Big Campbell ~ Ch 1-5Baby Campbell ~ Ch 1-3

I. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

• Characteristics of Lifeo Living things ……

o are made of __________o grow & ______________o _____________ to their

environmento obtain and use ________o maintain ____________o are based on a universal

_____________ ______o ________________o ________________

I. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY, CONTINUED• Unity & Diversity of Life

o Evolution explains both unity & diversityo Continuity of life based on DNAo Two types of cells

o All organisms can be placed in one of 3 domains

o Form vs Function → Structures are adapted for specific functions; conversely, function of a structure determines how it is constructed

I. INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY, CONTINUED

• Unity & Diversity of Life, continuedo Levels of Organization (Big – Small)

BiosphereEcosystemCommunityPopulationOrganism

OrganelleMoleculeAtom

II. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

• __________________o Cannot be broken down without losing characteristic

propertieso Six elements in greatest concentration in living things are

II. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE, CONTINUED

• Atomso Smallest unit of

matter that retains properties of that element

o Atomic Mass

II. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE, CONTINUED

• Chemical Bondso Chemical behavior of atom determined by ______________ electronso Atoms interact with other atoms to complete their valence shells, either

by ________________ or ________________ electrons

II. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE, CONTINUED• Types of Chemical Bonds

o ____________ – Results when one atom has a much stronger attraction for electrons than anothero One atom has a greater __________________________. Electron(s) are transferred

resulting in formation of ions. Bond forms due to charge attraction – easily broken Cation -

Anion -

II. CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE, CONTINUEDo _________________ – Much

stronger that results from ___________ a pair of valence electrons. o Forms a molecule.

o One pair of electrons shared = single covalent bond

o Two pair of electrons shared = double covalent bond.

______________ covalent bond – formed when electronegativity of atoms is the same; H2

___________ covalent bond – formed when one atom is more electronegative; unequal sharing of electrons results in slight charges at either end of molecule http://users.skynet.be/eddy/ion_vs_covalent.swf

III. WATER

• Polarity of Water

III. WATER, continued• Properties of Water

o ______________ “bonds”o “Stickiness”

______________________________

o Helps maintain a stable temperatureHas a high specific heat and a

high heat of vaporization

o Density of “solid” water ____ density of liquid water Important to environment;

insulates lakes, oceans

III. WATER, continued

o Solvent of Life (not universal…..but versatile)

_________________ – “Water-loving”; polar molecules “pull apart” ionic compounds & other polar molecules

________________ – “Water-hating”; non-ionic and non-polar substances are repelled by water

III. WATER, continued• Dissociation of Water

o Rare, but measurable phenomenono (2)H2O → H3O+ + OH- → H+ + OH-

o pH = measurement of H+ conc -log10[H+] [H+] [OH-] = 1 x 10-14

o Acid – Substance that dissolves in water to increase H+; [H+] > 1 x 10-7; pH < 7

o Base - Substance that dissolves in water to decrease H+; [H+] < 1 x 10-7; pH > 7

o Water is a neutral substance; [H+] = [OH-] o Buffers – Maintain a constant pH by donating, accepting H+

Very important buffer system in blood to keep pH at 7.4

IV. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – THE STUDY OF CARBON

• Atomic Structure of Co 6 total electrons;

therefore has 4 valence electrons

o Shares e- to fill valence shell; can form up to 4 covalent bonds

o Hydrocarbono Isomer – Molecules with

same atomic make-up; different arrangement of atoms

IV. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, continued• Functional Groups

Hydroxyl – Polar due to greater electronegativity of oxygen. Found in alcohols. “-ol”

Carbonyl Aldehyde – carbonyl group at end of C-skeleton

Ketone – carbonyl group within C-skeleton

IV. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, continued

Carboxyl – Acts an acid by donating H+

Amino – Acts as a base by picking up H+

IV. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, continuedSulfhydryl – Important in stabilizing protein structure

Phosphate – Typically an anion; gives its molecule a negative charge

V. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, continued

V. THE BIOMOLECULES

• Most are ____________ made up of single units called ____________

• The different classes of macromolecules differ in the nature of their monomers, but the chemical mechanisms that cells use to make and break polymers are basically the same.

V. BIOMOLECULES, continued

• _____________________________ (condensation)• One monomer provides –H, the other provides –OH• As a result……

• A water molecule forms • 2 original monomers covalently bond together to form polymer

• Requires input of energy, use of enzymes

V. BIOMOLECULES, continued

• ____________________ - “Break apart with water”• Covalent bonds between monomers are broken when hydrogen from a water molecule attaches to one monomer and the hydroxyl group attaches to adjacent monomer.• Releases energy; reaction accelerated with enzymes• Example - digestion

VI. CARBOHYDRATES• Provide fuel, act as building material• Generally, formula is a multiple of ___________• Contain carbonyl group & multiple hydroxyl groups• Monomer = __________________________

VI. CARBOHYDRATES, continued• MonosaccharidesMonosaccharides – usually found as ringed structures

o Pentoses Ribose Deoxyribose

○ Hexoses Glucose Fructose Galactose

VI. CARBOHYDRATES, continued• __________________________________________

o 2 monosaccharides joined by a ________________ ______________________, a covalent bond formed during dehydration synthesis

o ExampleSucrose – (glucose + fructose)Lactose – (glucose + galactose)Maltose – (glucose + glucose)

VI. CARBOHYDRATES, continued

• ________________________o Many monosaccharides covalently bonded via glycosidic

linkages formed during dehydration synthesiso Storage Polysaccharides o Structural Polysaccharides

VI. CARBOHYDRATES, continued• Storage polysaccharidesStorage polysaccharides

▪ __________________ – ___________ store glucose as starch in cell structures called ______________. Starch has helix shape due to bond angles. Humans have enzymes to hydrolyze starch to glucose monomers.

▪ __________________ – Storage form of glucose in _________. More highly-branched than starch. In humans, found mainly in liver, muscle cells

VI. CARBOHYDRATES, continuedo Structural polysaccharides (structure is different than storage Structural polysaccharides (structure is different than storage

polysaccharides)polysaccharides)__________________ – polymer of glucose. Every other glucose is upside down which

forms parallel strands of glucose molecules held together with H-bonds Cows/Termites

_______________ – found in arthropod exoskeleton, cell walls of fungi

VII. LIPIDS• Non-polar, ____________________ molecules• Hydrocarbons• Fats& Oils

o Not true polymers but they are very large moleculeso Macromolecules assembled through dehydration synthesiso Glycerol = 3-C alcoholo Fatty acids – long hydrocarbon chains ending with carboxyl

groupo Triglyceride = glycerol + 3 fatty acids o Used for energy storage – contain > 2X energy as carbs

Fatty AcidFatty AcidGlycerolGlycerol

VII. LIPIDS, continued

____________________ “Saturated with hydrogens”All _____________ bonds. Typically from animal source, _________ at room temp. Associated with greater health risk.

______________________ Contain ____________ bonds, fewer H-atoms. Results in “kinked” hydrocarbon chain. Typically from _________ source, liquid at room temp.

VII. LIPIDS, continued• ___________________________

– Contain _______ fatty acids attached first 2-carboxyl groups of glycerol. – Phosphate group is attached to 3rd carboxyl which has a negative charge.– Therefore molecule is partially hydrophilic (_________) and partially

hydrophobic (_________) . – Found in all cell membranes.

• Phospholipid bilayer

VII. LIPIDS, continued• Waxes

– One fatty acid attached to an alcohol. – Very hydrophobic. – Used as coating, lubricant

• Steroids – Consist of 4-rings with different functional groups attached. – _____________________

• Found in animal cell membranes• Precursor for sex hormones

VIII. PROTEINS• Important for functions such as…… (Table 5.1, Pg. 72)

– Structural ______________ (very complex!)– Storage– _________________ of substances– Signaling– Movement– ______________ disease

• ________________________ – Proteins are large polymers made up of amino acid monomers.

• All amino acids have the same basic structure:o Amino groupo Carboxyl groupo Carbon, known as ___________ carbono _________________ → variable component; gives each amino acid its

unique properties. Determines whether amino acid is classified as polar, non-polar, acidic, or basic.

VIII. PROTEINS, continuedThese R-groups are non-polar……..therefore these amino acids are non-polar

VIIII. PROTEINS, continuedThese R-groups are polar……..therefore these amino acids are polar

These R-groups either proton donors or proton acceptors……..therefore these amino acids have acidic or basic properties

VIII. PROTEINS, continued• Amino Acid → protein

o Dehydration synthesis results in formation of a ____________ bond

o _____________________ – many amino acids covalently bonded together

o At one end there is a free ___________ group (N terminus)(N terminus) and at the other end is a free ______________ group (C terminus)(C terminus)

VIII. PROTEINS, continued

• Amino acid sequence determines the protein’s ______ conformation

• Protein Conformation o Protein’s __________ is related to its _________________.

o Generally, a protein must recognize/bind to another molecule to carry out its function.

o _______________________ - A change in a protein’s shape. Which results in a loss of protein’s ability to carry out function.

o Four levels of protein structurePrimarySecondaryTertiaryQuaternary

VIII. PROTEINS, continued

__________ – Sequence of amino acids

VIII. PROTEINS, continued

________________ – Coiling of polypeptide chain due to formation of H-bonds between H of amino end of one aa and OH of carboxyl end of another aa _________________ –

created from H-bonds forming within one pp chain

__________________ – H-bonds form between aa in parallel pp chains

VIII. PROTEINS, continued __________________ -

Involves interactions between R groups of amino acids. Helps to give each protein its unique shape. __________________

interactions – amino acids with non-polar R groups cluster together at core of protein.

_________________ bridges – important in reinforcing shape of protein; covalent bonds that form between sulfhydryl R groups of amino acids, cysteine

VIII. PROTEINS, continued

_______________ – Proteins that are formed from interactions between 2 or more polypeptide chains folded together. Examples:

Hemoglobin, collagen, chlorophyll

VIII. PROTEINS, continued• __________________

o Biological catalysts that act by lowering _________________________; that is, the amount of energy needed to get the reaction going

o Only catalyze reactions that would normally occuro Recycled – not used up or changed by the reactiono Temperature, pH, and salt sensitiveo Substrate specific

VIII. PROTEINS, continued

o ____________________ – As enzyme envelops substrate, a slight change takes place in bond angles, orientation of atoms. Allows chemical rxns to occur more readily

o Inhibition of Enzyme Function __________________ inhibitor –

mimics normal substrate ____________________ inhibitor –

attaches to another part of enzyme; changes shape of active site

VIII. PROTEINS, continued

o Regulation of enzyme function ____________ regulation

– binding of a molecule to enzyme that affects function of protein at another site

__________________ ______________ – as end product is synthesized and accumulates, enzyme is inactivated → switches off metabolic pathway

VIII. NUCLEIC ACIDS

• Nucleic acid group includes DNA, RNA, ATP• Structure of Nucleic Acids

o Monomers = nucleotideso Nucleotides composed of

Pentose – deoxyribose or ribose Phosphate group Nitrogen base

Pyrimidine – Contains 6-membered ring of C, N atomsa) Cytosine – found in DNA, RNAb) Thymine – found in DNAc) Uracil – found in RNA

Purine – Larger; consists of 6-membered ring + 5-membered ringa) Adenine – found in DNA, RNA, ATPb) Guanine – found in DNA, RNA

VIII. NUCLEIC ACIDS, continued• Nucleotide polymers – Formed through dehydration synthesis. Phosphate group

of one nucleotide covalently binds to sugar of next. Forms backbone of alternating P-group and sugar.

o DNA – Forms double helix. Two polynucleotide strands run in opposite directions – referred to as antiparallel. H-bonds form between N-bases in the center