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Transcript of Unit 1_Sustainable Practices in Facilities Management[1]
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Unit 1 - 1
1: Facilities Management andSustainability
Learning objectives for Unit 1
By the end of this unit you should understand:
The nature and requirements of sustainability
The environmental assessment method, Life Cycle Assessment its
definition, processes and requirementsEnvironmental Management Systems and the corporate response to
growing concern about the state of the environment (ISO14000)
The framework for the Building Research Establishment Environmental
Assessment Method (BREEAM)
Recommended Reading
1. Core Text: Sustainable Practices for the Facilities Manager, Chapter
1 pp1-37.2. Sustainable Practices in the Built Environment, Parts 1 and 2
(chapters 1-6) pp 1-60.
3. Facilities Management: Theory and Practice, Ed Keith Alexander,Chapter 9, E & FN Spon, London, ISBN 0-419-20580-2, (1996).
4. Wyatt, D.P., Sobotka, A and Rogalska, M., Towards a sustainablepractice, Facilities, Vol. 18, No. 1/2 pp 76-82, (2000).
5. The Johannesburg Declaration of Sustainable Development (2002).6. Sustainable Development: Opportunities for Change, Consultation
paper on a revised UK strategy
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Unit 1 : Study Task (adapted from www.4seasons.org.uk)
Try answering the following multiple-choice questions to test yourexisting knowledge of sustainability issues. After making your choices,
check your answers against the information contained in Appendix 1a.This is not intended to be taken too seriously, but should open youreyes to the wider implications of sustainability.
1. What is Agenda 21 ?
A list of 21 actions which people can take to save the planet
A challenge to the Government and local communities toprepare for the 21st century.
The 21st of 27 Agendas produced at the Rio Earth Summit in
1992
2. Which is the cheapest way of saving energy in yourorganisation?
Buying a feather duster to clean the light covers
Buying a thermometer to check that the heating thermostat is notset too high
Switching the lights off every time everyone leaves the room
3. What is meant by the term "greenhouse gases"?Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane which trap heat
within the earth's atmosphere and lead to global warming
Gases used to kill pests such as whitefly in greenhouses
Gases such as sulphur dioxide which cause acid rain
4. Which group of people can expect to live the shortest time?
Men who work in manual jobs
Women working in partly skilled jobs
Men who work in professional jobs
5. What is meant by "the employment rate"?
How fast people work
How quickly a job centre can find people jobs
The percentage of the working population who are in work
6. In terms of sustainability what does "LETS" stand for?
Local Exchange Trading System
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Local Economic Transfer of Subsidies
Lots of Extremely Tough Solutions
7. What is meant by "Biodiversity"?
Breakdown of materials by micro-organisms
The range of plants and animals and the habitats in which theylive
The study of energy in living things
8. What is the main cause of air pollution in towns and cities inBritain?
Smoke from factory chimneys
Particles from cars, lorries buses and industryNitrogen oxides from vehicles and industry
9. Which method of passenger transport has doubled in the last30 years?
Railways
Buses
Cars
10. What percentage of household waste is currently recycled inBritain?
7 percent
25 percent
75 percent
1.1 What is Sustainability?
An approach to progress which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. [WCED, 1987]
In terms of the built environment, this means designing, constructing and
managing buildings and resources in such a way that building occupants needs
are met without the profligate use of energy and resources, such that sufficient
provision is left for future generations to provide for themselves.
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Planet Earth is in the midst of an ecological crisis. Advances in medicine,
agriculture, technology and transportation have produced the means to enable
people to live longer and enjoy an unprecedented high standard of living,
ultimately as the result of our exploitation of cheap fossil fuel energy. In 1800
as the industrial revolution, powered by coal, boomed the global population
was 1 billion people. By 1930 at the start oil age that doubled to 2 billion andera of cheap oil and gas saw that rise to 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion 1973, 5
billion 1987 and 6 billion in 2003. At these rates we would be 10 billion by
2030 and 20 billion by 2070 [UN, 2007]. Another major trend has been the
shift by this century of more than 50% of humanity to live in cities. The
resulting over-exploitation of resources is leading increasingly to global
shortages of once common materials and the pollution and waste produced by
our industrial societies are threatening the quality of our water, land and air
[UNEP, 2007].
But the greatest of all the threats we face is that of Climate Change resultingfrom the year on year increases in greenhouse gas emissions [GHG], fuelled by
our need to burn fossil fuels to produce and maintain our extraordinarily high
quality of life [IPCC, 2007].
Growing public awareness of environmental problems has led to an increase in
conservation research and concern for the environment in recent years. The
World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987 proposed a
reduction by 50% of the per capita energy consumption [WCED, 1987]. The
latest commitment in the UK is to reduce CO2 emissions by 20% of 1990
levels, by 2020, the so-called 20:20:20 commitment. Industry, business and the
professions must respond to this demand, with engineers, facilities managersand other professionals taking the lead in developing a safe and clean
environment for future generations to enjoy without compromise. Considering
some regional and global statistics, this presents a significant challenge:
A million billion kilojoules of energy in the form of fuel is combusted
daily, equivalent to eight billion tonnes of oil annually.
Almost 90% of our energy comes from burning fossil fuels, which will
eventually be exhausted [Emsley, 1994)].
In the UK and Western Europe buildings account for 50% of primary
energy use (and the corresponding CO2 production). This outweighs bothtransportation and industry.
World-wide, buildings account for 40% of energy use, 40% materials use,
25% timber use and 16% fresh water consumption.
Reliable assessment methods, measurement tools and improvement regimes
provide the foundation to meeting this challenge. Analytical measurements are
the basis for many important business and management decisions. If these are
wrong then decisions that are based on poor quality measurements will cost
organisations money. Greek [1996]suggests six basic steps to prevent analysis-
based problems:
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1. Understanding the nature of a particular problem and applying theappropriate method to prevent it
2. Validating the analytical method used3. Ensuring the competence of personnel involved4. Assessing independent bodies
5. Being able to trace all results6. Implementing formal quality systems
With regard to assessment of building construction, and in response to these
expressed needs, the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
(CIBSE) has developed a policy statement on environmental matters which
aims to contribute towards a sustainable environment [BSJ, 1996]. The policy
focuses on:
provision of better information for decision making
improved environmental awareness and educationinfluence upon the location and physical characteristics of buildings to
minimise impact
minimising environmental consequences of the building construction
process
encouraging programmes to conserve resources
evaluation of performance-in-use of new and refurbished buildings
An evaluation method that allows the performance of new and existing
facilities to be assessed, and which provides an ongoing procedure, by which
environmental impacts can be identified, measured and reduced, is Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA).
In Text Question: 1.1Sustainability focuses on the requirements of society now, and theneeds of society in the future. Make a list of contemporary and futureneeds for each of the following:
The facilities/ building manager
The building occupier
You should consider energy issues, resource and materialrequirements, the indoor environment, the global environment .
1.2 Life Cycle Assessment
LCA is a systematic approach to assessment of environmental impacts
associated with a product, process or activity, adopting a holistic, or whole life
approach to design methods. To perform a successful LCA on any building
component requires that the demands of modern day living, and the comfort
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conditions expected, be incorporated into design criteria, whilst ensuring that
the needs of future generations are not compromised by todays activities.
Switching our activities towards redressing the harm that our past and present
activities impose upon the global environment, provides a strong way to
revitalise the economy. The first objective for building in the 21st Century is to
significantly reduce annual energy needs, driven by a whole-life or cradle-to-grave analysis.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the holistic approach of a Life Cycle Assessment study
[Weir, 1998].
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Figure 1.1 Life Cycle Assessment [Weir, 1998]
RAW MATERIALS
MANUFACTURE
USEDISPOSAL
RECYCLING
TRANSPORT
ENERGY
BY-PRODUCTS
MATERIALS
AIR EMISSIONS &
WATER EFFLUENT
FRESH
WATER
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There are four main stages to an LCA:
1.2.1 Goal definition and scopingThe main purpose of the planning phase is to clearly define the investigation
objectives, discuss product alternatives, realise system limitations, plan data
collection strategies, and define environmental parameters and evaluation
methods. LCA may be used for many different purposes, including the
comparison of two products, identification of harmful stages in a product life
cycle, new product development, allocation of process resources (both raw
material and energy), categorising of research and development needs, or
aggregation of total product environmental burdens. It is important to bare the
purpose in mind while defining all other system parameters.
1.2.2 Inventory AnalysisThe inventory analysis is a methodical quantification of inputs and outputs.
This is a measure of all matter that crosses the boundary defined in the planning
phase, and shown in Figure 1.1. Energy, raw materials, air emissions, water-
borne effluent and solid waste are both qualified and quantified at this stage.
This may employ several different data acquisition methods, from direct
measurements to database searches, surveys, questionnaires, analysis of
historical data, theoretical calculations and individual interviews.
1.2.3 Impact Assessment
Impact assessment focuses on how the product affects the environment, andfacilitates the interpretation and aggregation of data collected during the
inventory analysis, presenting it in a more meaningful format for decision
making. This requires a comprehensive approach to analysing how raw material
use, energy generation, water production, effluent output, air emissions and
solid waste affect the environment. The burden to the environment from any
single process may be measured in terms of human health, animal habitat
disturbances, noise pollution, changes in water quality or aesthetic changes to
the environment. The effects analysed are assessed according to their direct
impact in the present, and their possible future burden upon the environment.
e.g. Raw material and fossil fuel consumption in the present can have effects on
human health and animal habitats due to their extraction, transportation and
burning, while their consumption influences the availability of these resources
for the future.
1.2.4 Improvement AnalysisImprovement analysis involves decision making to reduce environmental
burdens. This requires taking an objective view of the entire life cycle and
assessing the environmental impacts that would result from changes made to
the system. Product design changes, raw material substitutions, manufacturing
process changes, improved waste management facilities, or suggested
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consumer use changes may result.
There are many benefits associated with the incorporation of LCA into an
organised environmental management system. These include the reduction of
uncertainty with regard to environmental impact and the meeting of consumer
requirements due to market demands for increased environmental awareness. Afurther benefit of establishing such a system, whereby waste and energy
consumption are minimised, results in improved profitability [UETP-EEE,
1993].
In Text Question: 1.2Consider the factors that could be designed into an asset, componentor building in order to make it more sustainable.
1.3 Environmental Management Systems
Environmental management is the corporate response to the growing concern
about the state of the environment and the environmental effects caused by
corporate activities. An Environmental Management System (EMS) is the
overall framework for the actions that an enterprise takes to manage its
environmental effects [UETP-EEE, 1993]. Stricter government legislation
means that environmental management will become a prominent issue for
organisational management in the future, much in the same way that quality
management has come to the fore of attention [Griffith, 1995]. Environmental
management takes into account the policies, strategies, procedures and
practices that form the response of an organisation to its surrounding
environment.
Environmental management systems exist to ensure legislative compliance
with both present constraints and anticipated future constraints. Management
systems and legislation were developed to minimise the risk and liability from
environmental effects on human health of employees, surrounding inhabitants
and animal habitats. To this end the reduction in use of raw materials and
primary energy will bring about increased productivity and higher resource
efficiency. Decisions to improve waste handling facilities will influence thequantity of waste produced and the associated handling costs. With higher
efficiency, improved productivity and greater environmental awareness,
organisations can boost their company image and attract higher quality
workers.
1.3.1 The environmental management standard, ISO 14000The British Standards Institute produced the first environmental management
standard in 1992, identifying requirements for initiating, implementing and
maintaining an environmental management system. According to BS7750, now
ISO14000, the environmental policy of an organisation should:
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Incorporate a commitment to continual improvement in environmental
performance
Be available for public consultation
Be understood at all employee levels within the organisation.
The policy commits the organisation to reducing resource consumption and
environmental effects of material and energy sourcing. In addition to this a
commitment to reducing waste and pollution is required, whilst minimising the
risk and health impairments to employees and surrounding inhabitants. A
holistic approach should be adopted with regard to product design,
encompassing the entire life cycle to ensure that minimal environmental
burdens result from new product development.
The benefits of establishing an environmental management system are listed as
follows:
Reduced risk to the environment and the health and safety of human and
animal life.
Meeting current environmental legislation and anticipating future legislative
constraints.
Minimising the risk of prosecution due to non-compliance, involving costly
fines.Personnel and resources are set in place to manage emergency situations,
and to accommodate policy changes and additions.
Uncertainties in decision making and environmental impacts are reduced as
personnel gain skills, and environmental assessment progress.
Public image is improved, asset value is increased and customer
requirements are more easily met with a proactive response to
environmental management. Investors will gain increased confidence in
corporate activities.
Profitability is increased when waste output, energy input and resource
consumption is minimised.
1.4 Building Research Establishment EnvironmentalAssessment Method (BREEAM)
In recognition of the fact that construction, use and demolition of buildings
account for a large share of environmental impacts arising from economic
activity, BREEAM was launched in 1990 and has been widely adopted. It
offers a scheme for environmental labelling of buildings, an accreditation
scheme in many respects. In 1997, 25% of all new office developments applied
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to have a BREEAM assessment performed. BREEAM sets targets for
achievement in relation to a number of Key Performance Indicators, and
provides documentary recognition when targets have been met. It is a voluntary
and self-funding exercise with a number of objectives:
To encourage designers and specifiers to become more environmentallysensitive
To enable developers, designers and users to respond to a demand for
buildings which are friendlier to the environment, and then to stimulate
such a market
To raise awareness of the large impact that buildings have on the potential
for global warming, acid rain and the depletion of the ozone layer
To set targets and standards which are independently assessed and so help
to minimise false claims or distortions
To reduce the long-term impact buildings have on the environment
To reduce the use of increasingly scarce resources such as water and fossilfuels
To improve the quality of the indoor environment of buildings and hence
the health and well-being of their occupants
The assessment method is grouped under three headings:
1.4.1 Global issues and use of resources
Greenhouse Gases
The greenhouse effect is caused by CO2, methane (CH4), CFCs and nitrous
oxides. They absorb and re-emit a proportion of the infrared radiation emitted
by the earths surface, so leading to a warming of the lower atmosphere. It is
important when focussing on the environment to concentrate on the reduction
of CO2 production, rather than the consumption of delivered energy. CO2production is dependent on the fuel combusted to generate energy.
The Ozone
Building services can have a profound effect on the amount of damage done to
the Ozone layer from CFCs, HCFCs and halons. Optimally, buildings would
be designed not to need air conditioning. Consideration should also be given tothe elimination of substances that deplete the Ozone when manufacturing
thermal insulation.
Natural Resources
To minimise consumption of non-renewable resources and to promote
renewable materials, BREEAM awards credits for the specification of timber
from sustainably managed sources, and the use of demolition materials to be
used as fill and hardcore. Credit is also given for suitable storage space given
over to recyclable materials.
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Longevity
Design for durability and easy maintenance is also credited.
1.4.2 Local issues
Water Economy
Increasing financial and environmental costs associated with the provision of
fresh water has led BREEAM to award credits for the specification of
equipment which minimises water consumption e.g. WCs, urinals, wash hand
basins.
Effects on Microclimate
Large buildings can affect wind patterns around them and can overshadowneighbouring properties in terms of sunlight and diffuse light. These effects
should be minimised.
Derelict/Contaminated land
BREEAM rewards the reclamation of contaminated land from industrial
processes and landfill. Current best practices should be adopted in the clean-up.
Noise
Noise from fans, plant and traffic should be minimised to prevent localised
noise pollution. This should be done in accordance with BS4142, (1990).
Transport and Cyclists Facilities
To encourage the reduction of pollution generated from cars and other vehicles,
BREEAM awards credits for the provision of efficient public transport and
cyclists facilities, including secure storage, drying facilities, showers, changing
facilities. In an industrial context, the provision of facilities for goods vehicles
should be designed to minimise manoeuvring and shunting, which increase
both pollution and noise.
1.4.3 Indoor issues
Ventilation
Energy efficiency is sought whilst maintaining an approved level of air quality.
Lighting
Buildings which maximise the use of natural daylight are awarded extra credits.
The benefits are twofoldit creates a better working environment, and lowers
electricity consumption.
Thermal Comfort and overheating
Credits are given where it can be demonstrated that the building design has
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been subject to an assessment consistent with good practice guidance on
thermal comfort. Use of night-time ventilation and high building thermal mass
offer natural solutions to overheating problems. Overheating can also cause a
loss in worker productivity.
In Text Question: 1.3Make a list of the tangible and intangible benefits that could result fromrunning an office with an excellent BREEAM rating.
What possible barriers might the facilities manager face in his/herattempt to achieve an office with excellent BREAAM ratings?
Do you consider the factors included within the BREEAM assessmentto be sufficient in assessing the sustainability of a built asset? Justifyyour answer.
1.5 Time line of UK sustainable developmentmilestones.
1994: The UK became one of the first countries to produce a sustainable
development strategy in response to the call made at Rio, Sustainable
Development: The UK Strategy.
1997: The Labour Party won the General Election and announced its intentionto prepare a new strategy for sustainable development. The Rio + 5 meeting in
1997 called for all countries to have a sustainable development strategy by
2002. The UK had already met this target. This repeated the call for all
countries to have sustainable development strategies in place - by the time of
the next review of Agenda 21 in 2002 (Rio+10).
1998: In the UK, a consultation document, Opportunities for Change was
published. In addition, the Government consulted on a set of headline
indicators of sustainable development, Sustainability Counts. These indicators
broadly included:
Economic growth
Social investment
Employment
Health
Education and training
Housing quality
Climate change
Air pollution
Transport
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Water quality
Wildlife
Land use
Waste
1999: In May 1999, the Government published a sustainable development
strategy for the UKA Better Quality of Life - which set out four objectives:
Social progress which recognises the needs of everyone
Effective protection of the environment
Prudent use of natural resources
Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and
employment
and ten guiding principles:
Putting people at the centre
Taking a long term perspective
Taking account of costs and benefits
Creating an open and supportive economic system
Combating poverty and social exclusion
Respecting environmental limits
The precautionary principleUsing scientific knowledge
Transparency, information, participation and access to justice
Making the polluter pay
The strategy also included a core set of around 150 indicators of sustainable
development with a sub-set of 15 headline indicators, and a commitment to
reporting against them on an annual basis.
2000: In October 2000 the Government established the Sustainable
Development Commission, chaired by Jonathan Porritt, to advocate sustainabledevelopment across all sectors in the UK, review progress towards it and build
agreement on achieving further progress. The Commission's challenge is to
move the sustainable development agenda away from analysis towards
implementation. At local level, well over 90% of local authorities had met the
Prime Minister's challenge to have a Local Agenda 21 strategy in place by the
end of 2000.
2001: In January 2001, the Government published its first annual report
reviewing progress towards sustainable development Achieving a Better
Quality of Life -. At the same time, the Government Sustainable Development
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website -http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk- was launched to ensure
that monitoring and reporting of progress is continuous. Finally, in April 2001,
the Government launched a new Sustainable Development Research (SDR)
Network(http://www.sd-research.org.uk) to strengthen the delivery of high
quality cross-cutting research relevant to those in the UK who make decisions
in the context of sustainable development.
2002: 'Achieving A Better Quality of Life' The Government second annual
report, reviewing progress towards sustainable development in 2001, was
published on 13 March 2002.
All of the above documents are available to review and download via the
government sustainable development website, http://www.sustainable-
development.gov.uk.
1.6 Updates since 2002
1.6.1 The certainty grows
In 2007 the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was award a Nobel
Peace prize for its work in Climate Change. The language used in the four
successive reports of the IPCC tell of the alarming rate in the increase of thischange. The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) published in 2007 leaves little room for
doubt about its mechanisms and causes.
IPCCs first volume of the AR4 report, released in February 2007 in Paris, confirmsthat global warming was happening while the second, issued in April 2007 in Brussels,
focused on the impact of the phenomenon on the world's populations and species.
The third AR4 report, dated May 2007, reports on the means of mitigating the worse
impacts of global warming and focuses on the economic implications and technological
options for tackling global warming. It states that emissions must start declining by
2015 to prevent the world's temperature from rising more than two degrees Celsius over
pre-industrialised temperatures. The report also states that the low costs of buying
insurance against these changes that would mean climate catastrophe in the coming
decades, through the use of technologies currently available, is less than 0.1 per cent of
world GDP per annum.
Website:http://www.ipcc.ch/
1ST
REPORT - 1990 : We are now aware that the general amplitude of the
increase in the warming of the planet conforms to the predictions of the climate
models, but that this amplitude is comparable to that which occurs with the
natural variability of the climate
2ND
REPORT - 1995 : In the corpus of the observations lead us to believe that
there is a human influence on the climate of the planet
http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/http://www.sd-research.org.uk/http://www.sd-research.org.uk/http://www.sd-research.org.uk/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/http://www.ipcc.ch/http://www.ipcc.ch/http://www.ipcc.ch/http://www.ipcc.ch/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/http://www.sd-research.org.uk/http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/ -
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3RD
REPORT - 2001 : The recent observations provide convincing indications
that the heating of the planet over that last five years is attributable to the
activities of humans
4TH
REPORT - 2007 : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal. Most of
(>50% of) the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the
mid-20th century is very likely (confidence level >90%) due to the observed
increase in anthropogenic (human) greenhouse gas concentrations
1.6.2 Observed Changes and ImpactsIt has been reported that:
11 of 12 warmest years on record were in 19952006 (2007 now
joins them)
Over the last 100 years the global temperature has risen by 0.740C
with wide variations in regional trends. The North Pole, for
instance, has warmed at over twice the average global rate and land
regions warming faster than the oceans.
Global sea level rises since 1961 were 1.8mm/yr, rising dramatically
from 1993 to 3.1mm/yr. Since 1975 extreme high sea level events
have increased.Satellite data since 1978 shows that Artic sea ice has shrunk in
summer by an average of 7.4% per decade and some predict it will
go by 2030. Mountain snow cover and glaciers have declined
significantly in both hemispheres.
Since 1950 cold days and nights and frost have become less frequent
and hot days and nights more frequent over most land areas, with
heat waves and extreme floods becoming more frequent over most
areas.
There is growing concern about the future stability of the climate, the
unprecedented temperature extremes predicted for this century and the potential
impacts of the growing numbers and intensity of extreme weather events on
human health and settlements and on resource, water and food supplies in the
near term.
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm.pdf
1.6.3 Impacts and Insurance
Over recent decades, there has been a marked increase in the incidence and
severity of extreme weather events in scale and impacts around the world. The
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm.pdfhttp://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm.pdfhttp://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm.pdf -
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last few years have seen an unprecedented catalogue of extreme record-
breaking weather conditions: the UK experienced rainfall and flooding on an
unprecedented scale; hurricanes in the US; torrential rain and flooding in Latin
America; heat waves in Europe; intense tropical storms across the Asian
coastline; and meting of ice caps. One of the most reliable indicators of these
events is the escalating sum paid out by insurance companies. The 2003European heat wave caused 30,000 deaths and cost 13.5bn; the European
floods of 2002 caused 37 deaths and cost 16bn, while insurance payout from
the UK 2002 floods was 1bn. In fact, claims for storms and flood damages in
the UK have doubled to over 6 billion over the period 1998-2003, compared
to the previous five years, with a prospect of a further tripling by 2050. In 2007
Britain witnessed the warmest April and the wettest June on record for which
the current cost is already above 3.5 billion. International insurance statistics
show that the financial cost of such events is linked to the very different value
put on lives in different regions of the world.
1.6.4 The Atmosphere
The Troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer rising to around 17km above
the earths surface and it contains most of the planets air. Wind, storms,
most clouds and other weather features all take place in the troposphere. A
thickening layer of GHGs in the upper troposphere trap increasing amounts of
re-radiated solar energy in this lower atmosphere causing a build up of
temperature in the earths atmosphere.
1.6.5 Greenhouse Gases
GHG emissions have grown since pre-industrial times with an alarmingincrease of over 80% between 1970 and 2007 alone despite and the
international attempts to stabilise and reduce CO2 emissions. The long term
trend of declining global CO2 emissions per unit of energy supplied, the units
of CO2 it takes to generate a unit of wealth for instance, reversed after 2000 so
rather than our global emissions declining they are rising increasingly rapidly as
more and more people get wealthier. Carbon dioxide has been chosen as the
key indicator GHG to describe trends in the rate of GHG emissions that cause
global warming because we generate much more of it than any other GHG and
it stays in the atmosphere for a very long time. Today CO2 concentrations stand
at 385 + parts per million (ppm), compared to a pre-industrial level of 278 ppm,
and a range over the previous 650,000 years of between 180 and 300 ppm.Climate scientists now adhere to a figure of 450ppm as being possibly a level
after which climate instability may occur. IPCC reports predict that by the end
of the 21st century CO2 levels will rise to above 700ppm unless we make
dramatic cuts in our emissions before around 2015.
1.6.6 Global Emissions of CO2
Global CO2 emissions have accelerated sharply and they were rising by less
than 1% annually up to the year 2000, they are now rising at 2.5% per year. In
2006 7.9 billion tonnes (gigatonnes, Gt) of carbon passed into the atmosphere
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last year. In 2000, the figure was 6.8Gt. From 2000 to 2005, the growth rate of
carbon dioxide emissions was more than 2.5% per year, whereas in the 1990s it
was less than 1% per year. As oil prices rise there is a strong current trend to
shift back to the use of coal in many nations including China, The US and the
UK. Total CO2 emissions and CO2 emissions per capita vary considerably
between countries.
Historic data on emissions can be shown in such graphs but when deciding how
to design today how to design for the future people use climate scenarios or
climate change scenarios. The former describe possible future climates rather
than changes in climate. Climate scenarios usually combine observations about
present day climate with estimates of the change in climates, typically using the
results from global or regional climate model experiments. Many of the futurechanges that will happen over the next 3040 years have already been
determined by historic emissions and because of the inertia in the climate
system. Scientists therefore have to adapt to some degree of climate change
however much future emissions are reduced.
1.6.7 UK Emissions of CO2Latest estimates show that total UK greenhouse gas emissions in 2006 had
fallen 15% below 1990 levels, while provisional estimates indicate that carbon
dioxide emissionswere 5% below 1990 levels in 2006. Estimates do vary
between sources but the 2007 Energy White Paper from the UK Department forEnvironment and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) show the UK is now going in the
wrong direction to meet the UK domestic target of 10% CO2 reductions by
2010. (Source: DEFRA; Energy White Paper 2007, p.308)
The UKs energy consumption by sector and the main sources of CO2
emissions show that the domestic sector was responsible for over 29% of total
UK energy use accounting for 24% of total CO2 emissions in 2005.
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1.6.8 The Stern Report
Sir Nicholas Sterns Review on the Economics of Climate Changewas the first
comprehensive UK review of the economic impacts of climate change and
clearly demonstrated that all countries will be affected by climate change, but
the poorest countries will suffer earliest and most. Its major conclusions were
that average temperatures could rise by 50C from pre-industrial levels if climate
change goes unchecked. His fairly dire conclusions are summarised below. He
recommended three elements of policy for an effective response: carbon
pricing; technology policy and energy efficiency. Carbon pricing, through
taxation, emissions trading or regulation, will show people the full social costs
of their actions. Technology policy should drive the large-scale development
and use of a range of low-carbon and high-efficiency products. Climate change
should be fully integrated into development policy, and rich countries should
honour pledges to increase support through overseas development assistance.
In December 2007 the UK Government pledged to put a carbon cost to every
project it develops across government departments.
The Stern Review (Stern, 2006) concluded that business asusual would cause
a further 5.80C rise in mean temperature, which would incur costs in excess of
20% of global gross domestic product (GDP), while the cost of emission
reduction measures to stabilize the temperature would be only 1% of GDP.
The Stern Review, in conjunction with the IPCC AR4 marked a turning point
in the global debate on climate change. It is impossible to say the extent to
which Stern has caught the mood of the time, or created it, but either way there
seems to have been a pronounced shift away from the debate over the science
and towards the economics of mitigation versus adaptation.
See Appendix 2 for further recent climate change updates.
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In Text Question: 1.4In light of the above publications and government initiatives, what couldyour company do to improve its sustainable practices?
What should the government do now to ensure that initiatives areimplemented.
Should organisations be forced by policy and the threat of fines/prisonsentences to comply?
How could the government encourage organisations to become more
sustainable without using legal threats?
Unit 1 : Consolidation Exercise
Discuss how the sustainable use of resources throughout a buildingslifecycle, and the responsible management of built assets during itsoperation, can benefit both global and local environments.
Although not assessed, it is sufficient to construct a reasoned bulletpoint list, rather than a full essay response.
References
1. BSJ (1996), CIBSE policy on the environment: engineering the builtenvironment for this and future generations Building Services Journal, p55,
May.
2. Emsley, J. (1994), Energy and fuels, New Scientist, Inside Science, 68
January.
3. Greek, D. (1996), It pays to get your sums right, Professional Engineer,April 24.
4. Griffith, A. (1995), Environmental Management Systems: an outline guidefor construction industry organisations, Dept, Building and Real Estate,Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
5. UETP-EEE (1995), The Finnish Association of Graduate Engineers,Environmental assessment of products: a course on life cycle assessment,
Ed B. Pedersen.
6. WCED (1987), World Commission on Environment and Development, Our
Common Future, Oxford Press, Suffolk.
7. Weir, G. (1998), Life Cycle Assessment of multi-glazed windows, Ph.D.thesis, Napier University.
8. http://www.un.org/popin/
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9. http://www.unep.org/tools/10.http://www.ipcc.ch/
http://www.unep.org/tools/http://www.unep.org/tools/http://www.ipcc.ch/http://www.ipcc.ch/http://www.ipcc.ch/http://www.ipcc.ch/http://www.unep.org/tools/ -
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Appendix 1a : Study Task Points
1. Sustainable development means action not only by nationalgovernments but also by local communities.
In 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development was held in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. It became known as
"the Rio Earth Summit". At this meeting, world leaders, including theBritish Prime Minister, signed a global action plan, Agenda 21, which
sets out how countries can protect and enhance the quality of life for
future generations. Agenda 21 is an Agenda for action for the 21st.
Century.
It is important that not just governments but all groups get involved.
Local councils and community groups are developing their own local
Agenda 21 plans.
2. Sustainable development means using energy more wisely.
Most of the energy we use in our homes and schools comes from fossilfuels. These include oil, coal, gas and of course electricity which in UK
is largely generated by burning fossil fuels.
There are many ways of avoiding the waste of energy. The simplest is
to turn off the lights when leaving a room.
Amazing fact.
Cleaning dirty light fittings such as lamp shades allows more light to
pass out. This means lower wattage light bulbs or tubes can be used,
saving up to 10% of the energy used for lighting your home or office.
Frightening fact
Households in the UK are responsible for about 25% of carbon dioxide
emissions through their use of electricity and direct consumption of
fossil fuels.
3. Sustainable development means reducing greenhouse gases such ascarbon dioxide.
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Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide are causing global warming.
This is scary because it is one of the greatest environmental threats
facing the planet.
Prehistoric plants accumulated carbon dioxide as a result of
photosynthesis over millions of years. We are releasing this carbondioxide by burning coal, oil and gas, - fossil fuels formed from the
fossilised remains of these plants, in a very short space of time. Carbon
dioxide and other gases such as methane trap heat inside the earths
atmosphere. This global warming is leading to climate change which
will have serious effects on the natural world and for humans.
Scary fact
If no action is taken to limit greenhouse gases, temperatures could rise
by 3C by the year 2100ad. This may not sound much but will cause
major problems including extreme floods and droughts.
4. Sustainable development means trying to achieve a better qualityof life for everyone.
For most people this would include living a long and healthy life.
Women tend to live 5 years longer than men. Men in manual work can
expect, on average, to live 5 years less than men in professional jobs.
This may seem erroneous as those getting more exercise through
manual jobs would be expected to be fitter than people working at
desks, who would be more susceptible to heart attacks. The heart of the
problem lies in.
unemployment,
poor housing conditions
low incomes
all lead to lower life expectancies.
However, good diet, not smoking and regular exercise all improve your
chances of living to old age, and more importantly, enjoying goodhealth as you get older.
Fascinating fact
Average life expectancy in Britain is now 74 years for men and 79
years for women.
5. Sustainable development means giving people the opportunities forwork.
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People should be able to get paid work to help them improve the living
standards of themselves and their families. But it is not just about
money. People who are unemployed often feel that their skills and
talents are wasted. They might not feel able to play a full part in
society. Everyone needs to feel that they are wanted, and that they can
contribute something. There are jobs that people do which is important
and which is not paid for e.g. parents looking after their children.
Everyone should be able to get some paid work but it may not be easy.
Single parents find it hard to take on full time jobs. People with
disabilities have a particularly tough time finding work. The longer
people are unemployed, the harder they find it to get work.
It is easier to find jobs when the economy is doing well. Sustainabilitymeans not just finding work for more people, it can also mean sharing
the work out more fairly. The more people who are out of work, the
harder those who are employed seem to have to work. Is there a fairer
way to share out work?
Sad fact
In 1997 one in six households in Britain had no-one in employment.
40% of all lone parent households were workless.
6. Sustainable development means meeting local needs locally andenabling skills, knowledge and resources to be shared more easily.
A LETS scheme involves people joining and listing what they can offer
in a directory. For example, baby-sitting, going shopping for the
elderly, food grown on an allotment, repairing cars or bikes, painting
and wall-papering, lessons in Spanish, or helping you get your new
computer set up and working. Its like someone doing you a favour, but
in return, you do someone else a favour.
To keep track and make sure that some people are not doing all the
work, "payment" is made in tokens or units. What this might mean isthat elderly Mrs. Adams who cannot dig her garden, gets Mr. Brown
from up the road to do it. She cannot afford to pay him money but gives
him 3 tokens. Mrs. Adams makes wonderful apple pies, which are no
good to Mr. Brown because he is on a diet. However several people in
the village get their apple pies from Mrs. Adams and pay her in tokens.
One of those people is Mrs. Carter who hates baking but earns tokens
for baby-sitting. Mr. and Mrs. Day often get Mrs. Carter to baby-sit for
them. They earn LETS tokens by Mrs. Day running a gymnastics class
in the village hall (the rent for which she pays in tokens). Mr. Day earns
his living as a brick-layer and is quite happy to be paid in LETS tokens
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for some jobs especially as the local farmer will exchange potatoes and
eggs for LETS tokens and the local garage will repair his car in
exchange for tokens. Mr. East, the farmer uses LETS tokens to send his
two daughters to the Gymnastics class, and of course he is very fond of
Mrs. Adams apple pies. Meanwhile, Mr. Brown finds that he has a
leaky tap, so he calls in Mr. Francis the plumber, and of course he canpay him in.........
LETS Schemes allow a fair exchange of goods and services and enable
you to get the help you need from other people who have joined in the
scheme, even if you dont know them. It means that even people who
havent much money can join in and get the help they need. For
example, someone who has no job can still use his/her time and skills
to earn tokens and can spend them on things they need and might not be
able to afford.
And you dont have to pay tax on your LETS tokens!........But, is itlegal?
Yes! The Government think its a great idea, and some local councils
will even let people pay their Council tax in LETS vouchers.
7. Sustainable development means valuing and protecting thediversity of nature.
We are not just talking about saving the rain-forests and coral reefs. Of
course they are important but then so is the wildlife in our own country.
How can we ask other people in other countries not to cut down theirforests if we are not caring for our own woodlands? How can we expect
others to put aside their own well being to save tigers when we allow
our own farmers to use pesticides which damage wild bird populations
so that we can enjoy cheap unblemished food?
We know that in the British countryside, ponds are being lost and as a
result numbers of frogs, toads and newts are falling. The otter
population has declined, largely as a result of water pollution and
disturbance though happily it seems to be making something of a
comeback.
It is not easy to count species of most plants or animals or to assess
regularly how much habitat has been lost.
The Government in Britain have decided to use population estimates of
common species of birds which breed in Britain as an "indicator" of
how wildlife is faring in this country. Birds are thought to be a good
indicator not only of other wildlife but also of the health of the wider
environment. Their numbers are affected by the state of habitats and by
pollution levels.
Worrying fact
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Populations of water birds have increased over the last 30 years. The
populations of many woodland and farmland birds has fallen since
1970.
8. Sustainable development means controlling air pollution to reduceharm to human health and the natural environment.
At present in Britain the greatest cause of air pollution in urban areas is
fine particles largely from burning fossil fuels. A quarter of these
particles are produced by road transport. The rest comes from power
stations and domestic coal fires. Other particles are produced by
quarrying, mining and construction work.
In rural areas ozone pollution is probably the greatest source of airpollution. It is produced by sunlight acting on nitrogen oxides and other
chemicals produced by vehicles and industry. You may even notice the
effects of air pollution yourself. Some people are particularly sensitive
to air pollution and will start to cough and feel their eyes getting
irritated at even quite low levels of air pollution.
Bad air days
In urban areas in 1997 there were 40 days when air pollution was
recorded as moderate or worse. In 1993 there were 62 bad air days so
things seem to be improving.
9. Sustainable development means reducing road traffic in Britain.
Easy access to transport improves our lives in many ways. However,
road transport adds to air pollution and noise pollution. Congested
roads lead to demands for more road building which in turn leads to the
loss of more countryside.
Scary fact
Since 1970 the amount of car travel per person in Britain has nearly
doubled. By 1997 people travelled on average, over 6,500 miles peryear by car.
Although engines are becoming more efficient and produce less
pollution than ten years ago, pollution is likely to increase as the
amount of traffic increases.
If no action is taken, traffic could increase by more than a third over the
next twenty years. This will mean more traffic jams, longer rush-hours,
more damage to the environment and to human health.
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10.Sustainable development means reducing the waste which weproduce.
Producing waste is a symptom of inefficient use of resources.
It is estimated that each year 145 million tonnes of waste are produced
each year in the UK from households, commerce and industry. About
20% of this waste comes from households and only about 7% of
household waste is recycled.
The amount of household waste which can be recycled could be
increased. However the real answer is to use resources far more
efficiently and minimise waste in the first place.
63% of all waste from households, industry and commerce goes to
land-fill. 84% of household waste goes to land-fill . Yet up to 25% of
household waste (garden waste, food waste etc.) is biodegradable
organic material. This causes many problems in land-fill sites,including the production of methane which is a green-house gas. Much
of this organic waste could be composted and hence recycled.
(adapted from www.4seasons.org.uk)
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Appendix 1b : Readers
1. The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development4 September 2002
2. Sustainable development: Opportunities for Change: Consultationpaper on a revised UK strategy
3. Wyatt, D.P., Sobotka, A and Rogalska, M., Towards a sustainablepractice, Facilities, Vol. 18, No. 1/2 pp 76-82, (2000).
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Appendix 2: 2007-08 Updates inClimate Change
In 1988 the World Meteorological Office (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) to tackle the very complex challenge of understanding
and dealing with climate change. Policymakers needed an objective source of
information about its causes, its potential environmental and socio-economic
impacts and available adaptation and mitigation options.
The IPCC is a scientific body that provides information, based on the latestinternational scientific evidence. It consolidates and reflects existing
viewpoints within the scientific community to provide scientific, technical and
socio-economic information in a policy-relevant, but policy neutral, way to
decision makers. When governments accept and approve the regular 4-5 yearly
IPCC Reports and Summaries for Policymakers, they acknowledge the
legitimacy of their science.
The first IPCC Report in 1990 set out the framework for the reporting on
climate science, the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 provided key
input for the negotiations of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the ThirdAssessment Report of 2001, Special and Methodology Reports provided
further information relevant for the development and implementation of the
Kyoto Protocol. The IPCC Fourth Report (AR4) in 2007 informed negotiations
at Bali which in turn are setting the agenda for the Post-Kyoto framework
treaty.
At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro the IPCC was asked to report in future
on:
assessment of national net greenhouse gas emissions, resulting in the
national greenhouse gas inventories programmepredictions of regional distributions of climate change and associated
impact studies
energy and industry related issues
agriculture and forestry related issues
vulnerability to sea level rise and emissions scenarios, resulting in six
IS92 scenarios
The findings of the First IPCC Assessment Report of 1990 played a decisive
role in leading to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
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Change (UNFCCC) which was adopted at the Rio in 1992 and opened for
signature. The Convention entered into force on 21st
March 1994 and under it
the industrialised countries agreed to aim to return their emissions to 1990
levels by 2010.
The relationship between the IPCC and the UNFCCC is worth clarifying.
Under the UNFCCC a Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological
Advice (SBSTA) was established. At the first of the annual Conference of the
Parties to the UNFCCC (COP-1) in Berlin (Feb 1995) the functions of the
SBSTA were clarified and it was requested SBSTA to:
Summarize and interpret the latest international scientific research for
the politicians (COP) and support of the review of the adequacy ofcommitments (targets)
Assess the implications of research and advise on the development and
improvement of comparable methodologies for:
National inventories of emissions and removals of greenhouse gases
Projecting national emissions and removals of greenhouse gases and
comparison of respective contributions of different gases to climate
change
Evaluating the individual and aggregated effects of measures
undertaken pursuant to the provisions of the Convention
Conducting impact/sensitivity analysesAssessing adaptation responses
The Conference of Parties
Since their instigation in 1995 those parties to the UNFCC have held annual
COP meetings (Conference of Parties) to re-negotiate the Agreements on
emissions and impacts, their measurement, management, programmes and
tools. The programme of meetings associated with the UNFCC are as follows:
1988 IPCC Established by UNEP and WMO
1990 IPCC First Report
1992 UNFCC Rio Conference, Brasil, IPCC report on radiative forcing,
AGENDA 21 Adopted, Clean development Mechanism Fund established
1995 COP-1 Berlin, Germany Mandate signed
1995 Second IPCC Report
1996 COP-2 Geneva, Switzerland, Endorsed the 2nd
IPCC Report
(SRES)
1997 COP-3 Kyoto, Japan, Kyoto Protocol adopted
1998 COP-4 New Dehli, India questioned the need for tougher targets
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1999 COP-5 Bonn
2000 COP-6 The Hague
2001 TAR Third IPCC Assessment Report (TAR)
2001 COP-7 Marakesh, Endorsed TAR
2002 COP-8 New Dehli
2003 COP-9 Milan, Carbon sinks and emissions trading2004 COP-10 Buenos Aires, Adaptation and Mitigation
2005 COP-11 Montreal,
2006 COP-12 Nairobi, Confirming the Science
2007 AR4 Fourth Assessment Report
2007 COP-13 Bali, Indonesia. Fourth IPCC Report (AR4)
2008 COP-14 Poznan, Poland
2009 COP-15 Copenhagen, Denmark
The Kyoto AgreementOn 11 December 1997, at the conclusion of COP-3 in Kyoto, Japan, more than
150 nations adopted the Kyoto Protocol, committing industrialized nations to
make legally binding reductions of six GHGs. The called-for reductions varied
from country to country, but would cut emissions by an average of around 5%
below 1990 levels by the period 200812. The United States agreed to
reductions of 7%, Japan to reductions of 6% and the European members to
joint reductions of 8%. Key to the US agreement to such a relatively ambitious
target was the establishment of a system of emissions trading among
industrialized countries, by which nations with binding limits could buy and
sell, among themselves, the right to release greenhouse gases.
By the end of 2003 113 Parties had ratified, or acceded to, the Kyoto Protocol
but only when Russia ratified in August 2004 was the Treaty able to become
legally binding, as it was from the 16th February 2005. On the 3rd
December
2007 Australia, represented by its 26th Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, also signed
the Treaty leaving the United States of America as the only developed country
not to have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, despite being the largest global emitter
of greenhouse gasses, with its 4% of the global population responsible for 24%
of the global greenhouse gas emissions.
One of the key aims of the Kyoto Protocol is to set the preconditions for setting
stabilisation targets and ensuring they are achievable by providing an
international policy framework that can deliver such targets through the
provision of emissions trading and other Kyoto mechanisms.
Bali
On the 15th
December 2007, in a last minute agreement at the COP-13 in Bali,
all countries that are party to the Kyoto Agreement, and the United States of
America (reluctantly), agreed up a Bali Action Plan and Roadmap that outlined
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a broad range of actions relating to the mitigation and adaptation for climate
change committing to:
Achieving deep cuts in global emissions Targets in accordance with the
UNCCC
Reaffirming as priorities economic and social development & poverty
eradication
Responding to AR4 findings that global warming is unequivocal and action
urgent
Recognizing that (really) deep cuts in global emissions will be required to
achieve the ultimate objective of the Convention (avoiding climate chaos).
The sense of urgency at Bali was palpable and four main areas were dealt with
in detail:New framework for emissions inventories and reporting mechanisms for
deforestation and landuse
Adaptation fund and programme to enhance the ability of nations to adapt in
time
Technology transfer mechanisms and financing reinforced and developed
Ad Hoc Working Group on Long Term Cooperative Action under the
Convention set up to produce an action plan for presentation to COP 15 in
Copenhagen in 2009 on which will be based the proposals for the post-Kyoto
treaty
A further function of the COP meetings is to report back on progress against
targets and to this end in the Clean Development Mechanism arena, relating to
projects where by emissions reductions in one country can be claimed as
carbon reductions by a funding country, for the year 2006-2007 825 projects
were reported achieving 84,049,697 million certified emissions reductions and
the development of 32 new agreed baseline and monitoring methodologies.
AR4 of the IPCC had firmly established the link between anthropogenic
emissions of greenhouse gasses and climate change and reported step changes
in the severity of their impacts. Many countries that were holding out for real
targets for medium term emissions reductions were thwarted but it is felt thatthe COP 15 at Copenhagen will produce real targets for the post-Kyoto Treaty,
driven on by a much anticipated change of US Government.
http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_13/items/4049.php
Carbon Trading
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_13/items/4049.phphttp://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_13/items/4049.phphttp://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_13/items/4049.php -
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the Kyoto Protocol and greenhouse gas emissions trading schemes are based on
calculations of tonnages of each greenhouse gas (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs,
SF6). National greenhouse gas inventories of emissions are calculated and
reported for UNFCCC compliance. The inventories are reported both in the
tonnages of the actual gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6) and also
aggregated as a total CO2 equivalent number. Each metric tonne of non-CO2gas is converted to CO2 equivalents using a global warming potential number.
Greenhouse gas quantities, in National inventories, are normally expressed in
CO2 equivalent units (CO2e). Because each gas has a different impact on global
warming, each non CO2 gas is multiplied by a Global Warming Potential
(GWP) which reflects its impact relative to CO2 (See page 5). The input data to
this calculation are the tonnages emitted of each greenhouse gas, but the totals
are reported in tonnes of CO2 equivalent. For example each tonne of CH4 is
equivalent to 21 times a tonne of CO2 because that is the standard metric used
to approximate the effect of a tonne of CH4 in the atmosphere compared to a
tonne of CO2 over a 100 year timeframe.
Emissions trading schemes for greenhouse gases use this same calculation
methodology. For the UK emissions trading scheme, all greenhouse gases are
potentially included, with some companies bringing N2O and HFCs into the
scheme as well as CO2. The non-CO2 units are translated into CO2 equivalents
for reporting and compliance purposes. For the EU emissions trading scheme,
only CO2 emissions were included in the first phase (200508) so the only
relevant unit is metric tonnes of CO2.
UK 2010 target
In 2000, bolstered by the large emissions reductions that had been achieved
through the Dash to Gas (using more efficient gas turbines to generate
electricity over the older coal powered stations), the UK government believed
that its climate change strategies would be sufficient to deliver the legally
binding Kyoto Target of 12.5% emission reduction by 2010. However, UNEP,
then suggested that the UK is unlikely to meet its Kyoto commitments. It
projected UK greenhouse gas emissions as 6.6-7.3% above its commitment
level, equating at best to 5.2-5.8% reduction in emissions by 2010 rather than
the 12.5% drop which the UK is pledged to achieve. Tony Blair, fired to
inspire, claimed that Britain, far from achieving only 12.5% reductions was
aiming for 20% to show global leadership. In 2006, the UK Government
reported that it was not on course to meet its target of a 20% reduction in 1990
levels of CO2 emissions by 2010, and would probably reduce them by only 15-
18%, still however meeting its Kyoto target. Transport is the only sector of the
UK economy in which carbon emissions have increased dramatically since
1990, rising by 10% between 1990 and 2004.
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60% REDUCTION BY 2050 (Now 80% reduction by 2050,December 2008)
The Kyoto Protocol and subsequent targets of the UK government were an
important start, but they have been seen as short-term commitments, which still
fall a long way short of what is likely to be required to stabilise atmospheric
CO2 concentrations. In recent years, a number of reports have been produced
proposing tougher targets.
In June 2000, the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP)
published the important report, Energy: the changing climate,on the long-term
challenges to the UKs energy and environmental policy posed by climate
change and citing a figure of some 60% in reductions required from 1997 levels
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by about 2050, and increasing to 80% by 2100. Such figures at that time
appeared to be incredible and unachievable however they are now in the ball
park of the reduction requirements being talked about in the Bali process for
global reduction limits.
The RCEP figures were taken up by the governments InterdepartmentalAnalysts Group (IAG) who concluded that a 60% reduction in emissions was
technically feasible but extremely challenging. Apart from reductions in the
transport sector, a combination of substantial (non-transport) energy efficiency
improvement and a move to carbon-free electricity generation would help to
deliver a significant proportion of the emission reductions required. IAG
estimated in 2002 the overall abatement cost to have an impact of between 0.01
and 0.02 percentage points on a long-term GDP growth rate of 2.25%.
Similarly, the UK Performance and Innovation Unit (PIU), in its report The
energy review, reconfirms the possibility of delivering the 60% reduction inemissions - provided sufficient energy efficiency measures are adopted, the
electricity system produces very low carbon emissions through the expansion
of renewable energy, and major progress is made towards a low carbon
transport system. The Carbon Trust too has taken the RCEPs 60% reduction
target as its starting point. The Trust believes it is technically possible for the
UK to meet this target with a combination of energy efficiency measures and
new low carbon technologies, plus significant societal and infrastructure
changes (Fawcett et al., 2002, p. 45; CarbonTrust, 2001).
The 60% reduction target has also been endorsed by the governments 2003
Energy White Paper, which sets out the goal of cutting 60% of UK CO2emissions from 1990 levels by 2050, with real progress by 2020. However, the
government has shied away from turning this goal into a legally binding target,
regarding it merely as an aspiration, attracting criticism that the White Paper
was long on rhetoric but short on delivery mechanisms.
CO2 emissions from Aviation
Aviation is the fastest-growing source of greenhouse-gas emissions, already
accounting for 7 per cent of the UK total. By 2050, aviation could contribute
15% of the worlds greenhouse gases. Further, the burning of aircraft fuel has a
radiative forcing ratio of around 2.7. What this means is that the total
warming effect of aircraft emissions is 2.7 times as great as the effect of the
carbon dioxide alone. Away from Britain, aviation is growing at spectacular
rates, with India recently seeing a 45% increase in passenger numbers within a
single year.
The UK government raised air passenger duty in February 2007, and the
European Union is set to include aviation in its Emissions Trading Scheme
(ETS), which could increase costs further. However there is an inherent
contradiction within a government that wants to reduce greenhouse gas
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emissions while expanding airport capacity. Expansion plans are lodged for
many airports including Heathrow, Stansted, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Liverpool
and East Midlands. The more you build them, the more people will use them.
Flying may also be hurting the national economy, with Britons choosing to
spend money holidaying overseas rather than in the UK. Studies have shown
that the UK government could not achieve its long-term goal of a 60% cut in
national greenhouse gas emissions without curbing the aviation sector.
Figure 2.12.
Contraction and Convergence
First proposed in 1990 by Aubrey Meyer of the Global Commons Institute C &
C is increasingly assumed as the foundation for internationally acceptable
negotiations on emissions reductions. The C & C approach promotes justice
and fairness in a century where many believe that equity is survival. C & C
proposes a GHG emission reduction protocol that aims to be achievable and
acceptable to as many interested parties as possible. It is based on two
principals:
Contraction: On the basis of precaution, and guided by the scientific advice of
the IPCC, all governments or regional groupings of governments would agree
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to, and agree to respond to, a single atmospheric target for GHG emissions
reductions, be it 450, 500 or 550 ppm CO2 for instance. With this agreed target
it is possible then to calculate the total diminishing amount of greenhouse gases
that the world can emit for each year in the coming century. Whatever the rate,
this is called Contraction.
Convergence: On the basis of equity, convergence means that each years
ration of this global emissions budget can be shared so that each country, or
group of countries, progressively converges to equal per capita global shares by
an agreed year. This recognizes the principle of globally equal rights per capita
to the global commons of the atmosphere, but achieved by smooth transition.
Where countries or groups do have a diversity of natural endowments, C&C
acknowledges this too by embracing, for example, the European Union, which
operates as a unit at the international level whilst creating its own convergence
arrangements. C & C simplifies climate negotiations to just two questions:
1) What is the maximum amount of CO2 that can be permitted in the
atmosphere?
2) By what date should global capital shares converge to that level?
C & C provides a realistic framework for global negotiations on emissions
reductions. It is increasingly being seen as the most credible basis for
achieving the types of drastic reductions that scientists increasingly see as the
only way to stabilise climate sufficiently to avoid climate chaos. C & C
obviously does ask more reductions from those who currently produce the most
GHGs but despite this it has been endorsed by many prominent bodies
including the RCEP, the Cabinet Office and the Greater London Authority.
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