab jacket

c) Immunization shot

d) Crying

The UCR is?


b) White lab jacket


d) Crying

The CS is?


b) White lab jacket


d) Crying

The CR is?


b) White lab jacket


d) Crying

Margaret took her baby Martha to the bakery so that Margaret could treat herself to a chocolate chip cookie. Martha seemed to be pleasantly intrigued by the employee behind the counter who was wearing a yellow and red striped jacket. When another employee came to the counter to help Margaret order, that employee was wearing a white lab jacket. Martha immediately started crying. Why?

Martha's crying can be explained as stimulus generalization. Stimulus generalization means the individual

behaves similarly to different stimuli based on the similarity of these stimuli (stimuli is the plural for stimulus). Therefore, Martha's crying indicates that she generalized when she behaved similarly to the white lab jacket being worn by the bakery employee. Now Martha is behaving similarly to the white lab jacket that the pediatrician was wearing.

When Martha did not cry when she saw the yellow and red striped jacket, she was engaging in stimulus discrimination which means behaving differently to similar stimuli based on their different features.

Scenario II:

Annie loves chili and eats chili at least once a week. Yesterday, Annie told her colleagues that she was feeling nauseated due to the flu. When Annie ate chili for lunch, she became nauseated and vomited. A week later when Annie saw a bowl of chili, she became nauseated.

The UCS is?

a) the chili

b) being nauseated and vomiting

c) the flu

d) any bowl

The CS is?

a) the chili


c) the flu

d) any bowl

The UCR is?

a) the chili


c) the flu

d) any bowl

The CR is?

a) the chili


c) the flu

d) any bowl

Chapter 4: Operant Conditioning: p149Focus QuestionsWhat is operant conditioning and how did Skinner study it?

Operant behavior “operates” on the environment in accord with contingencies. Operant conditioning is base on contingencies that are arranged in the lab or occur in real life.

The controlled environment of the Skinner box revolutionized the study of learning and conditioning.

Parallels between classical and operant conditioning occur in areas extinction and spontaneous recovery, as well as stimulus generalization and discrimination.

Shaping and successive approximations is an efficient procedure for training subjects to perform specific behaviors.

An operant is a class of behaviors—not a specific behavior.

What basic terms and procedures are involved in operant conditioning?

The first half of Thorndike’s law of effect corresponds to positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement: the second half corresponds to positive punishment and negative punishment.

In operant conditioning contingencies, positive means that a stimulus is presented or “added” and negative means that a stimulus is removed or subtracted. The effect on behavior is then determined by whether the stimulus is appetitive or aversive.

OPERANT CONDITIONING: DEFINITIONS

Contingency: The relationship between behavior and its consequences.

Operant conditioning The imposition of contingences, either deliberate or natural.

Shaping and successive approximations

a procedure for quickly establishing a contingency, such as bar pressing by rats or key pecking by pigeons, by rewarding successive approximations to the target behavior.

Positive reinforcement:

An operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is strengthened because it results in presentation of an appetitive stimulus; also known as reward training.

Negative reinforcement:

An operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is strengthened because it results in removal of an aversive stimulus; also known as escape or active avoidance training.

Positive punishmentan operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is weakened or suppressed because it results in presentation of an appetitive stimulus; also known as reward training

Negative punishmentan operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is weakened or suppressed because it results in removal of an appetitive stimulus, also know as omission training.

PositiveReinforcement

PositivePunishment

NegativePunishment

NegativeReinforcement

Appetitive Aversive

Presentor

“add”

Removeor

“subtract”

STIMULUS/EVENT

The Skinner boxAmerican psychologist B. F. Skinner designed an apparatus, now called a Skinner box, that allowed him to formulate important principles of animal learning. An animal placed inside the box is rewarded with a small bit of food each time it makes the desired response, such as pressing a lever or pecking a key. A device outside the box records the animal’s responses.

The mo st force ful lead er of

behaviorism was B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist who began studying animal learning in the 1930s. Skinner coined the term reinforcement and invented a new research apparatus called the Skinner box for use in testing animals. Based on his experiments with rats and pigeons, Skinner identified a number of basic principles of learning. He claimed that these principles explained not only the behavior of laboratory animals, but also accounted for how human beings learn new behaviors or change existing behaviors. He concluded that nearly all behavior is shaped by complex patterns of reinforcement in a person’s environment, a process that he called operant conditioning (also referred to as instrumental conditioning). Skinner’s views on the causes of human behavior made him one of the most famous and controversial psychologists of the 20th century.

Chapter 4: Operant Conditioning Phenomena and Applications: p154Focus QuestionsHow are timing and consistency of operant conditioning contingencies important?

Laboratory animals, young children, and others who lack cognitive and language skills cannot mediate delays in reinforcement or punishment, so delayed contingencies tend to be ineffective. Older children and adults can mediate, and so delays do not void effectiveness.

Learning is faster with continuous reinforcement, but partial reinforcement produces behavior that is more resistant to extinction. Parents who partially reinforce tantrum behavior eventually find it very difficult to eliminate.

Ratio schedules require a number of responses before reinforcement occurs; interval schedules require that an amount of time passes before reinforcement occurs.

Fixed schedules require a specific number of responses or amount of time; variable schedules require a number of responses or amount of time that varies around an average value.

Schedules of ReinforcementA Variable Ratio Schedule produces rewards irregularly. The criteria for reinforcement changes, it rotates around an average number of responses. The amount of work required per reinforcement varies somewhat randomly within certain limits (Carpenter, 1974).

Examples of Variable Ratio Schedules

1. A Slot machine yields returns on an irregular basis.

2. Pigeons will peck for hours at a rate of five times per second. The first reinforcement is given after pecking three times, then seven times, then five times, then four times and then one time.

Implementing a Variable Ratio Schedule will eliminate the post reinforcement pause. In a Variable Ratio Schedule, the average number of responses between reinforcement is predetermined by the trainer. A Variable Ratio-10 Schedule (VR-10) means that on the average, reinforcement follows every 10th desired behavior but it might come after only one desired behavior or after the 20th desired behaviors.

Slot machine gambling is typically under the control of Variable Ratio schedules in order to generate steady behavior or a steady response rate. The behavior of dropping coins in slot machines is maintained at a high, steady level by the payoff, which is delivered only after an unknown, varying number of coins have been deposited. VR Schedules leave the gambler guessing when the reward will come. Therefore the gambler continues to gamble that the payoff (the reinforcement) will come after the next deposit of the coin (Rachlin, 1990).

Interval Schedules mean positive reinforcement is delivered based on an amount of time must elapse and the next desired behavior emitted will be followed by positive reinforcement. On a Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule, positive reinforcement is delivered for the first response made after a fixed period of time. On an FI-10 Schedule, the individual must wait 10 seconds before the desired behavior will be reinforced. These schedules also generate post reinforcement pauses.

To eliminate post reinforcement pauses produced by Fixed Interval Schedules, switch to Variable Interval (VI) Schedules. For Variable Interval Schedules, the average interval is predetermined. For example, on a VI-20 schedule, reinforcement is delivered at an average rate of 1 every 20 seconds. This type of schedule generates a fairly steady response rate.

Summary

Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner examines how consequences influence subsequent behavior. Positive reinforcement strengthens desirable behavior; punishment is used to eliminate undesirable behavior. Shaping is used to mold new behavior. A Continuous Reinforcement Schedule is used initially when the desired behavior is new but the Intermittent Schedules are more practical once the new behavior has been shaped.

Can you see how these scenes fit operant conditioning?

Charlie is a door to door salesman. Before he can receive a $45.00 bonus, he must sell 25 vacuum cleaners. What kind of schedule of reinforcement is being implemented by Charlie’s supervisor?

a) Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

b) Variable Interval Schedule

c) Variable Ratio Schedule

d) Fixed Ratio Schedule

e) Fixed Interval Schedule

Mr. Foster vacations in Las Vegas and plays the “one arm bandit.” If the casino owner is smart, what type of reinforcement schedule would be used to generate steady gambling?

a) Fixed Interval

b) Fixed Ratio

c) Variable Ratio

d) Continuous Ratio

Martha’s child is being potty trained; therefore, Martha provided the child with a snack bag of Cheerios when the child said he needed to go to the potty. The child received the Cheerios next when he went to the bathroom where the Potty was located. Next, the child received the Cheerios when he used the potty. This scenario is an example of ________________.

a) Ms. Manners chastisement

b) Use of punishment

c) Use of shaping

d) Use of an Interval Schedule

Why is reinforcement preferable to punishment?Skinner strongly favored positive reinforcement over punishment, because of the atmosphere it creates and especially because it tells the organism what to do.

Punishment in contrast to reinforcement only tells the organism what not to do and also has a long list of undesirable side effects—especially if the punishment is corporal.

Punishment may be necessary in the case of dangerous or harmful behavior, but it is best used in conjunction with positive reinforcement for acceptable behavior.

What maintains superstitions and phobias?Superstitious behavior persists in the absence of any actual contingencies. Phobias, as well as some superstitions, are maintained by escape and avoidance—that is, the reduction of fear through negative reinforcement.

Learned Helplessness has been demonstrated in dogs by subjecting them to inescapable electric shocks; their reaction has direct parallels to human feelings of helplessness and depression.

Learned helplessness can be counteracted by providing success experiences.

How do biological predispositions affect operant conditioning?

OPERANT CONDITIONING PHENOMENA AND APPLICATIONS: DEFINITIONS

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing every instance of a behavior.

Partial reinforcement Reinforcing only some instances of a behavior

Ratio schedule A partial reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement occurs only after a number of responses.

Interval schedule A partial reinforcement schedule in reinforcement occurs only for the first response after an amount of time has elapsed.

Fixed scheduleA partial reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a specific number of responses or for the first response after a specific amount of time.

Variable scheduleA partial reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses or for the first response after a varying amount of time, in each case around some average value.

Superstitious behavior Behavior that occurs and persist in the absence of any actual contingency.

Behavior modification A technique for changing behavior based on operant conditioning principles; also called behavior therapy in clinical settings.

Token EconomyA behavior modification procedure in which adaptive behavior is reinforced with tokens that can later be exchanged for privileges and other rewards.

Instinctive BehaviorAs defined by ethnologists, a behavior that occurs in all normal members of a species, in response to specific releasing stimuli, and in essentially the same way every time

Ethnology The study of instinctive behavior in the lab and in natural environments.

OPERANT CONDITIONING: Study Questions

1. For 30, ten minute trials, a rat received a food pellet every other lever press. This rat was on a __________________ schedule of reinforcement.

a) fixed intervalb) fixed ratioc) variable intervald) variable ratio

2. Which of the following describes

behavior reinforced on a fixed ratio schedule?

a) climbing a flight of stairsb) pulling the arm of a slot

machinec) checking a washing machine to

see if the clothes are doned) checking the oven to see if the

cake is done 3. Which of the following individuals

is most likely to be on a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement?

a) a clerk at a fast food restaurantb) a gamblerc) a mail delivery persond) a waiter

4. Learning based on consequences

is called:a) self-efficacyb) Classical Conditioningc) Operant Conditioningd) Associative Conditioning

5. _____________ increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur, whereas; _____________ decreases that likelihood.

a) Operant conditioning; Classical Conditioning

b) Higher order Conditioning; Operant Conditioning

c) Positive Reinforcement; Negative Reinforcement

d) Reinforcement; punishment

6. Which of the following individuals is most likely to be on a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement?

a) a clergy who administers the last rites at a fast food restaurant

b) a gamblerc) a mail delivery persond) a baker with a cake in the over

7. In order for negative

reinforcement to be implemented, ___________ must havealready started.

a) positive reinforcementb) punishmentc) Classical Conditioningd) none of these

8. Based on principles of reinforcement, if you give your dog a biscuit to get him to stop barking, it is most likely that your dog will bark _______ in the future, and you will give him a biscuit _______ when he barks.

a) more often; more oftenb) less often; less oftenc) more often; less oftend) less often; more often

9. Continuous reinforcement occur when __________________________.

a) every correct behavior is rewarded.

b) only one-third of the correct behaviors are rewarded.

c) all behaviors both desirable and undesirable are rewarded.

d) all of these

10.Your dog is begging for food from the table. Your son gives your dog a morsel. What might you expect from your dog now that food has been given from the table?

a) the dog will stop begging.b) the dog will fall asleep.c) the dog will give up begging.d) the dog will continue to beg.

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