Unit 16, Lesson 1 Old and New Imperialism -...
Transcript of Unit 16, Lesson 1 Old and New Imperialism -...
Old and New Imperialism
Unit 16, Lesson 1
Keywords“God, gold, and
glory”
protectorate
reconquista
self-sufficiency
social Darwinism
sovereignty
Victorians
Essential Questions• Whatwerethemotivations,thetimeperiod,andthepatternsofold
imperialism?
• Whatwerethemotivations,thetimeperiod,andthepatternsofnewimperialism?
• Whattechnologiesmadenewimperialismpossible?
• WhatwerethekeyfeaturesofsocialDarwinism?
• Whatideologiesareevidentinthebrownandwhiteman’sburdens?Whataretheirjustificationsforandagainstimperialism?
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760 Unit 16, Lesson 1
Set the StageAfter the dust from the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars began to settle in the mid-nineteenth century, Europe experienced profound industrial and technological expansions as part of the Industrial Revolution. During this time, European citizens began to demand more freedoms and rights for themselves, as well as take more pride in their own nations. They concentrated on strengthening themselves from within and developing new tools, products, and ideas. Soon, Europe needed more money to fund the new factories and places of industry developing within its states, as well as more natural materials to fuel its factories. Instead of invading each other, however, when Europe’s countries needed more resources to support their new technology and industry they began to look elsewhere: to Africa and to Asia.
The Rise of Old Imperialism: How and WhyFormanyEuropeancountries,thedesiretoincreasetheirlandsandholdingsbeyondtheirownborders—andbeyondtheirowncontinent—hadbeenfeltandexploredsince1096.Atthattime,membersofChristiannationswentontheCrusadestotheHolyLandtospreadtheirreligiousideals.DuringtheMiddleAges,Europeannationscontinuallyattemptedtoincreasetheirinfluenceoutsidetheirdomesticboundaries.ThiscontinuedincreasecanbeseeninSpain’sreconquista,inwhichMuslimSpaniardsweredrivenfromthecontinent;intheideathatMarcoPoloshouldtraveltoandreportbackonChina;eveninPortugal’sinitialexplorationsofAfrica’scoast.PeopleinEuropewantedtoknowwhatelsethewideworldconsistedof.
Today,scholarswonderwhy,exactly,somanyEuropeannationsbecameevenmoredrawntojourneysofdiscoveryinthe1400sand1500s—whatwasitaboutthattimeperiodthatmadepeoplesointerestedinadventureandseekingoutknowledge?Traditionally,scholarsrefertothedescriptionof“God, gold, and glory.”Indeed,thesethreewordsexplainlikelyandpossiblemotivationsforexplorerstogoonjourneysofdiscoveryandfornationstosponsorthem.GodreferstotheideathatbothindividualEuropeansandEuropeannationswantedtospreadandsharetheirreligiousidealswithpeopletheysawasuneducated,atbest,andinfidels,atworst.Goldreferstothevastfinancialrewardsthatcouldaccruetoanadventurerandtothenationthatsponsoredhimshouldhisdangerousjourneytounknownlandsproveprofitable.Gloryrepresentsthefameandpoliticalpowerthatafortunatediscoverycouldbringtotheexplorerandhiscountry,respectively.However,“God,gold,andglory”werenottheonlyreasonsforthisera’ssurgeindiscovery.Advancesintechnologyandindustrymadeleavingone’sownnationforlongperiodsoftime,travelingvastdistances,andreturninghomesafelypos-sible,aswell.Takentogether,thesefactorshelpexplainwhyEuropeannationsdevotedsomanyresourcestojostlingwithoneanotherforpositionsofsupremacywithregardtodiscoveriesmadeintheworldbeyondEurope.
reconquista forced exit of Muslim Moors living in Spain from Europe
“God, gold, and glory” the popular excuses and reasons for imperial expansion
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Unit 16, Lesson 1 761
Bythefourteenthcentury,thankstohabitsformedoverthecourseofseveralhundredyears,peopleinEuropegreatlydesiredthespecialproductsthatcamefromtheeasternpartoftheworld.Theseproductsincluded,amongmanyothers,spices,silk,andperfumes.Partofwhatmadetheseproductssospecial,however,wasthattheEuropeans’accesstothemhadbeenlimited.ArabandOttomanbrokerswouldmovebetweenEuropeandtheFarEast,tradingandtransportingtheexoticproducts,butEuropeanswerenotbeenabletogetthoseproductsforthemselves.Andsincetheycouldnotbuytheproductsdirectly,Europeanshadbeenpayingapremiumonthem.Inthehopesofavoidingthehighbrokers’feesthatwereheapedontopofthepricesofalready-expensiveEasternproducts,Europeanslookedforwaystobuyeverythingfromsilkandporcelainchina;tospicemixturesandsugars;tovaluablejewels,minerals,andotherfinemetalsstraightfromthesource.Bygoingtothesource,Europeancustomerswouldbeabletobothlowertheirowncostsandgivethemselvesmoreconsistentaccesstotheproductstheywanted.
TheMiddleAgessawtheriseofmoreurbancentersinEuropeandasubsequentincreaseintradeandbusiness.Boththesalespeopleandtradesmen,aswellasthegoverningregimesofthesegrowingnations,beganlookingtotradeandimpe-rialexpansionasameansofgreatlyexpandingtheirwealth.Meanwhile,manyChristiansbelievedthatitwastheirreligiousdutytoevangelizethenationsoftheFarEast.Forsome,missionaryworkwassimplyanexcusetopropeladventurousjourneystounknownlands,butothersdidhonestlyandtrulybelieveinspreadingandsharingtheirbeliefs.Ofcourse,manyChristianmissionariesneitherunderstoodnorhonoredthenon-Christianreligionsoftheregion.SobythetimetheMiddleAgeshadgivenwaytotheReformation,membersofchurchesandorganizations,suchastheJesuits,forexample,werewhollyinvestedinusingcolonialexpansionasameansofdispersingthewordsandideasoftheirfaith.Again,between“God,gold,andglory,”Europeansofthistimehadallthecompellingreasonstheyneededforexpandingtheirinfluenceandpower.Whattheyneedednextwerethewaystomaketheirimperialdesiresareality.
Sohowwerethesegreatvoyagesfundedandundertaken?Thesimplestansweris:technology.The1400swereacrowningtechnologicalera,atimewhen,afterdecades,scholarsandnavigatorshadfinallymadethekindsofadvances—howtonavigatelongdistances,forinstance—thatenabledexplorerstotraveltosuchfar-offlands.Intruth,Europeanswerenotthefirsttomakethesediscoveries.Earlyinthecentury,peoplefromChinahadsailedsuccessfullytoothercountries,makingittoboththesouthernIndianOceanandtoAfrica.YettheChinesedidnotpur-suethesepotentialcolonialrelationships.UnlikeEuropeancountries,Chinahadnodesiretoconqueroutsidelandsasameansofincreasingtheirownpowerandcommercialauthority.TheChinesebelievedtheircountryalreadyhadthemostadvancedfinancialandsocialsystems,anyway,andthatincorporatingideasfromothernationswouldnotstrengthentheirs.China’sreluctancetoengageinmoreaggressiveimperialexpansionopenedthedoorforEuropeannationstodojustthat.
Indeed,Europeanexplorersusedavarietyofnewtools,includingthosedevel-opedbytheadvancedChinese,tonavigatetheworld’shighseas.Forexample,twotoolsthatservedChristopherColumbusandotherexplorersespeciallywell—the
1SeLf-cHecK
What did the
catchphrase “God,
gold, and glory”
really indicate?
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762 Unit 16, Lesson 1
compassandaxialrudder—bothcamefromChinatoEurope.Thesetoolsallowedsailorstotravelexceedinglylongdistances.Twootherimportanttoolshelpedadventurersfigureoutwheretheystoodontheglobeintermsoflatitude:boththebasicquadrantandthecomplexastrolabeworkedtogaugeatwhatinclinethePoleStarstood,whichinturnallowedsailorsandexplorerstodeterminetheirlati-tude.Tothesetools,explorersaddedinnovativeguidesandshipplans.Guidesornavigationalmapsknownasportolaniprovidedadventurerswithmoreknowledgeandfactsthanothershadpreviouslyaboutpromontoriesandcoastlineshapes.Theyalsodescribedpotentialroutesforadventurers.Theportolani’sknowledgedidnot,unfortunately,extendtothewidesea.Yetinnovativekindsofshipsthatusedthelateensail,socalledbecauseofitstriangularshapeandwhichwasriggeddifferentlyfromearliersquaresails,couldsailintothewind,sonodestinationwasoutofreach.
Asiftheseadvanceswerenotinnovativeandimpressiveenough,twomoreimportantkindsofscholarshipcontributedtotheEuropeans’abilitytoleavetheirhomelandsandtravelsowidely.AnastronomerofGrecianextractionfromthesecondcenturyc.e.,Ptolemy,hadwrittenaworkcalledtheGeographica,whichhelpedpeoplecalculatedistancesonmaps.Ptolemy’sworkhadfallenoutofpopularknowledgebuttheexplorersofthe1400sbroughtitbackintopopularity.Explorersusedit,alongwithnewtechniquesfromthefieldofperspectivegeometry,toconstructthegridsorfoundationsfortheirmaps.Asimilartechniqueisstillusedtoday.Itisworthnoting,however,thatinhisGeographicaPtolemycalculatedAsiatobemuchlargerthanitactuallywas.Ptolemy’smiscalculationhadimportantconsequencesontheboththegoalsandresultsofColumbus’sexplorations.
PeopleacrossEuropehadheardoforwitnessedthesenewtoolsandtechniques.Butknowledgealonewasnotenoughtospurimperialconquest.Tobecomeanimperialpower,anationhadtofirstfirmlyestablishitsauthorityandcontroloverdomesticmatters.Inlateryears,bothFranceandBritainexploredandsettledtheirpeopleindifferentareasoftheNorthAmericancontinentbecausebothenjoyedrelativestabilityinEurope.Withoutahardyhomebasetomoveoutfrom,however,conquerorswerenotbeabletoholdontomanyofthenewlandstheyclaimed.OnereasonPortugalandSpaintookanearlyleadinglobalexplorationwasthattheywereabletoconsolidatetheirrespectivecountriesintosingleentitiesledbymonarchs.Inaddition,PortugalandSpaintookonthisrole,inpart,becauseoftheirlocationontheEuropeancontinent,whichaffordedthemexcellentaccesstothesea.TheirproximitytowaterhadledPortugalandSpaintoinvestheavilyintheirnaviesandinseafaringtechnology.Thisinvestmenteventuallyservedthemwellinthelargercontextofexploration.Underthemonarchs’authority,PortugalandSpainwereabletoprovidetheirexplorerswithstablehomebasesandwiththefundstoenablelong-termtraveloutsideofthecontinent.
Successfulexplorationdidnotsimplymeanreachinganewandundiscov-eredland.Toestablishandmanageimperialterritoryinnewplaces,aspiringimperialpowersneededtohavemoneyandtime,establisheddiplomatictradi-tions,andlong-standinggovernmentalpower.Withoutthesethings,anationcouldnotsucceedinachievingoverseascontrol,evenifithadmanygreatadventurerswithinitsborders.Toillustratethispoint,considerthefactthat
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Unit 16, Lesson 1 763
severalofthemostdistinguishedadventurersfromearlyinthe1400sandearly1500s,includingtheCabots,Verrazano,Vespucci,andColumbus,allclaimedItalianroots.Thesemenhadtofindfund-ingfortheirtripsoverseaselsewherebecauseItalydidnothavethedomesticstability,authority,andwealthtopromoteitsownimperialgrowth.Atthatpointintime,Italystoodnotasasingle,amalgam-atednationwithasolerulerandoverarchinggov-ernment,butasaconnectingseriesofautonomousregionsandcity-states.ThedisjointednatureofItalyatthetimemeantthatItalianshadtoworryaboutanotherforeignpoweroccupyingthemontheirownturf,notexpandingtheirboundaries.
Thecountriesstableenoughtoundertakeimperialexpansionhadanotheradvantage,aswell.Thosewithstablerulingregimesweremilitarilysuperior,bothincomparisontothelesspowerfulnationsofEuropeandtothenativesinfar-offlands.Thismeantthattheirrepresentativeshadmoresophisticatedwaysandmeansoffightingbattlesthantheindigenouspeoplesofthecountriestheyinvadedhad.Europeanscoulddefendthemselveswitharmsmadeofsteelandprotec-tivearmormadeofplate.Theycouldlaunchassaultsontheirenemieswiththenewlydevelopedcannon.Theindigenouspeoplesofcountriesacrosstheoceanfoundnomatchtotheseweaponsintheirownarsenals.
expansion from four Nations: Portugal, Spain, england, and francePortugalandSpainhadthebestpositionandearlieststartinlookingbeyondtheirownborderstobuildimperialcolonies.ThePortuguesesettheirsightsonlandsinAfricaandAsia.OneofPortugal’srulingscions,PrinceHenry(1394–1460),alsoknownasHenrytheNavigator,foundhimselfincreasinglydrawntothepotentialwealthofAfrica.First,hehelpedcreateaninstitutionforthestudyofnavigation.Afterthat,HenrybeganorganizinganddirectingexploratorygroupsthatinvestigatedAfrica’swesterncoast.Ineachregion,thePortuguesewereguidedbytheirinterestinaparticularcultivatedproduct.First,intheMadeiraIslands,whichthePortuguesecametoin1420,theystartedmakingwine,alsoknownas“Madeira.”Second,intheAzores,whichtheyarrivedinbetween1427and1431,thePortuguesecreatedabusinessaroundtheprocessoffishing.Third,by1460,thePortuguesehadtakentheirjourneysallthewaytotheCapeVerdeIslands,wheretheybeganinvestinginthesugartrade.Meanwhile,thePortugueseexplorerscontinuedtotravelfartheralongAfrica’swesterncoast,wheretheyinvestedinebony,ivory,gold,andslaves.
JustastheylookedforgoodsinAfrica,thePortuguesesearchedforproductsinAsia.TheirfirstexplorertomakeitaroundtheCapeofGoodHopeatthebot-tomofAfrica,BartholomewDiaz,didsoin1488.Tenyearslater,anotherexplorer,
European leaders staking their claims on colonies around the globe
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764 Unit 16, Lesson 1
VascodaGama,madeitallthewaytotheIndianborder.TwoyearsafterdaGamareachedIndia,anotheradventurer,Cabral,reachedBrazil.PortugaldeclareditsownershipofBrazilin1500.Meanwhile,nearGoa,thePortuguesepressedonwiththeirexpansioninIndia,andintheEastIndies,theirholdingscomprisedboththeSpiceIslandsandtheMalayPeninsula.Ineachoftheseregions,thePortuguesecreatedanoutpostfortheirshipsandsoldiers,aswellasanexusfortradeandindustry.Withinanotherhundredyears,theirexplorerswouldtravelasfarasCanton,China,andtotheedgeofJapan.
Spain’simperialachievementswereequallyimpressive.Oneofthecountry’searlyexplorers,Columbus,traveledallthewaytotheAmericasin1492.AsSpain’srepresentative,ColumbusassertedthattheVirginIslands,Trinidad,Hispaniola,andsomeotherislandsintheCaribbeanwereSpain’sproperty.In1493,PopeAlexander VIcreatedtheLineofDemarcation,helpingdistinguishimperialpropertiesofSpainandPortugalfromoneanother.Thepope’screationofthislinestoodaspartofalargeragreementhewouldmandatebetweenthetwocountriesin1494calledtheTreatyofTordesillas.TheLineofDemarcationrannorthtosouth,crossingtheCapeVerdeIslandsandtheAzores.Accordingtothepope,whenexplorersfoundnewterritoriestothewestoftheline,thoseterritorieswouldgotoSpain;newterritoriesfoundtotheeastwouldgotoPortugal.
Meanwhile,SpainmadegreatstridesintheAmericas.ItasserteditsdominanceoverFlorida,throughtheexplorerPoncedeLeón;Panama,throughtheexplorerBalboa;theAztecempire(nowMexico),throughtheexplorerHernandoCortés;andtheIncanempire(nowPeru),throughtheexplorerPizarro.Anotheradventurer,Coronado,mappedoutothersectionsofwhattodaymakeupthesouthwesternpartoftheUnitedStatesonSpain’sbehalf,aswell.Yetanotherexplorer,Magellan,capturedmorehonorsforSpainwhenhebecamethefirstpersontocircumnavigatetheglobe.MagellanclaimedonegroupofislandsforSpainandnamedthemthePhilippinesasatributetotheSpanishking,PhilipII.
Finally,FranceandEnglandturnedtheirattentiontothenorthernpartofNorthAmerica.OnEngland’sbehalf,theadventurerJohnCabot,alongwithhisson,stakedoutNorthAmerica’snortheasterncoastalline.OnFrance’sbehalf,twoexplorerswenttowork.LikeCabot,Verrazanostakedoutthecoastline,andheexaminedthenaturalharborofwhatwouldbecomeNewYork.JacquesCartierexploredapathwayalongtheSt.LawrenceRiver,reachingasfarasCanadaandestablishingFrenchclaimsonthisnewland.
Movement from the Old to the New ImperialismOldimperialism,then,beganinapproximately1096,anditseffectsreverberatedthroughthemid-nineteenthcentury.TheprincipalplayersofthemovementwerePortugal,Spain,
Propaganda claiming that the French bring liberty, civilization, and peace to their colonies—in this case, Morocco
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Unit 16, Lesson 1 765
France,andEngland.Eachofthesecountriesreliedonnewseafaringandmap-makingtechnologiestocrossgreaterdistancesandreachnewshoresforthefirsttime.Thethreemotivatingfactorsofthisperiod,“God,gold,andglory,”gaveimperialnationsthreekeyreasonsforexpandingtheirglobalreachandsettingupcoloniestoruleoverindigenouspeoplesinsettledlands.ManyoftheselandswereinNorthandSouthAmerica.Thankstosuperiormilitarytechnologyandweaponslikecannons,theEuropeansettlerswereabletosubjugateindigenouspeoples,occupytheirland,andclaimitforEuropeanpowersacrossthesea.
Newimperialismbeganproperlyinthelate1870s,dueinparttotheaftereffectsofindustrializationandthenew,broaderunificationofindividualEuropeancoun-tries.Becauseofindustrialization,countriesneededmorerawmaterialstokeeptheirtechnologiesgoing;becauseofunification,individualcountriesfeltadomes-ticstabilitythatallowedtheprocessofexpansiontobeginonceagain.Europeannationsstrivingforimperialconquestnowhadthebenefitofevennewermilitaryandcommunicativetechnologies,includingbetterriflesandtelegrams,toaidthem.ThemostaggressiveEuropeancountriesduringthisperiodofexpansionincludedBritain,France,andBelgium,allparticipantsintherushtocolonizeAfrica.Undernewimperialism,AfricawasalmostentirelycarvedupandappropriatedbyEuropeannations.Whiletheconceptsof“God”and“glory”stillapplied,theimperialistpowersofthe1870sweremostinterestedinthatera’sequivalentof“gold”:therawmaterialsavailableinAfricaandAsiathatcouldbeusedtocreatewealthinindustrializednations.AndwhilesomeEuropeansjustifiedtheiractionsbycitingthefactthatcolonizationbroughtChristianitytonativepeoples,religionwasfrequentlymisusedasatoolofdiscrimination,racism,andcruelty.ItwasnotuncommonforEuropeanstotrickindigenouspeoplesintosigningawaytheirrightsandpossessions,andsomeindividuals,likeKingLeopoldIIofBelgium,forcedcolonizedpopulationsintoslavelabor.
The Rise of the New Imperialism: How and WhyThepushforimperialisminthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesrevivedinthenineteenthcentury,whenEuropeancountriesdecidedagainthattheywishedtosolidifytheirpositionsandexpandtheirpoweronaworldscale.Today,scholarsseethisdesireforimperialexpansionasstemmingfromthreedifferentareas:money,politics,andsociety-culture.Onthefirstsubject,money,scholarsareslightlydivided.ThosefromaMarxistbackgroundbelievethatnineteenth-centurynationssetoutonsuchaggressiveimperialpathwaysprimarilybecauseoftheirdesireforbetterfinances,adesiretriggeredbycapitalisticsystems,whichhaveaninherentneedtogrowandexpand.Non-Marxistscholarsdisagree,pointingoutthatimperialpowerstargetedareasforexpansionthatdidnothavefinancialvalueinthemselves.Thissecondgroupofscholarsarguesthat,whiledesireformoremoneywasonemotivation,otherdesiresservedequallyimportantroles.Theysuggestthatthedesireofanindividualcountryforprestigeandthesocialdesiretoreachouttopeoplewhomsomenationssawaslesscivilizedshouldnotbedismissedasmereexcusesinvokedtohidetheirtruefinancialmotives.Instead,thesescholarsarguethatpeoplefromimperial,colonizingnationshonestlyheldontotheidealisticgoalsoffameandcommunitybuilding.
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766 Unit 16, Lesson 1
Theneedformoremoneyduringthistimedirectlycorrelatedtotheriseoftheageofindustry.Theindustrialrevolutions,whiletheyrepresentedgreatprogress,didnotcomeoutofnowhereandcouldnotexistonnothing.Thesecondoftheserevolutions,especially,hadcreatedevenmorecomplicatedmanufacturedgoodsthatneededsupplies.Tomaintaintheadvancesoftheserevolutions,countrieshadtohavelargeamountsofrawmaterials.Thesemateri-alsincludedproductslikecopperandbauxite,oil,rubber,andevendiamonds.WhilesomeofthesematerialsexistedinsomeEuropeancountries,noneoftheEuropeannationshadenoughmaterialswithintheirownborders.Togetthesematerials,Europeannationshadtolookoutsidetheirowncontinenttothreeothers:Africa,Asia,andSouthAmerica.
Becauseeachnationhadto lookabroadforrawmaterials, individualEuropeannationsalsobegantoexperiencetensionswithoneanother.Eachnationsawitsneighborsascompetitorsforpower,glory,andrawmaterials.Afriendlycountryonedaycouldturnintoafoethenext.However,ifacountryestablishedcoloniesinareasfullofrawmaterialsandothernaturalsupplies,itcouldturntothosecoloniesforitsneeds,insteadoftoitsfriend-or-enemyneighbors.Byrelyingontheircolonies,Europeanpowersbecameabletopracticeself-sufficiency;theycouldamassthematerialstheyneededtorunthebusi-nessesandtechnologiestheyhaddeveloped.Thisindustry,however,ledtoasecond,relatedproblem.Withmechanizationandthedevelopmentofmorefactories,countrieshadstartedproducingmoregoodsthantheycoulduseupthemselves.Toexpandthelimitsoftheirsupplyanddemand,theyalsolookedtousetheircoloniesasplacestoselltheirgoods,ormarkets.Then,whenthecountrieshadmademoneysellingtheirgoodstotheircolonialmarkets,theycouldtaketheirearningsandputthembackintothecoloniesasinvestments.Ultimately,though,themoneythatcountriesmadefromtheircoloniesrarelyreturned.Instead,themoneythatbelongedtotheseexpandingempireswerefunneledintomore“civilized”andtechnologicallysophisticatedregions,liketheremainingimperialcountriesandtheUnitedStates.
Governmentandstateaffairswerethesecondreasonforimperialexpan-sion.Powerfulcountrieslookedattheworldlikeagiantgameboard,andtheytriedtoestablishcoloniesinlocationsthatwouldbenefitandaidtheirhomebasesandgivethemadvantagesoverotherimperialnations.Thisattitudecanbeseenclearlyintheactionsoftwocountries.First,theBritishknewthatcontrollingEgypt’sSuezCanal,builtbyaFrenchcompanybetween1859and1869,wouldgiveBritaintacticalandtradeadvantages,sincethecanalallowedshipstogetfromEuropetoAsiawithoutsailingallthewayaroundAfrica.ToseizecontroloftheSuezCanal,BritainpurchasedhugeportionsofstockintheSuezCanalCompany,andtheymadeaprotectorateofEgyptitselfby1882.AsBritain’sprotectorate, Egypt retained someof itsownautonomy,butultimatelyhadtoanswertoBritain.Second,16yearslater,afterrisingtotheimperiallevelofEuropeannationsthankstotheresultsoftheSpanish-AmericanWar,theUnitedStatessoughttosolidifyitspositionasanimperialauthority.Todoso,ittargetedthePacificislandsandthePhilippines.Theseareassharedpotentialasnavalstationsandpostsforrefuelingshipswithcoal.Thislast
self-sufficiency relying on oneself—in the case of European nations, it meant relying on colonies to provide resources and man-power so the empire did not have to depend on other outside nations
protectorate a country that is looked after and protected by a larger, more powerful country, but which still retains some measure of independence
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Unit 16, Lesson 1 767
exampleisacleardisplayofanimperialnationtargetinganareaforitsnaturalresourcesandgeographicbenefits.
Thedesireforhighpoliticalstandingandauthoritywassostrongthatsomecountries,likeItaly,triedtoacquirecoloniesevenifitmeantsufferinglossesinfinancesandmanpower.After1871,manyofthemostinfluentialEuropeannationsfocusedtheirattentionontheattractiveresourcesandcolonialpotentialofAfrica.Severalofthesecountries,inpursuingAfricancolonies,wereledbythenationalisticfervorofthemasses.Inotherwords,nationsthatcolonizedAfricawerepropelledbylargeswathsoftheirownpopulation’spassionatezealforexaltingtheirownnationaboveallothers.Overseascoloniesplacatedandexcitedcitizensathome,evenifgovernmentsthemselveswerenotthatinterestedinthem.Forexample,Germany’schancellorOttovonBismarckmadeashowofGermanygoingafterAfricancolonies,notbecausehewantedthem,butbecauseheknewhispeopledid.Bismarckreliedonthisdisplayofcolonialfervortohelphiscausewhenitcametimeforthecitizenstovote.Imperialismabroadwasatoolusedbypoliticianstogaindomesticpopularity.
Partoftheexcitementaboutoverseascoloniesmayhavebeendrivenbythemasses’worrythatEuropehadbecomeoverpopulated.Between1850and1914,Europe’spopulacegrewbynearly200million,jumpingfrom260millionto450 mil-lionbythebeginningofWorldWarI.Citizensworriedthatpoliticians,withsomanydifferentviewpointsandvoicestoconsider,wouldhaveadifficulttimeplacatingeveryone.Someindividualsproposedthattheirnations’coloniesserveasoutletsforsurpluspopulation.Thisideaofusingcoloniesasanoutletultimatelydidnotbecomeareality—whilemanyindividualsemigratedfromEuropeduringthistime(asmanyas30or50million),themajorityofthemdidnottraveltothecolonies.Instead,theseemigratingindividualstraveledtoAustraliaortheAmericancontinent,particularlytotheUnitedStates.
ThethirdreasonforthisimperialexpansionstemmedfromEuropeanculturalandsocialdesires,whichwereoftentiedtoreligion.ThefirstpeopletotraveltoAfricafromEuropewere,infact,religiousmissionaries.Forexample,DavidLivingstone,aprominentBritishexplorer,originallywenttoAfricatoserveasbothamissionaryandamedic.OtherBritishcitizens,specificallyVictoriansofmiddleclassorigins,soonjoinedLivingstoneinAfrica.TheseVictoriansbelievedtheyhadanobligationtobringtheirknowledgeandeducationtoAfricanswhomtheysawaslesscivilizedthanthemselvesandthereforeinherentlyinferior.Today,thedis-criminatoryandprejudicialnatureofsuchattitudesareclear,buttheywerequitecommoninthenineteenthcentury.
WhileEurope’smotivationsforinvestinginimperialconquestareclear,howoneofthetiniestregionsintheworld(Europe)endedupinchargeofnearly66 per-centoftheworld’scitizensasof1914maynotbe.Certainly,Europe’ssizedidnotcorrespondtoitspower,butEuropeannationsachievedsuchauthorityovertheworldforseveralreasons.Tobeginwith,Europebenefitedhugelyfromthedevelop-mentsoftheSecondIndustrialRevolution.Usingthetelegraphforcommunication,relyingonsteamtopropelengines,andexperiencingmedicalbreakthroughs,suchasusingquininetocombatmalaria,allgaveEuropeannationsanedgeoverthepartsoftheworldtheysoughttocolonize.Perhapsmostimportantly,Europeans
2SeLf-cHecK
During old imperialism,
which countries and
adventurers played the
most important part?
Victorians British people living during Queen Victoria’s rule (r. 1837–1901), mainly a wealthy and knowledge-able middle class
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768 Unit 16, Lesson 1
benefitedfromthedevelopmentandexpansionofrailwaysystems.UsingrailwaysmadeiteasierforEuropeanstosendmessages,toconductcommercearoundtheworld,andtotraveldeeperintocontinentslikeAsiaandAfrica.
TheIndustrialRevolution’seffectswerealsoapparentinanother,veryimpor-tantarena:battle.TechnologicaladvancesbornofindustrializationhadallowedEuropeanstodevelophighlyadvancedmilitarymethodsandweaponry.Machineguns,shipscarryingtheirownweapons,andotheradvancedarmamentsmadeanyattemptsatself-defenseorresistancebypeopleinIndia,Africa,andChinaallbuthopeless.Thispowerinbattlebecamefurtherstrengthenedbythecomplicated,systematiccapitalistsystemsthathaddevelopedinmostcontemporaryEuropeannations.ThesesystemsmadeiteasierforEuropeannationstooccupycolonies,stayinthemsuccessfully,andmethodicallystripeachcolonyofitsnaturalgoods.
Inthefirstseveraldecadesofthenineteenthcentury,themajorityofEuropeancountrieswerenotveryinterestedinoverseasimperialexpansion.Asof1815,attheconclusionoftheNapoleonicWars,onlytwoEuropeannationshadlargeimperialpropertiesacrossthesea:theNetherlandsandGreatBritain.Therestofthecontinenthadturneditsfocusinward,torevolutionsandotherinternalupheavals.However,after1870,whenbothGermanyandItalyhadbecomeuni-fied,moreandmorecountriesinEuropefoundthemselvesabletoconcentrateonmattersoutsideoftheirownborders.Notuntilthe1870s,then,wereEuropeannationsimmediatelyandcompellinglydrawntoimperialgrowth.ThisdesirecouldbequicklyandwidelyseeninBritain,France,andGermany,and,toalesserextent,Italy.Eachcountryexpresseditsimperialdesiredifferently.Britaintreatedtheconquestandappropriationofmorecoloniesasanecessarycourseofaction.ThemajorityofBritishcitizensbackedthegovernmentinthisregard.Francehadanewgovernment,theThirdRepublic,anditsinternalpoliticalsceneatlastbegantodemonstratesignsofstability.ThismeantthatFrance,too,couldstarttoinvestigatetheideaofcolonization.Meanwhile,bothItalyandGermanyhadonlyjustcometogetherasindividual,unitednations.ManyItalianandGermancitizenswelcomedcolonization,believingitwouldshowtherestoftheworldtheimmediatestrengthandpoweroftheirnewnations.
Duringthelast25yearsofthenineteenthcentury,mostofAsiaandnearlyallofAfricawouldfallvictimtoEuropeancolonization.Throughcolonization,Europeannationsexpandedtheirauthorityandpresencethroughouttheworld.When1900camearound,othercountriesaroundtheglobehadalsobeguntryingtoparticipateinimperialpursuits:JapanandtheUnitedStatesbeganattemptingtotakecoloniesoftheirown.YetwhileoneinitialreasonforturningtoimperialismhadbeentoavoidconflictbetweenEuropeannations,imperialismitselfwouldendupcausingfurtherconflict.ThecompetitionbetweenEuropeannationscouldnowescalateontheglobalstage.
Technologies and Transport of the New ImperialismNationsthatparticipatedinthenewimperialismbenefitedfromtechnologicalandindustrialadvancesinfourfields:weaponry,travel,communications,andmedicine.First,inwarfare,theEuropeansdevelopednewandimprovedkindsof
3SeLf-cHecK
During the age of new
imperialism, what did
European colonizers
gain from their new
territories?
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Unit 16, Lesson 1 769
guns.Soevenwhentheywentupagainstgroupsofcolonizedindividualswhohadgunsoftheirown,assomeAfricansdid,Europeanseasilyprevailed.Twonewkindsofgunshadbeendeveloped.Onekind,calledbreech-loading,letsoldiersreloadshellsintothebackoftheweaponwhilelyingdown.Colonizedgroupswerestillusinggunsthatloadedthroughtheirmuzzles,whichmadethetaskmoretime-consumingand,whendoneinthemiddleofabattle,moredangerous.TheothernewkindofgunusedbyEuropeanswasthemachinegun,whichallowedsoldierstofiremanytimesinsequence.OneparticularlypopularversionofthemachinegunwascalledtheGatlinggun.
Second,intravel,theEuropeansknewhowtoharnesssteam—meaningthattheEuropeansdidnothavetorelyonwindtopropeltheirships.Thankstosteampower,theirboatscouldtravelbothmorequicklyandmoredirectly.Thiswashugelyadvantageousbothwhencrossinglargedistances,likeoceans,andwhentravelingtightquarters,likesmallrivers.Thedevelopmentofsmaller,steam-poweredboatsenabledEuropeanstosendexplorers,missionaries,andsoldiersintothedeepestpartsofAfrica.Inaddition,by1869,theSuezCanalhadbeencompletelybuilt.Becauseofthecanal,peopleinEuropecouldgettoAsiamuchmorequicklythantheyhadinthepast.Theworldhadstartedtobecomesmallerandmoretraversable.
Third,speedofcommunicationincreasedrapidly.Imperialismwasimmeasur-ablyaidedbythedevelopmentanduseofthetelegraph,amechanismthatcouldsendsame-daycommunicationsacrossvastdistances.Imaginethebenefitinhav-inganimportantnotetravelfromBritain’scolony,India,toitscapital,London,inasingleday.Atthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,suchamessagewouldhavetakentwoyearstoarrive.Thisvirtuallyinstantaneous(bycomparison)newkindofcommunicationrevolutionizedimperialexpansion.Withthetelegraph,issuesandproblemscouldbereportedandrespondedtoinmuchtimelierways.
Fourth,asearlyas1820Europeansknewofanewkindofmedicinecalledqui-nine.Quinineoriginatedfromcinchonatreebark,anditstoodoutasaremarkabledrugbecauseofitseffectsonmalaria.Colonistsventuringtotropicalregionsoftheworldhadfrequentlymetwith,andbeendefeatedby,malaria.TheavailabilityandsuccessfuluseofquininemadeiteasierforEuropeanstoventuretotheseareaswithoutgettingsick.
Important elements of Social DarwinismThecivilizingandimperialistattitudetowardcolonizationbecamefurthercompli-catedinthe1870s.Atthattime,thetheoriesproposedbyCharlesDarwinregardingevolutionwerebeingdiscussed,debated,andexploredbyprominentpeopleinEuropeanculture.Leadersofindustry,literarytypes,andevenheadsofstatebegantoviewthepastthroughaDarwinianlens,seeingitasaconstantbattleamongpeopleofdifferentbackgroundsforlandsandgoods.Thiswayoflookingattheworldbecameknownasracialorsocial Darwinism.AdherentstosocialDarwinismbelievedthatembarkingonawarmadetheirnationsgreater,becausewaraskedpeopletogivethemselvesuptoagreatergoodandhelpedcreateapeckingorderthroughouttheworldbasedonwinnersandlosers.SocialDarwinismservedEuropeansasaconvenientmeansofexcusingthesinsoftheirimperialistbehavior.Europeansparticipatinginimperialismviewedtheirsmooth,swifttakeoversofindigenous
social Darwinism a way of looking at the world based on Darwin’s ideas of evolution, as applied to more sophisticated and powerful nations and used to justify imperial expansion
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770 Unit 16, Lesson 1
peoples’landsandresourcesasproofofEuropeansuperiorityandasjustificationfortheir(sometimessecret)goalsofincreasingtheirownfameandfortuneorspreadingtheircultureandbeliefs.
JustassocialDarwinismwasusedtoencourageimperialistbehavior,theben-efitsimperialismbroughttoEuropeansfosteredgreaterbeliefinsocialDarwinism.Accordingtothepeoplewhobelievedinthistheory,thestruggleforexistenceranparalleltoanevolutionarybattle.Themorepowerfulwouldsurvive,andthelesspowerfulwouldnot.IfaEuropeannationwasunsuccessfulinitsimperialquest,othernationssawitasweakandpotentiallydoomedtocompletefailure.Topre-servetheirreputationsonaglobalscale,then,Europeancountrieshadtoprovetheirhealthandpowerbycontinuallyexpandingintonewimperialcoloniesandspaces.Atthattime,eachEuropeannationalityvieweditselfasaseparateraceexistingwithinalargerwhiteethnicgroup.Theybelievedthat,accordingtosocialDarwinism,battlesbetweenracesstoodasnothingmorethananunavoidablepartofparticipatinginthenaturalworldorder.Thisgaveeachnationalitywithinthelargerwhiteethnicgroupmoraljustificationforgoingoutintotheworldandtryingtosubduepersonswhomtheysawaslesserorlowerthantheywere.Tothem,theveryactofconqueringapeoplewasevidenceofthesuperiorityoftheconquerersandtheinferiorityofthevanquished.
SocialDarwinistseventuallycarriedtheimplicationsofthetheoryevenfurther,claimingthatthey,asmembersofasuperiorandmoredeveloped(white)ethnicgroup,stoodduty-boundtobringtheirknowledgeandsocietalbehaviorstothelessfortunateindividualsacrosstheglobe.Peoplehonestlythoughtthatmembersofwhiteethnicgroupswouldendupholdingsovereignty,orcom-pletepower,overthosewhomtheysawasinherentlyinferiorinAfricaandAsia.Thiscanbeseeninvisualartworksofthesecolonialperiods,inwhichEuropeanwhitecolonizerswouldposewithindigenouscolonizedyouth.TheartworkssuggestthatwhiteEuropeanswouldactlikemothersandfatherstothe“children”(fullygrownnonwhiteadults)livinginAfricancountriesandthat,justasachildneedstheguidanceandprotectionofitsparents,sodidtheAfricanindigenouspeoplesneedtheguidanceandprotectionoftheEuropeans.
Imperialist Ideologies at Work in the White and Brown Men’s BurdensThus,manyEuropeansbelieveditwastheircountries’dutytoenlightenandeducatemembersofother,nonwhiteraces.UndertheguidanceofEuropeans,theybelieved,colonizednonwhiteswouldslowlybutsurelygainthesamesocietaladvancesthattheEuropeansenjoyed—advanceslikeurbancenters,betterhealthcare,sophisti-catedfinancialsystems,andfancierlifestyles.Eventually,someEuropeansproposed,theindigenouspeoplestheyhadconqueredmightbeabletogovernthemselvesorimplementdemocraticgovernment,aspracticedintheWesternworld.
AliterarydescriptionofthisattitudecanbeseeninafamouspoembyRudyardKipling(1865–1936)called“TheWhiteMan’sBurden.”Kipling,possiblythemostsignificantliteraryfigureofthe1890s,wasfamedforhisworksonlifeinIndiaduringthetimewhenitwasaBritishcolony.Inhispoem,thenarratorpleadswith
sovereignty one nation’s status of rule or authority over another, smaller nation or colony
4SeLf-cHecK
Which advantages
and advances enabled
European nations to
oversee so much of the
globe by the end of the
nineteenth century?
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Unit 16, Lesson 1 771
otherEuropeansor“civilized”individualstotraveltofar-offregionsandsacrificethemselvestoprovidewhatisseenashumanitarianaid.ThepoemcallsfortheEuropeanstosendtheirbrightestandgreatestchildrentoalonelyplacewheretheywillhelpandassisttheverypeopletheEuropeansthoughtofasinferior.Thoughsomemodernreadersseethepoemassatiricalanddeeplyironic,Kipling’spersonalimperialistsympathiessuggestthatitssentimentsweremostlikelysincere.
ThisattitudedidnotconfineitselftoEuropeancountries,either;manypeoplefromtheUnitedStatessharedintheideaofthewhiteman’sburden.Indeed,itplayedanimportantpartintheUnitedStates’choice,oncetheSpanish-AmericanWarwasover,nottofreethePhilippines,whichhadbeenunderSpain’scontrol.InsteadtheUnitedStatesoptedtocontinuetooverseethecomingsandgoingsofanapparently“burdensome”groupofpeople.LikemanyEuropeans,someAmericanshonestlythoughtthattheirsocietywasvastlysuperiortothoseofless-developedcountries.Asmembersofasuperiorsociety,then,theyhadamoralobligationtoteachandguideindividualswhotheysawasunderdeveloped.TheyalsobelievedthataEuropeanorAmericanregimewouldbeabletohelpindigenouspeoplestayoutoftheirowninternalbattles,whilealsomakingsurethatotherkindsofmisuseandmanipulationbysmallergroupsofwhitepeopledidnottakeplace.
Nonetheless,someintellectualsandcriticsdidrecognizethewhiteman’sburdenasanexcuseforexploitation.Thesepeoplearguedthatimperialismresultedinthe“brownman’sburden.”LedbyanEnglishmanwhoworkedinfinanceandhadliberalpolitics,J.A.Hobson,thosefightingforawarenessofthebrownman’sburdenclaimedthatwhiteimperialistsactedandthoughtunethi-cally.HobsonandhispeersdirectlyopposedtheideologyofsocialDarwinism.Oneindividual,indescribingthefaultsofsocialDarwinism,insistedthatitwasaphilosophythatappropriatedevolutiontojustifyactionsthatwouldother-wisebeconsideredcriminal;anothersarcasticallysummedupsocialDarwinismbyinvertingoneofJesus’beatitudesfromtheSermonontheMount,stating,“Blessedarethestrong,fortheyshallpreyontheweak.”
HobsonandhisfellowcriticsviewedsocialDarwinists,includingKipling,asprejudicedtormenterswhoreliedoncruelty,bigotry,andgunstoachievetheirends.ThisviewwasevidentinasatireofKipling’sfamedtext,writtenbyamemberofParliamentandoutspokenfoeofsocialDarwinism,HenryLabouchère.Labouchère’spoemsuggestedthat,insteadofusingreasonorlogic,whitesresortedtogunsandweaponstosubdueandcontroldark-skinnedpeople.ThispointofviewwouldlaterbeechoedinthefamousnovelHeart of DarknessbyJosephConrad(1857–1924),awriterofPolishdescent.ThenovelscathinglydescribesEuropeancolonizersascompletelyself-centeredandego-tisticalintheirattemptstotakeoverAfrica.Thebook’sprotagoniststartsoutasabroad-mindedintellectualandendsupasanuncivilizedmonster.
Overall,opponentsofsocialDarwinismclaimedthatEuropeanimperialistsbehavedhypocriticallyanddisgustingly,thattheirbehaviorcontradictedtheirprofessedmorality.Indeed,agreatdisparitydidexistbetweenlifeinEuropeannationsandlifeintheircolonies.Withintheirdomesticborders,Europeansenjoyed
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772 Unit 16, Lesson 1
increasinglyrepresentativegovernments,improvedpersonalandcivilrights,andsomemeasureofequalityintermsoftreatmentandopportunity.However,forindigenouspeopleslivinginimperialcoloniesinAfricaandAsia,thingswereverydifferent.Imperialrulersmadecolonizedpeoplelaborinconditionsborderingonslaveryandtreatednativesassecond-classcitizenswhowerenotentitledtorepre-sentationinthegovernment,personalorcivilrights,orequaltreatment.OpponentsofsocialDarwinismmaintainedthatEuropeanscouldonlyregainthemoralhighgroundbygivinguptheirimperialbehaviorsandcommittingtoextendingthelibertywesternEuropeancountrieshadfoughtsohardfortotheThirdWorld.TheEuropeanopponentsofsocialDarwinism,withtheirliberty-basedrhetoric,gaveindigenousandcolonizedindividualssomereasontohopeforchangeandgreaterfreedom,butitwouldbedecadesbeforesuchhopeswouldberealized.
Extensions• Read“TheBrownMan’sBurden”byHenryLabouchère.Comparehisideas
withthoseofRudyardKiplingin“TheWhiteMan’sBurden.”
SummaryForhundredsofyears,Europeancountriespracticedimperialism,adventuringtonewregionsoftheglobeandsettlingthemascolonies.OldimperialismledcountriessuchasSpainandPortugaltomapouttheworld’soceansanddiscoverunchartedterritory.Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,Europeancountriesplungedbackintoimperialismwithnewvigor.Innewimperialism,advancesmadeintheSecondIndustrialRevolutionpropelledEuropeanstofindmoreresourcesandfunds.Whilefinancialandeconomicneedsmotivatedimperialistnationstocolonizeotherlands,othermotiveswerealsoatplay.AmongtheseothermotiveswastheideathatEuropeansweresuperiortopeopleofotherracesandothercultures.Assuch,itwasbelievedthatthecolonizershadamoraldutytobringtheircivilizingpowertothese“savage”areas.Criticsofcolonialexpansion,however,stooduptotheimperialistsandcondemnedthemfortheirracism.
Looking AheadInthefinaldecadesofthenineteenthcentury,Europeancountriesbegantoseekoutplacesontheglobewithresourcesandrawmaterialsthatmightbeextractedandusedtopowernewtechnologiesandindustry.AfricaandAsiawerebothplacesthatwereattractivetothenationsofEuropeinthisregard.Soon,thoseEuropeannationsthathadthewherewithaltodosobegantocolonizeAfrica.Theland,resources,andwealththatcountriesgainedfromtheirendeavorsservedassignalsoftheirprestigeandpowertoboththeirneighborsonthecontinentandtotherestoftheworld.
5SeLf-cHecK
How did people
condemn imperialist
actions?
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Unit 16, Lesson 1 773
1. They described motives for expansion as practiced by old imperialists: religion, wealth, and fame.
2. Some countries were the Netherlands, Spain, England, France, and Portugal. Adventurers included Henry the Navigator, Vasco da Gama, Hernando Cortés, Magellan, and Columbus.
3. Arable land on other continents, natural goods that could be used for production, territories in which European citizens could settle
4. Advantages included technology like train systems, telegraph communications, and better arms, as well as advances in medicine like the discovery of quinine.
5. They pointed out the gap between the positive social conditions enjoyed by European citizens and the negative ones endured by colonized peoples, and they highlighted the racist treatment of colonized peoples.
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
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Imperialism in Africa
Unit 16, Lesson 2
KeywordsBoers
dominion
Essential Questions• WhatformsdidimperialismtakeinAfrica?
• WhatwastheSuezCanal?
• Whatwasthe“scrambleforAfrica”?
• WhatweretheAfricansettlements,acquisitions,andwarsthatGreatBritainandFranceparticipatedin?
• WhatclaimsdidBelgium,Germany,Italy,Spain,andPortugalmakeinAfrica?
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Unit 16, Lesson 2 775
Set the StageBy the 1870s, after the Second Industrial Revolution had concluded, European countries began to realize they needed more funds and materials to fuel their new technologies and industry. Europe discovered that the easiest way to acquire money and natural goods was to colonize other parts of the world and harvest the resources found there. Both Asia and Africa—the latter especially—presented themselves as places to exploit. Soon, European countries began furiously competing to colonize as much of the African continent as they could. In addition to gaining land, resources, and wealth from settling in Africa, individual European nations took the opportunity to compete with each other, each trying to amass the largest imperial state. Each European country’s holdings in Africa, it was thought, helped demonstrate its power to the rest of the world.
Nineteenth-century Imperialism in AfricaAtthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,thetwoEuropeancountriesmostinterestedinAfrica’spotentialforcolonizationwereBritainandFrance.AftertheNapoleonicWars,BritainwonapieceofAfricacalledtheCapeofGoodHope.Inaddition,theBritishhadauthorityoverseveralindividualpostsfortradeandexchangescatteredacrossthecoastlineofAfrica.Theseprovidedsecurefootholds,fromwhichtheBritishbegana largerexpansion. Justa fewyearsafter theNapoleonicWars,inthe1820s,theBritishgovernmentsentoutcoloniststotheCapeofGoodHope,andthatarea,whichistodaypartofthecountryofSouthAfrica,becameknownastheCapeColony.UnfortunatelyfortheBritish,theircolonistsalmostimmediatelyranintoproblemswithotherEuropeancolonistsalreadyinstalledatthecape.Theseindividuals,calledBoers,werethedescendantsofDutchsettlerswhohadventuredtothecapeinthe1600s.NotlongafterthearrivaloftheBritishsettlers,theBoersettlersdecidedtotravelnorthfromtheiroriginalsettlementsonthecape,andtheymovedinland.ThisjourneybecameknownastheGreatTrekof1835–1837.TheBoersconcludedtheirtravelsbycreat-ingtwoautonomousstates,whichtheynamedtheTransvaalandtheOrangeFreeState.Sixyearslater,theBritishsettlersacquiredanareacalledNatal,expandingtheirholdingsonthecapetolandintheeast.Meanwhile,France,whichhadlostgroundintheNapoleonicWars,begantorecoupinotherways.By1830,FrancemovedagainstAlgeria,inthenorthofAfrica.Atbothitsnorthernmostandsouth-ernmostpoints,then,AfricahadtofaceEuropeaninvaders.
Decadeslater,arushfortheAfricancontinentbegininearnest.Therushbecameknownasthe“scrambleforAfrica,”anditlastedforabout30years,roughlybetween1870and1900.Duringthatperiod,anumberofEuropeannations,includ-ingBritain,Germany,France,andBelgium,focusedintentlyonAfrica,workingtograspasmuchofitastheycould,tostrengthentheirimperialpositionsintermsofbothlandandgoods.EachEuropeancountryalsowantedtocomeoutaheadofitsneighborsandrivals.Eachcountrywantedtogainthemostfinancialand
Boers Dutch people living in the Cape area of South Africa whose ancestors had colonized the area in the 1600s
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776 Unit 16, Lesson 2
politicalpowerandinfluence.InsteadofadmittingthattheyhadenteredAfricaforthosereasons,however,EuropeannationsclaimedthattheyhadturnedtoAfricatospreadtheircivilizedwaysandbringreligiontothegodless.Intheyearslead-ingupto1870,EuropeantradewasconductedalmostexclusivelyontheAfricancoastlinesonly,andEuropeanshadlittleknowledgeoftheterritories,resources,orgoodsthatlaywithintheAfricancontinent.EuropeaninterestinacquiringAfricansettlementsincreasedafterthefoundingoftheInternationalCongoAssociationin1878byKingLeopoldIIofBelgium.Beforelong,nearlyallofAfricahadbeencarvedupandclaimedbyoneEuropeannationoranother.Indeed,bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,withthetwoexceptionsofEthiopiaandLiberia,allofAfricawasunderEuropeancontrol.
ImperialismnegativelyimpactedAfricainboththeshortandlongterms.Inadditiontotheimmediateproblemsofindigenouspeoplelosingtheirautonomyandproperty,Africa’sownuniquecivilizationswere,inmanyways,stampedout.Overtime,theEuropeannationsseverelyaltereddomesticAfricaneconomies.Byincorporatingwhathadbeenmostlylocalizedeconomiesintotheglobalworldofinternationalfinance,theEuropeansdrasticallychangedtheentiremannerinwhichAfricanslivedtheirlives.Africanshadtoalterthewaystheyapproachedgovernment,finance,trade,andsociety.ThechangesAfricancountriesenduredinthenineteenthcenturylaidthefoundationforthewaystheywouldgovernthemselvesandcontributetoaglobaleconomyinthetwentiethcentury.
DuringthescrambleforAfrica,Europeannationspaidrelativelylittleatten-tiontothevastchangestheybroughttoAfrica;theyweretoofocusedonandexcitedaboutthegoodsandmaterialsthattheycouldtakefromAfrica.Overtime,theEuropeanscametorelyonAfrica’sproductionofimportantgoods,includingdiamonds,gold,otherminerals,ivory,andevenrubber.BritainandFrancehadgottenanearlystartatthebeginningofthecentury,buttheyweresoonjoinedbyothercountries,includingGermany,Italy,Portugal,andBelgium.ArgumentsovertherightstoAfricanterritoriesandgoodsprovedtobehighlychargedandtenuous.AEuropeanwaroverAfricanholdingswasapermanentpossibility.Thismeantthateachnationcontinuallyengagedinimportantdip-lomaticnegotiationstotryandkeepthepeace,whilesimultaneouslytargetingthebestpiecesofAfricaforitself.
Britain’s Development in AfricaDuringthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcentury,BritainmovedincreasinglyoutwardfromitsbaseattheCapeofGoodHopeinsouthernAfrica.Atthesametime,inthenorthernpartofthecontinent,theBritishturnedtheirattentiontoEgypt,whoseimportancelayinitsproximitytoanimportantwaterway:theSuezCanal.TheBritishmadetheirfirstinroadsintoEgyptin1875.Underthedirectionoftheprimeministeratthetime,BenjaminDisraeli,BritainarrangedtobuysharesintheSuezCanalCompany,whichhadpreviouslybelongedtothekhedive,thesovereignrulerofEgypt,andBritainendedupwithasignificantamountofthecompany—44percent.Atthattime,theSuezCanalwasrelativelynew,havingbeencompletedjustsixyearsearlier,in1869,byagroupwith
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Unit 16, Lesson 2 777
Frenchconnections.TothoseBritishcitizenswhoadvocatedfortheexpansionoftheBritishEmpire,Disraeli’smovetopurchasesuchalargeinterestintheSuezCanalCompanywasfinanciallysmartandstrategicallycunning.
Atthistime,thoughEgyptwasnominallyapartoftheOttomanEmpire,formostintentsandpurposes,itstoodautonomous.Yet,thesovereignofthisbasicallyautonomouscountry,thekhedive,hadnotmanagedthecountry’sfinanceswell.HeowedlargedebtstobanksinEurope.Whenthebankspressedforthedebtstoberepaid,thekhedivesoldhisportionoftheSuezCanalCompany.Thisturnedouttobeashort-termsolution,though,forwhenthatmoneyevaporated,thekhediveencounteredmorefiscalproblems.Seeingthekhedive’sweakness,BritainandFrancemovedinand,together,tookoverEgypt’seconomybythe1880s.ThemoreBritainandFrancemadetheirpresencefeltinEgypt,theunhappiertheEgyptiansbecame.EgyptiansbegantostruggleagainstthereformsandregulationssetupbytheEuropeans.Todealwiththisproblem,BritainturnedEgyptintoitsprotectoratein1882.ThisactionnotonlygaveBritainmorecontroloverEgypt,italsocleverlyforcedFranceoutofthecountry’saffairs.
WhileDisraelimaneuveredtheBritishintoapositionofpowerinEgyptinthenorthofAfrica,amannamedCecilRhodes(1853–1902)wasbusilyworkingforBritishimperialinterestsinSouthAfrica.Independentlywealthy,RhodeshadbuiltanimpressivepersonalfortunethroughthediamondtradeafterdiamondswerefoundinapartoftheCapeofGoodHopecalledKimberlyin1869.Notsatisfied
The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. The canal makes it possible to transport goods from Europe to Asia without traveling around Africa.
1SeLf-cHecK
What events ensured
Britain would gain
possession of the
Suez Canal?
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778 Unit 16, Lesson 2
torestonhislaurels,Rhodespursuedaroleinpolitics.HeenvisionedexpandingBritain’sholdingsinAfrica,sothatawholechainofotherBritishterritoriesinCentralAfricawouldlinktheterritoriesBritainalreadyhadatthenorthandsouthofthecontinent—EgyptandtheCapeofGoodHope,respectively.Rhodes’scountrymensharedhisexpandedvision,whichbecameknownastheCape-to-CairoConnection.BritainfollowedthisplanbymovingnorthfromthecapeandsendingagentsintoNyasaland,bothSouthernandNorthernRhodesia,andBechuanaland.
However,theBritishbaseatthecapewasnotassecureastheyhadthought.EarlierdisagreementsbetweentheBritishcolonistsinthecapeandtheirDutchcounterparts,theBoers,hadneverreallybeenresolved,eventhoughtheBoershadexpandedtotwootherregions.In1886,inoneofthoseBoerregionscalledtheTransvaal,prospectorsfoundgold.BoththeBoersandtheBritishwantedthatgoldforthemselves,andrelationsbetweenthemgrewincreasinglystrainedastheprocessofminingthegoldbegan.Nearly10 yearslater,in1895,agroupofBritishcolonists,ledbyLeanderS.Jameson(1853–1917),attemptedtomakearaidontheTransvaal.Eventhoughtheraid,todayknownastheJamesonRaid,failed,thedamagewasdone.ThemangoverningtheTransvaal,PaulKruger(1825–1904),believedthatCecilRhodes,theCapeColony’sprimeminister,hadhatchedaschemetoinvadeboththeTransvaalandtheOrangeFreeState.
Conditions worsened when Germany’s emperor,WilliamII,wroteatelegramtoKruger,tellinghimhehaddonewellbykeepingtheJamesonRaidfromsucceeding.WilliamII’stelegrampubliclyinsultedBritain,andtheBritishgrewveryunhappy.FouryearsaftertheJamesonRaid,in1899,theBritishandtheDutchcolonistsofficiallybeganbattleintheBoerWar.TheBoersfromboththeOrangeFreeStateandtheTransvaalfoughthardfornearlythreeyears,buttheycouldnotdefeatBritain.TheBoerslostthewarin1902.Eightyearslater,in1910,Britaincombineditsown,originalcoloniesontheCapeofGoodHopeandNatalwiththeformerBoerterritories,theTransvaalandtheOrangeFreeState.TheresultingregionbecameknownastheUnionofSouthAfrica,afairlyautonomousBritishdominion.
Inadditiontostrengtheningtheirholdingsinthenorthandsouth,andworkingtocreateaBritishlinkbetweenthem,BritainalsoturneditsattentiontowesternandeasternportionsofAfrica.Tothewest,Britainreturnedtoitsoldpostsoftradeandstrengthenedthemintoindividualterritoriesandcolonies.ThesenewlycolonizedareasincludedNigeria,theGoldCoast,SierraLeone,andGambia.Totheeast,BritainstrengtheneditsholdonBritishSomaliland,Uganda,Kenya,andtheislandofZanzibar.
dominion a nation or region that retained some independence but also had to obey a governing European nation
This cartoon captures Cecil Rhodes’s idea of constructing a telegraph line from Cape Town in South Africa to Cairo in North Africa.
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Unit 16, Lesson 2 779
french and Belgian Interests in AfricaBytheendofthenineteenthcentury,Francehadjustasmuch,ifnotmore,imperialterritoryinAfricaasBritain.FromthesafefoundationofAlgeria,Franceexpandedin1881toTunisia.Next,theFrenchtargetedMoroccoandcreatedaprotectoratethere.Meanwhile,Franceexpandeditscoloniesinthewestandaroundtheequator,specificallyinFrenchEquatorialAfrica.France’smostimportantcoloniesinthewestweretheIvoryCoast,Guinea,andSenegal.Francealsoexpandeditsempiretotwoportionsoflandnearwaterways:FrenchSomaliland,locatedbytheRedSea,andMadagascar,anislandeastofAfrica.
BecausebothFranceandBritainhadbothexpandedsorapidly,conflictbetweenthemwasinevitable.Aftertensionssimmeredforseveralyears,theconflictfinallyhap-penedin1898andconcernedaregioncalledtheSudan,whichstandssouthofEgypt.Atthattime,EgyptwasunderBritishcontrol.Fourteenyearsearlier,agroupofsoldiersledbyGeneralCharlesGordon(1833–1995)andmadeupofBritonsandEgyptianshadfollowedtheNilefromEgyptandenteredtheSudan.AttheBritish-Egyptiansoldiers’baseinKhartoum,agroupofsoldiersfightingforareligiousfactionofMuslimsandledbyamantitledtheMahdi,attacked.TheMuslimsoldierscontinuedtheirattacksfornearly10months.In1885,whentheattacksfinallyended,theBritish-Egyptianforceswerecrushed.
ElevenyearsafterGordon’sdefeat,theBritishtriedagain.Thistime,theirBritishandEgyptiansoldiersfollowedthefamedleaderLordKitchener(1850–1916)backtotheSudan.TheymadetheirstandataplacecalledOmdurmanand,afteralmosttwoyearsoffightingclaimedvictoryovertheMahdiandhissoldiersinSeptember1898.ThisvictorycameatalowcosttotheBritishandahighcosttotheMahdi’smen:theBritishonlylost28soldiers,whiletheSudanesearmylost11,000.Yetlessthanaweeklater,asKitchener’stroopsmovedalongtheNile,theyranintoaFrencharmyataplacecalledFashoda.TheFrenchhadchosenMajorJeanBaptisteMarchand(1863–1934)toleadtheirtroopsintotheSudan.Marchand’stroopshadapproachedfromtheFrenchequatorialregionofthecontinent.
Tofacepotentialenemytroopssosoonafteralonged-forvictoryintheSudanmadeBritainedgy,andthesubsequentstandoffbetweentheBritishandtheFrenchbecameknownastheFashodaCrisis.Thetwocountriesfacedeachotherangrilyand,forawhile,manypeoplethoughttherewouldbeanAnglo-Frenchwar.Eventually,however,theFrenchwithdrewfromtheSudanandcededittoBritain.Becauseofthiscourtesy,FrancebegantomovebackintoBritain’sgoodgraces,andthetwocountries’relationshipsolidified.
BelgiumalsoangledforapieceoftheAfricancontinent.KingLeopoldIIofBelgium(r.1865–1909)soughtimperialholdingsinAfricathroughoutthe1870s.Interestingly,however,LeopolddidnotpursuethisimperialismaskingofBelgium,butasaprivate(wealthyandpowerful)individual.LeopoldhiredamanofBritishandAmericanextractionwhohadworkedasbothanewspaperwriterandexplorer,HenryNortonStanley(1841–1904),toactashisproxyinAfrica.StanleyhadthepowerandauthoritytosignagreementswithAfricanrul-ersonbehalfofLeopold,andhedidsoinareasthroughouttheCongo,anareainthecentralpartofAfrica.
2SeLf-cHecK
What happened during
the Jameson Raid?
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780 Unit 16, Lesson 2
In1884and1885,Germany’schancellorOttovonBismarckarrangedforaglobalmeetingtotakeplaceinBerlin,andthemeetingcametobeknownastheBerlinConference.BismarckarrangedfortheconferencetoattempttoclarifythevariousEuropeancountries’designsonAfrica.DuringtheBerlinConference,othercountriesagreedtoallowBelgium’sLeopoldIItocreatetheCongoFreeState,whichhewouldthengovernpersonally.Ultimately,however,thispersonalgovernancecausedmanyproblems.UnderLeopold’spersonaldirection,lifeintheCongorapidlydeteriorated.AsLeopold’sagentsforcedindigenouspeoplestoworkintheproductionandacquisitionofminerals,ivory,andrubber,aglobaloutcryaroseoverLeopold’sbrutaltreatmentofthenativepopulation.By1908,theformalBelgianregimesteppedinandtookoverLeopold’sruleintheCongo.
TheassignmentoftheCongotoLeopoldwasnottheonlyoutcomeoftheBerlinConference.Duringthemeeting,Europeannationsalsoagreedonastandardsetofmethodstofollowwhencreatingnewcoloniesfortheirrespectiveempires.Andthoughthesestandardandregulatedmethodsimprovedthecolonizationprocessfortheimperialistpowers,theymadethingsmuchworsefortheAfricanpeople.BasedonrulesestablishedattheBerlinConference,assoonasaEuropeancountrytookauthorityoveraportionofAfricancoastline,itcouldalsotakecontroloflandswithinthecontinent.TheEuropeanscouldportionoutAfricabasedonallkindsofexternaljustifications,simplybyremappingtheregion.ThusEuropeanswerenotboundtohonortheinternalseparationsofindigenouspeoples;therefore,theyignoredthingslikelanguagebarriersandtraditionalhomelandsthatdemarcatedwherecertain
Africans and Europeans gather elephant tusks to sell in the lucrative ivory trade.
peopleslived.GroupsofAfricanswererippedapartormashedtogetheronthewhimsofEuropeannationsandwithoutthoughtastowhetherornottheysharedcommonlanguages,religions,orotherculturaltraditions.
ManyrepresentativesofEuropeancountriesdidnotacthonestlywhenmakingtreatieswithAfricantriballeaders.BecausetheAfricanshadlittlefamiliaritywiththeEuropeans’lawsorfinancialhabits,whennegotiationsforrightstoareasandgoodstookplace,theAfricanleadersoftendidnotrealizethattheyhadwillinglygivenuptheirclaimstolandsorgoodsthathadpreviouslybelongedtothem.StrengthenedbytheiragreementsattheBerlinConference,EuropeannationscontinuedtopresstheiradvantageintheAfricancolonies.Whenthetwentiethcenturybegan,thevastmajorityofAfricahadbeencolonizedorsubjugatedtoEuropeangovernance.EthiopiaandLiberiaaloneremainedindependent.
Other european Nations Approach AfricaDespitethefactthatithadbeenGermany’sBismarckwhospearheadedtheBerlinConference,GermanydidnotactasaggressivelyinAfricaasotherEuropeannations.DuringBismarck’stenureaschancellor,whichlastedfrom1871to1890,hefocusedonstrengtheningGermanyfromwithinandbroadeningitspowerontheEuropeancontinent.
WhenBismarckcametopower,Germanyhadonlyrecentlybecomeunified.BismarckthoughtGermanywouldbebetterservedconcentratingondomesticissuesandimmediateEuropeanconcernsthantryingtoexpandoutwardintoanempire.YetBismarck’spowerwasnotabsolute,andhisviewswereeventuallychal-lenged.CertaininfluentialorganizationswithinGermanysuccessfullypressuredhimintomakingsomestridestowardGermanimperialism.MembersoftheseorganizationsthoughtthatcreatingGermancolonieswouldbefinanciallyben-eficialforGermanyandwouldalsomakeGermanylookmoreformidabletootherEuropeancountries.BismarckultimatelypursuedimperialistactionsonGermany’sbehalftostrengthenhisownparty’schancesduringGermanelections,reasoningthatmembersofinfluentialimperialistorganizationsweremorelikelytovoteforapoliticalpartythatalsosupportedimperialism.TowardtheendofBismarck’stenure,in1884,GermanytookoverthreeregionsinthesouthwestandthewestofAfrica:GermanSouthwestAfrica,theCameroons,andTogoland.Thefollowingyear,GermanyauthoritativelyclaimedGermanEastAfrica.
Germany’sinitialreluctancetoengageinimperialism,then,didnotkeepitfromflourishing.Incomparison,Italyapproachedimperialismenthusiastically,butitdidnotflourish.SeeingBritain’sexpansioninthesouthandFrance’sinthenorth,ItalytargetedtheeasternportionofAfrica,alsoknownastheHornofAfrica,foritsownimperialdesignattheendofthenineteenthcentury.In1889,ItalyestablishedthecolonyofItalianSomaliland,followedbyEritreain1890.Thenextdecade,ItalytriedtotakeoverEthiopia,thenknownasAbyssinia,butitsinvasionfailed.Atthe1896BattleofAdowa,theItaliansmetcrushingdefeat.TheItaliansdidnotmakefurthersignificantprogressinAfricauntil1912,whentheygainedgroundinTripoliinnorthernAfricabydefeatingtheTurkswhoruledthere.Foritspart,Ethiopia,remainedautonomous,joiningLiberiaastheonlyAfricanstatestoavoidimperialcontrol.Liberia,inthewest,achievedthisdistinctionbecause
3SeLf-cHecK
How can the events that
took place at Omdurman
be described?
4SeLf-cHecK
Which nation or
individual took
possession of the Congo?
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Unit 16, Lesson 2 781
peopleslived.GroupsofAfricanswererippedapartormashedtogetheronthewhimsofEuropeannationsandwithoutthoughtastowhetherornottheysharedcommonlanguages,religions,orotherculturaltraditions.
ManyrepresentativesofEuropeancountriesdidnotacthonestlywhenmakingtreatieswithAfricantriballeaders.BecausetheAfricanshadlittlefamiliaritywiththeEuropeans’lawsorfinancialhabits,whennegotiationsforrightstoareasandgoodstookplace,theAfricanleadersoftendidnotrealizethattheyhadwillinglygivenuptheirclaimstolandsorgoodsthathadpreviouslybelongedtothem.StrengthenedbytheiragreementsattheBerlinConference,EuropeannationscontinuedtopresstheiradvantageintheAfricancolonies.Whenthetwentiethcenturybegan,thevastmajorityofAfricahadbeencolonizedorsubjugatedtoEuropeangovernance.EthiopiaandLiberiaaloneremainedindependent.
Other european Nations Approach AfricaDespitethefactthatithadbeenGermany’sBismarckwhospearheadedtheBerlinConference,GermanydidnotactasaggressivelyinAfricaasotherEuropeannations.DuringBismarck’stenureaschancellor,whichlastedfrom1871to1890,hefocusedonstrengtheningGermanyfromwithinandbroadeningitspowerontheEuropeancontinent.
WhenBismarckcametopower,Germanyhadonlyrecentlybecomeunified.BismarckthoughtGermanywouldbebetterservedconcentratingondomesticissuesandimmediateEuropeanconcernsthantryingtoexpandoutwardintoanempire.YetBismarck’spowerwasnotabsolute,andhisviewswereeventuallychal-lenged.CertaininfluentialorganizationswithinGermanysuccessfullypressuredhimintomakingsomestridestowardGermanimperialism.MembersoftheseorganizationsthoughtthatcreatingGermancolonieswouldbefinanciallyben-eficialforGermanyandwouldalsomakeGermanylookmoreformidabletootherEuropeancountries.BismarckultimatelypursuedimperialistactionsonGermany’sbehalftostrengthenhisownparty’schancesduringGermanelections,reasoningthatmembersofinfluentialimperialistorganizationsweremorelikelytovoteforapoliticalpartythatalsosupportedimperialism.TowardtheendofBismarck’stenure,in1884,GermanytookoverthreeregionsinthesouthwestandthewestofAfrica:GermanSouthwestAfrica,theCameroons,andTogoland.Thefollowingyear,GermanyauthoritativelyclaimedGermanEastAfrica.
Germany’sinitialreluctancetoengageinimperialism,then,didnotkeepitfromflourishing.Incomparison,Italyapproachedimperialismenthusiastically,butitdidnotflourish.SeeingBritain’sexpansioninthesouthandFrance’sinthenorth,ItalytargetedtheeasternportionofAfrica,alsoknownastheHornofAfrica,foritsownimperialdesignattheendofthenineteenthcentury.In1889,ItalyestablishedthecolonyofItalianSomaliland,followedbyEritreain1890.Thenextdecade,ItalytriedtotakeoverEthiopia,thenknownasAbyssinia,butitsinvasionfailed.Atthe1896BattleofAdowa,theItaliansmetcrushingdefeat.TheItaliansdidnotmakefurthersignificantprogressinAfricauntil1912,whentheygainedgroundinTripoliinnorthernAfricabydefeatingtheTurkswhoruledthere.Foritspart,Ethiopia,remainedautonomous,joiningLiberiaastheonlyAfricanstatestoavoidimperialcontrol.Liberia,inthewest,achievedthisdistinctionbecause
3SeLf-cHecK
How can the events that
took place at Omdurman
be described?
4SeLf-cHecK
Which nation or
individual took
possession of the Congo?
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782 Unit 16, Lesson 2
ofitstiestotheUnitedStates.Yearsbefore,formerAmericanslaveshadfoundedLiberia,whichhadtheeffectofestablishingLiberiaassomethinglikeaprotectorateoftheUnitedStates.SowiththeexceptionsofLiberiaandEthiopia,allofAfricawasunderEuropeancontrolby1900.
OtherpowerfulEuropeannations,suchasSpainandPortugal,alsomadeinroadsintoAfrica.Portugal,likeBritain,alreadyhadportsoftradeasbasesfromwhichtopushintoAfrica.Eventually,PortugalestablishedcompletecoloniesinboththeeastandthewestofAfrica,withMozambique,andAngolaandPortugueseGuinea,respectively.Meanwhile,theSpanishconcentratedonthewestofthecontinent,withterritoriesinRioMuni,alsoknownasSpanishGuinea,andtheRiodoOro.Asthetwentiethcenturydawned,SpaindevelopedaprotectorateofitsowninwhatwascalledSpanishMorocco.
Extensions• GoonlinetofindadditionalinformationonthescrambleforAfrica.What
weretheshort-andlong-termconsequencesfortheAfricans?
• WatchthefilmOut of Africa.WhatevidenceofEuropeanimperialisminKenyacanyouseeinthefilm?Istheimpactlargelypositiveornegative?HowdoesthecharacterDenysFinchHattonrepresentAfrica?
SummaryDuringthelate1800s,themostpowerfulEuropeancountries—includingPortugal,Italy,Spain,France,Belgium,andBritain—participatedinthe“scrambleforAfrica,”rushingtodivideupthecontinentamongthemselves.BecauseEuropehadrecentlycomethroughtheSecondIndustrialRevolution,itsnationswerefarmoreadvancedintermsoftechnologyandwarfarethantheAfricanregionstheysoughttocon-quer.AfricahadplentyoftherawmaterialstheEuropeansdesired,anditspeopleprovidedlittleresistance.Indeed,theleadersofAfricanpeoplesoftenunknowinglyagreedtogivetheEuropeanscontrolovertheirregionswhentheymetwiththeEuropeansandmadetradingpacts.WhentheEuropeansclashedtooforcefullyabouthowtodividetheAfricancontinent,theymetattheBerlinConferenceandagreeduponaplan.WhilethisplankepttheEuropeansfromarguingoverAfrica,individualAfricantribessufferedasaresultofit.Asof1900,onlytwopartsofAfricahadnotsuccumbedtoEuropeancontrol:EthiopiaandLiberia.
Looking AheadTheEuropeansdidnotfocustheirimperialambitionssolelyonAfricainthe1800s.Duringthattime,EuropeancountriesalsocovetouslyeyedresourcesandterritoryinAsia.EuropeansbecameespeciallyinterestedinChina,andEuropeannationsmovedrapidlytosecuretheirintereststhere,justastheyhadinAfrica.Meanwhile,WesterncountriesapproachedJapaninthehopesoffosteringmoreglobaltrade.Tothesurpriseofmany,thesmallislandnationofJapansoonbecameasubstantialimperialistpower,justlikemanynationsinEurope.JapanexpressedinterestinimperialexpansionintoChina,aninterestthatresultedinwarbetweenthetwocountriesovertheirrightstoathirdAsianproperty:Korea.
5SeLf-cHecK
Throughout the 1800s,
which European
countries sought to
colonize the African
continent?
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Unit 16, Lesson 2 783
1. The khedive of Egypt, who owned a huge number of shares of the Suez Canal Company, was in debt and agreed to sell 44 percent of the company’s total shares to Britain, giving the British a controlling interest.
2. British colonists tried to invade and occupy Transvaal, an area colonized by Dutch settlers, but they were repelled by the Dutch.
3. The Mahdi’s army lost Sudan to Britain.
4. Belgium and its king, Leopold
5. France, Great Britain, Spain, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Portugal
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
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Early Imperialism in Asia
Unit 16, Lesson 3
Keywordsextraterritoriality
sphere of influence
Essential Questions• WhatformsdidimperialismtakeinIndia,China,andtheMiddleEast?
• HowdidtheJapanesepracticeimperialism?
• WhatwerethecausesandeffectsoftheRusso-JapaneseWar?
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Unit 16, Lesson 3 785
Set the StageAs the nations of Europe scrambled for territory and resources in Africa, they also concentrated on the Middle East, Asia, and India. However, European nations revised the imperialist tactics they had employed in Africa and used more subtle methods. When colonizing Africa, Europeans had created new nation-states that arbitrarily brought together people of different social and linguistic groups, often forcing traditional rivals to share new national boundaries. Europeans also tried to bring African societies into a political system similar to their own. In contrast, Asian societies typically had more similarities to European societies than African societies. Europeans had far less work when it came to incorporating Asian peoples into European empires. Thus, several nations, including Russia, France, Britain, and Germany hurried to claim portions of Asia. France laid claim to Indonesia, Britain occupied much of India, and Germany began making plans to lay claim to parts of China. Russia’s imperialist strategy would backfire, as the country targeted parts of China that Japan had already begun to dominate. When Japan and Russia came to blows over China, the Russo-Japanese War ensued.
Imperialism in Asia in the early 1800s The1800ssawtheriseofthenewimperialismandthe“scrambleforAfrica.”TheswayofimperialismextendedbeyondAfrica,however,asEuropeancountriesalsoturnedtheirattentiontoAsia.Inmanyways,EuropeanswouldfinditeasiertosubjectAsianpeoplestoEuropeancontrolthanAfricanpeoples.BecauseAfricancountrieshadsuchdifferentformsofgovernmentandsociety,theEuropeancolo-nizershadtoworkveryhardtosetupEuropean-stylesystemsinAfrica.SocietiesinChinaandIndia,ontheotherhand,hadsystemsofgovernmentandsocietywithmuchmoreincommonwithEuropeansystems.TheEuropeanscouldthusmoreeasilyadaptAsiansocietiestosuittheirownneeds.Inasense,theEuropeanscouldinstalltheirownwaysofgoverningtothosealreadyinplaceinAsia—asystemfareasierthantheonetheyhadembarkeduponinAfrica.
Britain,oneoftheEuropeancountriesmostinvestedinimperialistexpansioninAsia,initiallyturneditsattentiontotwoofthelargestAsiancountries:IndiaandChina.Britain’sinterestinIndiaoriginatedfromitsconflictagainstFranceduringtheSevenYears’War,whichFrancehadlosttoBritain.Aspartofthespoilsofwar,BritainreceivedtherighttomonitorIndia.ThismonitoringbecameorganizedandledbytheBritishEastIndiaCompany.Thismonitoringwasnotabsoluterule,yetthatwouldcomesoonenough.Inthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,thepeopleofIndiacouldnotagreeonacohesivegoverningsystem,whichleftthemvulnerable,soBritaintookadvantagebydevelopingloyaltiesamongindividu-alsthroughoutthecountry.Meanwhile,theBritishEastIndiaCompanygainedpowerandauthority.Thisgroup,foundedin1600,hadfirstbeensetupsothattheBritishcouldparticipateintheAsianspicetradeandcompetewithitsprimary
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786 Unit 16, Lesson 3
tradingopponentatthetime,Holland.WhileittooktimetoestablishtheEastIndiaCompany’sinfluenceinIndia,bytheearlyeighteenthcenturycompanymembershadsignificantinfluenceoverIndiandomesticpolitics.ThecompanyalsofocusedonbringingBritishimportsintoIndia.BritainusedthecompanyasakindofarmytotakeovereachseparateregioninIndia,andby1848nearlyallofthesubcontinentwascontrolledbytheBritishEastIndiaCompany.
AsBritishcontroloverIndiastrengthened,manyIndianpeoplesawBritishattitudesasdiscriminatoryanddisrespectfultowardMuslimandHindupractices.ThepeopleofIndiacouldonlystandthisdisrespectforalimitedtime,andby1857,violenceerupted.Thatyear,soldiersoftheIndianarmyknownassepoysledacam-paignofresistanceagainstBritishrule.ThisuprisingbecameknownastheGreatMutiny,ortheSepoyRebellion.Eventually,Britainputdownthesepoyinsurrection-ists,showingthemlittlemercy.ThenextstepsBritaintookincludedremovingtheBritishEastIndiaCompanyasaninformalgoverningbodyandinstallingtheBritishruler,QueenVictoria(r.1837–1901),astheabsoluterulerofIndia.WhileVictoriastoodasthefigureheadofBritishruleofIndia,shedidnotreallyparticipateinday-to-daygoverning.Instead,theBritishParliamentruledIndia,assistedbyatinybutpowerfulgroupofbureaucratsinIndia,allofwhomwerewhiteandBritish.Forthemostpart,ParliamentandthebureaucratstreatedtheIndiansasinferiorsintermsofcultureandsociety.
Chinaputupastrongdefense,butendedupsubmittingtoBritainatapproximatelythesametimeIndiadid.Forcenturies,Chinahadtriedtokeepoutpeoplefromothernations,thinkingofthemaslesseducatedandlesscivilized.Astheyearswentby,however,China’spowerbegantowane,especiallyinrelationtotheadvancementsmadebyEurope’sindustrializednation-states.Bythenineteenthcentury,theQingDynastyhaddifficultymain-tainingChina’sisolationfromEurope.Formanyyears,powerfulEuropeannationshadsoughtaccesstoavarietyofproductsmadeinChina,buttradebetweenEuropeandChinawaslimitedbecausethesoleproducttheChinesehadbeenwillingtopurchasehadbeenopium,ahighlyaddictivedrugthatwasnotproducedinEurope.WhentheBritishstrengthenedtheirfootholdinIndia,theyhadaccesstothepoppyfieldsfromwhichopiumismade.TheBritishwantedtoexporttheiropiumsuppliesdirectlyfromIndiaandacrosstheChineseborder.China’srulersresentedtheopiumtraffickingoftheBritishandbannedthetrade.ChineseauthoritiesarrestedBritishtradersonthecommandoftheemperor.Inresponse,BritainwenttowaragainstChinain1839,sendingtroopstokeyChinesecitiesinwhatbecameknownastheFirstOpiumWar.TheconflictendedwiththesigningoftheTreatyofNankingin1842.ThistreatygavemanyadvantagestoBritishtraders.NotonlydidBritaintakepossessionofHongKong,akeyseaport,butChinaalsohadtoallowinternationalgoodsintoanumberofotherChineseports.TheSecondOpiumWar,fought
Britain’s Victoria ruled as the longest-reigning female monarch in history. She served as the “empress of India” from 1877 until her death in 1901.
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Unit 16, Lesson 3 787
bytheBritishandFrenchagainstChinabetween1856and1860alsoresultedinChina’sdefeat,furtheropeningofChineseportstoEuropeantraders.
Imperialism in Asia in the Late 1800s BritaincontinuedtostrengthenitsholdoverIndiathroughoutthecentury.IndiahadalreadybeguntoindustrializebeforethearrivalofBritishrulersandwasthere-forecapableofproducingitsowngoods,butBritainviewedIndiaprimarilyasasourcefornaturalresourcesandamarketforgoodsproducedinBritishfactories.Thus,BritishrulersofIndiatriedtoquashthesubcontinent’snascentindustrialdevelopment.Still,BritishruledidhavesomepositiveoutcomesforIndia.Forexample,theBritishconstructedrailroadsystemsthroughoutthecountryinanattempttomodernizeit.TheymadeitpossibleforIndiancitizenstolearnEnglish,soIndianscouldinteractwithandparticipateinBritishsociety.
TheBritishalsoculledthebestandbrightestIndianyouthandsentthemtoBritaintobeeducatedatcollegesthere.TheideawasthatthiskindoftrainingwouldhelpcreatemorebureaucratswhocouldworkonbehalfofBritaininIndiaandbeacceptedthereaslocals.Perhapsfittingly,thiseducationwouldworkinfavoroftheIndiansandagainsttheBritish.IndianseducatedinEuropereturnedhomeandbeganworkingtogethertofightfortheirrightsagainsttheBritish.By1885,theyhadfoundedagoverningbodytorepresentIndiannationalscalledtheIndianNationalCongress.ThemajorityofpeopleservingintheinitialcongresswereHindus.MembersofthecongressbegancallingforpoliticalautonomyandequalrightsforIndiaandIndians.Justafewyearslater,left-wingmembersoftheIndianNationalCongressbeganadvocatingtotalseparationfromBritain.Twoindividualsinparticular,JawaharlalNehru(1889–1964)andMohandasGandhi(1869–1948),wouldusewhattheyhadlearnedaboutBritishidealsandmoralcodestosupportIndia’sownquestforself-ruleandindependence.
Thatlibertywouldtakedecadestoarrive,however.In1900BritaingovernedIndiawithatightbureaucraticapparatus.Atthesametime,Britainhadotherworries.RussiahadbeenmakingincursionsintothecenterofAsia,establishingafootholdnorthofBritain’sownimperialoutposts.TheBritishbecameparticu-larlyconcernedwhentheRussiansmadeinroadsintoAfghanistan,aregionthatBritainhadalreadybeeninterestedinforsometime.BritainandRussiastoodatastalemateforquitesometimeinregardtoAfghanistan,asituationeasedonlyin1907whenRussiapromisedtoremoveitstroopsfromtheregion.BritainalsohadconcernsaboutFrance’simperialexpansion,takingplaceonIndia’seastwardsideinIndochina.In1886,tostrengthenitspositionontheeasternfront,BritaintookcontrolofBurma.BetweenAfghanistanandBurma,BritishIndia’sdefenseswouldbestrengthenedfromtwodirections.
BritainalsomadetreatiesoverterritorieswithGermanyandHolland.In1884,GermanyconfirmeditwouldworkwithBritaintodivideupthelargePacificislandknownasNewGuinea.Sevenyearslater,HollandandBritaindividedupBorneo,anotherislandintheEastIndies.
Meanwhile,beginninginthe1860sandextendingthroughtheendofthedecade,FrancecontinuedtodevelopitscontroloverterritoryinIndochina,close
1SeLf-cHecK
What were the
differences between
African and Asian
imperialism?
2SeLf-cHecK
What caused the
Opium Wars?
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788 Unit 16, Lesson 3
enoughtoBritishAsiatocreateathreatofconflictbetweenthetwoEuropeanpowers.WarbetweenBritainandFrancewasavoidedin1896whenthetwocountriesagreedthattheywouldworktogethertokeepanautonomousnationasakindofshockabsorber,orbuffer-state,betweenthem,topreventeithercountryfromexpandingtoofar.Thisbuffer-state,modern-dayThailand,wascalledSiam.
Bythe1890s,mostimperialistEuropeannationshadcometofocusonChina,wheretheManchuDynastyhadbeenrevealedascorruptandunabletodefendChina.Chinawasvulnerable,particularlytoencroachmentbyBritain,France,Germany,andRussia.Thesecountriescreatedspheres of influence inChineseterritory.ThesespheresdidnotbelongsolelytotheirrespectiveEuropeancountries,buttheEuropeannationsexertedtremendouspowerwithinthem.ThecloseproximityofEuropeanterritoriescausedgreatconcernamongtheChinese.FrancemovedfromitscontrollingpositioninIndochinatocreateitsspheresofinfluenceinthesouthofChina.BritainhadsignificantfinancialinvestmentinChina,aswellascontroloverHongKong.TheBritishusedtheirpowertoestablishasphereofinfluencethatradi-atedfromtheYangtzeRiverBasin.
TheexistenceofthesespheresofinfluencewerenotChina’sonlyproblem.Becauseofasystemcalledextraterritoriality,EuropeannationalswithinChinawerenotsubjecttoChineselaws.Thesenationalsonlyhadtoobeythelawsoftheirowncountryoforigin.WithsomanydifferentEuropeannationsestablishingcentersofpowerinChina,theinternationalabilitytoconducttradefreelythroughChinaseemedingravejeopardy.TheUnitedStates,whichwasrapidlydevelopingitsownimperialistinterestsinthePacificaswellastrademissionstoAsia,createdacompromisecalledtheOpenDoorpolicy.Thispolicy’sgoalsincludedkeepingChinawhole,ratherthansplit-tingthecountryamongEuropeannations.DespitetheOpenDoor policy, Chinese citizens grewincreasinglyfrustratedwiththeirtreatmentbytheEuropeans.AclandestinegroupofChineseindi-vidualsbandedtogetheragainsttheforeignpow-ersandledarevolutionin1900calledtheBoxerRebellion.Europeancountriesworkedtogethertoputdowntheinsurrection.Duringthecarnagethatfollowed,thousandsofChinesecitizenswhopracticedChristianitydied,andmorethan200 for-eignmissionariesinChinawerekilledaswell.AsaresultoftheBoxerRebellion,theChinesehadtopaytheEuropeansadditionalpenalties.TheBoxerRebellionalsousheredinthefinalchapterofrule
sphere of influence area where a foreign nation exerts political or legal control
extraterritoriality government policy that foreign nationals in another country, such as China, would be held responsible only to laws of their home nation, rather than those of the nation where they were located
British, German, Russian, French, and Japanese imperialists vie for pieces of China, while the Chinese protest to no effect.
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Unit 16, Lesson 3 789
fortheManchuDynasty,whichwouldcollapsecompletelyin1912.TheBoxerRebelliondemonstratedthepeople’sunhappinesswithEuropeanencroachmentinChinaand,byextension,withtheirowngovernment,theManchuDynasty,forpermittingit.After1900,EuropeancontrolinChinaincreasedasthecountry’sdomesticgovernmentfaltered.Differentorganizations,whichworkedagainstbothEuropeaninfluenceandtheirownChinesegovernment,schemedtotakedowntheManchurulers.Theirsuccessful1912revoltwouldresultinanewgovernmentsimilartoEuropeanmodels.
Japanese Imperialists AnotherthreattoChinacamenotfromEuropebutJapan.In1894,theJapanesedeclaredwarontheChineseoveraterritorialdisputeintheKoreanpeninsula.Bydoingso,Japanenteredintoagroundbreakingstageofimperialistconquests.Inlessthan50years,Japanwouldmovefromanisolatedandbackwardstatetoamodern,industrializednationwithamilitarycomparabletothoseofEuropeanpowers.Itwouldbecomeacountrywithaninternaltrainsystemandwellstaffedwithitsownmanufacturingsources.Itwouldmovefromhavingnocoloniestopossessingstrongfootholdsinanationmuchlargerandmuchmorepopulousthanitself:China.
Towardtheendofthe1600s,Japancutitselfofffromtherestoftheglobe.Thisself-imposedembargolastedmorethan150years,endingin1854whenasea-faringmilitarydelegationfromtheUnitedStates,ledbyCommodoreMatthewPerry(1794–1858),forcedtheJapanesebackintoglobalcommerce.
JapanbegantorapidlycatchupwithEuropebyupdatingitsgoverningregimeanditsfinancestocontendwiththenineteenth-centuryinternationaleconomy,andpreparingitsmilitarytodefendthecountryandfightusingmodernweapons.TheJapaneseevaluatedboththemisstepsandsuccessesofEuropeanimperialism,andappliedthemostsuccessfultacticstotheirownterritorialpursuits.ItsoonbecameclearthatJapaneseindustrializationhadbeensuccessful:duringtheSino-JapaneseWarof1894–1895,foughtprimarilyforcontrolofKorea,ittookrelativelylittletimefortheJapanesetodefeattheChinese.Japanhadbecomeakeyglobalauthority,whichtookmanynationalgovernmentsinEuropebysurprise.ThepeaceagreementattheendoftheSino-JapaneseWar,knownastheTreatyofShimonosekiof1895,includedmanyconcessionstoJapanbyChina,includingthecessionofTaiwan,knownthenasFormosa.ChinaalsoagreedtoJapanesecontrolofKoreaandgaveJapancontroloftheLiaotungPeninsula.ThispeninsulacamewithasignificantareacalledPortArthur.
TheserapidgainsonthepartofJapanworriedseveralEuropeancountries,includingFrance,Russia,andGermany.ThesethreenationswereafraidthatJapan’sauthorityinChinawouldgrowtoostrong.Asaresult,theydemandedthatJapangiveupitshegemonyinKoreaanditsrighttoleasetheLiaotungarea.
expansion in china and the Russo-Japanese War WhenJapanrelinquishedsomeofitsclaimsonChinaunderpressurebyEuropeanpowers,RussiaandGermanydidnothesitatetoprofitfromwhattheysawasa
3SeLf-cHecK
When France settled a
colony in Asia, which
area did it target first?
3SeLf-cHecK
When France settled a
colony in Asia, which
area did it target first?
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790 Unit 16, Lesson 3
potentialJapanesevulnerability.Bytheendofthe1890s,GermanyhadtakenoveranareaofChinacalledtheShantungPeninsula.EvenworsefromaJapaneseperspective,RussiahadreceivedpermissiontoleasetheLiaotungPeninsula,arightJapanhadwonintheTreatyofShimonosekibutlaterabandoned.Inaddition,RussiahadbegunconstructingrailsystemsthroughoutManchuria,includingtheChineseEasternRailwayinthenorth,whichwouldmakeanalready-existingroute,theTrans-SiberianRailroad,evenshorter.TheTrans-SiberianRailroadtraveledfromValdivostoktoMoscow.Tothesouth,theSouthManchuriaRailwaywasplannedbyRussiatoconnectotherpartsofChinaandRussiatoPortArthur.Throughoutthistime,bothBritainandFrancealsocontinuedtopresstheiradvantagesinChinatokeepupwiththeotherimperialistcountries.
ThiscombinationofeventsmadeJapanincreasinglywaryoftheEuropeanpowers,especiallyRussia.NotonlyhadRussiastartedbuildinganothersphereofinfluence,thisoneinManchuria,butitalsoseemedthatRussiahadideasaboutextendingitsreachintoKorea.InFebruary1904,JapandeclaredwaronRussia.Fewobserverssawitcoming:JapanlaunchedasurpriseassaultonRussianshipsatPortArthur.In1905,JapanwonanimportantconflictagainstRussiaintheBattleofMukden.InMayofthatyear,Japan’sarmieswipedoutshipsbelongingtoRussia’sBalticSeaforcethathadbeenpostedtotheFarEast.ThisconflictbecameknownastheBattleofTsushimaStraits.
Toresolvetermsbetweenthecountriesandcreatepeace,U.S.presidentTheodoreRoosevelt(1858–1919)servedasanegotiatorandhelpedforgetheTreatyofPortsmouth.Thistreaty,whichtookeffectinSeptember1905,includedfourimportantpoints.First,itrestoredtheleaseholdrightsofLiaotungtoJapan.Second,RussiawasallowedtoholdontoitssphereofinfluenceinnorthernManchuria,butJapanreceivedpermissiontocreateoneofitsowninthesouth.Third,RussiahadtogivethesouthportionofSakhalinIslandtoJapan,andfinally,JapanreceivedpermissiontooccupyKorea.In1910,JapanwouldtakeoverKoreacompletely.
Extensions• Readtheshortstory“ShootinganElephant”byGeorgeOrwell.Whatdoes
thisstoryrevealaboutattitudesheldbycolonizersandthecolonized?
SummaryAswellasexpandingtheirempirestoAfrica,EuropeannationsbroughtthemtoAsia.However,theimperialistmethodstheEuropeansemployedonthetwocon-tinentswereverydissimilar.Asiansocietiesalreadyhadcomplicatedfinancialandpoliticalinstitutions;Europeanscouldbendtheexistinginstitutionstotheirownendsratherthanstartingfromscratch.WhenBritainclaimedIndiaandportionsofChina,itsetastandardfortheotherEuropeancountriestoalsoadopt.FrancetookoverIndochina,whileGermanyandRussiamovedintoChinaasBritainhad.Inaddition,theUnitedStatesbeganestablishinganimportantpresenceinChina,throughmarkettreaties.TheUnitedStates’actionsalsobroughtJapanintocontactwithimperialistideas.InsteadofbecominganotherEuropeancolony,however,
4SeLf-cHecK
What happened
at the end of the
Russo-Japanese War?
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Unit 16, Lesson 3 791
Japanturnedintoanimperialistpowerinitsownright.Soon,JapanhadbegundisagreeingwithotherEuropeannations,suchasRussia,aboutauthorityoverChina.ThisdisagreementculminatedintheRusso-JapaneseWar.
Looking AheadImperialactionswouldbetiedtoanothernineteenth-centuryproblem,overpopula-tion,andprovideapossiblesolutiontoitthroughcolonization.Asthetwentiethcenturydrewnear,Europewouldexperienceatremendousanduniquepopulationincrease,whichwouldstrainitsresourcestothebreakingpoint.ManyEuropeanswouldendupleavingthecontinent,eithertemporarilyorforgood,insearchofbettercircumstances,food,andfunds.Astheytraveledaroundtheglobe,theywouldhelpenforceaneconomicseparationbetweentheworld’srichandpoor—aseparationalreadyestablishedbyEurope’simperialistbehavior.
1. Africa’s societies were so different from European societies that when European countries colonized Africa, they had to implement new political and financial systems from the ground up. In contrast, Asian political and financial systems were similar to European ones, meaning that Europeans could tap into these systems during the colonization process.
2. Britain and China’s struggle about whether Britain could import opium into China
3. Indochina
4. Japan defeated Russia: Russia had to make significant concessions to Japan when the war concluded. Then, Russia moved away from Asian imperialism to concentrate on Europe’s Balkan region, laying groundwork for World War I and the Russian Revolution.
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
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Migration and Inequality
Unit 16, Lesson 4
Keywordsdecolonization
dwarf economy
immigrants
migrants
pogroms
Third World
Essential Questions• Whatcausedtheglobalinequalityseenbytheearlytwentiethcentury?
Howwouldyoucompareglobalinequalityin1750and1970?
• Whatwastheimpactofpopulationpressuresandmigrationpatternsinthelatenineteenthcentury,especiallyonEuropeanandAsianmigrants?
• Whatdidthecriticsofimperialismandindustrializationuseastheirarguments?
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Unit 16, Lesson 4 793
Set the StageFacing the challenges posed by wars, starvation, droughts, and disease, Europeans born prior to the eighteenth century found life to be short and often painful. People raised large families and seemed resigned to relatively early deaths. As society advanced, however, people lived longer, often as a result of better medical care and more advanced technology. By the 1800s, people in Europe enjoyed longer life expectancies. Longer lives meant greater demand for resources that Europe alone could not provide. By the nineteenth century, Europe’s population began to exceed its resources. Europeans would have to travel outside their continent’s borders to bring in the resources their home territories could not yield.
The Rise of Global Inequality (1750–1970)ThedramaticchangesresultingfromEurope’snineteenth-centuryIndustrialRevolutionsaredifficult tomeasure.Yet the IndustrialRevolutionchangedtheworld;itwasadefiningmomentinhumankind’strajectory.TheIndustrialRevolutionchangedeverything—howpeoplelived,wheretheylived,whattheyate,andwhattheydid.Inshort,forthepeopleofEurope,everythingchangedasaresultofindustrialization.
OneofthemostimportantchangescreatedbytheIndustrialRevolutioncameinthewaysitshiftedthebalanceofpowerbetweenallthenationsoftheworld.Intheindustrialera,theworldbecamedividedintotwoseparate,unevencamps.Inonewerethecountriesthathadindustrializedandbecomericherandmorepowerful.Intheotherwerethecountriesthatdidnotindustrializeandbecamerelativelypoorerandlesspowerful.Astheindustrializedcountries,whichincludedthenationsofNorthAmericaandEurope,becamemorepowerfulandsophisticated,theybecamemoreandmoredominantontheworldscale.Inturn,thecountriesthathadnotbenefitedfromindustrialization,knownastheThird World,fellfurtherandfurtherbehind.
Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,thedifferencesbetweenthetwogroupshadbecomeprofound.Astheworldbecameincreasinglyglobalized,thewealthycountriesgotwealthierwhileneedycountriesbecameevenmoreimpoverished.Theglobe’sfinancialmarketscametodependonthedividebetweenthewealthyandimpoverishedregions,asituationthatcontinuesinthetwenty-firstcentury.Globalresourcesarestilldividedunfairlybetweentheverywealthyregionsandtheverydeprived.
Mosteconomichistoriansagreethattheglobe’sfinanceshadbeenfairlyevenlydistributedaslateas1750.Atthattime,thetypicalpersonlivinginEuropehadaboutasmuchmoneyandpossessionsasatypicalpersonlivinginAfrica,Asia,ortheAmericas.Infact,inthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,Europedidnotstandoutasawealthygroupofcountries.Ofallthenationsin
Third World poorer half of the world that did not reap the rewards of industrialism; those who had worse economies and living standards than the “First World” West
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794 Unit 16, Lesson 4
Europe,eventherichest,Britain,didnothaveanyfinancialachievementstosetitapartfromcountriesoutsideoftheWesternworld.
Scholarsalsoagreethatthedivisionbetweenrichandpoorcountries,andthecorrespondinghealthandsocietalbenefitsthataccompanyastrongecon-omy,canbeblamedontheaftereffectsoftheIndustrialRevolution.Britain’shistoryprovidesaclearandilluminatingexampleofthischange.Historicrecordsshowthatby1830,BritainhadindustrializedfarmorerapidlythanotherEuropeannations.Correspondingly,citizensofBritainhappenedtobemakingfarmoremoneythancitizensofotherEuropeancountriesatthattime.However,asthecenturymovedforward,Britain’sadvantageovertheotherEuropeannations—andtheUnitedStates—becamesmaller.AsotherEuropeannationsbegantocatchuptoBritainfromanindustrialperspective,theirecono-miesalsostartedtocatchup.
Bythedawnofthetwentiethcentury,peopleinthepartsoftheworldthathadbeenfirsttoindustrializecontinuedtoprosper.Thissituationwentonfordecades,throughtheendofWorldWarII.Itwouldtakethenewpeacetimechangesandtheprocessofdecolonizationtofinallybegintochangetheingrainedglobalfinancialdisparity.NationsthathadformerlybelongedtotheThirdWorldcouldstarttotryandbreakoutofthatcategory.Theystartedtotrytoincreasetheirownnationalfinancestoencourageindustrialization.
Differencesbetweencountriesintermsoffinanceshasmeantrealdiffer-encesincitizens’qualityoflifeonalmosteverylevel.Onecanexpectthat,incomparisontocitizensofaFirstWorldcountrylikeBritainortheUnitedStates,thecitizensofapoor,ThirdWorldcountrywouldhavetodealwithpoorlivingconditions,lowlifeexpectancy,andinsufficientnutrition.Notsurprisingly,thisdisparityinlifeandfinancebetweenregionshasledtomuchdiscussion.OnegroupofscholarscontendsthatthepeopleoftheFirstWorldhaveworkedhardtocreateandmaintainahighersocialandeconomicstatus.AdifferentgroupofscholarscontendsthattheFirstWorldhasnothonestlygaineditshigherwealthandstatus,buttookitbyexploitingtheresourcesoftheThirdWorld.ThesescholarsblameFirstWorldcountriesforpracticingimperialismandcolonialpoliciesupthroughthetwentiethcentury,keepingThirdWorldcountriesimpoverishedbyforce,takingtheirresourcesandkeepingthemfromrisingupandmakingtheworldabetterplaceforthemselves.
The Population Push Priortotheeighteenthcentury,Europe’spopulationhadgrownslowlyanderrati-cally.Therehadalreadybeentwosharpincreasesinpopulation;thefirst,fromabout1050totheearly1300s,washaltedbytheBlackDeath.Thesecond,fromaboutthe1500stothemid-1600s,hadbeenaslowbutsteadyupswingofanincreaseofabout1percentperyear,leveledoffbydeathsfromwar,starvation,ordisease.ThepopulationofEuropehadbeenpreventedfromgrowingtoomuchbecausetherehadnotbeenenoughfoodorotherresourcestogoaround.Asaresult,thepopulationgrewquiteslowlyformuchofthelate1600sandearly1700s,beforebeginningyetanothersteepclimbinabout1750.
1SeLf-cHecK
How can the Third World
be described?
decolonization process of abolishing colonies in nations that had been under imperial control, and returning them to autonomous states
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Unit 16, Lesson 4 795
Withthe1700s,then,camethethirdandmostimportantincreaseinEurope’spopulation.Thisincreasewouldlastforalmost200years,intothetwentiethcen-tury.Whileduringthe1800sEuropeancitizensbeganhavingfewerchildren,thepopulationdidnotexperienceacorrespondingdecreasebecausefewerpeopleweredyingattherelativelyearlyagesthathadbeencustomaryinthe1700s.Peoplehadstartedlivinglonger,owingtoadvancesinhealthcareandtechnology,aswellasbetterhabitsinhygiene.In1800,about188millionpeoplelivedinEurope.Onehundredyearslater,thenumberhadmorethandoubledto432million.
Thosenumbersdonotdisclosethewholestory,nordotheyrevealjusthowmuchEuropecontributedtotheworldpopulationduringthattime.Anadditional60millionpersonsmovedawayfromEuropeinthecenturyfollowing1815.Iftheyhadstayed,Europe’spopulationcouldhaveconceivablyswelledtomorethan500 mil-lion.The60millionEuropeanswhomovedawayfromEuropeitself,knownasmigrants,traveledmainlytoregionsthathadalreadybeencolonizedbyEuropeancountries,suchasAustraliaandNewZealand,Siberia,andNorthandSouthAmerica.Inthesenewregions,theEuropeanmigrantshelpedquicklyraisethepopulationsthere.Forinstance,inthe100yearsfollowing1800,thepopulationsoftheUnitedStatesandCanadaroseby75million.Thisrapidincreaseinpopulationmeantthatthepercentageoftheworld’spopulationbelongingtopeopleofEuropeandescentcontinuedtogrow.Peopleonothercontinents,suchasAsiaandAfrica,didnotseetheriseinnumbersthattheEuropeansdid.BythetimeWorldWarIbeganin1914,Europeansandtheirrelationsonothercontinentsmadeupnearly40percentoftheworld’spopulation.
Itmakessense,then,thattheincreaseinEurope’spopulationwouldmakeEuropeancountriesevenmoreinterestedinimperialconquest,anddriveEuropeancitizensthemselvestoemigrateinsearchofland,resources,andpersonalgain.Facedwithalargerpopulationinthe1800s,Europeanshadthesameproblemstheyhadhadinthe1700s:shortagesoffood,notenoughland-basedresources,andtoomanypeopleinurbancenters.Bythenineteenthcentury,however,thereexistedfewermeansofkeepingthepopulationincheck,suchaswars,famines,anddisease.
ThepeopleofEuropebegantomigrateabouttwodecadesaftertheinitialexpansionofthepopulation.Aboutagenerationintotheexpansion,thenewcitizensrealizedthatverylittlechancesforfortuneorstabilityexistedforthemintheirhomecountries.Allthepropertyhadalreadybeendividedupamongexistingcitizens,anditwouldbedifficultfornewgenerationstoachieveupwardmobility.Asaresult,manyyoungpeopleleft.Thisswiftmigrationhappenedmostofallintheearly1800s,whenthelife-changingaspectsoftheIndustrialRevolutionhadnotyetbeenfullyfelt.TheIndustrialRevolutionwouldsupplynewmeansofemploymentforEuropeancitizens,andprovideameansofsupplyingEuropeancitizenswithresourcesandnewchancesforself-improvement—thingspreviousgenerationswouldhaveleftEuropetofindforthemselves.BeforetheIndustrialRevolution,Europe’spopulationhadsimplyoutstrippedtherelativeareaonwhichithadbeenraised.
Thus,intheearlyyearsoftheIndustrialRevolution,millionsofEuropeansbecamemigrantsmovingoutsideofthedomestichomestheyhadalwaysknown.
migrants citizens who travel to a foreign land in search of better circumstances but usually plan to come back home
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796 Unit 16, Lesson 4
WhilesomecitizenspreferredtostayonEuropeansoil,movingtourbancentersandawayfromtheirformeragriculturalhomes,otherswenttonewcontinentsentirely,hopingtomaketheirfortuneselsewhere.Ireland,inparticular,sawtwotremendouslossesofpopulation:first,duringtheIndustrialRevolution,asitscitizensseeminglyemigratedenmassetoEngland,andsecond,duringtheIrishpotatofamine,asitscitizenssoughttoescapehungerbyrelocatingtotheUnitedStates.
ManyEuropeanslefttheircountriesforbrighteroptionsoverseas.Toexam-inetheirjourneys,threeimportantelementsofnineteenth-centuryimmigrationmustbetakenintoaccount.Foronething,asthenineteenthcenturydrewtoacloseandWorldWarIapproached,itseemedasthoughmorecitizensemigratedfromEuropethaneverbefore.Inthefirstyearsofthe1900s,forexample,over11 millionpeopleemigratedfromEurope—astrongcontrasttotheapproximately2millionwhohademigratedhalfwaythroughthepreviouscentury.PeopleleavingEuropeinsearchofabetterlifeelsewherecanthusbeseenasanimportantandintegralpartofwhatitmeanttoliveinEuropeduringthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.ThosewhocontinuedtoliveinEuropeduringthattimeoftenexpectedsomeoftheirfriendsandrela-tivestomigrateoremigrate.FamilyunitsbecameseparatedasEurope’syoungcontinuedtomoveacrosstheglobe,butnotallEuropeancitizensemigratedinthesamewayoratthesametime.Basedontheircountryoforigin,Europeanimmigrants’approachestomigrationvariedconsiderably.Take,forinstance,emigrantsfromIrelandandBritain.Asearlyasthe1840s,citizensfromthosetwocountrieshadbegundepartingfromtheirhomelandsbythemillions—inpartbecauseBritishcitizenswhohadbeenlivinginthecountrysidebecameimpoverishedandneededtofindlivelihoodselsewhere.Anothercontributingfactor,though,camefromtheBritishEmpire’spoliciesthatgavecertaincolo-nialprivilegestocitizensofBritishextractionoverothers.ABritishemigrantwouldhaveabetterchanceatfindingworkinaBritishcolonythanaGerman,French,orItalianemigrant,andtherehappenedtobemoreBritishcoloniesthananyothers.ThismeantthatBritishcitizenswhohadreceivedsubstantialtrainingorhadbusinessexperiencebecamenearlyaslikelytoleaveBritainastheirpoor,ruralcounterparts.Inthe80yearsfollowing1840,nearly33percentofallEuropeanmigrantscamefromBritain.
Themigrationpatternsofothercountries,likeGermanyandItaly,variedgreatly.InGermany,themigrationofcitizensbeganslowlyafter1830,withgreatrushesoutwardevery20to30years.Afterthelastrushinthe1880s,though,Germany’semigrationsloweddowngreatly.Germanyhadbegunindustrializingverysuccess-fullyandhadstartedtocloseinonBritain.Assuchithadbeguncreatingmoreandmoreopportunitiesfordomesticemploymentofitsowncitizens.ThepeopleofItalydidnotseemsolucky.ItalianemigrationsawasteadyincreasethroughthebeginningsofWorldWarI.ThiscontinuedincreaseseemedtoindicatethatItalyhadnotbeenassuccessfulinindustrializingasGermanyorBritain,andthatpeopleintheItaliancountrysidecouldnotfindemploymentorresourceswithwhichtosupportthemselves.Overall,then,thenumberofpeoplewhomightemigrate
2SeLf-cHecK
Why did the amount
of people in the world
increase so much in
the 1700s?
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Unit 16, Lesson 4 797
fromanyEuropeancountrydependedonthatparticularcountry’sfinancialandsocietalstate,aswellastheconditionofthecountry’soverseasimperialcolonies.
ThemajorityofEurope’smigratingcitizenseventuallyendedupintheUnitedStates.However,ofallthemigratingcitizensintheworldduringthe1800sand1900s,lessthanhalfendedupmovingtotheUnitedStates.ThegreaterportionofthemigrantsofthisperiodendedupincountrieslikeAustralia,Argentina,Brazil,Canada,andRussia.WhiletheUnitedStateshadplentyofmigrantscomingin,thosepeopledidnotmakeupasgreatashareofthecountry’spopulationastheydidinothercountries,likeBrazil,Canada,andArgentina.ThiscanbeseenclearlybycomparingmigrantscomingintoArgentinaandtheUnitedStatesinthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury.Everyyearduringthatdecade,thepercentageofnewmigrantsinArgentina’sentirepopulationequaled3percent;intheUnitedStates,thepercentagehoveredatabout1percent.Proportionally,moreimmigrantscametoArgentina.
Migrants from europe and Asia Nineteenth-centurymigrantscameprimarilyfromEuropeandAsia.Duringthatcentury,anumberofpeopleleftEuropeinwavesduetoavarietyofmotivatingfactors.AnoverwhelmingmajorityofEuropeanmigrantswereimpoverishedindi-viduals,andfrequentlytheycamefromthecountryside.AtypicalEuropeanmigrant,infact,couldbedescribedaseitheraruraltradesperson,orafarmerorfarmworkerfromthelowerclass.Frequently,thistypicalmigrantfounditimpossibletosustainaminimumstandardoflivingduetotheconfluenceofseveralnewfactors:theavailabilityofinexpensiveproductsmadeinfactories,thescarcityofarableland,andthepracticeoffarmingbylargelandholdersratherthansmallindividuals.
ThislatterpointisclearlyillustratedbythewaveofGermanmigrantswhodepartedsouthwestGermanyandtheRhinelandbetween1830and1854.TheseGermansfellpreytosomethingFriedrichListdescribedasthedwarf economy:Germanyhadonlyminisculeportionsofarablelandavailabletoindividualfarmersatthetime,andasindustrializedfactoryproductsbecamemoreprevalent,craftsmencouldnotfindamarketfortheirproducts.Europeancitizensfacedwiththesecircumstancesoftenfounditbettertoputmostoftheirpossessionsonthemarketandtaketheresultingfundstopurchasecheaperproperty,ofteninareasliketheMidwestoftheUnitedStates.Today,manypeoplerememberthesemigrantsfromEuropeasindividualswhohadabsolutelynomoneyandnoplacetogo,orasworking-classindividualsforcedoutofthecitiesofEurope.However,moreoftenthannot,thesemigrantscouldbestbedescribedashardworkersfromvariousprofessions,whobroughttheirtalentsandskillswiththemastheyemigratedfromtheirEuropeanhomelands.
Generallyspeaking,migrantsbroughtanethosofhardworkwiththemwhentheytraveledtonewlands.Manysoughttoriseintoahigherclassinanewcountry.Oftenthatmeantthatnewlycolonizednationswelcomedmigrants,becauseofthehardworkandgoodqualitiestheybroughttotheirnewhomes.Mostofthesemigrantshappenedtostillberelativelyyouthful.Forinstance,about66percentofthemigrantswhocametotheUnitedStateshadnotyetturned31.Evenmore
dwarf economy a stunted financial state made up of small pieces of property and failing systems of craft and trade
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798 Unit 16, Lesson 4
shockingly,nearlyallofthem—90percent—hadnotyetturned40.Manydidnothavespousesorfamilies.Whenthemigrantslandedonnewshores,theyhadmuchtooffer—health,ability,anddetermination.
Returning Home ManyoftheEuropeancitizenswholefttheirhomesonthecontinentduringthenineteenthcenturyhadeveryintentionofreturningtotheirhomecountriesafterspendingsometimemakingtheirfortunesabroad.Thisputthemindirectcontrasttoimmigrants,wholefttheirhomelandsandplanned,astheydidso,onleavingforgood.Forexample,approximatelyhalfoftheEuropeanswhomigratedtoArgentinadidnotstay.AboutathirdofallEuropeanswhohadmigratedendedupgoingbacktotheirhomecountries.Whetherornotmigrantsreturnedhome,ofcourse,seemedtocorrespondwithwheretheyhadbeenfrominthefirstplace.Balkanmigrants,forinstance,becamefarmorelikelytoreturnhomelaterinlifethanmigrantsfromIreland.OfalltheEuropeanmigrantswhotraveledtotheUnitedStatestoworkduringthelate1800s,87percentofthosefromtheBalkansendedupgoinghome,while90percentofthosefromIrelandendedupstaying.
Formanymigrants,decidingwhethertogohomedependedmorethananythingononemainfactor:whethertheywouldbeabletopurchaseterritoryoftheirownintheirprevioushomelands.InmostofBritain,itseemednearlyimpossibletopurchaseland.ThevastmajorityofBritishsoilwasownedbyarelativelyfewwealthyindividuals
immigrants citizens who travel overseas in search of better circumstances and plan on staying in their new nations
The assassination of Alexander II triggered violent mob attacks against Jews in Russia. These anti-Jewish pogroms resulted in large numbers of deaths and motivated many Jews to flee Russia in the late nineteenth century.
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Unit 16, Lesson 4 799
orcorporations.Returningmigrants,eventhosewhohadmadeagooddealofmoneyintheNewWorld,wouldhavelittlehopeofbuyingfarmlandbackhomeinBritain.
Financialreasonsfornotreturningtoaplaceoforigin,howeverunfortunate,paleincomparisontoother,morelife-threateningreasons.EuropeanJewslivinginRussia,forexample,didnotbegintomigrateinlargenumbersuntilthelate1800s,butwhentheyleftmostofthemhadnointentionofgoingback.UpuntiltheassassinationofTsarAlexanderIIin1881,theJewsofRussiahadmanagedtolivefairlycomfortably.EventhoughthefanaticswhokilledAlexanderIIhadnotbeenJewish,theRussianJewsreceivedblamefromthetsar’sdeath.Underthefollowingtsar’sregime,theJewssufferedtremendously,asthestatecreatedandenforcednewprejudiciallawsandimplementedpogroms.Atthebeginningofthe1880s,approximately5millionJewishpeoplelivedinRussia.Theyhadbeenforcedintocertainregionsofthecountry,andtheirmobilitythroughoutRussiahadbeenlimited.JewscouldliveintinyurbancentersinaregionknownasthePaleofSettlement.FewcareerswereopentoRussianJews,andthosetendedtobeinthecraftsorinsmall-scalemarketexchange,andtheyhadlittlehopeofpurchasingterritorytofarm.WithallthesefactorslimitingtheiropportunitiesforadvancementinRussia,itmadesensethattheJewishpeoplewhohadstartedtomigrateduringthatsamedecadewouldnotwishtoreturntoalandwherethegovernmentseemedprejudicedagainstthem,wheretheycouldnotownproperty,andwheretheywouldstruggletomakealiving.
The example of Italian Migrants AtypicalcaseofthetrajectoryofEuropeanmigrantscanbefoundinthemanypathsforgedbyItalianmigrantsduringthelatterpartofthenineteenthcentury.Whilepeoplefromothercountries,suchasBritainandGermany,hadbegunmigratingdecadesearlier,Italiansdidnotreallystarttomoveuntilthe1880sbecausetheyhadnotreallyhadareasontoleaveanyearlier.Bythe1880s,though,75percentoftheItalianpeoplereliedonfarmingtosupportthem-selves.WhenfarmmachinesandnewmethodsintheUnitedStatescreatedatremendousincreaseinwheatproduction,ItalybeganimportingtheinexpensivegrainfromacrosstheAtlantic.Italianpeopleoftheworkingclasshadalreadybeenfacingsignificanteconomichurdles.Nowtheysuddenlyfoundthemselvesunabletomakealivingbyproducingandsellingtheirownwheat.
Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,Italyhadnotyetbecomefullyindustri-alized,eventhoughitscitizenshadbeguntowitnessaswiftpopulationincrease.Severalgroupsofcitizenshadnochoicebuttodeparttheirnation,muchastheymighthavewantedtostayinItaly,becausetheycouldnotaffordtodootherwise.UnlikeBritishandIrishmigrants,whohadbeentenantfarmersorpersonsworkingonlandtheycouldneverhopetoown,manyItalianmigrantsdidabandontheirowntinyplotsofland.TheItaliancitizenswhoweretenantfarmersoftenendedupremainingintheirowncountry,whereinsteadofputtingtheirenergytouseinfarmingorindustry,theybecamepoliticallyactive,mostfrequentlyontheleft.Whiletheystayed,millionsofotherItaliansdepartedforgreenerpastures.Bymigrating,peoplehopedtoachievetwogoals:first,toleaveovercrowdedItaly,andsecond,tostartmakingmoremoney,whichsomemigrantshopedwouldenablethemtoreturntoItalyonedayandpurchasebackalltheterritorytheyhadlost.
pogroms state- organized prejudicial and brutal assaults, often aimed at a specific collection of people
3SeLf-cHecK
How can the
dissimilarities between
migrants and immigrants
be explained?
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800 Unit 16, Lesson 4
Italianmigrantsspreadoutacrosstheglobe.AlargepartofthemtraveledtotheUnitedStates,especiallyaftertheturnofthetwentiethcentury.Priortothat,anevenlargernumberofItalianmigrantshadtraveledtoSouthAmerica—specifically,toBrazilandArgentina.InthoseSouthAmericanregions,67percentofthemigrantswerefromItaly.ItalianmigrantsbecameparticularlydrawntotheopportunitiesofworkingonthegreatcoffeeplantationsofBrazil.BecausetheplantationsinBrazilhadlongreliedonthelaborofenslavedhumanbeings,therecentabolitionofslaveryhadcreatedalaborshortage.TheBraziliancoffeeindustryneededworkers,andquickly.TogetItalianmigrantstocomeandworkforthem,theBraziliansofferedtohelpoffsettheirvoyagecostsandpaythemmoremoneythantheycouldgetelsewhere.
EvenstableconditionslikethoseinBrazilcouldnotkeepItalianmigrantsteth-eredanywherefortoolong.Themajorityofthesemigrantsdidnotwanttobuildlong-termlivesoutsideofItaly.Instead,theythoughtofthemselvesasmigratingbirdswhowouldtravelsouthforthewintertofindsustenance(money).Inotherwords,theywouldcontinuetodotheirownfarmingathomeontheirdomesticItalianfarms,wheretheirproductsincludedflaxaswellasgrain.Then,inthecolderEuropeanmonths,theItalianmigrantswouldtraveltoSouthAmericaandworkonfarmsthere,leavingItalyinDecemberandstayinginSouthAmericauntilthefirstoftheEuropeanspring,inApril.AssoonastheygotbacktoItalyinApril,itwouldbetimetostartalloveragain.Today,tracesoftheseItalianmigrantworkersarevisiblethroughoutthecountriesinLatinAmerica,particularlyBrazilandArgentina.ManyItalianswhotraveledoutsideoftheirhomecountryhadtraininginconstructionandbuildingdesign.Theyheldapracticalmonopolyonthosecareersinothercountries,andmanyofthebuildingstheyhelpedcreateinLatinAmerica’surbancentershaveafeelthatisquitereminiscentofItalyitself.
Asonemightexpect,theItalianmigrantswhotraveledsoextensivelydidnothaveiteasy.Theycouldreapsubstantialfinancialrewards,however.IfanItalianmigrantworkedinbothItalyandSouthAmericaandsavedhismoney,hecouldcol-lectanywherefrom250to300dollarsinjustafewmonths.SomeItalianmigrantspreferredtostayrelativelyclosertohome,however,venturingacrosstheborderintoneighboringEuropeannations.Ofallthesurroundingcountries,mostItalianspreferredtoventuretoFrance.Inhardlyanytimeatall,ItalianimmigrantsinFrancehadbeguntocatchuptotheircounterpartsintheUnitedStates.By1911thenum-berofpeopleofItaliandescentborninFrancewasaboutone-thirdthenumberofpeopleofItaliandescentbornintheUnitedStates.
WhethermigrantscamefromItalyoranotherEuropeancountry,theyremainedinfluencedbytheirconnectionstofriendsandrelatives.Maintainingthoseconnec-tionswouldoftendeterminehowmigrantslived.Forexample,agroupofpeoplewhohadbeenfriendsinasmalltowninIrelandmightmigrateenmasse.Whentheyarrivedintheirnewlocation,theywouldputdownrootsinanarearelativelyclosetooneanother.Ineffect,theywouldhavepackeduppartoftheiroldtowninIrelandandbroughtitwiththemtoanewcityacrosstheocean.ThesemigrantswantedtoalterthedestinytheywouldhavehadasEuropeancitizens.Thiswastruenotonlyforworking-classmigrantsfromItalyorpersecutedJewsfromRussia,butalsoforcitizensofScandinaviancountrieslikeNorwayandSweden.Migrantssaw
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Unit 16, Lesson 4 801
life-changingopportunitiesinnewplaceswheretheycouldhelpformtheworldaroundthemandwherethemajoritycouldrule.Alltoooften,athometheirlifestylesandopportunitieswouldalreadybedictatedbytheirclassandfinancialstanding.Theywouldhavetobowtothewhimsofthemorearistocraticindividuals,whocontrollednearlyeveryaspectofEuropeanlife,especiallyitspoliticsandreligion.Unlikethemigrants,aristocratswantedthingstostaythewaytheywere.Norway’spoetlaureate,BjørnsstjerneBjørnson,spokeformanyofhisfellowcountrymenwhoplannedonbecomingmigrants,whenheclaimedthathehadnochoicebuttoleavehomeandgooutintotheworld—stayingwouldeathimupfromtheinside.
ThisbeliefthathomenolongerheldpromiseforyoungmigrantsalsospreadwithinUkraine’surbancenterofKiev.Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,KievhadalargepopulationofJews.Onespokeforallofthemin1882,claimingthatKievhadnothingleftforthem;iftheJewsstayedthere,otherpeoplewouldwalkalloverthem,disrespectthem,andstealfromthem.Thespeakerstatedthatiftheycouldnotbetreatedcivilly,theJewswouldhavenochoicebuttoleave.FortheJewsandtheNorwegians,then,forpeopleofminorityreligionsandmajoritylowerclasses,migrationstoodoutasthebestpossiblesolutionofbetteringthem-selvesandincreasingtheirsocial,financial,orclassstanding,oroverallwell-being,asthecasemighthavebeen.OnlywhensituationsbegantoimproveathomeinEuropeancountriesdidmigrationabate.Potentialmigrantshadtobeenticedintostayingbybeingpromisedcivilrights.
Migration from Asia Duringthesameperiodofthelatenineteenthcentury,Asiaalsoprovidedasignificantnumberofmigrantworkersseekingoutbetterworkingandlivingconditionsoverseas.TheworsethingsgotinareasoftheAsiancountrysidehitthehardestbyeconomicupheaval,themorepeoplelefttheirnationsbehindinsearchoflargeropportunities.FromAsia,themigrantsincludedpeoplefromIndia,Japan,China,andthePhilippines,aswellasother,smallercountries.LikeEuropeanmigrants,somewouldreturntotheirnativevillageseventually,whileotherswouldsettleintheirnewcountryandstay.ComparedtothelargenumberofEuropeanmigrants,whichtotaledover60million,thenumberofAsianmigrantsseemsrelativelysmall:approximately3millioninthefourdecadesleadingupto1920.
ThemajorityofAsianmigrantstraveledtotheUnitedStates(primar-ilyCaliforniaandHawaii),partsofAfricaandthesouthofAsia,Australia,andLatinAmerica.Innearlyallthesenewlocations,themigrantsservedasindentured,orcontracted,workerseitherminingforgoldortoilingonlargefarms.Frequently,themanagersoftheselandsbroughtinAsianmigrantstoworkbecauseabolitionhadeliminatedtheirabilitytoforceenslavedpeopletolaborforthem.Whenmanagerscouldnotrelyonslavelabor,theyturnedtomigrants.Thereisevidenceofthisasearlyasthe1840s:duringthatdecade,Cubadidnothaveenoughofalaborforcetomeetthedemandsofitshar-vest.Thegoverningregime,withrootsinSpain,hiredmigrantworkersfromChina.ThemigrantswhocamefromChinatoCubadidsoaftercommittingtoeightyearsofwork.Fortheirtroubles,theyreceivedmeagerfoodandpay,and
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802 Unit 16, Lesson 4
theirCubanoverseerspaidthemroughly25centsforaday’swork.CubacontinuedtoimportChinesemigrantworkersuntil1873,whentheChinesegovernmentputastoptoit.Inthelast20yearsofthemigration,some130,000Chinesecitizenslefttheirhomes,onlytodiscoverthattheirnewlivesinCubacon-sistedofexceedinglyhardwork,badconditions,andterriblepay.
AcomparablesituationgreetedAsianmigrantstoPeru,whereover100,000Chineselaborerswentduringthe1800s.OthernationsalsostrenuouslydraftedpeoplefromtheAsiancontinentasaninexpensiveworkforce.JustlikeEuropeanmigrants,Asianmigrantshopedtomakeabetterlifeinthesenewworldsandusetheirexpe-riencetotheirownadvantage.Assoonastheycouldmanageit,manyAsianmigrantswouldescapefromthedemeaningpositionsfarmingorminingandgotolarger,morepopulatedareastotryandmaketheirway.Unfortunately,theycontinuedtofacehard-ship.Asianmigrantshaddifficultybeingacceptedandassimilat-ing.IftheywenttoplacesalreadyinhabitedbywhiteEuropeans,theyweretreatedassecond-classcitizens,atbest.Thesamethinghappenedwhentheymetwithmigrantsofcolorinotherregions,liketheeasternpartofAfricaorinMalaya.Asianmigrantsfaceddiscriminationeverywhere.
To make matters worse, this discrimination was legallyenforced.OthermigrantsdidnotwantAsianmigrantstojointhemintheirnewcommunities,makingjudgmentsonracialbiasand,inmanycases,replicatingtheprejudicialtreatmenttheythemselveshadfacedintheirhomecountries.Inthe1880s,bothAustraliaandtheUnitedStateshadstartedtakinglegalstepstominimizethenumberofAsianmigrantsintheircountries—lawsthatremainedinplaceupuntilafterWorldWar I.Becauseoftheselaws,themajorityofmigrantswhocametosettleandstayinoverseaslandswereoverwhelminglywhiteorEuropean,notAsian.
Arguments Against Imperialism EventhoughthevastmajorityofEuropeancitizenslivinginthelate1800sandearly1900stookprideinmanyoftheirnations’imperialisticbehavior,believingthatbroughttheircountryhonor,power,andriches,thatdidnotholdtrueforeveryone.SomeEuropeansstoodupagainsttheircompatriotsandspokeoutagainstimperialism.Ofthosecriticalthinkers,twoofthemostwellknowncamefromverydifferentbackgrounds.JohnA.Hobson(1858–1940),whohadabackgroundinBritishfinance,arguedthatEuropeanimperialismcouldnotclaimreform-basedorreligiousmotives,becauseitrevolvedaroundacquiringwealthandpowerforindividualEuropeannations.Toincreasetheirwealth,Europeannationshadtodevelopglobaltradingarenasandspendmoneyabroadtoseereturns.Hobson’sradicalsolutionproposedthatEuropeshouldputitsmoneybackintoitsowncoffers.Nationalgovernmentsoughttotargetextremelyrichcitizensandtaxtheimperialwealththeyenjoyedtoassistthepoverty-strickenlowerclasses.Itis
4SeLf-cHecK
In what way can the
Asian migrant process be
characterized?
The California Gold Rush began in 1849. Like people from many nations, Chinese prospec-tors sought a share of the wealth. The Chinese began traveling abroad after European nations opened Chinese trade to the West.
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Unit 16, Lesson 4 803
easytoseewhyHobson’splanhadlittleappealforEurope’srichindividualsandcompanies,whohadmuchmoretogainthroughimperialism.
VladimirIlyichLenin(1870–1924),ismostwellknowntodayforhisrevolu-tionarysocialandpoliticalreformsinRussiaduringtheBolshevikRevolution.LikeHobson,hespokeoutagainstimperialism.His1916book,Imperialism, the Highest Stage of World Capitalism,arguesthatcapitalismandimperialismarelinked,andthatthefateofonetriggersthefateoftheother.LeninclaimedthatthetworelatedbehaviorshadcausedWorldWarIbecausebothgaveauthorityandwealthtotheselectindividualsatthetop,whilethemassessufferedandsawnogain.Tohelpthoseatthetopgetricher,capitalistshadtoturntoimperialism,acquiringmoreterritorytogainmoreresourcesandmakemoremoney.Theircapitalistdesiresforcedcountriestopursueimperialistpolicies,whichinturnfosteredinternationalconflictandworldwar.
NeitherHobsonnorLeninprovidesacompleteanswertoimperialism,how-ever,andneitheroneexplainswhathappenedinthecaseofItaly’simperialisticpolicies.LikeothercountriesinEurope,ItalysoughtterritoryinAfricatocolonizeforitself.Yetin1898,ItalylostanimportantbattletoEthiopiaandwasunabletopursueitscolonizationgoals.ThatyearmarkedthefirstinstanceofanimportantEuropeannationlosingtoanAfricanstate.Despitethisinitialhumiliation,ItalyperseveredinotherpartsofAfrica,eventuallycontrollingLibyain1911.Butatwhatprice?ItalyhadspenttremendousamountsofmoneyonitsLibyancampaign,andmanyItalianshaddiedasaresult.MeanwhileLibyaitselfofferedfewresourcestoitsnewrulersinRome.
Today,scholarsareinterestedinthefundamentalquestionofhowimperialisticpracticesinEuropealteredtheentireglobe,includingthosecountrieswherethepracticesbegan.Scholarspointtothreeimportantcriticalpoints.First,Europeanimperialismallowedforotherimportantnationstobecomerelevantplayersontheworldstage.Forinstance,becauseoftheirabilitytotakeadvantageofresource-richandstrategicallysituatedterritories,JapanandtheUnitedStatesusedEuropean-styleimperialismtoassertapower,makingthemequaltotheEuropeanpowers.Attheoutsetofthetwentiethcentury,aftertheSpanish-AmericanWar,theUnitedStateshadastrongcolonialfootholdinthePhilippinesandHawaii.Inaddition,itoversawanarrowisthmusinCentralAmericawhereitwouldsoonconstructthePanamaCanal;itcontrolledkeyislandsofthePacific,includingGuamandtheMidwayIslands;anditcontrolledthegovernmentinCuba,whichhadbeenoneofSpain’sfinalAmericanpossessions.Foritspart,JapanhadlaunchedanaggressiveimperialcampaignagainstKoreaandpartsofChina,provingitsstatuswhenitdefeatedRussiain1905.BoththeUnitedStatesandJapanwouldseeanincreaseininfluenceandauthorityuntiltheyclasheddirectlyduringtheSecondWorldWar.
AsecondpointscholarsmakeconcerningtheeffectsofimperialismconcernsthewayitcreateddiplomaticconflictbetweentheEuropeanpowers,leadingtorapidmilitarizationandgrowingradicalnationalism.ThegreatEuropeannationsdidnotcometoimmediateblowsorinternationalconflictovertheirimperialterritoriesonthecontinentsofAsiaandAfrica,buttheycertainlylaidtherootsoftheglobalwartocome.Forexample,twosetsofdisagreementsbetweendifferent
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804 Unit 16, Lesson 4
EuropeannationsintheearlytwentiethcenturylaidthegroundworkforWorldWarI.In1905,BritainandRussianearlycametoblowsoverPersia,wheretheimperialdesignsofbothstatesoverlapped.Meanwhile,FranceandGermanydisagreedoverhowtoresolveaseriesofcrisesinMorocco,causingbothsidestomobilizeforwar.Eachtime,though,theEuropeannationsnarrowlyavoidedwar,buttheirsimmeringimperialistictensionsremained.
Thirdandfinally,imperialisticpracticessetuplong-termevents,witheffectsthatarestillfeltinthetwenty-firstcentury.Theingrainedbehaviorsandattitudesofimperialcolonizersandtheeffectsofcolonizationuponmillionsofexploitedpeoplewouldnotjustsimplydisappearovernight.Prejudiceanddiscriminationwilltaketimeandpatiencetoeradicate.Asofthetwenty-firstcentury,imperialEuropemaybeathingofthepast,yetfromtimetotime,echoesofimperialistinvasionandresistancecanbeheardclearly.Actsofviolenceandterror,warsbetweendifferentregionsoftheThirdWorld,andthelaggingfinancialstatusofformercoloniesremindusthatimperialistbehaviorstillhasrepercussionstoday.
Extensions• ReadfromImperialism, the Highest Stage of World CapitalismbyVladimir
IlyichLenin.Howdoesheassociatecapitalismandimperialism?WhatpredictionsdidLeninmakeaboutcolonizednations?
SummaryTheIndustrialRevolutionchangedeverything—howpeoplelived,wheretheylived,whattheyate,andwhattheydid.Itdividedtheworldintotwoparts:theindustrialized“haves”andthenon-industrialized“have-nots.”Theindustrializedcountriesgainedmoreandmoreadvantagesoverthenon-industrializedbasedontheirbettereconomies,whichledtobetterqualityoflifefortheircitizens.Thisledtoalargefinancialseparationbetweenwealthyandpoverty-strickennations.Meanwhile,Europe’spopulationbegantoexpandrapidlyduringthe1700s,andsoonthecontinentbecameovercrowded.Becauselargegroupsofcitizenscouldnotearnenoughmoneytosurviveoraffordtopurchasepropertyoftheirowninthenationstheyhadgrownupin,theybeganmigratingtootherpartsoftheworld.MostmigratingindividualscamefromEuropeorAsia,andtheirmigrationdovetailednicelywiththepracticeofEuropeanimperialism.EventhoughmostpeopleinEuropeandtheUnitedStatessupportedthepracticeofimperialism,manyothersspokeupagainstit.
Looking AheadAsmorecitizensleftEuropeforotherwesterncolonies,Europewouldbegintoturnitscovetous,imperialeyeonAfrica.ThecomingyearswouldseeEuropeanimperialistspaynewandintenseattentiontotheresourcesandterritoryofAsia.TheBritishwouldcolonizeIndia,whilealargergroupofdifferentEuropeannationswouldmoveintoanddivideupChina.Meanwhile,aftertheUnitedStatessteppedintoforceJapanintotradingwithWesterncountries,Japanwouldsurpriseeveryonebybecominganimperialpowerinitsownright.
5SeLf-cHecK
How did Lenin describe
the connections
between capitalism
and imperialism?
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Unit 16, Lesson 4 805
1. Nations from the Third World were typically those that did not participate in the Industrial Revolution and became poverty-stricken as a result; this poverty led to a poorer quality of life in general.
2. The population increased because, even though fewer people were being born, most people were living longer because they had improved food and health care.
3. Immigrants move away from their original homes for good, while migrants hope eventually to go back.
4. The majority of Asian migrants ended up as indentured laborers in the United States and Latin America.
5. Lenin believed that capitalism caused imperialism: Because European countries needed more funds, they had to expand their trading systems with other nations and control them through colonization.
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
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Asian Responses to Imperialism
Unit 16, Lesson 6
KeywordsBoxers
gunboat diplomacy
home rule
racial discrimination
samurai
shogun
Essential Questions• HowdidIndiareacttoimperialism?
• HowdidJapanreacttoimperialism?
• HowdidChinareacttoimperialism?
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Unit 16, Lesson 6 807
Set the StageDuring the new imperialism, Europe’s imperialist taste for acquisitions soon spread from Africa to Asia. While the majority of African regions quickly succumbed to European advances, the Asian countries would react to Europe’s imperialism in a variety of ways. Social Darwinism practiced in Africa would be echoed in Britain’s racially prejudiced treatment of India. The isolated nation of Japan would be prodded by the United States into joining the nineteenth century, and would surprise everyone by becoming an imperial power in its own right. Meanwhile, China and its governing dynasty, once one of the world’s great powers, had begun a slow downward spiral that would leave it, like India, vulnerable to European imperial ideas.
Britain’s Indian empireBythenineteenthcentury,Britainwasfirmlyestablishedasoneofthegreatest,ifnotthegreatest,imperialpowersintheworld.WhiletheheadquartersoftheempireremainedBritainitself,ofalltheimperialpropertiesBritainhadincorporated,Indiastoodasitsmostpreciousgem.MorevaluablethananyotherBritish-controlledregion,IndiastoodasthemostimportantpieceoftheBritishEmpire.Inturn,ofalltheregionsBritainoccupied,India’schangeswouldbethemostdramatic.ThesechangesaroseinlargepartbecauseofthecompleteandtotalgovernanceBritainenforcedoverIndiaforcenturies.ThisputIndiaindirectcontrastwithotherregionsofAsiaandAfricathathadbeencolonizedindifferentways.Forexample,manyAfricannationsdidnotcomeunderEuropeanruleuntilthefinalyearsofthenineteenthcentury,whichmeantthatEuropeanssimplyhadlesstimetoswayandinfluencethepeoplethere.China,evenwhenconfrontedbypowerfulEuropeansseekingtoforcetheopeningoftraderelationships,clungtoitsownlimitedautonomy.Japanwieldedenoughpowertobecomeanimperialpowerinitsownright.
India’sconnectionstoBritainbeganinthe1600s.WhilePortuguesecoloniz-ershadfirstcometoIndiaduringthattimeinsearchoftheirownfortune,thePortugueseeventuallybecamesupplantedbytheBritishEastIndiaCompany.TheBritishEastIndiaCompany,witharoyalmonopolyonIndiantrade,wieldedmilitarypower.ThecompanyinfiltratedsmallgroupsofIndianpopulationsandtookoverseparate,smallerregionsonebyone;bythemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,theformerlyautonomousregionsofIndiahadsuccumbedtotheBritishEastIndiaCompany.Forthenextdecade,India’sformergovernmentmemberswouldstruggletoreclaimauthorityintheirowncountryandremovetheBritishfromtheirlands.
TheformerIndiangovernmentinitiallytriedthestandardmeansofusingitsownarmytofightBritain’scolonizers,culminatingintheGreatRebellionof1857and1858.DuringtheGreatRebellion,alsoknownastheSepoyMutiny,theBritish
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808 Unit 16, Lesson 6
EastIndiaCompanysawhiredIndiansoldiers—bothHinduandMuslim—withwhomtheyhadpreviouslyfoughtalongsideturnagainstthem.TheIndiansoldiers,calledsepoys,resistedwhenaskedtobiteoffthepapercartridgesfortheirrifles,whichtheybelievedweregreasedwithbeefandporkfat,aseemingviolationofthereligiousbeliefsofbothHindus,whodidnoteatbeef,andMuslims,whodidnoteatpork.TheuprisingspreadrapidlyintwogeographicregionsofIndia,thecenterandthenorth,butcouldnotbekeptgoinginthesouth,wherethesepoyscameupagainstotherIndiansoldiersfightingontheEuropeans’behalf.TheEuropeanseventuallywon.AftertheGreatRebellion,Britain’sgovernmenttookoverofficiallyfromtheBritishEastIndiaCompany.
IntheyearsfollowingtheGreatRebellion,IndiabecamegovernedbyBritain’sParliament,locatedinLondon,whichmadechoicesandlawsforthecountrythatasmallgroupofEnglish,India-basedbureaucratscarriedout.Bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,Indiahadover300millioncitizens,butthecountryhadtobowtoagroupoffewerthan3,500high-rankingbureaucrats.Overall,theseEnglishbureaucratsseemed,forthemostpart,capableandsupportiveofthepoorcitizensundertheirgoverningcare.Thisgovernmentremainedfarfromperfect,however.ItkeptBritishandIndiancitizensapartinsocialsettingsandwasclearlyprejudicedintermsofwhichcitizenscouldparticipateindifferentkindsofemployment.
Unfortunately,themajorityoftheBritishbureaucratsinIndiasawtheentireIndiancitizenry,withawidevarietyofracialandclassbackgrounds,aslesserbeings.EventhegreatarmytacticianGeneralHoratioH.Kitchener,perhapsthemostillustriousfiguretotakechargeofBritain’sarmedforcesinIndia,believedinthisinnatesupremacyoftheBritish.KitchenerstatedthattheBritishhadinfactbeenabletoconquerIndiabecauseBritainhaddecideditsowncitizenswereraciallysuperiortoIndiancitizens.AccordingtoKitchener,itdidn’tmatterwhetheranIndiancitizenhappenedtobesmart,brave,orscholarly,becausethebestIndianwouldneverbeasgoodasaBritishsoldier.
Thisracialprejudicecanbeclearlyseeninanincidentthattookplacein1883.Thatyear,Britain’sParliamentbegandiscussinganimportantpieceoflegislation.Haditpassed,itwouldhavepermittedjudgesofIndiandescenttopresideoverIndiantrialsinvolvingAnglo-Europeans.Britishcitizensrecoiledattheproposedlegislation,andpopularopinionhelpedgetitoverturned.ManyordinaryBritishcitizenscouldnotcountenancetheideathatapersonofIndiandescentwouldpassjudgmentonthem.ThisincidentshowsthattheimperialstateinIndiahadbeenfoundedonprejudicedracialbeliefs.
Thatsaid,eventhoughtheBritishelevatedthemselvesabovetheirIndiancoun-terparts,theBritishstillthrewthemselvesintotheirworkinIndia,makingmanypositiveimprovementsthere.Forexample,theBritishrecognizedthattheywouldeventuallyneedtoreplacetheirownbureaucratswithnativeIndians,andthatthoseIndianrepresentativeswouldneedapropereducationtoparticipateinthatbureaucracy.Toachievethis,theBritishsetupschoolsystemtopreparestudentsforuniversityandtoworkinEnglish.DespiteotherelementsofprejudiceintheBritish-runIndiansociety,itmustbenotedthatBritishinfluenceenabledIndiancitizenstoimprovetheirfinancialstandingandsocialstatus,boththroughthekindoflearning
1SeLf-cHecK
What was the
significance of the
Great Rebellion?
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Unit 16, Lesson 6 809
EastIndiaCompanysawhiredIndiansoldiers—bothHinduandMuslim—withwhomtheyhadpreviouslyfoughtalongsideturnagainstthem.TheIndiansoldiers,calledsepoys,resistedwhenaskedtobiteoffthepapercartridgesfortheirrifles,whichtheybelievedweregreasedwithbeefandporkfat,aseemingviolationofthereligiousbeliefsofbothHindus,whodidnoteatbeef,andMuslims,whodidnoteatpork.TheuprisingspreadrapidlyintwogeographicregionsofIndia,thecenterandthenorth,butcouldnotbekeptgoinginthesouth,wherethesepoyscameupagainstotherIndiansoldiersfightingontheEuropeans’behalf.TheEuropeanseventuallywon.AftertheGreatRebellion,Britain’sgovernmenttookoverofficiallyfromtheBritishEastIndiaCompany.
IntheyearsfollowingtheGreatRebellion,IndiabecamegovernedbyBritain’sParliament,locatedinLondon,whichmadechoicesandlawsforthecountrythatasmallgroupofEnglish,India-basedbureaucratscarriedout.Bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,Indiahadover300millioncitizens,butthecountryhadtobowtoagroupoffewerthan3,500high-rankingbureaucrats.Overall,theseEnglishbureaucratsseemed,forthemostpart,capableandsupportiveofthepoorcitizensundertheirgoverningcare.Thisgovernmentremainedfarfromperfect,however.ItkeptBritishandIndiancitizensapartinsocialsettingsandwasclearlyprejudicedintermsofwhichcitizenscouldparticipateindifferentkindsofemployment.
Unfortunately,themajorityoftheBritishbureaucratsinIndiasawtheentireIndiancitizenry,withawidevarietyofracialandclassbackgrounds,aslesserbeings.EventhegreatarmytacticianGeneralHoratioH.Kitchener,perhapsthemostillustriousfiguretotakechargeofBritain’sarmedforcesinIndia,believedinthisinnatesupremacyoftheBritish.KitchenerstatedthattheBritishhadinfactbeenabletoconquerIndiabecauseBritainhaddecideditsowncitizenswereraciallysuperiortoIndiancitizens.AccordingtoKitchener,itdidn’tmatterwhetheranIndiancitizenhappenedtobesmart,brave,orscholarly,becausethebestIndianwouldneverbeasgoodasaBritishsoldier.
Thisracialprejudicecanbeclearlyseeninanincidentthattookplacein1883.Thatyear,Britain’sParliamentbegandiscussinganimportantpieceoflegislation.Haditpassed,itwouldhavepermittedjudgesofIndiandescenttopresideoverIndiantrialsinvolvingAnglo-Europeans.Britishcitizensrecoiledattheproposedlegislation,andpopularopinionhelpedgetitoverturned.ManyordinaryBritishcitizenscouldnotcountenancetheideathatapersonofIndiandescentwouldpassjudgmentonthem.ThisincidentshowsthattheimperialstateinIndiahadbeenfoundedonprejudicedracialbeliefs.
Thatsaid,eventhoughtheBritishelevatedthemselvesabovetheirIndiancoun-terparts,theBritishstillthrewthemselvesintotheirworkinIndia,makingmanypositiveimprovementsthere.Forexample,theBritishrecognizedthattheywouldeventuallyneedtoreplacetheirownbureaucratswithnativeIndians,andthatthoseIndianrepresentativeswouldneedapropereducationtoparticipateinthatbureaucracy.Toachievethis,theBritishsetupschoolsystemtopreparestudentsforuniversityandtoworkinEnglish.DespiteotherelementsofprejudiceintheBritish-runIndiansociety,itmustbenotedthatBritishinfluenceenabledIndiancitizenstoimprovetheirfinancialstandingandsocialstatus,boththroughthekindoflearning
1SeLf-cHecK
What was the
significance of the
Great Rebellion?
theyreceivedandinthechancestheyhadtoworkintheBritish-runIndiangovern-ment.ThefirstpeopletotakeadvantageoftheBritishsystem’spotentialforupwardmobilitycamefromagroupofupperclassorhigh-casteHindus.TheysawanecessaryopeningforpeopletomediatebetweenIndia’smassesandtheBritishbureaucracy,andrealizedtheycouldfillthatopening.Overtime,thehigh-casteHinduscametooccupyaclassgroupfamiliarinmanycolonialsocieties,belowthosecitizensofthecolonialpowerbutabovetheirfellownative-bornpeople.AsmembersofthisnewIndiansocialclass,thehigh-casteHindusbecamesteepedintheideasandsocietaltraditionsofBritainandtheWest.
Theupwardlymobile,highclassgroupofHindusplayedahighlyimportantpartintheprocessofbringingIndia’sfinancesintothecontemporarymarket.ThisprocesscanbeseenasyetanotheroutcomeofBritain’simpactonIndia.Indeed,BritainmadeseveralchangesinIndiatosupportthisfinancialprocess.TheBritishsetupagriculturalestatestofarmjute,afiber,andtea.BritainalsobuiltarailwaysysteminIndiathatbecamethethirdlargestintheworld,andusedittoimprovethespeedandexchangeofcommoditiesandideasthroughoutIndia.Additionally,Britaindevelopedbetterlarge-scaleirrigationsystemsinIndia.Eventhoughalltheseimprovementscreatedmoreproductsandmoremoneycomingoutofthecountry,themajorityofpoorIndiancitizensdidnotappreciatethebenefits.EvenastheBritishandhigh-casteHindusproducedandtransportedmoregoods,thenumberofIndiansinthecountryrapidlygrew.Thegrowingnumberofsuppliesbarelykeptupwiththegrowingpopulation.
Ultimately,allthesefactorsandchangesbenefittedBritain,resultinginanIndiafusedtogetherunderBritishcontrolandrunbynativecivilservantswhospoketheimperialtongueandwereeducated.BritainbroughtIndiatogetherasasinglenationwithonegoverningbody,eventhoughthepeoplewithinthatsystemhadformerlybeenseriousopponentsormembersofvastlydifferentreligions.Forexample,bothMuslimandHinduIndiansbecamesubjecttothesamelaws.EveryfactionofIndiahadtobandtogetherasonecountry,eventhoughhundredsofyearsearlier,asfarbackastheMiddleAges,someoftheregionshadbattledagainstoneanother.WhetherMuslimarmiesorMongolianoneshaddefeatedthem,theyallhadtonowanswertoBritain.Themagnitudeofsuchaforcedunitycanbehardtograsp.Forcomparison’ssake,onecanimaginewhatwouldhappenifasingleimperialnationhadvanquishedeverysinglenationontheEuropeancontinentandbroughtthemtogetherasanewnation-state,responsibletoahigherfederalauthority.CountriesasdisparateasFranceandRomania,withtheirdifferentreligiousbeliefsandculturalmores,wouldhavetoleavethosebehindonthecommandofthegoverningpower.
ManyIndiansrejectedtheBritishtreatmentofthem.Upperclassnativemem-bersofformerlydifferentregions,nowunderthelargerumbrellaofIndia,begantoagitatefornationalismafterfacingyearsofprejudicethatcouldnotbeovercome.Unfortunately,theBritishremainedfundamentallyprejudicedagainsttheIndiansevenastheyprovidedthemwiththetoolstheyneededtosucceedinBritish-runIndiansociety.AnupperclassIndianmightreceivethebesteducationandtrainingavailable,buteventhenhewouldneverreceivethesametreatmentandrespectasanuneducatedBritishnative.Thereremainedanupperlevelofsocietysealed
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810 Unit 16, Lesson 6
totheupperclassIndians.Eventhehigher-casteIndiansweredeniedentrytothemostexclusivesocialestablishmentsandlodgingplaces.Theycouldnotgethiredinthemostupper-levelexecutivepositions,andsometimescouldnotevensitinspecificareasoftrains.
Overtime,upperclassIndiansrefusedtostandforthistreatment.Inaway,byprovidingIndiannativeswithalimitedamountoffreedoms,BritainhastenedthedevelopmentofIndiannationalism.HadBritainnotbroughtWesternizedideasoffreedomandcivilrightstotheIndianupperclasses,theIndianswouldnothavebeenabletorequesttheminBritishterms.HadBritainkeptmostofIndia’scitizensatthemostgeneral,poverty-strickenlevel,thosepeoplemighthavemorewillinglyacceptedBritishprejudice.ButIndiabecameincreasinglyfullofpeoplewhosawthatthefoundationofBritishcolonialrulewasracial discrimination,treatmentthatviolatedtheirhumanrights.TheIndianupperclassessawBritishtreatmentforwhatitwas:ahypocriticaldenialofthefreedomsandrightstheBritishthemselveshadlauded,andasystemofgovernmentthatdidnotfullyrepresentorspeakforits
racial discrimination bias against one group of people by another because of race
Cockfighting served as a popular blood sport and form of entertainment in Europe. This painting depicts British colonists watching a cockfight in India.
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Unit 16, Lesson 6 811
people.EveniftheBritishgovernmentseemedtobelesstyrannicaloverallbecauseithadgonetosomelengthstoimprovelifeinIndia,inmanyrespectstheoverseasgovernmentremainedimplacableandunchangeable.
Itshouldnothaveseemedsurprising,then,whentheupperclasscreatedtheIndianNationalCongressin1885.Thisgroup,madeupmostlyofHinducitizens,beganworkingtogethertoarticulatetheirrequestsformoreequalrightsforIndia’scitizensandmoreautonomyforIndiaitself.Tobolstertheirarguments,theIndianNationalCongresscomparedIndia’ssituationtootherareasthatBritainhadcolo-nizedbuttowhichithadgivenmorerights.Ofcourse,theseareas,likeAustraliaandCanada,happenedtobemostlywhite,whichfueledaccusationsofracialdiscriminationamongBritishcolonialauthorities.About20yearsaftertheIndianNationalCongresshadbeenfounded,someofitsmoreleft-wingmembersbeganadvocatingabsoluteautonomyforIndia.Duringthose20years,therestoftheworldhadseenJapan’stransformationfromanold-worldcountrytoanew-worldimperialistpower.Left-wingNationalCongressmemberswantedtoapplyJapan’smethodstoIndia.Thisdesireforautonomydidnotstaylimitedtotheleftwing,either.OthermembersoftheNationalCongress,includingthemoreneutralmem-bers,hadbegunrequestingIndianhome ruleandtheuseofaparliament,withvoted-inmembers,justasBritainhad.
IndiancitizensstartedcomingtogethertoprotecttheirowncountryagainsttheBritish.Despiteinitialregionaldifferences,IndiancitizenshadlearnedconceptsaboutequalityandfreedomfromBritaintoclaimthoserightsforthemselvesasaunifiedgroup.YettheIndianpeople’snationalismhadonlyjustbegun.AfterWorldWarIendedin1918,IndianswouldbandtogetherunderthevisionofpeacefuladvocateMohandasGandhiandhisdiscipleJawaharlalNehru.GandhiadvocatedforIndia’sindependence,buthedidsowithoutvio-lence.Instead,heurgedhissupporterstoemploypeacefulbuteffectivetech-niques,suchasboycottingBritishproducts.However,Gandhi’smethodscouldnotextendcompletelyoveradividedIndia,wheretheMuslimsandHinduscontinuedtodisagreewitheachother.Britainrefusedtogiveupitsauthorityoverthecountry,andremainednominallyinchargeofIndiathroughWorldWarII.Afterthewar,BritainfacedvirtualbankruptcyandpressurefromIndia’sindependencemovements.Gandhi,murderedin1948,diedoneyearaftertheBritishgrantedhiscountryitsindependencein1947.TheBritishannouncedthedivisionoftheirformerIndianEmpireintopredominantlyHinduIndiaandpredominantlyMuslimPakistan.
An Imperialist case Study: JapanBythemid-1800s,Japanhadbeenseparatedfromtherestofthecivilizedworldforcenturies.Itspeopleanditsgovernmenthadwithdrawntheislandnationfromglobalcommerceandexchange,preservingacomplicatedbutalmostmedievalwayoflife.Thiswayoflifewouldbedisruptedin1853,withtheentranceofCommodoreMatthewPerryoftheUnitedStates.PerryhadarrivedtopressureJapanintoresuminginterac-tionwiththerestoftheworld.Todoso,heemployedgunboat diplomacy,whichmeanthethreatenedtoopenfireontheJapaneseunlesstheycomplied.
home rule a nation’s right to internal control of its domestic govern-ment, but not its foreign policy
gunboat diplomacy threat to employ brute force by one negotiat-ing party if the other negotiating party does not cooperate
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812 Unit 16, Lesson 6
AtthetimeofPerry’sintrusionintoJapaneselife,thegovernmentinJapanhadbeenfairlystablefortwocenturies.Japanhadanominalruler,theemperor,buthedidnothavemuchsignificantauthority.Instead,truepowerrestedwiththeshogun,anarmedforcesgovernorwhoinheritedhispositioninmuchthesamewaytheemperordid.Theshogunreceivedassistancefromaristocraticfighterscalledsamurai.Together,theshogunandthesamuraireignedoverarelativelypeacefulnation.ThesamuraiwouldsufferthemostfromJapan’snewrelationshipswiththeWest.Frequently,thesamuraihadlittlemoney,eventhoughtheyhadpower.ThesamuraididnotlikethattheUnitedStateshadabruptlycomeinandchangedthebalanceofpowerinJapan.Additionally,thesamuraifeltembarrassedabouttheunfairagreementsJapanhadmadewiththeUnitedStatesandotherEuropeannations.
Beginningin1858,thesamuraiwagedacampaignofviolenceagainsttherepresentativesofothercountrieswhohadcometoJapan.Theserep-resentatives,primarilydiplomaticagentsandtraders,hadcometothelargeurbancenterofYokohama.From1858to1863,thesamuraimurderedforeignagentsandcommittedotherterroristactsagainstthenon-Japaneseagentsintheircountry.SomesamuraialsobeganworkingagainsttheJapanesegovernment.WesterncountrieswastednotimeinreactingagainsttheactionsJapanesesamuraihadtakenagainsttheirnationals.TheWesternersmadeitcleartheywouldnottoleratethatkindoftreatment.TheUnitedStates,France,Britain,andHollandcombinedforcesandsentagroupofshipstopunishJapan’smilitary.ThisWesternnavalgroupsuccess-fullytargetedimportantJapanesestrongholds.WhenthestrongholdsfelltotheWest,theweaknessoftheshogunandhismilitaryregimewasrevealed.ItbecameclearthatJapanwouldneedtoinstituterapidchangestocompetewiththepowersofEurope.
The Meiji RestorationAfewyearslater,in1867,agroupofsamuraiwhohadremainedfaithfultotheirmothercountrysuccessfullyrevoltedagainsttheshogun’sgovernment.Thesamurairestoredtheiremperortohisformerplaceofauthority,throughprimarilypeace-fulmeans.TheeventbecameknownastheMeijiRestoration.Inhindsight,itisclearjusthowimportanttheMeijiRestorationwasinbringingJapansafelyandsuccessfullyintothenineteenth-centuryglobalizedworld.Rightaway,theMeijiregimehadtodealwithitsmostsignificantproblem:howtoengagewithWesterncountriesandprotectJapanitself.
TheMeijiregimealteredtheirbehaviorsoquicklythatittookmanyobserversbysurprise.Fromanhistoricalstandpoint,theMeiji’salterationisarareexampleofasuccessfulandpositiveabruptchangeinaregime’sbehavior.TobegintheprocessofreformingJapanandrepairingitsinternationalrelations,theybroughtahalttothecrimesthesamuraihadbeenperpetuatinguponforeigners.Theychosetolearnfromtheforeigners.TheMeijievaluatedthesystemsofotherWesterncountriesanddecidedtheyhadbeendoingsomethingswell,particularlyinregardstocreatingmilitarydefensesandincreasingtheoutputofmanufacturedgoods.TheydecidedtoremaketheircountryusingpowerfulWesternnationsastheirmodels,mostnotablytheUnitedStatesandFrance.Thislargeandsweepingdesireforreform
shogun Japanese customary, armed head of state, who usually had more power than the nominal ruler, the emperor
samurai Japanese noble group of upper class, armed officers
2SeLf-cHecK
Briefly describe
home rule.
The Japanese samurai warrior protected and served his feudal lord with unflinching loyalty.
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Unit 16, Lesson 6 813
appliedtoalmosteverylevel,astheMeijitriedtoaccomplishtwoimportantgoals.First,theywantedtobringtheirnationuptospeedwithitsmostmodernglobalcounterparts,andsecond,theywantedtodefendtheirnation.Todoso,theywouldhavetofindawaytoreplicatetheindustrialandpoliticalchangesEuropehadalreadyundergone.
TheMeijigovernmentwastednotimeinimplementingitsideasforanewstate.Asearlyas1871,theMeijidiscardedthepreviousmedievalmeansofgovern-ingJapan,whichhadreliedonanupperclass.Initsplace,theycreatedapowerfulcentralgovernment.Upuntilthispoint,Japanesepeoplehadbeenheldtolawsthatdividedthemintofourdifferentclasses,andtheyhadnotbeenabletoleavethecountrywithoutbeingaccusedofdirelawbreaking.TheMeijitooktheideasoftheFrenchRevolutionastheirmodel,callingforequalityofallJapanesecitizens.ThepeopleofJapanwouldalsobeallowedtotravelastheywished.Inaddition,theMeijichangedtheveryfinancesofJapan,settingupfreemarketsinwhichmerchantscouldviewithoneanother.Theyalsostartingconstructingbothtrainsystemsandmanufacturingplants.Initially,then,itseemedasthoughtheMeijiregimehadtakenonsomeofthebestandbrightestEuropeanideasforcreatingacivilizationbasedoncivilrightsandequality.
LibertyandequalitydidnotstandasthemostimportantvaluesfortheMeiji,though.Morethananything,thenewregimewantedtomakesureJapanhadbecomeastrongandauthoritativenation.Tothisend,Japanrevampeditsmilitary.Forthefirsttime,Japanhadanavalfleet,andnotjustanyfleet,butastrongandup-to-dateone.Inaddition,theMeijitookastheirmodelstheGermanandFrencharmies,andusedthosecountries’ideastoremaketheJapanesearmy.Japan’snewarmy,ledbyhighlytrainedofficials,requiredeverymalecitizentobedraftedinforthreeyears.Thedrafted-inmembersofthearmyimmediatelyboosteditsranksandworkedwelltogether.Thearmyusedthemtosettlesmalldisagreementsinlessurbanareas.Justafewyearsafteritscreation,in1877,thearmysuccessfullysettledalargerevoltofunhappypeas-ants,whohadbeentryingtorecouptheirformerrights.
TheJapanesedidnotonlycopyWesternmilitaryideas.Theyimplementedideasfromavarietyofdisciplines,takingspecialadvantageofthegroundWesternershadgainedinthesciencesandintechnologicaldevelopments.Inanefforttowidenthecountry’sknowledgebase,itsbrightestcitizensweresentoverseastobecomebettereducated,whiletheMeijiregimebroughtinWesternspecialistsandprofessionalstosharetheirsecretsbyofferingbetterpaythanthespecialistsandprofessionalscouldreceiveintheirowncountries.However,thegovernmentkeptacloseeyeonthespecialistsandprofessionals,andwouldbringinJapanesesubstitutesfortheirpositionsasquicklyaspossible.
By1890,theMeijihadsuccessfullycreatedanew,morepowerful,globallycompatibleversionofJapan.OfalltheWesternexamplestochoosefrom,theMeijichoseGermany’ssystemofgovernment—withastrongcentralauthorityandarelativelyweaklegislativebranch—astheonetocopy.Japancreatedaconstitutionwithstrictauthoritarianprinciples.Whilethenewgovernmentincludedalegislativebody,liketheGermanReichstag,itwaslimitedinitspower.
3SeLf-cHecK
What distinguished
the shogun from
the samurai?
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814 Unit 16, Lesson 6
JapanalsoembarkedonanimperialisticquestofitsownjustasitspowerfulWesternmodelshad.Japan’simperialismservedtwopurposes.First,itshowedtheJapaneseandtherestoftheworldjusthowpowerfulJapanhadbecome.Second,itbroughtallJapanesecitizenstogetherinanationalisticproject.JapanbegandemonstratingitsimperialprowessearlyintheMeijiregime.In1876,JapansuccessfullyusedthesamegunboatdiplomacythatPerryhadusedagainstittoassertitsdominationofKorea.Nearlytwodecadeslater,JapanfounditselfbattlingChinaoverrightstocontroltheKoreanPeninsula.WhenChinalostoverwhelminglytoJapan,itsentastrongmessagetotherestoftheworldthatJapanhadarrivedasanimperialpower.AspartofitsprizeforbestingChinaoverKorea,JapanreceivedFormosa,knowntodayasTaiwan.
Inthe15yearsthatfollowed,Japanrepeatedlywenthead-to-headwiththemostpowerfulEuropeannationsinsearchofimperialresourcesandauthorityinChina.JapanconcentratedonManchuria,inwhichtheRussiangovernmentalsohappenedtohaveinterest.Japandidnothesitatetoconfrontanestablishedimperialpower,launchingasurpriseassaultonRussiain1904.Theconflictthatfollowedsawalargelossoflifeonbothsides,butultimatelyJapanprevailed.ItdidsowithanimportantgaininChineseterritory,takingoveraregionnearPortArthur,whichhadpreviouslybeenoneofRussia’sprotectorates.Japanstoodasatrulyimportantglobalplayer,whosequestforimperialexpansioncouldnotbeignored.AlthoughtheUnitedStates,whichsharedtheverylargeborderofthePacificOceanwithJapan,hadstartedtoobjecttoJapan’spresenceinChina,theJapanesecontinuedenlarginganddeepeningitsholdonthatcountry.
Bysuccessfullyreshapingitselfandembarkingonimperialisticquests,Japansetnewstandards.Forthefirsttime,acountryoutsideofEuropeandtheUnitedStateshadbeenabletoreformitselftocompetewiththosepowerfulWesternnations.Significantly,Japanhaddonesobyhonoringitsoldtraditionsandcustoms,andusedthemtomodifyWesternideas.Throughitsmilitarymight,particularlythroughitsdefeatofRussia,JapanhadshowntherestoftheworldthatthegreatEuropeannationswerenotinvincible.AcountryfromAsiacouldriseabovethem.ThegroundJapanhadgainedbecameofgreatinter-esttopeopleinChina,eventhoughtheyhadbeendefeated,andinVietnam.VietnamhadbeensubjecttoFrance’simperialauthorityformanyyears,andsomeofitspeople,particularlythoseinthesouthernpart,enviedhowJapanhadrisenupagainsttheWest.SomeVietnamesepeopledeployedfellowciti-zensandundergraduatestoJapanasameansofattemptingtofigureouthowthatAsianimperialismcouldbepossible.Overall,Japan’ssuccessfultrajectoryshowedcitizensinotherimperial-occupiedregions—thoseonthecontinentsofbothAfricaandAsia—thatanationcouldfreeitself,remakeitself,andbecomeaforcetobereckonedwith,inlessthana50-yearperiod.
china’s Overdue Rebellion Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,asJapanstartedcomingtogether,Chinabegantofallapart.By1860,Chinahadbeenruledbyasingledynastyforthepasttwocenturies:theManchuDynasty.Yetbythatyearithadfounditself
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Unit 16, Lesson 6 815
onshakyfootingandmanybelieveditwouldfallapartcompletely.Despitethegovernment’sbestefforts,ChinahadbeenunabletokeepEuropeantradersandinvadersout,tothedismayofmostoftheChinesepeople.Chinabecamedividedbysmalluprisingsandgeneraldisorderandconfusion.Manyobserverswereshocked,then,whentheManchugovernmentpulleditselftogether,usingitspowersbasedonancientcustoms,toremaininpowerforanotherthreedecades.
TheManchuDynastycouldnothaverecoveredwithouttwoimportantele-ments.One,althoughthedynastyhadbeenfailing,itfooledeveryoneintothink-ingithadanewleaseonlifewhenitpresentedalternaterulerswhoseemedasthoughtheycouldguidethecountrysmoothlyandwell.Importantindividuals,includinghigh-rankingarmyofficialsandintellectualdiplomats,remainedfaith-fultothedynastyandsteppedintoputdownuprisings,includingtheTaipingRebellion,whichhadbegunin1850.ThisrebellionfoundChinesepeasantsrisingupagainsttheManchus,andthefightinglastedsolongthatChinabecamechaotic.Duringthismassiverevolt,scholarsnowestimate,upto20millionpeopledied.TheManchuarmyprobablywouldnothavesucceededwithoutoutsidehelpfromEuropeanmilitaryofficials.Inaddition,theManchusalsofoundthemselvesledbyasmartandresourcefulpolitician,theempressdowagerTzuHsi.Althoughhersontechnicallyruledthecountry,TzuHsitookpoweronhisbehalf.Shedramaticallyimprovedthemanagementandorganizationofthecountry,andencouragedherministerstobeproactive.
Two, theManchu Dynasty temporarily recovered because theEuropeancountriespulledbackfromtheirformerquestofmakinginroadsintoChineseterritory.TheEuropeansgavetheChinesesomebreathingspacelargelybecausetheyhadalreadyachievedthethingstheywantedmost:strongtradingrelationshipsandbetterdiplomaticinterchangeswiththeChinese.TheChineseacceptedoffersofaidfromWesternersbecausetheoffersthemselveshelpedChinafindanewbalancebetweenhonoringtheircustomsandmorals,whilealsoincorporatingnewideasofrunninggovernmentandmachinery,whichcamefromEuropeandtheUnitedStates.
DespitetheManchuDynasty’sbestefforts,however,thebalancecouldnotlast.WhileChinahadmadeprogresstowardreorganizingitself,thatallcametoanendwhenJapansteppedinandtriedtoapplyitsnewimperialpracticesinChina.Theresultingyearlongconflictbetweenthetwocoun-tries,theSino-JapaneseWarof1894to1895,demonstratedhowmuchmorequicklyJapanhadmodernizeditsmilitary.Chinasufferedahumiliatingdefeat.Inthepeaceagreementthatfollowed,ChinabecamehumbledbytheamountofconcessionsitwasforcedtogivetoJapan,includingitslossofFormosa.TheseeventspresentedChinatotherestoftheworldasaweakopponent,acountrythatcouldbeforcedtosubmittoimperialattacks.SoEuropeancountries,aswellasJapan,wereeagertopresstheiradvantagesandgainmoreinfluenceinChina.Tothatend,outsidenationsbeganjostlingforareasinChinatheycouldclaimasprotectorates,aswellasdemandingmoredispensationswithinChinaforoverseasnationals.
This photograph shows the empress of China, Tzu Hsi. After the Boxer Rebellion and humiliating concessions to Western powers, she pursued modernization for China.
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816 Unit 16, Lesson 6
LessthanthreeyearsaftertheSino-JapaneseWar,theEuropeanpresenceinChinaseemedatitspeak.ButEuropeancountriescouldnotworktogethertofeelconfidentaboutdividingChinaupamongthemselveswithoutreper-cussionsfromtheirneighbors.TheU.S.OpenDoorpolicyhelpedkeepChinafrombeingoverrunbyEuropeannations.Asia’spowerfuloverseasneighbordidnotwanttoseeanyothercountryofficiallytakeoveraportionofChina.AnyEuropeancountrythatattemptedtodosowouldriskraisingthewrathoftheUnitedStates.
PerhapsbecausethedifferentEuropeannationsdidnotofficiallydivideChinaamongthemselves,theirpresenceinChinataperedoffintheyearsfollowing1894.ThisallowedtheChinesetobringsomeoftheiroldcustomstotheforefrontagainand,inturn,theChinesebegantorelaxregardingtheramificationsofWesterninfluencesintheircountry.SomemembersofthepopulationhadbegunvaluingEuropeanandoverseasinfluencesforthepotentialbenefitstheycouldhaveinChina.TheseChinesereformersactedinamannerlikethatofJapaneseindividu-alsworkingfortheMeijiregime,tryingtobringJapansmoothlyintothenine-teenthcentury.EvenChina’sgoverningregimetriedtostepinandincorporateWestern-stylechangestoitsownstructurein1898,inaperiodthatcametobeknownastheHundredDaysofReform.Yetrevolutioncamefromoutsideofthegovernment,too,asexemplifiedbypersonsliketherebelliousformerpeasantSunYat-sen(1866–1925).SunhadgonetoschoolinHawaiiandstudiedwithChristianmissionaryworkers,whichmeanthebroughtverydifferentideastobearonthesituationinChina.HebelievedthattheManchuDynastyshouldbeforcedoutcompletelyandreplacedwitharepublic.
SunYat-sen’sbeliefsdidnotmeetwithapprovalfromallsides,nordidtheManchugovernment’sattempttointroducemoreWesternideasintoChineselife.ConservativesinChinawantedtoreturntooldercustomsandpreservetheirsystemofgovernmentasitwas.RatherthanwelcominganyoftheprogressiveideasthatcouldbebroughtinfromtheWest,thisgroupofChinesepeoplepracticedalmostobsessiveloathingofWesternoutsiders,whomtheyreferredtobydisparagingnames.Thesetraditionallymindedpeoplecultivatedasayingthatremindedthemtosafeguardtheirownnation,whileruiningpersonsfromoutsidecountries.TheseChinesetraditionalistsfrequentlyfoughtagainstChristianmissionaryeffortsfromtheWest.TheChinesetraditionalistsaccusedtheseforeignersofmanycrimes,suchastryingtoabolishtheancientChinesepracticeofhonoringone’sancestors.TheChinesetraditionalistsbelievedthatChristianmissionaryworkersendangeredsmallergroupsofrelativeswithinChina,aswellasChina’sverycivilizationandcultureitself.
SomeChineseindividualsbegantoformclandestinegroupsinwhichtheycouldairtheirworriesandfearsaboutthegovernment.Whentheclandestinegroups’desiresdidnotgetmet,andwhentheManchugoverningregimecontinuedtoincorporateEuropeanorWesternpracticesintoChineselife,theclandestinegroupsbecameangryandevenrevolted.Onegroup,calledtheBoxers,ledarevolt,theBoxerRebellion,inthenortheastportionofthecountryin1900.Thiswarhadmanyciviliancasualties:thousandsofChinesecitizenswhopracticedChristianity
4SeLf-cHecK
Name the major events
of the Taiping Rebellion.
Boxers Chinese citizens who did not want peo-ple from other countries in their own nation and expressed their feelings in the Boxer Rebellion
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Unit 16, Lesson 6 817
died,alongwithover200missionaryworkersfromothercountries.Inresponse,troopsfromEuropeannationsmarchedintoandraidedtheimportantChinesecityofPeking.Inaddition,Chinawasforcedtopayverylargefines.
Forthenextthreeyears,Chinaanditsgovernmentcontinuedtoexperienceawiderangeofproblems.TheManchuDynastyhadralliedforawhile,butitnowbegantocollapseagain.AstheManchufamilyweakened,disorderandchaosgrew.WesternimperialistsbeganagaintopushtheirboundariesinChina.Differentrebel-liousorganizations,whoworkedagainstboththeirownstate’sbureaucracyandagainstimperialistnations,continuedtoschemeaboutcreatingmassivechangeintheircountry.In1912,finallytheManchuDynastyfelltoaninternalrebel-lion.EmperorshadruledChinaformanycenturies.Nowthoseemperorsandthatwayoflivinghadgone.Instead,theleadersofthe1912uprisingbandedtogetheranddeclaredChinaarepublic,inthemannerofotherEuropeannations.Insteadofanemperor,theywantedagoverningbodywhosemembersreceivedseatsbybeingvotedin—inshort,aparliament.Withthisdrasticchangeingoverningstyle—indeed,withthisrevolution—ChinatookanothertremendousstepforwarddownapathtoWesternculture.Evenmoreshockingly,China’schangeshadonlyjustbegun.
Extensions• ReadThe Betrayal of the WestbyJacquesEllul.AccordingtoEllul,why
istheWestbetrayed?Whatdoestheauthormeanby“technologicaltotalitarianisms”?Whyevidencedoestheauthorsupplytosupporttheideathatcivilizationisonasuicidaltrack?
SummaryBritaintreatedIndiaasthemostpreciousgeminitsimperialcrown.Evenso,IndiaenduredmanyhardshipsunderBritain’sleadership.Thecountry’strajectoryisanexcellentexampleofhowyearsofimperialistcontrolcanalterasubjugatednation.WhileBritainslowlyimplementedmoderntechnologiesandsystemsintoIndia’sbureaucraticfabric,mostofIndia’speopledidnotbenefitfromthem.ElsewhereinAsia,JapanstudiedthebehaviorofEuropeandtheUnitedStates,especiallyasthosecountriesactedimperiallyinAfricaandChina.Soon,Japanalsobecameanauthoritativeimperialnation.WhileotherpartsofAsiafelltoEuropeanimperialists,ChinamanagedtoholdoutuptothebeginningoftheSino-JapaneseWar.AfterlosingthatwartoJapan,Chinaappearedfeebleandvulnerabletotheimperialistnationsoftheglobe.
Looking AheadWhilethenineteenthcenturyhadbeenconsumedwithimperialactivity,thebegin-ningofthetwentiethwouldwitnessitsrepercussions.GlobalattentionwouldshiftfrommarketsinAsiaandAfricatoconflictinEurope,asWorldWarIbegantorage.Afterthatfirstworldconflict,theyearsofpeacewouldbelimitedbeforeanotherwarragedagain.IntheSecondWorldWar,Japan’swouldjoinwithGermanyandItalytobattleagainstFrance,Britain,andtheUnitedStates.Ultimately,itwould
5SeLf-cHecK
What was Sun Yat-sen’s
primary goal?
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818 Unit 16, Lesson 6
1. It was the final, formal revolt by Indian citizens against Britain’s imperial takeover of their country.
2. In India, the citizens’ wish to become relatively independent from Britain and have their own governing body
3. Samurai were a high class of armed officers who helped the shogun, a customary armed head of state, second only to the emperor, in Japan before the 1850s.
4. Remarkably, Chinese intellectuals and military leaders banded together and eventually put a stop to the uprising, which lasted 15 years. The rebels were peasant class Chinese who stood against the Manchu army. As many as 20 million people died.
5. To replace the Manchu government with a new republic, in the Western style
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
betheJapanesewhowouldexperiencethemostdevastatingweaponsofmassdestructionthathadeverbeenbuilt:theatomicbomb.Lessthan100yearsafteritaccelerateditsintroductionofmodernity,Japanwouldbecrushedalloveragain.Meanwhile,India’squestforautonomywouldhavetowait,tobepickedupafterthedusthadsettledfromWorldWarII.Chinawouldbefurthertornapartonlytofinditselfpiecedbacktogetherbycommunism.
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Alliances and Crises
Unit 16, Lesson 8
KeywordsBurgfrieden
mass citizen armies
Serbs
system of alliances
Essential Questions• WhatwastheBismarckiansystemofalliances?
• WhatcrisestookplaceinEuropeandelsewherethateventuallyledtoWorldWarI?
• Whatwerethelong-termcausesofWorldWarI?
• WhatimmediateeventledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarI?
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820 Unit 16, Lesson 8
Set the StageIn the years leading up to the First World War, countries in Europe and across the globe seemed barely able to keep the peace. The only thing keeping European nations from battling with one another had become a strained assortment of alliances between countries. Ever since the Franco-Prussian War had ended, various countries had worked for peace in Europe. As Britain’s empire grew, other countries watched with envy. In the wake of the Franco-Prussian War, France’s power would temporarily crumble and the newly formed Germany’s power would increase immensely. Unfortunately, one calamity after another would occur to test the failing bonds between coalitions and allies, particularly in the heart of Europe. When the First World War began, it would be only too evident how the new demands of empire and the collapse of coalitions had led to international conflict.
Alliances in the Bismarckian SystemTheendofthenineteenthcentury,thefin de siècleasitisknowninFrench,begananewepochfordiplomacyandnegotiationsbetweenthenationsofEurope.ThefirstchangecameaspartoftheaftermathoftheFranco-PrussianWar.FrancehadlostitsdominationoverotherEuropeancountriesand,consequently,becameseenasalesspowerfulforceontheinternationalstage.TheGermans,bydefeatingtheFrenchintheFranco-PrussianWarandcreatingtheirownimperialstate,begantoriseupandfillthepowervacuumtheFrenchhadleft.
TheFranco-PrussianWarcametoasharphaltin1871,whentheGermansforcedtheFrenchtoyield.Asaresult,theFrenchhadtopayreparationstotheGermansforthelossestheyhadsustainedduringwartime.TheFrenchalsohadtosignovertotheGermansaregioncalledAlsace-Lorraine.UnderOttovonBismarck’sleadership,GermanyhadbecomenotonlyaunifiedspacebutalsothecountrywiththeforemostauthoritythroughouttheEuropeancontinent.BismarckpledgedthatGermanyhadnodesiretoseekoutotherlandinEuropetoaddtoitsboundaries,andthatGermanyhadnoquarrelswithanyotherEuropeannations.Repeatedly,BismarckclaimedthatGermanystoodcontentwithwhatithadachieved.
HavingsubduedFrancetothewest,Germanystillhadtoprepareitselftostandagainsttheeast,wherebothRussiaandAustria-Hungarystoodasstrongnationsdesirousofmorepowerintheirownright.BothRussiaandAustria-Hungaryheldswayoverimperialgroupsofnations,thuswieldingincrediblemilitarypowerandpresidingoverlargetractsofterritory.Sincetheyeachheldsomuchalready,thetwoimperialgroupsbegantoturntheirattentiontothefiniteamountofnationalresourcesleftintheworld.RussiaandAustria-Hungarybothwantedmanyoftheseresourcesforthemselves.ManyoftheseresourceswerelocatedintheBalkans.Meanwhile,theOttomanEmpire,whichruledoverthatregion,hadbecomewidelyregardedastheweakestnationinEurope,anditspowercontinuedtodisintegrate.
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Unit 16, Lesson 8 821
TheGermangovernmentworriedthatitsnewlyformednationwouldbecaughtinthemiddleduringanotherlargewar,thisonebetweenRussiaandAustria-Hungary.
Topreventsuchawar,Bismarckproposedasystem of alliances.Bismarck’sallianceshadthreeseparategoals.First,hewantedtoholdAustria-HungaryandRussiabackfromoversteppingtheirboundsandattemptingtotakeoverGermany.Second,Bismarckhopedtokeepthetwocountriesfromfightingbetweenthemselves.Third,BismarckplannedtosegregateFrancefromthealliancesinthestrategichopeofkeepingFrancefromfindingalliestojoinwithitagainsttheGermans.
Bismarck’salliancestookseveralforms.IntheThreeEmperors’Leagueof1873,rulersofGermany,Russia,andAustria-Hungaryjoinedinanagreementtopreserveconservativeideasandpreventradicalismandanextremistuprising.Duringthattime,RussiaenjoyedgreatsuccessinsubduingtheOttomanEmpireintheBalkans,whichmeantproblemsforotherwesternEuropeancountries.Austria-HungaryfeltthreatenedbyRussianauthorityintheBalkanregion.Meanwhile,BritainfeltthreatenedbytheRussiansintheMiddleEast.ItfelltoBismarcktosmooththingsoverandsatisfythepowerfulEuropeanstates.
Atfirst,itseemedlikeBismarcksucceeded,especiallygiventhenegotiationshepushedthroughduringthe1878CongressofBerlin.Atthatcongress,BismarcksucceededincalmingAustria-HungaryanddividedupportionsoftheOttomanEmpire,whichhadbeguntofallapart,intodistinctnewstates.BismarckenabledAustria-HungarytocontroltwoimportantregionsthathadformerlybelongedtotheOttomanEmpire,HerzegovinaandBosnia.GivingAustria-HungarytheseregionshelpeditfeelmoreequaltoRussiaintheBalkans.Meanwhile,otherregionsthathadbeenundertheOttomanEmpire’sswayreceivedtheirownautonomy.TheformerlypowerfulOttomanEmpirecontinuedtocrumble.
WhileAustria-HungaryremainedhappywithBismarck’sattemptsatdiplomacyandnegotiationattheCongressofBerlin,Russiadidnot.PeoplewhosupportedRussia’sempiresuspectedBismarckofaligningGermany’sintereststoocloselywithAustria-Hungary’s.Becauseofthis,in1879BismarckchosetoprotectGermanybyallyingitsmilitiawiththatofAustria-Hungary,intheeventofaRussianattack.Meanwhile,inotherpartsofEurope,ItalyhadbeenexperiencingproblemswithFrance—andFranceremainedseparatedfromGermany.Asaresult,itmadesensethatItalywouldwanttoparticipateinGermany’salliancewithAustria-HungaryandItalydidjoinformallywiththoseothercountriesin1882.ThisagreementamongthethreenationsbecameknownastheTripleAlliance.
BolsteredbyGermany’spositionintheTripleAlliance,BismarckreturnedtohisoriginalprojectofmaintainingharmonyincontinentalEurope,especiallyintheregionstotheeast.HetriedagaintosmooththingsoverbetweenAustria-HungaryandRussia.TheyearbeforethecreationoftheTripleAlliance,Bismarckhadstealth-ilyapproachedbothAustria-HungaryandRussia,playingoneachcountry’sconcernabouttheothertoconvincebothofthemtoparticipateinaclandestine,top-secretunion.Thisunion,referredtoastheAllianceoftheThreeEmperors,wouldremainineffectfrom1881through1887.Duringthosesixyears,thethreemembersofthisallianceagreedthattheywouldassisteachotherinanyfurtherseparationof
system of alliances scheme in which nations ally themselves with one another to defend each other against a potential third party
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822 Unit 16, Lesson 8
thecountriesintheOttomanEmpire.Shouldanyoneofthesecountriesgotowarwithafourthcountry,theothertwomembersofthealliancewouldstayoutofitandremainneutral,althoughsympathetictotheirally.FightingwiththeOttomanEmpire,theyagreed,wouldproveanexceptiontothisrule.
In1887,whentheAllianceoftheThreeEmperors’agreementexpired,thecountriesinvolvedcouldhaveagreedtorenewit.However,RussiaandAustria-HungaryworriedaboutdevelopingnationalismandPan-SlavismintheBalkanregion,whichwouldultimatelydividetheAustro-HungarianswhowantedtomaintaincontroloverSerbiaandtheRussianswhohadhistoricaltiestoandsup-portoftheSerbs.Russiathusbackedoutofthetreaty.Ratherthanloseholdofthisimportantally,BismarckcleverlywentstraighttoRussiawithatwo-countryagreement.GermanyandRussiasignedaReinsuranceTreaty,agreeingthatifeitherofthemshouldbeassaultedbyathirdcountry,theremainingallywouldstayimpartialintheensuingbattles.Overall,Bismarckdidtremendousworkinforeignaffairsintheyearsfollowing1871.Inanalmost20-yearperiod,BismarckwouldkeepGermanyattheforefrontofglobalpoliticsandinternationalpeace.DuringhistenureasGermany’sleader,BismarckwouldmaintainharmonyinEurope,keepingthetwomostdangerousimperialstates—RussiaandAustria-Hungary—atbayandinalliancewithhisowncountry.
changes in Western europeYetBismarck’speacecouldnotlastforever,norcouldhehimselfmaintainhisgriponpower.Bismarck’scareeraschancellorofGermanycametoanendin1890,whenGermany’skaiserWilliamII(r.1888–1918)askedBismarcktostepdown.ThefailuresofthechancellorswhofollowedBismarckshowedhowrarehisleadershipskillshadbeen.WithBismarckgone,Germanyfloundered.
Germany’sfirstmistakecamein1890,whenitsReinsuranceTreatywithRussiaexpired.Surprisingly,Germanyelectednottorenewthetreaty,reasoningthatitwasbecomingtoodifficulttostrikeacompromisebetweenRussiaandAustria-Hungaryindiplomaticrelations.Germany’sabandonmentofthetreatywithRussiashowedjusthowwillingtheGermansweretoabandonBismarck’sideas.ThefactthatGermanyactedsoquicklytodissolveitsbondwithRussiarevealsitsoptimisticopinionthatRussiawouldbeunabletosetupanagreementwithFrance,Germany’sformerenemy.GermanyheldthisopinionbecauseofitsperceivednotionthatFranceandRussiaweretoounlikelytoshareinterestssinceFrancewasarepublic,whileRussiaremainedadespoticmonarchy.YetGermanywouldbeprovenincor-rect—therepublicansandthedespotscouldworkwelltogether.
PoliticalchangesextendedfromGermanytoFranceandRussiainthe1890s.Francehadbeenwithoutmanyinternationalalliesformanyyears,andRussianowfounditselfinthesameposition.Itseemedonlynaturalthatthetwocountrieswouldfindsomecommoninterests.In1894,RussiaandFranceagreeduponaclandestinemilitarytreaty.Initially,atleast,thenewFranco-RussianAllianceseemedlikeapactthatworkedagainstBritain.Morethananyothercountry,BritaincompetedagainstRussiaandFranceforlandsandpowerinboththeAsiancontinentandintheMediterraneanregion.
Serbs an ethnic classification of southern Slavs, based in the Balkans and the center of Europe
1SeLf-cHecK
What was Bismarck’s
goal in using his
alliance system?
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Unit 16, Lesson 8 823
Meanwhile,theBritishbegantogrowlessfriendlytowardGermany.Inthelatenineteenthcentury,membersoftheBoernationinSouthAfrica,especiallyintheBritish-controlledregioncalledtheTransvaal,begantoagitateforfreedomfromBritishcontrol.In1896,WilliamIIpubliclysupportedtheSouthAfricanpresident,PaulKruger,inatelegram,effectivelyopposingBritishinterestsinSouthAfrica.Britainfoundthisinsultingandworrisome.BritainalsoworriedaboutGermany’smilitarybecomingmoreeffective,sincetheGermanshadstartednurturingagroupofshipscapableofdoingbattleindeepwaters.
FrancehaditsownproblemswithBritain,particularlyinregardtodisagree-mentsoverthetwonations’rightsintheirrespectivecolonies.However,bytheturnofthetwentiethcentury,FrancesawGermanyasmoreofapotentialthreattonationalsecuritythanBritain.TheFrenchstillvividlyrecalledtheirupsettingsurrendertoGermanyintheFranco-PrussianWar,stillsmartedfromthelossofAlsace-Lorraine,andstillconsideredGermanyanenemy.Thus,Francebeganalign-ingitselfwithBritainasthelesseroftwoevils,perhapsbecauseproblemswithcoloniesremainedmoredistantthanpotentialthreatsontheEuropeancontinent.In1898,whenBritainandFranceclashedovercontroloftheFashodaregionoftheSudan,anallianceseemedoutofreach.However,ThéophileDelcassé(1852–1923),theforeignministerforFrance,imploredhiscountry’sregimetostepbackfromFashodatoplacatetheBritish.WhenFrance’sgovernmentagreedwithDelcasséandyieldedtheSudanregion,theconcessionstoodasthefirststepdownanewpathfortheFrenchintermsofhowtheyapproachedinternationaldiplomacy.
Afterenduringanti-BritishglobalattitudesduringtheBoerWar,Britainhadbeguntounderstandthatit,too,neededallies.Inthespaceoftwoyears’time,BritainwouldcementrelationswithJapanandFrance.First,BritainstartedbyunitingitselfwithJapanin1902throughtheAnglo-JapaneseAlliance.Throughthisalliance,BritainandJapanhopedtoguardthemselvesagainstapossiblemovebyRussiatoincreaseitsholdingsintheeasternpartofAsia.Second,BritainandFrancecontinuedtoworktogether,eventuallyestablishinganagreement,calledtheEntenteCordiale,in1904.Thisagreementfocusedonproblemsthetwocountrieshadexperiencedinsharingandcontrollingtheircolonies.Eachcountrymadeamajorconcessiontotheother.BritainpromisedtohelpFranceinFrance’sworktocontrolMorocco.Inreturn,FrancepromisedBritaincontrolofEgypt.
OtherelementsoftheEntenteCordialehelpedBritainandFrancesmoothoutotherdisagreements.ThecountriesresolvedthemisunderstandingstheyhadoverpartsofAsia,Africa,andtheAmericas.Remarkably,theyputanendtoacenturies-olddisagreementtheyhadhadaboutwhichcountryhadtheprivilegetofishthewatersofNewfoundland’sNorthAtlanticcoast.Bolsteredbytheirdiplomaticagreement,BritainandFranceopenedaconversationonpolicy,conferringwitheachotheraboutimportantproblemsthatmightariseontheinternationalstage.
JustasBritainhadlookedoutsideFrancetoallyitselfwithJapan,FrancebeganlookingforotheralliesbesidesBritain.EventhoughItalyhadpubliclyalignedwithGermanyandAustria-HungaryintheTripleAlliance,FrancebeganpursuingItalytosupporttheirmutualinterests.By1902,FranceandItalyhadbrokeredaclandestineaccord.ItalywouldhelpFrancecreateaprotectorateintheregionofMorocco.In
2SeLf-cHecK
Describe the
Franco-Russian Alliance.
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824 Unit 16, Lesson 8
turn,FrancewouldsupportItalyinotherpartsofNorthAfrica.ThemoreFrancestrengtheneditsagreementwithItaly,theweakerGermany’sconnectionsbecame.Soon,onlyAustria-HungarywouldstandasGermany’slonepowerfulally.
Problems in Morocco Germany,worriedbyitsincreasinglyunstablepositionontheglobalstage,deter-minedtotakeaction.YetundertheleadershipofKaiserWilliamIIandthemanhehadselectedaschancellor,PrinceBernhardvonBülow(1849–1929),GermanydidnotactasdiplomaticallyasithadunderBismarck’sguidance.GermanytargetedFrancein1905,whentheFrenchgovernmentattemptedtoestablishaprotectorateinMorocco.TheGermansresolvedtouseFrenchambitionsinMoroccoasanexcusetotestinternationaltiesofdiplomacy.InMarchofthatyear,WilliamIItraveledtoTangier,acityinthenorthofMorocco.There,theGermanemperorannouncedthathiscountrysoughtstrongtiestoMorocco.WhileinTangier,WilliamIIalsoincitedMoroccannationalismbytalkingabouttheMoroccans’righttoautonomy.ThiscalculatedmovebytheGermanscamefromanassumptionthatFrance’sotherallies,BritainandRussia,wouldnotsupportFrenchclaimstoMorocco.GermanycountedonRussiabeingpreoccupiedwithitsongoingwaragainstJapan,whichRussiawaslosing,andassumedthatBritainwouldnotfollowthroughwitharealshowofsupportforFrance.Throughthismove,GermanyhopedtoweakenthebondsbetweenFranceanditsallies.
Toachievethisplan,Germanypushedotherworldpowersintoaninternationalmeeting,atwhichtheassembledbodieswoulddiscussMoroccoandtheFrenchclaims.Theconference,heldin1906,metinanareaofSpaincalledAlgeciras,nearGibraltar.ThismeetingdidnotgoasGermanyhadhoped.Ofallthecoun-triesassembled,onlyAustria-HungarystoodwithGermany.Theothercountries,includingRussia,Britain,andItaly,backedFrance.NooneelseopposedFrance’splantocreateaprotectorateinMorocco:infact,mostothercountriessupportedit.ThiseventbecameknownastheFirstMoroccanCrisis.ThefactthatGermanybehavedsoaggressivelyledtheothercountriestobecomewaryofGermaninten-tionsontheworldstage.Russia,Britain,andFrancebondedlargelybecauseofGermany’sattitude.
Atfirst,itseemedasthoughdiplomaticbondsbetweenRussia,Britain,andFrancemightbedifficulttoachievebecauseRussiahadgonetowarwithJapanintheRusso-JapaneseWar,causingproblemsforFrancebecauseofitscomplicatedrelationshipsbetweenbothcountries.RussiaandFrancehadalreadyformedanalli-ance,ashadBritainandJapan.HavingalliednationsinopenwarwitheachothermadeitdifficultforFranceandBritaintoworktogethertoformapoliticalalliance.Eventually,though,FranceachievedabreakwiththeAnglo-Frenchallianceof1904knownastheEntenteCordiale.Thus,bythetimeoftheAlgecirasConferencetwoyearslater,FrancecouldrelyonBritain’sassistanceinstandingagainstGermany.Meanwhile,whenJapanwonthewaragainstRussia,BritainrelaxedsomewhatinitspositionagainstRussiaasapotentialthreat.Russia’sdevelopmentintheeasternpartofAsiacametoastop.However,RussiaandBritainstilldidnotseeeyetoeyeregardingotherregionsoftheworld,suchasAfghanistanandPersia.
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Unit 16, Lesson 8 825
FrancepersistedinattemptingtoconvinceBritainandRussiatooverlooktheirissuesandcometogetherinanalliance,whichtheydidthroughtheAnglo-RussianEntenteof1907.TheAnglo-RussianEntentecreatedapotentialsolutiontolingeringproblemsinAfghanistanandPersia.Accordingtotheentente,RussiawouldassertitsauthorityonthenorthernhalfofPersia,whileBritainwouldfocusonthesouthernhalf.RussiaconfirmedtoBritainthatitwouldpullitsforcesoutofAfghanistanaltogether.Inaddition,BritainandRussiaconfirmedtoeachotherthattheywouldbothhonortheboundariesofathirdcountry,Tibet.Withbothsidesofferingconcessionstooneanother,BritainandRussiawereabletomoveforwardasallies.
WiththeAnglo-RussianEntente inplace,Russia,Britain,andFrancecementedastronger,three-wayalliancecalledtheTripleEntente.BalancedagainsttheTripleEntentecameanotherthree-wayalliance,formedbyItaly,Austria-Hungary,andGermany,calledtheTripleAlliance.Atfirstglance,itmightseemlikethesetwoallianceswouldbewellbalancedagainsteachotherintermsofpowerandauthority,butthatturnedoutnottobethecase.Whilepriorto1890,GermanyhadstoodatthetopoftheEuropeanpowerchain,afterBismarckfellfromhispositionofGermanleadership,sodidGermanyfallfromitspositionofEuropeanleadership.Now,itseemed,FrancehadbecomethemostpowerfulcountryinEurope.
Evenwiththesetwoimmensealliancesinplace,Europeremainedfarfromthesecure,peacefulregionenvisionedbyBismarck.Intheyearsfollowing1907,therewouldbeaseriesofglobalissuesandproblemsthat,overall,wouldesca-latetheconflictsanddoubtsamongdifferentEuropeannations.TheseconflictswouldcreatetheconditionsthatledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIin1914.
ProblemsfirstappearedinBosnia.Priorto1907,Austria-HungaryhadwantedtotakecontroloftheBalkans,andGermanyhadstoodintheway.Butby1907,Austria-HungarywasGermany’ssoleloyalpartnerinitsgreatalliance,andthekaiser’sgovernmentrelaxeditsoppositiontoAustrianambitionsintheBalkans.WithoutGermany’ssteadyinghand,thebalanceofpowerintheBalkansthreatenedtotip.AsconditionsintheBalkansworsened,citizensinothercountriesbegantofearforthebalanceofpowerinEurope.
Atfirst,Austria-HungaryreachedouttoRussiainthehopesofforminganalliancetostrengthenAustria-Hungary’sholdingsinBosnia.Theforeignmin-istersofeachcountrycametogetherinBuchlau,todayintheCzechRepublic,inSeptember1908.Attheirmeeting,theministerscametoanaccordcalledtheBuchlauAgreement.Thisagreementhadtwopartsthatwouldbenefiteachofthetwocountries.Austria-HungarywouldbenefitbecauseRussiawouldstandbyitasAustria-HungarytriedtotakeoverbothBosniaandHerzegovina.Russia,ontheotherside,wouldbenefitbecauseAustria-HungarywouldstandbyitasRussiaworkedtobeabletotransportnavyforcesinanareaoftheTurkishStraits.
ThegoalsdecideduponintheBuchlauAgreementshouldhavegoneintoeffectatthesametime,witheachcountryworkingtosupporttheother.Yetonemonthlater,Austria-HungarymovedwithoutRussiaatitssideandclaimedBosniaandHerzegovina.Bydoingso,Austria-HungarynotonlyangeredRussia,whichbecame
3SeLf-cHecK
Describe the events of
the Algeciras Conference.
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826 Unit 16, Lesson 8
upsetthatAustria-Hungaryhadviolatedtheiragreement,butalsoincensedSerbia.SincetheircountrylayclosetobothBosniaandHerzegovina,theSerbshadtheirownambitionsinthosecountries.Asdiplomaticconditionsworsenedbetweenthethreecountries,GermanysteppedforwardandbackedAustria-Hungary.SerbiacouldnotstandagainstthecombinedmightofGermanyandAustria-Hungary,andlikewiseRussiadidnotwishtotesttheoutcomeofafull-scalewarwiththetwopowers.SoRussiasteppedbackintheearlymonthsof1909anddidnotseektopunishAustria-HungaryforviolatingthetermsoftheBuchlauAgreement.Whenthisevent,knownastheBosnianCrisis(1908–1909)cametoaconclusion,itcre-atedinternationalembarrassmentforRussia.
Thenextbiginternationalincidentcamein1911withtheSecondMoroccanCrisis.AftertheAlgecirasConference,GermanyhadstoppedprotestingFrance’sprotectorateinMorocco.By1911,though,Germanyhadonceagainbegunmakingnoiseaboutit.TohaltFrance’sprogressinMorocco,Germanydeployedagun-boatcalledthePanthertotheMoroccanharborofAgadir.Atthetime,GermanyclaimedtheshipwastheretoprotectGermaninterestsintheregion,butthecrisisthreatenedwarbetweenthetwomightyEuropeanneighbors.Inthenegotiationsthatfollowed,FrancesmoothedthingsoverbetweenthetwonationsbygivingtheGermansaportionoftheFrenchCongo.Inexchange,GermanypledgedtostayoutofFrance’swayinMorocco.Eventhoughthislatestcrisisappearedresolved,Germany’sactionswouldhavefar-reachingconsequences.WhileGermanyhadnotmadeanassaultoraninvasion,thecountryhadactedwithunusualaggres-sion,whichworriedothernationsofEurope.Thosenationsresponded.BritainsentmorenavalshipstoprotecttheNorthSea,andFrancesentmostofitsnavalshipstotheMediterranean.ThismeantthatFrancetrustedBritaintoprotectitfromthenorthshouldaninternationalwartakeplace.
WhileFranceandBritainpreparedforpotentialwar,Italyhadbegunfightingoneofitsown.Fightingeruptedin1911,inwhatbecameknownastheItalo-TurkishWar,whenItalytriedtooccupyapartofnorthernAfricaknowntodayasLibya,butreferredtoatthetimeasTripoli.TogainTripoli,ItalydeclaredwarwiththeOttomanEmpire.ItalyhopedtogainTripolitoboostitsownreputationdomesti-callyandincomparisontootherEuropeannations.ItalyalsoworriedthatFrancehadpulledtoofaraheadintermsofholdinginternationalpowerbysuccessfullyestablishingaprotectorateoverMorocco.TheTurkish,fightingfortheOttomanEmpire,founditdifficulttocontendwithItaly’ssuperiormilitaryforces.WhentheTurkishsurrenderedtoItalyin1912,theygaveupTripoli.
Wars and Murder in the BalkansCrisesinMoroccosoonledtowarsintheBalkans.BecausetheItalo-TurkishWarhadbeenresolvedsoquickly,andtheTurkshadbeenshowntobenomatchfortheItalianmilitary,othernationsfromtheBalkanshopedtosimi-larlychallengetheOttomanEmpire.IntheFirstBalkanWar(1912–1913),agroupofBalkannationsincludingGreece,Montenegro,Serbia,andBulgariabandedtogetherwithRussia’sguidancetobecomealargerassemblyknownastheBalkanLeague.Workingtogether,theBalkanLeaguechosein1912toalsodeclarewaronTurkey.ThewarwasresolvedinMay1913,whentheopposing
4SeLf-cHecK
Which countries made
up the Triple Alliance?
The Triple Entente?
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Unit 16, Lesson 8 827
countriesmetinEnglandandsignedtheTreatyofLondon.Accordingtothistreaty,theOttomanEmpirehadtogiveupallthelandsitpossessedinEurope,withthesoleexceptionbeingtheregionadjacenttotheTurkishStraits.
Asthiswarended,RussiaandAustria-Hungarybothinsertedthemselvesintotheinternationaldiscussion,hopingtoaccomplishtheirownends.TheirsharedpointofcontentionbecameSerbia,whichwantedtoincreaseitster-ritoriesandholdings.Austria-HungarydidnotwantSerbiatogrowanylargerandarguedfortheestablishmentofanewnationintheBalkanscalledAlbania.RussiabackedSerbiaandwantedtohelpSerbiareceivelandontheAdriaticSea.AglobalmeetingoccurredinLondonin1913.ThemajorityofthecountriestheresidedwithAustria-Hungary,ratherthanwithRussiaandSerbia.AlbaniaaroseandwithitadiminishmentforbothSerbiaandRussia,whosawtheirplansforincreasefoiled.Onceagain,RussiahadstoodupforsomethingintheBalkanregionandlost.
AnotherwareruptedintheBalkansin1913,asadirectresultofthefirst.SerbiaremainedunhappywiththeoutcomeoftheLondonconference.SinceSerbiahadnotreceivedtheregionnowknownasAlbaniaandithadalsobeenkeptfromestablishingaportontheAdriaticSea,Serbiawishedforsomeotherrecompense.InsteadofAlbania,SerbiademandedaportionofMacedoniaoriginallyallocatedtoBulgaria.ThisupsettheBulgarians,whothenclaimedthattheydeservedanadditionalamountofMacedonianland.
Becauseofthesedisagreements,theSecondBalkanWarbegan.SerbiafoundalliesinTurkey,Romania,Greece,andMontenegro,andthatcombinationofcountriesprovedstrongenoughtoconquerBulgaria.BecauseofSerbia’svic-tory,asdecidedintheAugust1913TreatyofBucharest,Bulgarialostevenmoreground.NotonlydidtheBulgarianshavetogiveupthemajorityofMacedoniatoGreeceandSerbia,theyalsohadtogivesomeoftheirlandstoRomania.
EventhoughneitheroftheseBalkanwarshadresultedinafull-scaleglobalconflict,Europeancountriesstayedtenseandpoisedfornewconflict.Meanwhile,Russiahadbecomeaggravatedbythefactthatitcouldnotgainmoregroundforitselfintwodesir-ableareas,theTurkishStraitsandtheBalkans.Thisfrustrateddesirewouldlaythegroundworkforfutureproblems.Movingforward,RussiawouldbemoredeterminedthanevertosupportSerbia.Meanwhile,GermanycontinuedtobecompletelyloyaltoAustria-Hungary.
Intothisscenariocame,oneyearlater,thelast,mostcrucialevent.IttookplaceinSarajevo,thecenterofBosnia,whichatthattimeremainedunderAustro-Hungariancontrol.OnJune28,1914,thesuccessortoAustro-Hungarianrule,ArchdukeFrancisFerdinand(1863–1914),andhiswifewerevisitingSarajevo.ASlavfromthesouthwhowasaferventadvocateforSlavindependence,namedGavriloPrincip(1895–1918)murderedtheroyal
The assassination of Francis Ferdinand sparked World War I and led to the eventual loss of 11 million lives.
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828 Unit 16, Lesson 8
couplebyshootingthemtodeath.InvestigatorslaterdiscoveredthatPrinciphadreceivedaidfromaclandestineseparatistSlavgroupcalledtheBlackHand.Serbia’sgoverningregimehadnotofficiallybeenpartoftheplan,butimportantmembersoftheregimehadknownaboutit.Despitethatknowledge,theSerbiangovernmentstoodbyanddidnothingtostopPrincipfromgoingthroughwithhisactionsorevenlettingtheAustro-Hungariangovernmentknowofthepotentialdanger.Thisroyalmurderwouldtriggerinternationalwar.
Mobilization and AlliancesSeveralfactorscontributedtothebuildupofWorldWarI.FirstamongthemcametheincreaseinmilitarystrengtharoundtheEuropeancontinent.Throughoutthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,battlesfoughtformergersofsmallercountriesintolargeroneshadresultedinincreasinglybiggernation-states.Thesenation-statesneededtodefendthemselves,andtodosotheycreatedarmiesthatwerebothlargerandbetterequippedthanthoseofthepast.Thesearmiesreceivedsupportinweaponsandsuppliesthroughthedevelopmentofthelarge-scalemanufacturingofgoodsandtheresultsoftheSecondIndustrialRevolution.Growthinthebusinessofcreatingweapons,aswellastechnicaldevelopmentsinthedesignofthoseweapons,meantthatarmiescouldgotowarmoreeasilyandcauseevenmoreharmthaneverbefore.
Inaddition,armieshadmorepeopleworkingforthemandtakingadvantageofthesedevelopmentsinweaponstechnology.Infact,theproportionofpeopleservingineachcountry’sarmyhadneverbeensolarge.Thesemilitaryforces,referredtoasmass citizen armies,cameaboutthroughthecombinationofnationaldraftsandtraditionalarmedforcesplanning.Entirecivilizationsbecamecompletelymilitary-oriented.Thisdesireforanincrediblystrongmilitarydidnotremainlimitedtooneortwocountries,butbecamefeltinnearlyeverycountryinEurope.ThroughoutEurope,rulersofdifferentregimesbeganequat-ingtheprowessandpoweroftheircountriestothegreatnessoftheirarmiesandweaponry.High-rankingofficialsoftenworemilitaryuniformsatimportantevents.
AfocusonnavalmilitarybuildupcausedparticularproblemsbetweenBritainandGermany.Germanydecidedthatitssecurityrequiredanavalforcethatcouldmatchanyotherintheworld.BritainsawtheGermannavalbuildupasathreat.WilliamIIhaddecidedthatGermanyshouldstrengthenitsnavalforcesafterreadingabookcalledThe Influence of Sea Power on History.Afterreadingthisbook,WilliamIIformedthebeliefthatGermanyhadtoachievethesamekindofimperialandprofitableauthoritythatBritainhad;creatingastrongernavalforcestoodasanintegralcomponentofthisbelief.YetWilliamIIhadanuneven,overbearingwayofbehaving,andhedidnotpresenthisplanstotheinternationalstageinadiplomaticmanner.
Inadditiontoembarkingonaprogramtomodernizeitsnavy,theGermanshadalsobeguncraftingastrategycalledtheSchlieffenPlan.AccordingtothisplanincaseofwaragainsttheTripleEntente,theGermanswouldfightintwoseparatefronts,battlingwithFranceonitswestsideandwithRussiaonitseast.WhiletheSchlieffenPlanprobablystoodasthemostwell-knownstrategy
mass citizen armies large militaries strength-ened through the incorporation of national drafts
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Unit 16, Lesson 8 829
craftedintheyearsleadinguptoWorldWar I,Germanyhadagreatdealofcompanyinclandestineplansforwar.Everycountryhaditsowncomplicated,clandestinestrategyforactionincaseofinternationalconflict.Thesestrategiesincorporatedmanagementofgroupsofsoldiers,delineationoftrainschedules,andplansforpossiblecombatevents.NationswouldusetheseplanstomakechoicesabouthowtheyinteractedwithothercountriesinEuropeand,indeed,theworld.Thesestrategieshinderednationalleadersinmakingchoicesabouthowcountriesshouldconductthemselvesinternationally.Frequently,whennationsstuckbytheirpreviouslyconceivedstrategies,smaller-scaleconflictseventuallyledtoglobalbattles.AninstanceofthiscanbeseenclearlyinGermany’sactionsfrom1914.In1914,theGermansstuckbytheirpreviouslyagreed-uponSchlieffenPlan,andusedittorapidlymobilizefollowingthecrisisinBosnia.Doingsocutoffanychanceothercountrieshadatusingdiplomacytoforestallorcurtailalarge-scaleconflict.Inadditiontothemilitarymobiliza-tion,thealliancesystembetweengreatpowersalsocontributedtotheGreatWar.Startingin1871,whenGermanyhadbecomeanunifiedstate,BismarckhadtriedtokeepthepeaceinEurope.
Throughhissystemofalliancesandtreaties,Bismarckhadcreatedaprecari-ouspeaceinEurope.IfanyofEurope’smostpowerfulnationswantedtogotowarwithanyoftheothers,itwouldnotbeabletoturntoanyremainingnationasitsally.Instead,thenationclamoringforwarmightendupopposingalltheothernations—andthewarwouldbeoverswiftly.
WhenBismarckfellfrompowerin1890,however,underKaiserWilliamII’scommandGermanyrapidlyinvalidatedallthealliancesBismarckhadworkedso
William II’s construction of a powerful German navy strained diplomatic relations with Britain.
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830 Unit 16, Lesson 8
diligentlytocreate.First,theGermankaiserdidnotbothertorenewGermany’sReinsuranceTreatywithRussia.WilliamIIbelievedthatbecauseheandtheRussianrulerhappenedtobecousins,thatfamilybondwouldbeenoughforGermanytorelyuponRussia’ssupport.However,Russia,onceseparatedfromtheReinsuranceTreaty,wastednotimeinmakinganofficialalliancein1894withFrance.Germany’sformerallyhadnowconnecteditselfwithGermany’sformerenemy.UnderWilliamII’sdreamofraisingGermany’sempireuptoalevelequivalenttothatofBritain’s,othercountrieswatchedwithapprehensionasGermanycreatedmoreoverseasterritoriesandmechanizeditsmilitaryproduction.
Asaresult,in1904BritainsoughtoutthediplomaticagreementwithFrancecalledtheEntenteCordiale.Justthreeyearslater,RussiamadeitsalliancewithBritain,theAnglo-RussianEntente,sothatitcouldstabilizeitsplaceinAsia.Asaresult,Britain,Russia,andFranceallbecameconnected,formingaTripleEntente.TheTripleEntentestoodinoppositiontotheTripleAlliance,whichincludedGermany,Austria-Hungary,andItaly.Bismarck’speacehadnotevenlasted20 years.Instead,WilliamIIhaddestroyedthearrangementBismarckhadestablishedandputGermanyinapositionofbeingsurroundedbypotentialenemies.Twogroupsofthreepowerfulcountriesfacedeachother,andeachhadproblemsorissueswiththeother.Insteadofkeepingthepeace,theselargealliancesprepareddiversenationsforwar.Eachformationofanallianceaddedtoasequenceofeventsthatcouldonlyleadtointernationalbattle,oncetheparticipantshadbeenpushedovertheedgeintowar.
empires and NationsColonialempiresandtheimperialdesignsofEuropeanpowershelpedcreatetheconditionthatledtoWorldWarI.Largerempiresdisagreedoverquestionsofexpansionandauthority,whichreinforcedthenewsystemofalliancestakingshape.First,ItalyendeduptakingaplaceintheTripleAlliancein1882becauseitwantedtocolonizeaportionoflandinnorthernAfrica.BecauseofitsdisagreementwithFrance,ItalylookedtoalignitselfwithFrance’sopponent,Germany.Overadecadelater,Germany’sWilliamIIbecameapprehensiveovertheTripleEntentethathaddrawnFranceandBritainclosertogether.WilliamIIwantedtoseehowstrongthisalliancehadbecome,sohepushedforwardtwoMoroccanCrises.ThesecrisesalsofocusedonFrenchinterestsinNorthAfrica.Insteadofsplittingtheserelativelynewalliesapart,WilliamII’sbelligerentattemptsbackfired.ThemembersoftheTripleEntentebecametighterthanever.
Meanwhile,BritainhadproblemsinitsowncoloniesduringtheBoerWar(1899–1902),whenithadnothadotherEuropeannationsasallies.Asaresult,Britaintooktheinitiative,andintheyearsleadingupto1912BritainformedallianceswithRussia,France,andJapan.Duringthepreviouscentury,RussiaandBritainhadprimarilybeenatodds.YetwhenRussialosttoJapanontheAsianfront,RussiafounditselfreachingbacktoBritaintoprotectitselfagainstfurtherdefeatsinAsia.Inaddition,Italy’scontinueddesireforapresenceinNorthAfrica,focusedby1911onLibya,withitsconnectiontotheOttomanEmpire,leddirectlytotheeventsofWorldWarI.WhenItalydeclaredwaronOttomanrule,asequenceofeventsfollowedwithincreasingproblemsintheBalkans.
5SeLf-cHecK
Briefly explain how
Bismarck’s system
of alliances aided in
creating the First
World War.
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Unit 16, Lesson 8 831
Inadditiontotheseimperialissues,Europeancountrieshaddomesticdif-ficultiestodealwithin1914.Withintheirownborders,manycountrieshadtheirownissuesofaggressivebehavioragainstethnicgroups,workersstriking,problemswithextremepolitics,andwithindividualsconcernedwithcivilrightsoftheirown.Tostemtheseinternalproblems,manyregimesturnedtoimperialconquestandthegloryofthenationtobringpeopletogetherandkeeptheminline.Itispossiblethatonereasonmanydifferentgovernmentsagreedtogotowarstemmedfromaviewthatsawwarasachancetocircumventinternalproblemsandstabilizetheirnations.
Indeed,afteralarge-scaleconflicthadbeendeclared,manyworking-classEuropeansrejoiced.Peoplewhohadformerlydisagreedaboutdomesticissuesworkedtogethertoputtheseseeminglymoreminorproblemsonholdsothattheycouldsupporttheircountriesonthisinternationalscale.Forexample,theGermansinstilledaBurgfrieden,whichtranslatesroughlyas“nationalharmony,”duringwartime,whiletheBritishputatemporaryhalttotheproblemsofhomeruleinIrelandandwomen’srighttovote.Overall,itseemed,pushingpublicsupportthroughthemasseshadbeenanexcellentstrategyandhadgottenthemajorityofpeopleineachnationtoapplaudthewareffort.
Atthesametime,manyscholarshadcometobelievethatwarinEuropewasinevitable.Themostrecentlarge-scalebattle,theFranco-PrussianWar,hadtakenplacemorethan40yearsearlier.Certainindividualsapplaudedwarasanorganiccomponentofhumanity’sgrowth.Thesepeopleclaimedthatwarinspiredpeopletobemoredevotedtotheircountriesandtomorereadilygivethingsup.LikeDarwin’snaturalselection,theheartiernationswouldsurvive.Thisbeliefemerged,forinstance,inabookbyFriedrichvonBernhardi,amanofGermanextraction,calledThe Next War(1912).BernhardistatedhisexcitementoverwarbecausehethoughtglobalconflictwouldprovetoeveryoneelsejusthowwonderfulandpowerfulGermanywas.Bernhardisuggestedthatweaponshadbecomesosophis-ticatedthatwarwouldbeshortandswift.Inretrospect,thiswasaninnocent,ifnotnaive,belief.
Ultimately,thefinalcomponentthatledtoWorldWarIcamefromthepracticeofnationalism,orpatrioticbeliefinanddevotedbehaviortowardone’snation,onbothgrandandspecificscales.Countriesrefusedtobackdownfromwarbecausetheydidnotwantanyonetoinsulttheirnationalintegrity.Additionally,nationalismcausedproblemsamongnationsandethnicgroupsintheBalkanregionthatledtoclashesbetweenRussiaandAustria-Hungary,andeventuallytointernationalwar.
Extensions• ReadOttovonBismarck’sTripleAlliance.Summarizehisargumentforthe
alliancesystem.
SummaryIntheyearsfollowingtheFranco-PrussianWar,GermanyandFrancestillmistrustedoneanother.Thepossibilityofanotherlargeconflictthreatened.Germany’schan-cellor,OttovonBismarck,workedhardtoavoidconflictbysettingupacomplex
Burgfrieden German policy of “national harmony” in the First World War
diligentlytocreate.First,theGermankaiserdidnotbothertorenewGermany’sReinsuranceTreatywithRussia.WilliamIIbelievedthatbecauseheandtheRussianrulerhappenedtobecousins,thatfamilybondwouldbeenoughforGermanytorelyuponRussia’ssupport.However,Russia,onceseparatedfromtheReinsuranceTreaty,wastednotimeinmakinganofficialalliancein1894withFrance.Germany’sformerallyhadnowconnecteditselfwithGermany’sformerenemy.UnderWilliamII’sdreamofraisingGermany’sempireuptoalevelequivalenttothatofBritain’s,othercountrieswatchedwithapprehensionasGermanycreatedmoreoverseasterritoriesandmechanizeditsmilitaryproduction.
Asaresult,in1904BritainsoughtoutthediplomaticagreementwithFrancecalledtheEntenteCordiale.Justthreeyearslater,RussiamadeitsalliancewithBritain,theAnglo-RussianEntente,sothatitcouldstabilizeitsplaceinAsia.Asaresult,Britain,Russia,andFranceallbecameconnected,formingaTripleEntente.TheTripleEntentestoodinoppositiontotheTripleAlliance,whichincludedGermany,Austria-Hungary,andItaly.Bismarck’speacehadnotevenlasted20 years.Instead,WilliamIIhaddestroyedthearrangementBismarckhadestablishedandputGermanyinapositionofbeingsurroundedbypotentialenemies.Twogroupsofthreepowerfulcountriesfacedeachother,andeachhadproblemsorissueswiththeother.Insteadofkeepingthepeace,theselargealliancesprepareddiversenationsforwar.Eachformationofanallianceaddedtoasequenceofeventsthatcouldonlyleadtointernationalbattle,oncetheparticipantshadbeenpushedovertheedgeintowar.
empires and NationsColonialempiresandtheimperialdesignsofEuropeanpowershelpedcreatetheconditionthatledtoWorldWarI.Largerempiresdisagreedoverquestionsofexpansionandauthority,whichreinforcedthenewsystemofalliancestakingshape.First,ItalyendeduptakingaplaceintheTripleAlliancein1882becauseitwantedtocolonizeaportionoflandinnorthernAfrica.BecauseofitsdisagreementwithFrance,ItalylookedtoalignitselfwithFrance’sopponent,Germany.Overadecadelater,Germany’sWilliamIIbecameapprehensiveovertheTripleEntentethathaddrawnFranceandBritainclosertogether.WilliamIIwantedtoseehowstrongthisalliancehadbecome,sohepushedforwardtwoMoroccanCrises.ThesecrisesalsofocusedonFrenchinterestsinNorthAfrica.Insteadofsplittingtheserelativelynewalliesapart,WilliamII’sbelligerentattemptsbackfired.ThemembersoftheTripleEntentebecametighterthanever.
Meanwhile,BritainhadproblemsinitsowncoloniesduringtheBoerWar(1899–1902),whenithadnothadotherEuropeannationsasallies.Asaresult,Britaintooktheinitiative,andintheyearsleadingupto1912BritainformedallianceswithRussia,France,andJapan.Duringthepreviouscentury,RussiaandBritainhadprimarilybeenatodds.YetwhenRussialosttoJapanontheAsianfront,RussiafounditselfreachingbacktoBritaintoprotectitselfagainstfurtherdefeatsinAsia.Inaddition,Italy’scontinueddesireforapresenceinNorthAfrica,focusedby1911onLibya,withitsconnectiontotheOttomanEmpire,leddirectlytotheeventsofWorldWarI.WhenItalydeclaredwaronOttomanrule,asequenceofeventsfollowedwithincreasingproblemsintheBalkans.
5SeLf-cHecK
Briefly explain how
Bismarck’s system
of alliances aided in
creating the First
World War.
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832 Unit 16, Lesson 8
1. Bismarck wanted to prevent war on a larger scale by maintaining small, individual peace treaties among a variety of countries.
2. Russia and France agreed to a coalition of armed defense.
3. Germany convened an international meeting over whether France would take over Morocco as a protectorate or not; Germany hoped it would not.
4. Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy; Triple Entente: Russia, France, and Britain
5. Because of the alliance system, countries that would not originally have joined in the war had to join to defend their allies, when their allies went to war against third parties.
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
andfragilealliancesystem.Thislasteduntil1890,whenthenewGermankaiser,WilliamII,removedBismarckfromoffice.Withoutthefragilealliances,themis-trustbetweenEuropeancountriessoonbecametremendousproblems.WiththeexceptionofAustria-Hungary,GermanyalienatednearlyeveryotherEuropeannation.Soon,twolargealliances,theTripleEntenteandtheTripleAlliance,existedinEurope.Theseallianceswereforcedintointernationalconflictin1914whenthemannextinlinetoruleAustria-Hungary,ArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,wasmurderedinSarajevo.AsWorldWarIbegan,EuropeanscouldseethatthelastingdisagreementsbetweentheircountriesandthedisbandingofBismarck’salliancesystemweretoblame.
Looking AheadWiththeassassinationofArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,aterribleseriesofeventshadfinallybeensetintomotion.WhileBismarckhadattemptedtokeepthepeaceinEurope,andsucceededforalmost20years,whenhefellfrompower.Europeanempires’interestsinimperialexpansionandnationalprowesslaidthefoundationforanincendiaryconflictthelikesofwhichtheworldhadneverseen.Thetwogreatalliances,sorecentlyformed,wouldtesttheirloyaltiesandprowessonlandandsea.ThedeathanddestructionthatfollowedwouldbelikenothingEuropehadeverseenbefore.
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The Beginnings of World War I
Unit 16, Lesson 9
Keywordsblank check
stalemate
submarine warfare
trench warfare
ultimatum
Essential Questions• WhatwastheimmediatecauseofWorldWarI?
• Whoweretherivalcamps?
• WhatcoursedidthewartakeontheWestern,Southern,andEasternfronts?
• Whateffectdidthewarhaveoncoloniesandtheseas?
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834 Unit 16, Lesson 9
Set the StageEurope’s New Imperialist practices could not last forever, nor could the countries so invested in expanding their empires evade consequences. Germany’s chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, had managed to keep the peace among the burgeoning empires until almost the end of the nineteenth century, but when his system of alliances fell apart, nothing remained to keep the great empires in check against one another. It would take just one act of violence to spark international conflict and provide Europe’s empires with excuses to target even more portions of land. The battles that followed would be some of the most devastating the world had ever seen.
Primary causes of the War WhileEuropeanimperialexpansionlaidthefoundationforinternationalconflict,severalspecificeventsinthefirstyearsofthe1900shastenedtheoutbreakofwar.By1910,severalsmaller-scaleconflictshadoccurredintheBalkansbecause,priortothetwentiethcentury,muchoftheareahadbeencontrolledbytheOttomanEmpire,whichhadsuddenlybeguntocollapse.OtherEuropeannationssawthisweaknessasamomentofopportunity.By1908,RussiaandAustria-HungarysentrepresentativestoclandestinelymeetandarrangeapacttodividetheBalkans.RussiaandAustria-HungarysawthattheOttomanEmpirehadbecomeweakfromwithin,andvulnerabletoanoutsideattack.WhileAustria-HungaryalreadyhaditstroopsfullyspreadoutthroughoutBosnia-Herzegovina,in1908itgainedpermissionfromRussiatotakepossessionoftheregion.ThisinturnangeredSerbians,whohadideasofcreatingacountryforthemselves.InexchangeforRussianconcessionsinBosnia,Austria-HungarycededRussiaanimportantoceanregionknownastheDardanelles,givingRussiacontroloverwaterwaysbetweentheMediterraneanSeaandtheBlackSea.
YetRussiaandAustria-Hungary’ssecretagreementsdidnotgoasplanned.TherestofEuropealsosawtheOttomanEmpire’sproblemsandworriedthatcountrieslikeAustria-HungaryandRussiawouldtakeadvantage.So,whenRussiaattemptedtomoveitsnavalforcesintotheDardanelles,therestoftheEuropeannationsopposedthemove,andRussiawasforcedtoretreat.Despitethisfailurebyitssecretally,Austria-HungarymovedaheadandtookcontrolofBosnia-Herzegovina.Austria-HungaryhadanadvantageintakingoverthatregionthatRussiahadnothadintheDardanelles:anon-ground,immediatepresence.Austria-Hungary’sactions,succeedingwhereRussiafailed,seemedtorewardbadbehaviorovergood.WhenRussiawasforcedtoabidebyinternationaldictatesandstepbackfromtheDardanelles,itnotonlylostwhathadseemedtobeanewlypromisedregion,butitwasembarrassedupontheworldstage.Austria-Hungary,incontrast,blatantlyignoredinternationaldictatesandforciblygrabbedBosnia.Justasdiplomatshadfeared,Austria-Hungary’sactionsangeredtheSerbians,manyofwhomhadanationalisticvisionforthefutureexpansionofSerbia.Anespeciallyradicalband
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Unit 16, Lesson 9 835
ofSerbiannationalistshadcreatedarevolutionarygroupknownastheBlackHand.TheBlackHand’smissionwouldbetocreatealargerSerbia,whereallSlavscouldlive,anditsfirststepwouldbetoforcetheAustro-HungariantroopsoutoftheBalkanregion.
ProblemsintheBalkansdidnotstopthere.TheOttomanEmpirecontinuedtoweaken,andthetinycountriesoftheBalkans,withtheirproximitytotheOttomanEmpire,thoughtitwouldsoonbetimetocontroltheirowndestinies.TheywaitedandpreparedtostrikeassoonastheOttomanEmpirefell.TwowarsintheBalkansquicklyfollowed.Theinitialconflict,theFirstBalkanWar,lastedfrom1912to1913.ThiswarignitedafteraconflictbetweenTurkeyandItaly,whichItalywonhandily.Afterthat,fourothercountriesinthesurroundingregion,Montenegro,Bulgaria,Greece,andSerbia,joinedtogetherandmadeastronger,largergroupcalledtheBalkanLeague.Thesecountriesactedasasingleleagueandmadeadirect,eventuallysuccessfulattackontheOttomanforces.WhentheOttomanEmpirelosttotheBalkanLeague,theBalkannationsgainedevenmoreground.Serbia,inparticular,cameoutofthewarwithanewpositionofrelativestrengthintheBalkans.
OthercountriesinEurope—especiallyAustria-Hungary,whichhaditsownproblemswithSerbia—wantedtopreventSerbiafromreachingtheAdriatic.Thus,duringalengthymeetingthatlastedfrom1912to1913andbecameknownastheLondonConference,SerbiaacceptedthetermsdemandedbytheotherthreepowerfulEuropeannations.Germany,Austria-Hungary,andItalydemandedthatanew,autonomouscountrybesetupbetweenSerbiaandtheAdriatic.ThiscountrywouldcometobeknownasAlbania.InadditiontoSerbia’sangerinthematter,Russiaalsoresentedthisconference.Rapidly,ontheheelsofRussia’sdefeatovertheDardanelles,Russiahadlostfaceinaseriesofinternationalnegotiations.
TheaftermathoftheFirstBalkanWarledtotheSecondBalkanWar,whichtookplacethesameyearthattheFirstBalkanWarconcluded.TheprimarycauseoftheSecondBalkanWarcamefromtheregionofMacedonia,whichtheBalkanLeaguehadwonfromtheOttomanEmpireduringthefirstwar.YettheleagueranintoproblemswhendetermininghowbesttopartitionMacedonia.Bulgaria,inparticular,grewangrywiththeotherleaguemembersandchallengedthem,aswellastheremainingOttomanforces,tothissecondwar.ButBulgariacouldnotmatchitsformeralliesandlost.
Ultimately,whilethetwoBalkanWarsstirredupconflictbetweenthecountriesintheregion,aswellaswithRussiaandtheOttomanEmpire,therealproblemslayintherelationshipoftwocountriesinparticular:Austria-HungaryandSerbia,whohaddevelopedverydifferentandcontradictoryplansforthefutureoftheBalkans.
War Begins (July 1914) By1914,tensionsranhighinEurope,andthepeacefulbalanceofpowerhadbeenknockedaside.OnJune28,themannextinlinetoberulerofAustria-Hungary,theArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,traveledtoSarajevowithhiswife,SophietheDuchessofHohenberg,onbehalfofAustria-Hungary’sgovernmenttopresentapossibleideathatcouldassuagetheSerbs.Thearchduke’sideaaimedtogivetheSlavsofBosniasomemeasureofindependencewithoutgivingthemtotalself-government.Rather
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836 Unit 16, Lesson 9
thanhavinganationandgovernmentoftheirown,withseparateboundariesandlaws,asthemoreradicalSerbsandSlavsdesired,theywouldbeasemi-independentpresenceinsidetheHapsburgEmpire.
TheBlackHandwouldnotentertainanyplanotherthanitslong-helddreamofanexpandedandautonomousSerbia.TheBlackHanddecidedtotakedrasticandviolentaction.WithatwofoldgoalofbothhumiliatingtheHapsburgEmpireandputtinganendtowhattheysawasthearchduke’sfoolishidea,theBlackHandorganizedaplottomurderthearchduke,aswellashisspouse,duringtheirvisittoSarajevo.Theradicalorganizationbroughtseveralyouthful,especiallyferventpartymemberstogetherandinstructedtheminwaysandmeansofpoliticalmurder.AyoungmannamedGavriloPrincipsuccessfullycarriedoutthemurdersbyfatallyshootingboththearchdukeandhispregnantwife.Soontheentirecontinenteruptedinchaosasaresult.
First,ofcourse,Austria-HungaryandSerbia’srelationshipimmediatelybecamemorehostile.EventhoughtheBlackHandhadbeenresponsibleforthearchduke’sdeath,Austria-HungaryblamedthegoverningregimeofSerbiaitself.BytheendofJuly,Austria-HungaryhadgivenSerbiaanultimatumasaresult.Austria-HungaryalsofoundimmediatesupportfromGermany,itslong-termally.SinceAustria-HungaryhadbecometheonlynationwillingtostandbyGermany,Germanycouldnotaffordtoletitdown.Thus,WilliamIIwentaboveandbeyondinsupportingAustria-Hungarybybestowinguponitwhat
ultimatum a serious request, followed by the threat of severe consequences
Francis Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, shortly before their assassinations, which sparked World War I and led to the eventual loss of 11 million lives.
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Unit 16, Lesson 9 837
peoplereferredto,metaphorically,asa“blank check”totakecareofitsproblemswiththeSerbianshowevertheAustro-Hungarianssawfit.Becauseofthisblankcheck,GermanywouldsupportAustria-Hungaryinwhateveractionittook.WithGermany’ssupport,Austria-Hungarycouldaffordtoriskalienat-ingotherEuropeancountries,likeRussia,Serbia’sprimarysupporter.Russia’swrathmighthavestoppedAustria-HungaryfromgoingafterSerbia,butsinceGermanyhadpromisedtosupportAustria-HungaryifRussiabecameaproblem,Austria-HungarycouldproceedininitiatingconflictwithSerbia.
Thisbehaviorcausedachainreactionofalliancesandarguments.RussiahadpreviouslyallieditselfwithFrance,whichnowworriedaboutGermany’spotentialforjoininginthisnewwarandsidedwithRussiaagain.AlthoughBritainhadtiestobothRussiaandFrancethroughtheTripleEntente,itattemptedtostayneutralinthisconflictatfirst.Eventhoughitsinterventionsoonappearedtobequiteuseless,BritaindidattempttostepinandsmooththingsoutbetweenAustria-HungaryandSerbia.Yetthatwasn’tenough.SerbiarefusedtoacceptoneaspectsetforwardintheultimatumofAustria-Hungary.Inresponse,Austria-HungarymadepreparationsforwaronSerbia.Immediately,RussiaproclaimedimminentconflictwithAustria-Hungary,indefenseofSerbia.UnfortunatelyforRussia,itsgovernmenthadtoplanforaconflictinwhichitmighthavetodobattlenotonlywithAustria-Hungary,butwithGermanyaswell.
PerhapsitwasatthistimethattheroyalcousinswhoheldthronesinGermanyandRussia,KaiserWilliamandTsarNicholas,respectively,regrettedrelyingontheirfamilialbondtokeepthepeaceratherthanhavingmadeaformalalliance.Eventhoughthetwomensentmanynegotiatingtelegramsbackandforthinanattempttosmooththingsover,Germany,obligedbytreatytostandbyAustria-Hungary,announceditwouldgotobattlewithRussiaaswell.WithsomanyimportantEuropeannationsalreadyenteringthefieldofbattle,othercountrieswereforcedtoenter,too,drawninbytheirprevious,standingalliances.First,France,whichhadalreadypubliclydeclareditssup-portforRussia,officiallyannounceditwouldbattleGermany.ThenBritain,theformerlyimpartialnation,joinedthebattleontheRussianside.Britainsteppedinbecauseofproblemsanother,smallerimpartialnation,Belgium,hadbeenhavingwithGermany.
GermanyhadcreatedastrategyforthewarcalledtheSchlieffenPlan,whichinvolvedmovingtroopsthroughBelgiumtoFrance.TheSchlieffenPlanhadtwoparts,andservedasastrategyforGermanygoingtowarintwoverydifferentdirections,targetingbothFranceandRussia.Accordingtothefirstpartoftheplan,GermanywouldmovequicklythroughBelgiumandunleashitsarmyonFrancebeforeFrancecouldpreparetoretaliate.Then,afterengagingwithFrance,GermanywouldsendasecondarmytoengageRussia.Belgium,aneutralparty,wouldbecrushedasGermanymovedthroughittogettoFrance.Belgiumhadnottakensidesinthewar,andBritainhadswornyearsbeforetoprotectthesmallcountrybetweenFranceandGermany.Thus,BritainhadtostepintotrytopreventGermany’sadvance.ForitspartGermanynowfounditselfatwarwiththreeothersignificantEuropeanpowers:Britain,France,andRussia.Whilemanypeoplehad
blank check literally, a paper promise by one person to give another money in any, unspeci-fied amount; politically, a promise by the leader of one country to stand by another country no mat-ter what actions it takes
1SeLf-cHecK
Who killed Archduke
Francis Ferdinand?
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838 Unit 16, Lesson 9
anticipatedsomekindofconflict,notmanycouldhavepredictedhowdevastatingtheconflictwouldbe.Inthemiddleof1914,whenthewarhadjustbegun,peopleremainedoptimisticandthoughtthewarwouldberelativelybrief,endinginlessthansixmonths.Theyhadnoconceptofwhatlayahead.
The War’s Opposing SidesDuringWorldWarI,thebattlecamedowntotwoopposinggroupsofcountries.Ononeside,theAlliescamefromthreepowerfulcountries,membersoftheTripleEntenteandthuslong-termalliesthemselves:Britain,Russia,andFrance.AsRussia’sally,SerbiaalsobecameamemberoftheAllies.Lateron,theAllieswouldalsoincludeGreece,Romania,Italy,theUnitedStates,andJapan.JapanenteredthewarnottopreserveorfightforanygroundontheEuropeancontinent.Instead,thestillrelativelynewimperialpowerhopedtotakeoverlandGermanyheldoverseas,includingareasinChinaandislandsinthePacificOcean.
Ontheotherside,theCentralPowerswerecomposedofonlytwonations,Austria-HungaryandGermany.Later,though,countriesfromtheBalkanregion,includingtheOttomanEmpireandBulgaria,joinedthem.
The Western front (1914–1917)TheEuropeannationswastednotimeinactingupontheircommitmenttointerna-tionalconflict.LessthantwomonthsafterthedeathofArchdukeFrancisFerdinand,warbeganinAugust1914.Onthefourthdayofthatmonth,GermanysentitstroopsintoBelgiuminaccordancewiththeSchleiffenPlan,effectivelyforcingBritaintocometoBelgium’said.TocountertheGermans,theBritishdeployedaspecialgroupofsoldierscalledtheBritishExpeditionaryForce,orBEF.TheBEFheadedstraighttoFrance,tomeettheGermanswhentheyarrived.
TheBritish,French,andGermansmetattheBattleoftheMarne,whichtookplaceinthefirstdaysofSeptember1914.GermantroopsmarchedthroughthelowcountryofBelgiumandintoFrance,advancingupontheMarneRiver,whichlayjustalittleover10milesfromtheFrenchcapitalofParis.TheGermansadvancedwithnearly1.5milliontroops,butastheycrossedtheMarnetheyfacedstiffresistancefromover1millionFrenchsoldiers,supportedbysixBritishdivisions.Theweek-longbattleleftnearlyhalfamillionmendead,some220,000oneitherside,butitrepresentedagreatvictoryfortheAllieswhohadthwartedtheGermanadvance.
AftertheMarne,foratimeFranceandGermanyfoundthemselvesinastalemateovertheWesternFront.WhileFrancehadkepttheGermansfromadvancing,GermanystillheldabigportionofFranceinthenorth,aswellasthemajorityofBelgianterritory,whichithadswiftlyconquered.Theopposingarmiesemployedanewstrategyoftrench warfare.AlongeachsideoftheWesternFront,armiesdugtrencheswheresoldierscouldtakecover.Bothsidesalsocre-ateddifferentdefensivebarriersforthetrenches,includingtoughandsharpbarbedwire,andsmall,stonefortsfortheirguns.Littledidthesoldiersknowthattheyhadembarkedonaformofdefensivefightingthatwouldlastfornearlyfouryears.
Generally,theopposingarmieswouldsendoutgroupsoffootsoldierstoattacktheotherside.Fewofthefootsoldierswouldreachtheopposingarmy,
stalemate an impasse (often in warfare) where two entities are frozen in the midst of their conflict and neither can advance or be defeated
trench warfare a style of warfare in which opposing sides construct trenches for their soldiers to hide in and then launch weap-onry (including machine guns, poison gas, and tanks) at the trenches opposite them
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Unit 16, Lesson 9 839
though,becauseeachsideusedmachinegunstokillanyonewhocamenearitstrenches.SincebothFranceandGermanyhadtrenchesandmachineguns,nei-thercountry’sarmycouldpullaheadanddefeattheother.Growingdesperate,bothcountries’armiesbeganusingevermoresevereanddevastatingweapons:heavy,high-poweredartilleryandpoisonousgas.Otherinnovativeanddeadlyweaponrythatwouldbeusedincludedflamethrowers,smallbombsorgrenades,zeppelins,andairplanes.However,intheearlyyearsofthewar,noneofthesenewwaysofkillingwasenoughtobreakthestalemate.
Verdun and the SommeTwoyearsafterthewarbegan,twomoretremendousbattlesfollowed.Thefirst,knowntodayastheBattleofVerdun,occurredinFebruary1916.Atthetime,France’sarmyhadcreatedadefensivefortintheFrenchcityofVerdun.Thatmonth,Germanysentsome1.2milliontroopstotheareainthehopeoffinallybreakingthroughtheAlliedlinesandreturningtotheoffensive.TheFrenchwithstoodtheinitialattack,however,andthefightingdraggedonforthenext10monthsinthelongestandoneofthemostdevastatingbattlesintheFirstWorldWarandthehis-toryofwarfare.ByJuly,FrancehadmovedfromdefensetooffenseatVerdun,andbyDecemberhaddrivenbacktheGermanassaultcompletely.WhentheBattleofVerdunended,Germanyhadlostnearlyallthegroundithadgainedinthearea,andFrancehadstrengtheneditsdefensiveposition.ThisvictoryforFrancecamewithaseverepriceonbothsides,though:morethan430,000Germansoldiersdied,aswellasmorethan540,000Frenchsoldiers,accordingtorecentestimates.
A German trench in 1914, at the beginning of World War I
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840 Unit 16, Lesson 9
AnotherdevastatingbattlebeganbeforeVerdunhadevenconcluded.WhatbecameknownastheBattleoftheSommebeganinJuly1916.FranceandBritainlaunchedalargesurpriseattackalongtheSommeRiver,foradistanceofapproxi-mately30miles.TheopeningdayofthebattlesawtheBritisharmysuffernearly60,000casualties.Gradually,however,theGermanswerepushedback,althoughtheAlliesneverforcedacompletebreakthroughastheyhadhoped.ByNovember,thebattlewasover,andtheresultwasindecisive.Germanyhadbeenforcedtowithdraw,butthestalematecontinueddespitethecombinedlossofover1millionlives.Inadditiontoitsgreatlosses,theBattleoftheSommeisalsorememberedasahistoricmomentinwarfarebecauseitwasthefirstinstanceoftanksbeingusedinwarfare.
DuringtheyearfollowingthetwogreatbattlesofVerdunandtheSomme,FrenchsoldiersaswellasordinaryFrenchcitizenshadbeguntogrowexhaustedandfedupwiththewar.Theyhadbeenfightingforthreebloodyyears.Thousandsandthousandshaddiedinbattle,andmanymorehadperishedfromdiseaseandstarvation.TheFrenchlandscapewasablastedandsmokingruin.Britain’sarmyhadnochoicebuttostepinandsupportitsally,evenatacontinuedhighprice.Thatyear,Britain’sarmyledassaultsinBelgium,whereinapartofYprescalledPasschendaeleas,asmanyas700,000British,French,Belgian,andGermansoldiersdiedduringthreemonthsoffiercefighting.TheseengagementscostBritainmoney,men,andarmsbutdidnotachievemuchintheoverallscaleofthewar.Ineffect,theAlliesandGermanyhadreachedanotherstalemate.
PerhapsinpartbecauseoftheBritishandFrenchpeople’sfrustrationwiththisstalemate,bothcountriessawtheirgovernmentschangesubstantiallyin1916and1917.First,Britainelectedanewprimeministerattheendof1916.WhileDavidLloydGeorge(1863–1945)belongedtothesameLiberalPartyasthepreviousminister,HerbertAsquith(1852–1928),hecameintopowerassomeonebackedbythepeople’sgoodopinionandknownfondlytomanybyhiscommonnickname,the“WelshWizard.”InNovemberofthefollowingyear,asimilarchangingoftheguardwouldoccurinFrance.JoiningtheWelshWizardcameFrance’s“Tiger,”GeorgesClemenceau(1841–1929),takingtheofficeofpremier.ClemenceauandLloydGeorgewoulddirecttheircountriesstronglyandwithauthorityasthewarcontinued.
The eastern front (1914–1917)AsifthebattlesontheWesternFrontwerenotenough,GermanyalsohadtocontendwiththeEasternFront:ineffect,Germanywasfightingawarontwofronts.Initially,Germanyseemedtobedoingwellintheeast,justasithadinthewest.Atfirst,thebattlesontheEasternFrontoccurredveryclosetohomeinitsterritoryofEastPrussia.ThishappenedbecauseRussia’sarmiessprangintoactionalmostimmediatelyafterwarwasdeclared.RussiasenttwolargeforcestooccupyEastPrussia.However,theGermanarmyrespondedrapidlyandbrutally,emergingvictoriousovertheRussianarmyintwoseparatebattles.First,inthelastdaysofAugust1914,RussialosttoGermanyintheBattleofTannenberg.TheninearlySeptember1914,RussialosttoGermanyintheBattleoftheMasurianLakes.Onthosebattlegrounds,atleast,Germanycouldnotbematched.
2SeLf-cHecK
Germany suffered heavy
losses in many battles.
Of all the conflicts on
the Western Front,
which one had the most
German casualties?
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Unit 16, Lesson 9 841
YetsinceGermanyhadtoexpendsomanyofitsforcesinEastPrussiabattlingRussia,itleftitsallyAustria-HungarymorevulnerabletoRussia’sattacks.GermanyhadtocomeupwithawaytodrawRussia’sstrengthawayfromAustria-Hungaryandfocusitelsewhere.Tothatend,GermanysentanarmytoeasternPoland,aim-ingultimatelyatWarsaw.Afewmonthslater,as1915approached,Germanyhadmanagedtooccupyalmost25percentofwhathadbeenRussian-controlledPoland.Russiadidnothaveenoughbusinesses,factories,orproductionmeanstocreateenoughgoodstofuelitsownarmies.Thearmiesoutonthefrontswouldsoonbeinwantofarms,tools,andotherproductstheyneededtofighteffectively.
WhileRussiastruggledtosupplyitsmilitary,Germany’sarmykeptonpush-ingagainstRussia’scontroloverPolandthroughout1915.As1916approached,GermanyhadnotonlytakenoverthemajorityofRussianPoland,butithadalsotakenoverLithuania.Inthemeantime,RussiakeptlaunchingattacksagainstthedefensiveAustro-HungarianarmiesontheGalicianfront.RussiadidgainsomegroundinGalicia,butnotenoughtomakeaclearvictoryduring1915.Asaresult,inSeptemberofthatyear,TsarNicholasIIsteppedintoleadRussia’smilitarypersonally.Morethansixmonthslater,inJune1915,Russia’sarmylaunchedamajorassaultinGalicia,targetingtheAustro-Hungarianarmy.Almostimmediately,Germanyrespondedbysending15battalionstosupportanddefendAustria-Hungary.NosoonerhadtheRussianattackbegun,thenitwasfinished.BeforeRussialostGaliciatoGermany,though,ithadfoundanotherallyinRomania.RomaniahadjoinedupwiththeAlliestofurtheritsowngoaloftakingoverTransylvania,whichatthattimewasunderAustro-Hungariancontrol.AsRussiaweakened,however,sodidRomania,butevenmorerapidly.Byearly1917,RomaniahadfallentotheAustro-Hungarianarmy.
Romania’sfalltookplacenearlyayearafterRussiahadessentiallylosttoGermanyinPoland.ThemissedopportunitytostrikeinGaliciain1916seemedonlytorubsaltinthewound.AnychancethatRussiamighthavehadtocomebackalongwithitsfellowAlliesandfightmorestronglyagainstGermanywouldbeturnedasidebyitsowndomesticrevolutionsduring1917.AfterapopularrevolutionoverthrewthetsarinFebruary1917,andanotherrevolutioninstalledtheBolsheviksinpowerafewmonthslater,RussiawasforcedtobowoutofWorldWarI,signingtheTreatyofBrest-LitvoskasapromisethatitnolongerwouldengagemilitarilywithGermanyorAustria-Hungary.AccordingtotheTreatyofBrest-Litvosk,thenewBolshevik-ledRussiangovernmenthadtomakemanyconcessionstoGermany.Inexchangeforpeacebetweenthetwolargercountries,Russiahadtorelinquishcontroloverseveralregionsnearitswesternboundary,includingtheUkraineandFinland.RussiaalsolostthealreadymuchdisputedPoland,aswellassomeareasneartheBalticSea.Ineffect,thatRussialostabout33percentofitscitizensalongwiththelandstothewest.WithRussiaoutoftheway,GermanycouldturnitsattentionbacktoFranceandtheWesternFront.
The South: Italy and GallipoliIntheyearsleadinguptothewar,ItalyhadbeenlinkedwithbothAustria-HungaryandGermanyasapartoftheTripleAlliance.Assuch,theothertwocountriesmighthaveexpectedItalytojoinforceswiththemwhenWorldWar I
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842 Unit 16, Lesson 9
commencedin1914.However,ItalydidnotjoinwiththeCentralPowersandinsteaddeclareditselfanimpartialparty.DoingsomadecountrieslikeFranceandBritainhopefulthatItalywouldjoinforceswiththemasamemberoftheAllies.ThishopetooklegaleffectinaclandestineagreementwithItalycalledtheTreatyofLondonof1915.Accordingtothecomponentsofthistreaty,ItalycouldexpectlandsinbothTurkeyandAustria-Hungaryafterthesuccess-fulconclusionofthewar.InMay1915,ItalyjoinedtheAlliestofightagainstGermanyandAustria-Hungary.
UnfortunatelyforItaly,itsarmiescouldnotmatchAustria-Hungary’s.Twoyearsafterjoiningthewar,ItalyfounditselfinternationallyembarrassedwhenitlosttoAustria-Hungaryinthe1917BattleofCaporetto.InsteadofItalylendingaidtotheAllies,thereverseoccurred.BritainandFrancequicklyhadtomobilizetheirownarmiestohelpItalyrecoverafterCaporetto.ThealliancedidnotseemtobeworkingoutaswellasBritainandFrancehadhoped.
Meanwhile,sincetheearlymonthsofthewar,theAllieshadbeenstrugglingtogainaccesstootherpartsoftheBalkans.Initially,inNovember1914,theAllieshadfoundthemselvesshutoutoftheTurkishStraitswhentheOttomanEmpire,whichcontrolledthestraits,lentitssupporttoGermanyandAustria-Hungaryaftertheoutbreakofwar.ThestraitswouldhaveservedasthemostdirectwaterroutebetweenBritainandFranceononeside,andtheirallyRussiaontheother.Withoutthestraits,BritainandFrancecouldnotsendRussiaarmsandproductsthecountrydesperatelyneeded.Tosolvethisproblem,futureBritishprimeministerWinstonChurchill(1874–1965)steppedforwardwithaplan.DuringWorldWarI,ChurchilloccupiedthepositionofFirstLordoftheAdmiralty,anofficethataffordedhimsufficientpowertopresentastrategythatwouldallowtheAlliestorecoverthestraitsfromtheOttomanarmy.UnderChurchill’sleadership,BritainsentsoldiersbylandandseatoattacktheGallipoliPeninsulainearly1915.Thispeninsula,situatedatakeypointinthesouthDardanelles,wouldbeagoodpositionfromwhichtheAlliescouldpressontotheotherportionsofthestraits.Unfortunatelyforthem,Churchill’sstrategywasimperfect;theAllies’grasponthepeninsulaslowlyeroded.Nearlyayearafterarriving,Britain’ssoldiershadnochoicebuttoretreat.
InthemiddleofthestrugglesovertheGallipoliPeninsula,theAllieslostanotherpotentialregiontotheCentralPowers.InOctober1915,BulgariaallieditselfwithGermanyandAustria-Hungary.Themovecameasasurprisetofew,sinceSerbiahadbeenconnectedtotheAlliesfromthefirstdaysofthewar,andBulgariaandSerbiahadaverytenserecenthistory.Indeed,Bulgariastillsmartedsinceits1913lossintheSecondBalkanWarandheldagrudgeagainstSerbia.ThisinternationalconflictseemedtoprovideanidealopportunityforBulgariatotakeitsrevenge.Indeed,BulgariahadthesatisfactionofseeingSerbiacrumbleundertheCentralPowers’assaultthatveryyear.
War Around the GlobeWhileEuropewasthehotbedofinternationalconflictduringWorldWarI,itwasbynomeanstheonlytheaterofbattle.Forexample,brutalfightingoccurredintheMiddleEast,especiallyoverlandbelongingtoTurkey.Infact,Turkeysuffered
3SeLf-cHecK
At what point and how
did Russia bow out of
World War I?
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Unit 16, Lesson 9 843
badlyinthebattlesinthisregionwhiletheAlliesthesteadilywonground.First,RussiaandTurkeycametoblowsovertheareaknownastheCaucasusin1915.Russiaemergedvictoriousandinretaliation,TurkeychosetoblamethepeopleofArmeniandescentwithinitsborders,claimingtheyhadactedasspiesandhelpedtheRussians.Toexactrevenge,theTurkishgovernmentinstitutedacampaignofslaughteragainsttheArmenians.ManyimportantindividualsinArmeniansocietydied,assassinatedbytheirowngovernment.Manyothersfacedexile.Historiansspeculatethatsomewherebetween1and1.5millionArmeniansdiedatthehandsoftheTurkishgovernment.
WhenChurchill’sstrategyintheGallipoliPeninsulafailed,BritainandRussiagaveuphopeoftakingovertheTurkishStraits.Instead,theytargetedthenearbyregionofMesopotamia,alsoatthattimecontrolledbyTurkey.ThisnewplanwentintoeffectayearaftertheBritisharmyhadextracteditselffromtheDardanelles.InMarch1917,Britain’sarmysuccessfullycapturedBaghdad,andtherestofMesopotamia,forthemostpart,quicklyfollowed.There,Britain’sarmyworkedquicklyandrapidlytoroundupArabpeoplewhohadpreviouslybeenruledbytheTurksandincitedthemtorevolution.Inthis,BritainreliedontheaidofthepopularColonelT.E.Lawrence(1888–1935).
Ocean BattlesDespitethefactthatonesignificantinternationalproblempriortoWorldWarIhadbeenBritain’sfrustrationwithGermany’sattempttobuildanequivalentnavy,theGermannavyactuallydidnotcontributemuchtotheoceanbattlesduringWorldWarI.TheBattleofJutlandwasanexception.Thistwo-daybattlebeganonthelastdayofMay1916,inaportionoftheNorthSeaneartheDanishcoastline,whereBritainhadsetupanoceanbarricadetokeepGermanshipsfromcrossingtheseatoBritain.Duringthisbattle,BritainhadhopedtosoundlydefeattheGermanshipsandtakebacktheportionoftheBalticSeaitcouldusetosendsuppliestoRussia.Theendresultedinyetanotherstalemate.EventhoughBritishshipshadtakenmanymorehitsthantheGermanshipshad,neithersideachieveditsgoal.ThebattleresultedinamodifiedvictoryfortheAlliesonlyinthat,afterward,GermanysentitshighseasshipstotheBalticSeaandkeptthemawayfromtheBritishhighseasships,whichwouldbesmallconsolationintermsofwhatcamenext.
EventhoughGermanyhadtakenpainstocreatealargeandwell-stockedbattleshipcontingent,itsunderwater-onlyships,submarines,woulddothemostdamageinwhatcametobeknownassubmarine warfare.Submarinewarfarebecameparticularlylethalbecausetheopponent’shighseasshipscouldnotusuallydetectastealthsubmarineattack.Germanybeganusingitssubma-rinesearlyinthewar.Inthefirstmonthsof1915,theGermannavyuseditssubmarines,calledU-boats,tocreateanoceanbarricadearoundBritain,pre-ventingfoodandsuppliesfromreachingBritainbysea.Thisblockaderesultedinthelossofmanyinnocentlives,however,whentheGermansubmarinestargetedaBritishshipnamedtheLusitania,whichwasnotawarship,butanAtlanticpassengervessel.Amongthenearly1,200peoplewhodiedwhentheshipwastorpedoedbyaGermanU-boatwere128U.S.citizenswhosecountryremainedofficiallyneutralinthewar.Still,thesinkingofthepassengership
submarine warfare stealth warfare conducted by undersea boats
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844 Unit 16, Lesson 9
sparkedatremendousoutcryfromtheUnitedStatesagainstsubmarinewarfare.ThisoutcryforcedtheGermannavytocurbitsuse,atleastforsometime,toavoidbringingtheUnitedStatesintothefrayonthesideoftheAllies.
Americaninfluencecouldonlylastsolong,though.Oneyearlater,aftertheLusitaniasank,Germanyreturnedtothestrategyofusingsubmarinewarfare.Thistime,GermanysawitastheonekeystrategythatitcouldusetodefeatBritain;thus,byextension,submarinewarfaremadeavictoryagainstalltheAlliesseemmuchmorepossible.GermanyputthisplanintoactiononthefirstdayofFebruary1917.
OnFebruary26,GermansubmarinestargetedanddestroyedaBritishshipcalledtheLaconia.Twoofthe12peoplekilledwereU.S.citizens.TheUnitedStatesasserteditsauthoritytoprotectitscitizensabroad,evenifwarfarewasrequired.Then,justafewdayslater,onthefirstdayofMarch,theUnitedStatesbecameawareoftheZimmermanTelegram,apieceofcorrespondencebetweenGermanandMexicandiplomatsthatcontainedstrategicpointsforapossiblealliancebetweenthetwocountries.Inthetelegram,GermanycommittedtogivingMexicobackthreelargesectionsoftheAmericanSouthwestshouldMexicojointheCentralPowers.
Thenextmonth,withanti-GermansentimentstokedbyU-boatwarfareandtheZimmermanTelegram,theUnitedStatesofficiallydeclaredwaronGermanyandenteredWorldWarI.HelpfromtheUnitedStateswouldbeslowtoarriveabroad,however.While20,000orsotroopsoftheAmericanExpeditionaryForceshadarrivedinFrancebymid-summer1917,ittooknearlyayearfortheUnitedStatestosendmorethan1millionsoldiersandhelpturnthetideagainstGermany.
Extensions• Read“TheKaiser’sCommentsontheOutbreakoftheWorldWar”from
Outbreak of the World War: German Documents Collected by Karl KautskybyMaxMontgelasandWaltherSchücking(No.401,1924,pp.348–350,trans.byCarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace).WhywasthemobilizationoftheRussianarmysosignificanttotheKaiser?HowdidtheKaiserfeelaboutEngland?WhywasGreatBritainalignedagainstGermany?
SummaryTheBalkanconflictssetthestage,andthemurderofArchdukeFrancisFerdinandplungedEuropeintointernationalconflict.TheinitialstrugglebetweenAustria-HungaryandSerbiatriggeredalliancesacrossthecontinentandresultedinfull-scalewar.OntheWesternFront,GermanyinvadedBelgiumandthennorthernFrance.Britaincametotheaidofbothcountries.By1917,manyliveshadbeenlostthroughtrenchwarfareattheBattlesoftheMarne,Verdun,andtheSomme.YetGermanyandtheAlliesremainedatastalemate.OntheEasternFront,GermanyslowlyprevailedoverRussiainPoland.Russia,inturn,lostimportantterritorytoAustria-HungaryandGermany;then,afteritsownrevolutions,Russialeftthewaraltogether.Inthesouth,ItalyjoinedtheAllies,whobattledTurkeyforapathwayto
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Unit 16, Lesson 9 845
1. Gavrilo Princip
2. In the Battle of the Somme, 650,000 Germans died.
3. After suffering its own internal rebellion in 1917, Russia’s new government could not balance engaging in an outside war with governing its new
country. Rather than lose to Germany outright, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litvosk with Germany and stepped out of World War I. By the terms of the treaty, Russia lost about 33 percent of its population and a great deal of land on its western border: Finland, the Ukraine, Poland, and the Baltic countries.
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
theeast.Meanwhile,GermanyresortedtosubmarinewarfareinanattempttodefeatBritain.However,Germany’sactionscausedthedeathsofinnocentAmericans.ThecombinationofsubmarinewarfareandtheUnitedStates’discoveryofGermany’ssecretplotswithMexicoresultedintheUnitedStatesjoiningtheAlliesandthewarin1917.
Looking AheadBy1917,manyliveshadbeenlostandneitherside—theAlliesnortheCentralPowers—hadaccomplisheditsdesiredvictory.Peoplewouldbecomedisheartenedbythelossoflifeandtheofwartime.Europeancitizenswouldsufferavarietyofterriblehardships,fromlackoffoodtocensorship.WiththeUnitedStatesjoin-ingthewarontheAllies’side,victoryfortheAlliesfinallyseemedlikeadistantpossibility.ByNovember1918,WorldWarIwouldend.Then,itwouldbetimeforEuropetoputitselfbacktogether.
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World War I’s End and Aftermath
Unit 16, Lesson 10
Essential Questions• WhathappenedinWorldWarItomakepeoplefeel
dissatisfiedwithanddisappointedbybothsocietyandhumanity?
• Whatinnovativemethodsofdoingbattleemergedbetween1914and1918?
• Whatwasthewarlikeforthoseleftbehindonthehomefront?
• HowdidWorldWarIend?
• WhatpoliciesweresetdownintheTreatyofVersailles?
Keywordsbuffer state
demilitarized
genocide
mandate system
no-man’s land
over the top
press censorship
rationing
war bonds
War Ministry
women with yellow hands
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Unit 16, Lesson 10 847
Set the StageBy 1917, World War I had been raging for three years, and many European countries had lost hundreds of thousands of citizens. Yet no country had come closer to victory, and the war remained in a stalemate. France’s army had begun to weaken under the strain, and Britain had to step in. Meanwhile, Russia had already exited the war because of its own domestic revolutions. Germany had prevailed over Poland and began to target the British fleet, posing a real danger to the Allies. When the United States officially joined the war on the Allies’ side, it seemed as though the Allies might have a chance for victory. Even with a potential victory and end to the war in sight, tremendous, irrevocable damage had already been done, and much more destruction and death would occur before the war ended.
Negative effects of World War I on SocietyInretrospect,itseemsclearthattheeventsofWorldWarIservedasacatalystforawidespreadchangeinthewayhumanbeingsperceivedtheworld.Whilethechangeinperceptionhadbeenbuildingforsometime,duringthewarpeoplebegantothinkaboutitmoreclearlyandtalkaboutitmoreoften.Thegeneralpublicbecamesoshockedandshatteredbytheeventsofthewarthattheyhadnochoicebuttoabandontheideologiesandbeliefsystemstheyhadpreviouslyheldastheybegantolookforanswers,explanations,andhope.
Priortothewar,peoplelivinginEuropeandtheWesternworldhaddevelopedspecificpatternsofthoughtandbeliefsystemsthathadbecomewidely,ifnotuniversally,shared.Thesepatternshadbeenshapedandinformedbytwospecifichistoricperiods:first,bythepopularscientificandphilosophicalbreakthroughsoftheEnlightenmentduringthe1700s,andsecond,bytheimprovementsoftechnol-ogyandmanufacturingthatdevelopedduringthenineteenthcentury’sIndustrialRevolutions.Inadditiontothesechangesintechnology,manypeopleofthe1800shadbeguntoacceptDarwin’sideasaboutevolutionandthesurvivalofthefittest.
Bythebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,eventhoughsomeaspectsoftheirpersonalfaithshadbeenchallengedbyscience,manypeoplecontinuedtoshareafaiththattheworldandsocietywouldcontinuetomoveforward,thatrationalitycreateabettersociety,andthateveryindividualhadcivicprivileges.Peoplebegantoexpecttheycouldhavemoregoodsandmoremoney,andtoaspiretohigherclasses.Thissocietalchangecorrespondedtotheexpansionofurbancenters,thegrowthofthemiddleclassinEuropeancountries,andthewidespreadmassimple-mentationofeducatingyoungpeople.
Forthemostpart,allthesechangesseemedlikepositiveones,andtheyhelpedgivepeopleduringthistimeanalmosttangibleproofthattheirliveswouldinvolvecontinuousimprovement.Generallyspeaking,inthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,peoplefounditeasytohavefaithinaworldrunbyreasonandorder,aworldwheretherationalphysicsasexpoundedbyIsaacNewtonmade
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848 Unit 16, Lesson 10
perfectsense.Thingstheycouldnotexplainthroughreason,theycouldjustifythroughtheirbeliefinahigherpower.Inotherwords,betweentheirdualfaithsinreasonandreligion,itseemedasthougheverythingaroundthemhadsomeexplanationoranothertobackitup.Nothingoccurredwithouteventualpurposeorjustification.
Withinthisorderedworld,peoplebeganadvocatingforevenmorecivilliber-tiesforcommoners.Womenhadstartedtocatchuptomenintermsoftherightstheyheldintheworld,suchastherighttopropertyortherighttovote.Working-classcitizensalsohadbeguntoreceivemoreprivileges,suchasfairhours,fairwages,andunionization.Governmentshadstartedimplementingothercommonprogramsofawelfarestate,suchascreatingretirementfundsfortheelderlyandotherpublicprograms.
AllthesefactorscombinedtomakelifefairlygoodformostpeopleinEuropeandtheWestattheendofthe1800s.Whileexceptionstothisruleexistedforthemostpartpeoplelivedinaworldoforderandrationality.Yet,somestartedques-tioningcommonlyheldbeliefs,evenasthemajorityprospered.Thesecriticshadbecomedissatisfiedwiththepopularwayofthinkingabouttheworld.Contrarytowhatmanyotherpeoplethought,theydidnotagreethattheworldwascontinu-ingtomoveforwardinapositivemanner.Furthermore,theyeitherhadlostfaithinthereasonabilityofothers,orhadstartedtoworrythatreasonalonecouldnotexplainalloftheeventsintheworldsurroundingthem.
PeoplewhoalreadyfeltthiswaycouldfindnaturaljustificationinsomeoftheshockingandterribleeventsofWorldWarI.Moreover,evenpeoplewhohadbelievedwholeheartedlyinareasonableandlogicalsocietypriortothewarwouldfindthemselvesquestioningeverythingtheyknewasthewar’shorrificeventsbecamefullyknown.Unfortunately,WorldWarIquicklyrevealeditselfasawarmoredamagingthananyother.Thedarksideofhumanitythatthewarrevealedmademanyreevaluatesociety.Withoutreason,itseemed,peoplefounditdifficulttocontinuepolitelyadvocatingforordiscussingcivilliberties.Fargreaterbasicneedsseemedtobeatstake.
Thissad,worriedfeelingspreadquickly.Negativitycouldbefoundalmosteverywhere,asthegeneralpopulacebegantodoubtthedirectionhumanityhadtaken.Thisnegativitywouldbefosteredandgrowevenmoreinthedecadestocome,especiallyduringthe1930s.Duringthattime,manyofthefearsandworriespeoplehadalreadydevelopedorbeguntoholdduringtheFirstWorldWartookter-ribleshape.ThesenewrealitiescouldbeseeninthemanytyrannicalleadersrisingtopowerineasternEurope,forexample,orintheterribleplummetofworldwidefinancesthatbeganwiththe1929stockmarketcrashandsoonspreadintothefollowingdecadeastheGreatDepression.
Postwar,peoplefeltlostandadrift—iftheyhadnotlostsomeoneclosetothem,theirneighborsprobablyhad.ItseemedthateveryoneinEuropehadbeentouchedinsomewaybythewar,anditbecamehardforanyonetobelieveinthegeneralgoodnessofmankind.Akindofinnocencethathadexistedpriortothewarseemedforeverlost,andnooneknewwhattoputinitsplace.PaulValéry(1871–1945)spokeformanypeopleofhistimewhenhedescribedhisinterpretationofwhat
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Unit 16, Lesson 10 849
hadhappenedtosocietyasthewarconcluded.Writingatthebeginningofthedecadefollowingthewar,hebelievedthathispeershadcomenottoacrossroads,buttowhatseemedliketheendoftheroad.Valéryfamouslycomparedthewarthathadjustpassedtoanaturaldisaster,likeatempest,writingthateventhoughthedisasterwasover,peoplekeptwalkingaroundandworryingthatithadbarelystarted.Valéryworriedthatpeoplehadbecomepsychologicallydisabledbytheeventsofthewar,andhedidnotknowhowanyonewouldbeabletorecoverfromit.Quitefrankly,Valérydidnotreallyunderstandhowanyreasonablepersoncouldcopewithallthereverberatingeffectsofthewar,whichhadalteredsomanythingsabouttheworld.Severalcountrieshadnearlybankruptedthemselvestryingtopayforthewar,whileothershadlostandgainedentiregoverningregimes.Civilizationsseemedcompletelyturnedontheirheads.Nothingremainedasithadbeen.
Noareaoflifeintheyearsfollowing1918seemedsafefromthisworryaboutthelossofrationalityandthepotentiallackofhumandecency.Inadditiontopro-fessionalswhostudiedthemindandhowitworks,suchasscientists,philosophers,writers,andpsychologists,othergreatintellectualsofthetwentiethcenturywouldalsohavetoadjusttothisnewworldview.Peoplewhohadreliedonreasonandorderwouldhavetofindanewwaytomakesenseofexternalchaosanddespair.
New Methods of Doing BattleThechaosanddespairsomanyfeltcameinlargepartfromwitnessingthedestructionthataroseasaresultofnewkindsofweaponrythatmadekillingonamassscaleeasierthananythinganyonehadseenbefore.Inmanyways,thedestructionandhighcasualtyratesofWorldWarIweretheresultofmilitarytechnologythathadoutpacedmilitarytactics.WhenWorldWarIdawned,themeninchargeoftheopposingarmieshadbeentrainedinthestrategiesandtacticsoftheNapoleonicWars.Atthattime,armiesfollowedtwomainstrategies:one,swiftlychangingcourseandpositiontoevadetheenemy;two,sendingtremen-dousnumbersoffootsoldierstoattacktheenemyandattemptingtodefeattheothersidewithsheernumbers.
Eventhougharmieshadbegunusingmoreadvancedarmaments,suchasmachinegunsandlong-rangeartillery,andhadstartedtouseaerialequipmentsuchasplanesforthefirsttime,inWorldWarIbothsidesbelievedthattheycouldsimplyaddtheseelementstotheircurrenttheoriesofwarfare.Theydidnotrealizethattheymighthavetoalterthetheoriesandstrategiesthemselves.Officersinchargeonbothsidesbelievedtheycouldusealltheirnewweaponsinfullforceuponeachotheraccordingtotheirusualpractices,bytargettingenemiesandwip-ingthemoutwithsheerforce.Thenewweaponryactuallyworkedbetter,however,whenuseddefensively,ratherthanaspartofanattack.WorldWarIbecameadefensivewar,wherewaveafterwaveofattackingarmiesbrokeapartunderheavyartilleryfire,rapidmachine-gunbarrages,andpoisongas.Ittooknearly10millionEuropeans’livesformilitaryleaderstorealizethatindustrializationhadchangedthefaceofwarfareforever.
AsbattlesragedinFranceandBelgiumduringWorldWarI,theAlliesandtheGermansduginalongthefront,buildingheavilyfortifiedtrenchesasthefighting
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850 Unit 16, Lesson 10
becameastalemate.Tofurtherprotecttheirtrenchlines,soldiersonbothsidessetupprotectiveguardsaroundthetrenches,withgunsandbarbedwire.Therewouldbealargespacebetweenthetrenchesofeithersidethatpeoplecommonlyreferredtoas“no-man’s land.”No-man’slandwouldbeanempty,bleaktractwithnoth-inguponitbutthefallenbodiesofsoldiersfrombothsides.
Asthestalematedraggedon,boththeAlliesandtheCentralPowersbecamedesperatetobreakthroughtheotherside’sdefensivepositions.Inbattleafterbattle,hundredsofthousandswoulddietolayclaimtojustafewmilesofter-ritorythatsimplynarrowed,orwidened,thetractsofno-man’sland.Eachsidewouldpropelbombsandexplosivesintotheother’strenches,hopingtoweakentheotherside.Then,inagreatsurge,thousandsoffootsoldierswouldbesenttotrytomakeitallthewayovertothetrenchesontheotherside,whichbecameknownasgoing“over the top.”Soldiersgoingoverthetophadtomakeitthroughno-man’sland,butastheyranacrossthebarren,smokinglandscapetheybecamemovingtargets.Itwasadeadly,hopelesspractice,anditcreatedaghastlydeathtoll.
Asthedeathtollmounted,thefruitlessnessofthebattlesseemedmoreandmoreevident.Later,manypeoplewouldviewthiswayofdoingbattleasatragicsymboloftheentirewar.Itseemedasthoughbothsideswerehappytohurlinnocentlivesatalargerconflictwithnothoughtfortheindividualvictims.Manyfeltasthoughtheircherishedlovedoneshadperishedinvain.
ThemilitaryofficialsinvolvedinWorldWarIintroducednewkindsofland,air,andseavehiclesinbattle.Ontheground,tankswereusedforthefirsttime,althoughnotinnumbersthatmadeitpracticaltolaunchlarge-scaleassaultswiththearmoredvehicles.Soldiersonthegroundalsohadtofearattacksfromtheair,whichcamefromairplanesandfromzeppelins.Theseaircraftdroppedbombsonstrategicareas.Finally,thenavalfleetssoexperiencedinacertainkindofhighseasbattlenowhadtocontendwithsubmarinesorU-boats,whichcouldattackstealthilyandwereverydifficulttoprepareagainst.Usingothernewmilitarytechnologies,soldiersprotectedtheirtrencheswithbarbedwire.Theyusedflamethrowersandhandgrenadestoattackeachotheroverno-man’sland,aswellasunleashinghigh-poweredartilleryandpoisongasontheirenemies.Allthesenewweaponsmeantfewerpeoplecouldkillmorepeopleatatimefromagreaterdistancethaneverbefore.
effects of War on the Home frontWorldWarIaffectedpeoplethroughoutEuropeand,eventually,acrosstheglobe.Whilethemajorityofpeoplewhodiedinthewarenlistedorsigneduptopartici-pateinfighting,eachcountry’sciviliansalsocontributedtothewareffort.EverycountrythatparticipatedinWorldWarIhadtoputallofitspeopletoworkonthewareffort,andeachcountryalsohadtocommitallofitsnaturalresourcestofuelingthewareffort.Bothtookatremendoustolloneachcountrybythetimethewarhadended.EventhoughtheIndustrialRevolutionhadspedupmanufacturingandproduction,andeventhoughthearmiesfightinginthewarhadaccesstomoreinnovativeweaponrythaneverbefore,thewargobbledup
no-man’s land contested area between opposing sides’ trenches that does not belong to either side
over the top act of attempting to cross over no-man’s land and make it to the other, opposing side’s trench
2SeLf-cHecK
How many soldiers from
the European continent
perished in World War I?
1SeLf-cHecK
Who summed up the
disappointed feelings of
a generation after World
War I, and how did he
describe them?
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Unit 16, Lesson 10 851
vastresources.Intheyearsfollowingthewar,asaresult,dissatisfiedindividualswouldblametheirgovernmentsforignoringtheirneedsandcreatingcondi-tionsthatleftmillionsofpeoplestarvingandhomeless. Incountriesthathadpreviouslyallowedfree-marketcompetition,smallbusinessownersandlaborersfoundthemselvesworkingtogetherfortheircountry’scommongoodtoproduceenoughweaponsandotherkeyitems.Inmanycases,therulingbureaucracyineachcountrysteppedintothefreemarketanddeclaredthattheeconomywouldberunbythestate,notbythepeople.
Eventhoughtheyfoughtondifferentsides,countrieslikeGermanyandBritainapproachedtheproblemofproducingenoughwarmaterialinasimilarway.BothGermanyandBritaincreatednewgovernmentpositionstooverseemanufacturinginwartime.WalterRathenau(1867–1922),abusinessman,tookupthispostinGermany’sWar Ministry.Fromthisvantagepoint,hehelpedtheGermangovernmentmanageitsresourcesandavoidrunningoutofany.Similarly,inBritainDavidLloydGeorgebecameministerofmunitionsin1915.Bytheendofthewar,LloydGeorgewouldbeBritain’sprimeminister,butbeforethenhehadtoworktomakesureBritainhadenoughbombcasingsforallofitsexplosives.
Meanwhile,eachcountryinWorldWarIhadtocomeupwiththefundstowagewar.Evennationsthatwererelativelywelloffpriortothewarwouldseefundsdisappearasnationaltreasuriesstruggledtokeepupwiththecostsofsuchanundertaking.Eachcountryonlyhadlimitedoptionswhenitcametotryingtosolvethisproblem.Perhapstheleastpalatablechoice,thestatecouldprintmoremoney,butthatmadethenationalcurrencyworthless.Second,thestatecouldincreasetaxesonitscitizens,whichwouldbringinmoneybutmightangerthepopulace,whowereneededforthewareffort.Initially,manystatesemployedthistactic.Yettheycouldnotkeepincreasingtaxationwhencitizenshadconsistentlybeenearninglessandgivingupmorewithoutincit-inganuprisingorevenrevolution.Third,astatecouldreachouttoanothercountryandarrangeforaloan.DuringWorldWarI,theUnitedStatesloanedsubstantialsumstotwoofitsallies,BritainandFrance.Theloanswouldcomedueafterthewarhadconcluded.
Thecountriesinvolvedinthewardidhaveonefinaloptionforraisingmoneywithintheirownborderswithoutresortingtotheabovethreetactics:sellingwar bonds.Eachstateurgeditsownpeopletoputtheirmoneyandsavingsinwarbonds.Ineffect,thismeantthegovernmentscouldborrowmoneyfromtheirowncitizenswhilepromisingtopayitbacklater.Peoplewhodidnotbuywarbondsmightruntheriskofbeinglabeleddisloyaltotheirownnation.
Whenthesemethodsofraisingrevenueareincluded,WorldWarIcamewithaheftypricetagindeed:morethan$350billion.Tomakemattersworse,eachcountryhadprintedmoremoneyforitselfduringthewar.Onaworldwidescale,thismeantthevalueofmoneyhaddecreased,causingpriceincreasesonmostgoods.Becauseofthissituation,itwouldtakeevenlongerforthecountriesthathadfoughtinWorldWarItoreclaimtheirfinanciallossesinthedecadesthatfollowed.
War Ministry govern-ment office in Germany created to deal specifi-cally with war
war bonds type of government-sanctioned investment where citi-zens would deposit their money and the govern-ment would eventually pay it back
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852 Unit 16, Lesson 10
Unhappiness at Home Countriesinvolvedinthewaralsohadtoconcentratetheirattentionontheirhomefrontsandtakecareoftheirownpeople.Politicalenemiesathometriedtotakeadvantageofthewartofurthertheirobjectives.OneinstancecanbeseeninIreland’srelationshiptotherestofBritainduringthewar.Priortothewar,theIrishhadbeenagitatingforgreaterindependencefromtherestofBritain.WorldWarIovershadowedthenegotiationsforIrishautonomyandleftIrishnationalistsdissatisfied.
GermanysawthispotentialcrackinBritain’sunitedfrontandreachedouttodisgruntledIrishcitizens.GermanyassistedIrelandbysupplyingweaponsandasmallexpeditionaryforceduringthe1916EasterRising.Duringthatevent,agroupofIrishcitizensrevoltedagainsttheBritishgovernment.IttooksubstantialtimeandenergyonthepartofBritaintodealwiththisdomesticconflict—timeandenergythatcouldhavebeenspentontheWesternFront.Ultimately,evenwithGermany’shelp,Irelanddidnotachieveindependenceatthattime.TheproblemofIrishautonomywouldriseagainafterthewar,however.
BritainhadmoreluckmeddlingwithGermany’sally,Austria-Hungary.Austria-Hungaryheldalargeempirethatencompassedmanyindividualeth-nicgroups,includingCzechsandPoles.BritainandtheotherAlliessubtlypressedmembersoftheseindividualethnicgroupstoagitatefortheirownautonomy.BritaintargetedGermany’sotherallies,too,includingtheOttomanEmpire.There,Britainemployedasimilartactictotheonesithasusedinthe
This image shows the destruction to a post office in Dublin during Ireland’s fight with England for home rule.
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Unit 16, Lesson 10 853
Austro-HungarianEmpire—dividingcitizensinternallyaccordingtoethnicpro-files.Themanknownas“LawrenceofArabia,”ColonelT.E.Lawrence,workedthroughouttheOttomanregiontogettheArabpeopleinterestedinseparatingfromtheempireandsettinguptheirownnation-state.Thisresultedinaslow,simmeringriseinunhappinessamongpeoplelivingunderOttomanrule.SimilartoGermany’sactionsinIreland,Britain’sactionsintheAustro-HungarianandOttomanempiresdidnotmakethedifferencebetweenagloriousvictoryandanignominiousdefeatinWorldWarI,buttheylaidthefoundationforfurtherturmoilintheyearstocome.
Otherproblemsemergedonthedomesticfronts.Inthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,followingtheIndustrialRevolution,thegovernmentsinEuropehadslowlyshiftedfromrepresentingtheveryfewelitetoincludingmoreandmoreofthecitizenswholivedinthosecountries.BythetimeWorldWarIbegan,commonershadmorerightsandprivilegesthantheyeverhad,althoughnosituationwasperfect:womendidnotyethavetherighttovoteinBritain,forexample.Yetoncethewarstarted,peoplehadtopauseintheirindividualquestsforself-bettermentandputtheirenergyintotheircountries’warefforts.
Theotherwaypeoplehelpedtheircountrieswasbyparticipatinginandacceptingtherationingoffoodandgoods,givinguptheirownwantsandneedsforthegreaterpurposeofthewar.Whileallcountriesparticipatedinrationing,Germanywasmostaffectedbyit.Halfwaythroughthewar,in1916,Germanyhadbasicallybecomeastateundercontrolofthemilitary.KaiserWilliamIInolongerruledinthetruestsenseoftheword.Instead,twomenjoinedtogethertorunthecountrylikealargerversionoftheGermanarmy.Thesemen,ErichLudendorff(1865–1937)andPaulvonHindenburg(1847–1934),askedagreatdealoftheircitizens.Together,LudendorffandHindenburgmanagedasysteminwhicheachcitizenreceivedacertainamountoffood,aration,eachday.Thesemeasurements,detailedinsmalldocumentscalledrationbooks,becamesospecificthattheywouldlisthowmuchapersoncouldeatintermsofindividualcalories.Overtime,conformingtotheseseriousrestrictionsmeantthatmanyGermanssufferedfrommalnutritionand,throughthecumu-lativeyearsofthewar,didnotgetenoughtoeat.Sometimescitizenswouldsupplementtheirfoodbyaddinginedibleobjects,likeaddingsawdusttotheirbreaddough.
Rights Whilemanyindividualshadtogiveuptheirquestsformorerightsandprivilegeswhenthewarbegan,WorldWarIactuallyadvancedwomen’srightsinanumberofways.Duringthiswar,youngmendidnearlyallofthefightingatthefront,whichmeantthatfamiliesonthehomefrontlackedtheyoung,able-bodiedmenwhohadperformedmanyofthejobsinthevillagesandcitiesofEurope.Beforethewar,womenhadlargelybeenexpectedtostayhome,raisechildren,andperformotherdomesticduties.However,withthemengone,thefactoriesandbusinessesneededworkerssogoodscouldbeproducedandthewarcouldcontinue.Manywomensteppedintotakeontheseroles.
rationing limited distribution of food, clothing, and other goods according to gov-ernment regulations
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854 Unit 16, Lesson 10
Thisadvanceinopportunityforwomenalsocamewithaprice.ManyBritishwomentookjobsinmunitionsfactories,makingshellcasingsandexplosives.Yetthefactoryownersandleadersdidnottakeenoughcareintrainingandprotectingthesewomenworkingaroundsuchdangerousobjects.Sadly,manywomendiedinthefactoriesasaresultofaccidentsanddangerousconditions.Otherwomensufferedlong-termpoorhealthasaresultofexposuretounsafechemicals.Femalefactoryworkersbecameknownasthe“women with yellow hands,”becausetheiryellowhandsweresymptomsofpoisoningthatresultedfromworkingwithTNTatthefactories.TheirinadvertentsacrificeshelpedtheBritishgovernmentandpeoplerealizetheimportantpositionwomenhadtakenupintheworkforceandtherightstheyshouldenjoy.Becauseoftheirlosses,thesewomenwouldserveasinspirationforothersintheyearsafterthewar—notjustinBritain,throughouttheworld.Theywouldcontributetowomeneventuallywinningtherighttoparticipateinthevotingprocess.
Inmostcountries,womendidnotserveinthearmedforcesincombat.However,Russiamadeanexceptionforthem.Followingtheoverthrowofthetsar,theRussianProvisionalGovernmentorganizedaunitcalledtheWomen’sBattalionofDeath.Thisbattalionfoughtbothonenemylinesandhometerritory.Itwasnotagrouporganizedforshoworpropaganda.Apartfromthisgroup,though,women’ssacrificesduringthewarremainedprimarilyonthedomesticfront.
Womendidnotstandaloneintermsofbenefitingfromwartimeactivity.Highlytrainedlaborersalsobenefitedfromwartimeconditions,whichenabledpeoplewithtalent,ability,anddeterminationtothrive.Bytheendofthewar,
women with yellow hands women who worked at the munitions factories in Britain and were poisoned by TNT
This shell factory produced armaments for World War I.
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Unit 16, Lesson 10 855
trainedlaborershadbeenabletoachievemorerightsfortheirunionsandincreasetheamountofmoneytheywerepaid.Evenso,laborersandthestatedidnotalwaysgetalong.Sometimesthelaborerswouldgoonstrike.Usuallythesestrikeswouldbeansweredbytemporarycompromisesonthepartofthegovernment,butthestatewouldalsousuallyfollowthosecompromiseswithpromisesofmuchharshertreatmentifthelaborersdidnotreturntowork.Thiskindofnegotiatingtacticwasnotgoodforthemoraleofworkers.Whiletheymanagedtokeepmanufacturinglevelshighthroughthewar’sendin1918,afterthatmanyworkersnolongerfeltcompelledtoswallowtheirprideorabandontheirrightsinthenameofthewar.Instead,theystoodupforthemselvesinfullforce.Asaresult,severalsmallgoverningregimesfellwhentheylostthesupportoftheworkingclasses.
Suffering Asinmanyotherwars,nationsoftenputindividual,internalrightsonholdintheirquesttoachievevictory.Certainly,nationsfocusedonupholdingmoraleandkeepingtheircitizensingoodspirits,inpartsothosesamecitizenswouldbuywarbondsandkeepfundingthewar.Morethanever,though,governmentsworriedaboutkeepingtheircitizensloyal.Wartime,asaspecial,extenuatingcircumstance,offeredgovernmentsadditionalwaysofcontrollingtheirpeopleascanbeseeninoneofthemostliberaloftheWesterncountries,Britain.Almostassoonasthewarstarted,Britain’sgovernmentsetupanewlawcalledtheDefenseoftheRealmAct,orDORAforshort.ItachievedthreemaingoalsfortheBritishgovernment.First,ithelpedthegovernmentdictateaspectsoftheBritishlife.Second,itenabledthegovernmenttopracticepress censorshipandmakesurethattheonlystoriesbeingtoldinthenewsweretheonesthatreflectedwellonBritain.Third,propertywasneededforthewareffort.Clearly,DORAaffordedBritain’sgovernmenttremendousrightsoveritspeople.
Meanwhile,asinanywartimescenario,mostnationscreatedstrongerpenaltiestoprotectthemselvesfromforeignagentsandsaboteurs.EventheUnitedStates,anoceanawayfromthewarzone,passedlawsthatlimitedcivillibertiesinexchangefortheperceptionofgreatersecurity.Peoplewhospokeoutagainstthewarorthecountry’spoliticalleadersfacedtheprospectofjail.Onoccasion,somecountries,likeGermany,setupdoubleagentstoobservepotentialprotestersorenemiesofthestate,andreportback.
Tohelpmaintainthemoraleofcitizenpopulations,thenationalgovernmentswhowagedWorldWarImadewideuseofpropaganda.PropagandahadtwomainfunctionsduringtheGreatWar.Governmentsusedpropagandatokeeppeopleinterestedinthewareffort,supportiveoftheirnations,andcommittedtotheircause.Thiskindofpropagandareliedonimagesorfiguresthatsignifiedpositiveprideinone’snationandurgedpeopletoactontheirownprideintheirnation.Nationsalsousedpropagandatodehumanizetheiropponents,describingpeopleandsoldiersfromtheothersideascruelmonstersouttodestroytheworld.Thiskindofnegativepropagandahaditsrootsinthewaynationalism
3SeLf-cHecK
What happened to
the women with
yellow hands?
press censorship government control over what can and cannot appear in the news and media
This World War I poster encourages citizens to enlist in the military cause.
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856 Unit 16, Lesson 10
haddevelopedoverthe50yearsleadinguptothetwentiethcentury.Atitsmosteffective,propagandachanneledexistingprejudiceintoanagendaforthestate.
Occasionallythiskindofpropagandaandprejudicialpracticehadterribleconsequences,includingmassmurderandevengenocide.In1915,astheOttomanEmpirebattledRussia,alargegroupofChristiansofArmenianheritagebecamethetargetofTurkishgenocide.TheOttomansworriedthattheArmenianshadcloselinkstotheRussiansandmightfeelcompelledtohelpthemoverthrowtheOttomanrulers.Toprecludeanysuchevent,theOttomanEmpireorderedamassattackontheArmenianpopulationwithinitsborders.HundredsofthousandsofArmenianswereforciblyremovedfromtheirhomesandsenttolaborcamps.Manyotherswerekilledoutright,includingmanycommunityleaders.Today,historiansestimatethatanywherefrom1to1.5millionArmeniansdiedintheArmenianMassacre.
The Last Year of the WarForthreelongyearsofwar,despiteimmensebattlesandunprecedenteddestruction,thestalematecontinuedontheWesternFront.Neithersidehadbrokenthrough,yetmillionsofpeoplehaddied.By1918,boththeAlliesandtheCentralPowershadgrownsomewhatdesperate.Thus,inMarch,GermanyattemptedanotherfocusedattackagainsttheAlliedlinesinFrance.Withthislastadvance,Germanyhopedtofinallyemergevictorious,whateverthecost.Instead,Germany’sarmyfounditselfconfrontedbyaweakenedFrencharmy,buttheFrenchnowhadsignificantsupportintheformofBritishandAmericantroops.TheUnitedStateshadjoinedthewarnearlyayearearlier,andby1918over2millionAmericansoldiers,affec-tionatelyknownas“doughboys,”hadjoinedtheFrenchandBritishinthetrenchesofFrance.TheAmericanswereledbyGeneralJohnJ.Pershing(1860–1948),oftencalled“BlackJack.”OnemonthaftertheGermanslaunchedtheirassault,theystruggledtofendoffacohesiveAlliedforceunderthecommandofaFrenchfieldmarshalnamedFerdinandFoch(1851–1929).Adesperatebattleensued.
Formonthsthebattleraged,withneithersideabletoexploitanadvantage.Bymidsummer,however,Germanybegantofallback.TheunifiedAlliedforcesstruckbackagainsttheGermanarmyandslowly,butfirmly,begantopushitback.InAugust,theGermanarmyreceivedaheavyblow,incurringsignificantlossesatAmienswhenattackedbytanksmannedbyBritishsoldiers,whichfinallyprovidedtheabilitytobreakthroughthetrenchlines.TheGermanswerepushedbacksomesevenmilesinasingledayoffighting,andmorethan15,000GermansoldierssurrenderedtotheadvancingAllies.Theday,August8,becameknownastheBlackDayoftheGermanArmy.
AftertheBlackDay,theCentralPowers’defeatseemedimminent.ThefirstcountrytosurrendertotheAllies,Bulgaria,didsoonthelastdayofSeptember 1918.Soon,Bulgaria’sformeralliesfolloweditinadmittingdefeatandsubmittingtotheAllies.OnemonthafterBulgariaadmitteddefeat,Turkeyfollowed,signingapeacetreatyonOctober3.Justfourdayslater,Austria-HungarycededvictorytotheAllies.Thus,onlyGermanyremainedatwaragainsttheAllies,untilNovember11,whenGermanyagreedtoanarmisticetoendhostilitieswiththeAllies.TheAllieshadwonWorldWarI.Yetinasense,they,too,hadlost,sincetheysharedinthe
genocide mass murder of a group of people based on the character-istics of that group, such as race or religion
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Unit 16, Lesson 10 857
hugenumbersofkilledormaimedindividualsthewarhadcaused.Alltold,morethan10millionpeoplediedduringthecourseofWorldWarI.Twiceasmanymoresufferedgraveinjuries.Thesenumbersincludedbothpeopleofficiallyfightingonthefrontsandinnocentbystanders.
WhilethewarendedinNovember,negotiationsconcerningpeacedidnotfullybeginuntilJanuary1919,whenrepresentativesfromaroundtheworldgatheredinParistoconferabouthowtoshapeglobalpeaceintheyearstofollow.Germany,forbiddenfromcontributingtothenegotiations,hadnovoiceinwhatfollowed.Russia,nowundercontroloftheBolsheviks,didnotparticipateinthepeaceconfer-enceeither.Approximately32othercountriesdidparticipate,however,butonlyfourreallymattered.TherepresentativesfromeachofthesecountriescametobecalledtheCouncilofFour,andtogethertheywieldedtremendouspower.U.S.presidentWoodrowWilson(1856–1924),FrenchprimeministerGeorgesClemenceau,BritishprimeministerDavidLloydGeorge,andItalianprimeministerVittorioOrlando(1860–1952)madeupthiscouncil.
Wilsonhopedtoguidethecounciltoadoptapeaceplanthatincludedhisblueprintforanewworldorderinwhichsuchterrificwarcouldneveragainoccur.HisplanbecameknownastheFourteenPointsforthedifferentpolicychangesWilsonadvocated.Theseincludedtheprotectionofeachcountry’saccesstothehighseas,morefreemarketsthroughouttheworld,fewerweaponsheldbyeachcountry,andashared,honestinterchangeofinternationalnegotiations.The
The Council of Four who contributed to the Treaty of Versailles from left: British prime minister Lloyd George, Italian prime minister Orlando, French prime minister Clemenceau, and U.S. president Wilson
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858 Unit 16, Lesson 10
FourteenPointsalsoproposedautonomyfordifferentethnicgroupscurrentlysubjecttoimperialauthorities.Thefinalpointcalledfortheestablishmentofanorganizationofcountries,theLeagueofNations.WilsonenvisionedtheLeagueofNationsasakindofglobalmediatorthatcouldintercedeininternationaldis-agreementsandpreventanotherglobalconflictoftheGreatWar’smagnitude.ThispointmatteredmuchmoretoWilsonthanitdidtotheleadersofBritain,France,orItaly.Itmeantpotentialtroubleforinterpretingpeaceonaninternationalscale.
Indeed,therepresentativesofBritainandFrancehadotherideas.FrancehadsufferedbrutallyinitsstruggleagainsttheGermanarmy,andFrance’sClemenceauwantedtoensurethatwouldneverhappenagain.HewantedtoweakenGermanysignificantly,sothattherewouldnotevenbeaquestionofGermanyrisinguptothreatenFrance.ClemenceaublamedGermanyforthedamagesFrancehadincurredasaresultofthewarandwantedGermanytopaymassivereparations.HewantedGermanytofinancetherebuildingofFrance.Theothertwomembersofthecouncilhadtheirownagendas,too.Britain’sLloydGeorgesoughtassur-ancesthatBritainhadaclearplayingfieldinternationallyandcouldgetbacktobalancingitsempire,whichhadbeguntoshrinkintheyearssince1901.Todoso,Britainrequiredacontinentalbalanceofpower.Italy’sOrlandohopedtoreclaimevenmorelandforItalythaneverbefore,perhapstomakeupforthecountry’sinabilitytogainmorecoloniesduringthelargepushofimperialismduringthelatenineteenthcentury.
Peace and the Treaty of VersaillesThus,thenegotiatorswhoassembledatthepeaceconferenceinPariscametogetherasabiasedgroupofindividuals,eachwithhisownagenda.Bythetimeitwascomplete,theTreatyofVersailleshadbecomeoneofthemostimportantnegotiatedaccordsinEuropeanhistory.Itwouldstronglyinfluenceimmediateeventsinthedecadesthatfollowed,aswellasthewayscountriesbehavedtowardeachotherforthenext80years.Initsimportanceandimpact,theTreatyofVersaillesissimilartoanagreementofahundredyearsearlier:theCongressofVienna.BothViennaandVersaillesmadelargechangestoglobalsafety,andbothhadlong-lastingeffects.
Thetreatyaddressedthequestionoflandinthreeseparateregions.TheformerAlliesdisagreedseverelyoverthefirstregionoflandinquestion,theRhineland,anareainwesternGermanyneartheborderwithFrance.Clemenceauworriedabouthisnationsharinganationalboundarywithitsformerenemyandwantedtocreateabuffer statebetweenthetwocountriesintheRhineland.Todoso,theRhinelandwouldhavetobecutawayfromGermanyandmadeintoitsownstate.AlthoughFrancefoughthardforthispoint,theUnitedStatesstronglyopposedit.AsinhisFourteenPoints,Wilsonclungtonationalself-determinationandarguedthatGermancitizensshouldbeallowedtoremainso.Eventually,thenego-tiatorsarrivedatamiddleground.TheRhinelandwouldbecomedemilitarizedforgood.GermancitizensoftheRhinelandwouldremainpartoftheGermanstate,butFrancewouldnothavetofearamilitaryinvasionfromtheeast.
IntheFranco-PrussianWarnearly50yearsearlier,FrancehadlostcontrolofAlsace-Lorraine.WiththeTreatyofVersailles,Francereclaimedtheregion.
4SeLf-cHecK
Which Central Power
ceded victory to the
Allies first?
buffer state neutral region along the bound-ary of two separate nations, to protect each from the other
demilitarized removal of the military
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Unit 16, Lesson 10 859
Thus,inadditiontolosingtherighttostationtroopsintheRhineland,GermanyhadlostanotherimportantstripofterritoryalongtheboundaryitsharedwithFrance.FrancealsopenalizedGermanythroughitstreatmentoftheregionoftheSaar.TheSaarwasthearegionfullofadesirablenaturalresource,coal.Underthetermsofthetreaty,theLeagueofNationswouldtakeovertheSaarfor15yearswithFrancecontrollingthecoalindustry.ThispointbecameaddedtothetreatytocompensateforthelossesincoalFrancehadincurredduringthewar.ThetreatydictatedthatthepeopleoftheSaarwouldbeabletopar-ticipateinaplebiscitetoremaininGermanyortojoinwithFranceafterthe15yearshadpassed.
EachelementofthetreatyerodedGermany’sempirealittlebitmore,asotherpointscarvedofftinyregionsandreassignedthemtothenationsofDenmarkandBelgium.Thethirdregionaffectedbythetreaty,Poland,madeGermany’sempireevensmaller.WiththeTreatyofVersailles,Polandbecameanationonceagainafterhavingbeenabsorbedintoothercountries’empiresforsolong.Totheeast,aportionofwhathadformerlybeenGermanywasgiventoPoland,includingasectioncalledthePolishCorridor.ThePolishCorridorservedtwofunctions:first,itprovidedPolandwiththeabilitytoaccesstheBalticSea,andsecond,itservedasaboundarybetweenGermanyandEastPrussia.WithinthePolishCorridor,acitynamedDanzigalsobecameseparatedfromGermanyasacomponentofthetreaty.DanzighadanimportantharborintheBalticSea.EventhoughitwasinthePolishCorridor,thepeoplewholivedtherewereprimarilyGerman.TheAlliesfelttheyhadnochoiceinassigningDanzigtoPoland.
InadditiontoforcingGermanytogiveupsomuchterritory,theTreatyofVersaillesalsohumiliatedthedefeatedcountrybysettingupaseriesofmilitaryrestrictions.Germany’sformerlylargearmy,alreadydepletedbydeathsinthewar,becamelimitedtoonly100,000soldiers.Germany’snavywasdrasticallylimitedundertermsofthetreaty.ItwouldbepermittedonlytoprotectGermany’scoastandonlytoactuponthehighseas.Germanylostallitssubmarines.Itlostanyaerialdefenseoroffense,anditssoldierswerenotpermittedtousetanks.
Article231ofthetreatyplacedalltheblameforWorldWarIonGermanyandtherestoftheCentralPowers.Itisoftencalledthe“warguiltclause.”BecausealltheblamefellonGermany,itthuswasresponsibleforreparations.GermanywasforcedtopaysubstantialamountsofmoneytotheAllies,particularlyFrance.Despitetheseharshandhumiliatingconditions,Germany’srepresentativeagreedtoandsignedthepeaceagreement.SinceGermanyhadnotbeenpermittedarepresentativeatthenegotiationsforthetreaty,thefirsttimetheGermansreallysawitcameonJune28,1919,whenGermanrepresentativesreceivedpermissiontotraveltoParisandformallyagreetothetreaty.Fightinghadendedsixmonthsearlier,butonlywiththesigningoftheTreatyofVersaillesdidWorldWarItrulycometoaclose.
Other Ramifications of the TreatySwiftly,theTreatyofVersaillesalsoactedtoevisceratetheimperialstatesoftheAllies’opponents,byzeroinginonGermanyandtheCentralPowers’overseas
5SeLf-cHecK
Which two important
Allies disagreed over the
fate of the Rhineland,
and why?
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860 Unit 16, Lesson 10
coloniesinbothAsiaandAfrica.Thetreatydispersedthecoloniesthroughanewprogramcalledthemandate system.Underthesystem,coloniesessentiallystillbelongedtoothercountriesasmandates,whiletheLeagueofNationswouldoverseetheprocessofcolonialadministration.Ideally,thenegotiatorsattheTreatyofVersaillesviewedthemandatesystemasonethatwouldeventuallygiveautonomytothenativepeopleslivingintheformercolonies.ButevenundertheLeagueofNations’watch,powerfulEuropeancountriessimplytookoverthecoloniesassignedtothemthroughthemandatesystem.
Priortothewar,GermanyhadhadmanycoloniesontheAfricancontinent.Yetunderthemandatesystem,theGermancoloniesweresplitupbetweenFrance,Britain,andtheUnionofSouthAfrica.GermanyhadalsoheldislandterritoriesthroughoutthePacificOcean.JapansweptupGermany’sholdingsinthenorth,whileNewZealandandAustraliatookovertheonesinthesouth.Themandatesystemalsoappliedtootherpeacetreaties,includingtheAugust1920TreatyofSèvres.Accordingtothetermsofthistreaty,TurkeylosttheregionsithadheldarounditintheMiddleEast:Palestine,Iraq,andTransjordan,whichalltransferredtoBritain;andLebanonandSyria,whichtransferredtoFrance.
WhileFrance’sClemenceaucaredmostaboutensuringGermanywouldbecometooweaktobeaneffectiveenemythroughtheTreatyofVersailles,theUnitedStates’WilsonremainedevenmoreinterestedinsettinguptheLeagueofNations.WilsonhadoriginallyproposedasystemsimilartotheLeagueofNationsinhisFourteenPoints.In1919,theideabecameaddedtotheTreatyofVersailles.ThebasicideaoftheLeagueofNationswasthatthecountriesoftheworldwouldgathertogetherinapowerfulorganizationthatcouldinterveneinglobalconflicts.Theorganizationwouldtrytomediatetheconflictsinanonviolentway.
Wilson’splansfortheleaguebecamesetdownofficiallyintheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations.Accordingtothecovenant,allthecountriesthathadjoinedtheleaguewouldhaveenvoysparticipateinalargerAssembly,Council,andSecretariat.TheSecretariatwouldorganizethesmalldetailsfortheleague,theCouncilwouldbeasmallgroupoflong-termenvoysconnectedtothemostauthoritativenationsandotherelectedenvoys,andtheAssemblywouldincludeenvoysfromeverycountryintheleague.ThecovenantdictatedthatallmembersoftheLeagueofNationswouldworkoutofaneutralterritoryinSwitzerland.APermanentCourtofInternationalJustice,alsoknownbeasthePCIJortheWorldCourt,wouldlegallyupholdtheleague.TheWorldCourtwouldhaveitsownbylaws,separatefromthecovenant,andwouldworkoutofanareaseparatefromtheLeagueofNations.
Wilsontriedtoensurethattheleaguestoodasanimportant,vitalcomponentofallthepeacetreatiescreatedinParisatthepeaceconferencein1919.Somewhatironically,then,theUnitedStatesitselfdidnoteverbecomeamemberoftheleagueafterotherEuropeancountrieshadagreedtoit.DespiteWilson’sfiercecampaigningforit,theU.S.SenatedislikedtheTreatyofVersaillesasawholeanddidnotratifyit.Asaresult,eventhoughWilsonhadsignedthetreatyastherepresentativeoftheUnitedStates,theUnitedStatesneverformallyacceptedthetermsofthetreaty—or,inturn,joinedtheLeagueofNations.
mandate system system by which former colonies were parceled out to new nations, overseen by the League of Nations; basically a form of appropriation
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Unit 16, Lesson 10 861
Italy’sOrlandoattendedthepeaceconferencewiththeprimarygoalofgain-ingmorelandforItaly.Innegotiations,ItalyappearedtobetargetinglandthathadpreviouslybelongedtotheAustro-HungarianEmpire.TheAustriandelega-tionpresentattheconferencebecameveryunhappyaboutalltheregionsthatitscountrylosttoItaly,particularlyaregioncalledTrentino,whichhadmanycitizensofGermandescent,andIstria,whichhadtheimportantharborofTrieste.ItalyalsovaluedTriestebecausemostofthepeoplelivingtherewereofItaliandescent.AccordingtoWilson’sideasofnationalself-determination,thepeopleinIstriashouldhavebeenallowedtochooseiftheywantedtojoinItalyoranothernationthathadbeencreatedbythenegotiators,Yugoslavia.TerritorialdisputesbetweenItalyandYugoslaviahelpedcreatetensioninthedecadethatfollowedthecompletionofthetreaty.Italy’squestforevenmoreterritoryelsewherewasthwartedwhentherestofthenegotiatorsdenieditareasonthecontinentsofAsiaandAfrica.
AfterWorldWarI,mapsoftheEuropeancontinenthadtoberedrawntoreflectlargereassignmentsoflandtakenfromthemanyfallenempiresandgiventothenewlyestablishedstates.TheHapsburgEmpirefell.ThegreatnationsofAustriaandHungary,whichhadcontrolledsomuchterritory,becamereducedtotwosmaller,independentnations.Otherpartsoftheformerempireweredividedintotwonewcountries,CzechoslovakiaandYugoslavia.GermanygaveupportionsofitslandtoFrance,Denmark,andBelgiumandtotheformationofPoland,whichalsoabsorbedterritoryformerlyattachedtoHungaryandRussia.TheOttomanEmpirecollapsedaswell,separatingintoPalestine,Iraq,Transjordan,Turkey,andwhatlaterbecameLebanonandSyria.Russia,too,sawwesternregionsofitscountrybecomeseparatedintoEstonia,Latvia,Lithuania,andFinland.Theageofimperialismwasover,andEuropewouldbeforeveraltered.
Extensions• ReadtheTreatyofVersailles.WastheVersaillestreatyafairtreaty?Howdid
theVersaillestreatygeneratearoadmapforthetwentiethcentury?HowdidtheVersaillestreatyplanttheseedsforconflictinthetwentiethcentury?
SummaryAsthewardrewtoanend,peoplebecameconcernedabouttheworlditself,disap-pointedintheeventsofthewarandinhumanity.Peoplebegantogrowhopelessanddisillusionedastheystruggledtoabandontheirprewarbeliefsystems.Theyseemeddevastatedbytheoverwhelminglossesincurredduringthewar,whichweredueinlargeparttonewmeansofwagingwar,likesubmarinesandpoisongas.Participationinthewareffortledtomorerightsforwomenandlaborers,whilegovernmentsexertedmuchmorecontrolthantheyhadinpeacetime.In1917,theUnitedStatesjoinedinthewarandsidedwiththeAlliesinthelastgreatbattlein1918.TheCentralPowersweredefeated.ThearmisticethatendedthefightingwentintoeffectonNovember11,1918.Discussionsconcerningthepeacebeganin1919andresultedintheTreatyofVersailles,whichplacedblameforthewaronGermanyandstronglyinfluencedthefuture.
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862 Unit 16, Lesson 10
Looking AheadIntryingtomakesuretheyhadpunishedGermanyhardenoughintheTreatyofVersailles,theAlliesendeduppunishingGermanyseverely.Ultimately,theiractionswouldleadtotheonethingtheyhadtriedtoprevent:abrokenGermanyregroup-ing,risingup,andreemergingasamoreterrifyingopponentthanbefore.WorldWarIwasthemostdevastatingwaranyonehadeverwitnessed.Unfortunately,anevenmorebrutalwarwoulderuptinameretwodecades.
1. Paul Valéry said World War I was like a natural disaster and even though it was over, people had only begun to acknowledge their fear of it.
2. About 10 million
3. Many of them were poisoned and either died or lost their fertility as a result.
4. Bulgaria
5. Clemenceau thought it should belong to France, to keep the French-German boundary neutral. Wilson thought it should remain part of Germany because of national self-determination.
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
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Revolutions Begin in Russia
Unit 16, Lesson 11
Keywordsdictated peace
gold standard
legislate by decree
proletarian socialist revolution
redemption dues
soviet
zemstvos
Essential Questions• WhatweretheimmediateeffectsofWorldWarI?
• WhathappenedinRussiabetween1905and1917?
• WhowerethepeopleandpartiesinvolvedintheRussianRevolution?
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864 Unit 16, Lesson 11
Set the StageIn the four years of its duration, World War I had fulfilled its name and become truly a global battle. Countries from around the world had participated, their hopes rising and falling as each side attempted to achieve a victory. It was difficult for any country to focus on anything other than the war, so many domestic disputes and internal struggles had been put on hold. Yet in the middle of the war, Russia dropped out of the conflict, plagued by problems within its own borders. Russians did not have fundamental civil rights, like free speech, and resentment of their autocratic government had grown overwhelming. Russia’s internal discord had become so terrible that it could no longer engage in the massive war that so consumed the rest of Europe. By 1919, when peace began to settle over the rest of the continent, Russia’s troubles would be far from over.
Reverberations of World War IWorldWarIwasthelargest,mostviolentconflicttheworldhadseenuptothatpoint.Thenewmannerofwarfareleftnearlyanentiregenerationoftheconti-nent’sbestandbrightestburiedinunmarkedgraves.Afterthewar’sendin1918,itseemedasthoughtheEuropeansdidnotknowhowtomoveforwardandachievepeaceagain.WorldWarIthreatenedtobringlifeaspeoplehadknownittoahalt.Empireshadtoppled,andeventhenationsthathadmadeitthroughthewaronthewinningsidewereshakenandscattered.
ThroughthenewboundariesdrawnintheTreatyofVersaillesandinternalrebellionsinmanyofthedefeatedcountries,severalformerlypowerfulimperialstatesendeduplosingmuchofthelandtheyhadclaimedduringtheeraofimpe-rialismthatprecededthewar.WhiletheOttomanEmpirehadbeenindeclineforyears,upuntiltheendoftheGreatWarGermanyhadbeenaformidable,powerfulimperialstate.Austria-Hungary,whilesmallerthanGermany,hadbeendevelopinganextensiveseriesofcoloniesuntilthey,too,werelostintheTreatyofVersailles.Meanwhile,RussiahadbeenaformidableempirepriortotheGreatWarbutdroppedoutofthewarbeforeanyofothermajorpowersbecauseofdomesticproblems.Itwouldtakeasignificantamountoftimetofigureoutwhattheworldwouldlooklikewithouttheempiresthatruledforsolong.
ThefirstmajorchangetotheseformerlyimperialregionscamethroughtheTreatyofVersailles,whichdictatedthefoundationofseveralbrand-newnations.InplaceofthefallenimperialfederationsthathadbelongedtoAustria-HungaryandGermany,thetreatydictatedthatmuchofthelandthetwoimperialpowershadabsorbedwouldbereformedintonew,smallercountries.WhileGermanylostsomelandtoitsenemyFrance,itwasalsoforcedtogiveupsomeareastothenewlyformedPoland.PolandalsoabsorbedsomelandthathadbelongedtotheHapsburgEmpire.Austriabecamereducedtoitsown,smallersovereignstatus,whileseveralothernationsformed,includingCzechoslovakiaandYugoslavia.IntheBalticregion,threesmallernationsformedoutofwhathadbeenHapsburg
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Unit 16, Lesson 11 865
territory:Estonia,Lithuania,andLatvia.Eachofthesenewcountriesseemedtoosmallonitsowntoposeaseriousinternationalthreat.TheAllieswereusingapolicyofdivisionsonoonecouldbeconquered.Alliedrepresentativesworkedtoestablishmoreliberal,representativegoverningregimesinalloftheseregions.
Despitetheintentionsofthoseparticipatinginthepeaceagreements,theestablishmentofaseriesofnew,smallnationsdidnotfullysolvetheproblemsofashakenEurope.Groupsofpeoplecontinuedtorebel,sometimesviolently.InwhathadsorecentlybeenknownasRussia,anothergoverningregimeroseinthenewSovietUnion.Thisregime,unlikethemonarchythathadgovernedRussiasolong,practicedaninclusiverulethatinvolvedallthecitizensofitscountry.
Literal and Metaphorical costsInthemeantime,asthemapsofEuropewereredrawnoncemore,thepeoplewholivedonthecontinentstruggledtocometotermswiththepricetheyhadpaidtowageWorldWarI.Duetovariouscircumstancesofthewar,scholarstodayarenotexactlysurehowmanypeopleperishedasaresultoftheconflict,bothdirectlyandindirectly.Manysoldierswholivedthroughthewarhadbeenpermanentlydisfigured.Manysufferedfrompost-traumaticstressdisorder.MillionsofpeopleinEuropegrievedforthefriendstheyhadlostorthementheyhadkilled,andsomecontinuedtosufferfromtheeffectsofbreathinginpoisongaswhileparticipatingintrenchwarfare.Asmanyas10millionsoldiersdiedduringthewar,whetherasaresultofcombatordisease,andmorethantwiceasmany—23millioninall—wereseverelyinjured,resultinginanapproximatetotalof33millionindividualskilledorhurtinthewar.
Ofthose33million,approximately6millioncamefromGermanyandnearlyasmany,5.5million,camefromFrance.WhileonthesurfaceFrance’sandGermany’snumbersappearnearlyequal,thepercentageofFrenchdeathsishigher.Whenthewarbeganin1914,thenumberofpeoplelivinginGermanyhadbeenapproximately33percentmorethanthenumberofpeoplelivinginFrance.Thenumbersofdeadtodayseemalmostunimaginable.ThehighdeathcountmeantthatnearlyeveryoneinFranceknewsomeonewhodiedinthewar.TheFrench,deeplymovedbythedeathsofsomanyoftheirfellowcitizens,erectedcommemorativemonumentsincities,towns,andvillages.
Followingthewar,anotherevenmoredevastatingblowtotheglobalpopula-tionarrivedintheformofadeadlystrainofinfluenza thatkilledapproximately30 millionpeople.ThatfiguretripledthenumberofpeoplewhohaddiedinWorldWarIandpracticallyequaledthetotalamountofpeoplewoundedandkilledinthewar.Natureandfateseemedequallycruel.Inlessthanadecade,40millionpeoplehadbeenlost.
Inadditiontothehumanlosses,Europe’sinfrastructureandlandscapealsolayinruinsfollowingthewar.BothFranceandBelgium,sitesofsomanybattlesontheWesternFront,lostentiremunicipalities.Thecountrieswouldberesponsibleforrebuildingmuchoftheirterritoryfromthegroundup,withfewerworkerstotakeonjobsandlittlemoneytopaythemwith.Insomecases,thegrounditselfwasstilltreacherous.Notalltheexplosivedevicesusedinthebattleshadgoneoff,andsomelingeredinsafe-lookingfarmland.Goingbacktoworkthus
soviet Russian term for local government
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866 Unit 16, Lesson 11
requiredexceptionalbravery.IntheFlandersareaofBelgium,someexplosivesstilllieburiedinpastureseventoday.
Bankrollingthewarhadrequiredvastamountsofmoney,moneythatcouldnotberaisedwithinanysinglenation’sborders.ThesinglecountrythathadtakenpartinthewarandemergedwithnosignificantinternationaldebtwastheUnitedStates.Afterthewar,theUnitedStateswasowedtremendoussumsbysev-eralEuropeancountries,whichdidnotsitwellwiththeEuropeans.Upuntilveryrecently,theyhadbeenaccustomedtolendingtoothercountries,notborrowingthemselves.Theextraordinaryamountofwardebt,andthefinancingofthewarinU.S.dollars,helpedlaythefoundationofthemodernglobaleconomy.
AccordingtotheCarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,theFirstWorldWarcostasmuchas$338billion.Thisfigurecannotbequiteexact,butitgivesafairlygoodideaofthekindofmoneyitwouldtaketoplacesomanycountriesinfinancialjeopardy.SadlyfortheEuropeans,theyhadgonefromhavingmoremoneythaneverbefore,asaresultoftheinfluxofbusinessandcapitalthatcamefromacombinationofimperialismandtherewardsoftheSecondIndustrialRevolution,tobecomingpoorerthanever.
Ofallthecountrieshitfinanciallybythewar,Germanysufferedthemost.UnderthetermsoftheTreatyofVersailles,Germanywasforcedtopaytheothercountries’wardebt,aswellasitsown.Germany’sdiplomatshadhadlittlechoicebuttoagreetotheTreatyofVersailles,eventhoughitdisadvantagedGermanyanditscitizenstosuchagreatextent.ThegeneralpopulaceofGermany,however,blameditsbureaucracyforgivingin.
Anybureaucracywouldhavehadadifficulttimebalancinginternationalpeaceagreementswithpopularfeelingathome.Likesomeothercrumblingempires,though,Germanyhademergedfromthewarwithafardifferentpoliticaladmin-istrationthanithadbeforethewar—orevenduringit.Thisnewpoliticaladmin-istrationbecameknownastheWeimarRepublic,Germany’sfirstattemptatatrulydemocraticgovernment.Unfortunately,thefirstmonthsundertheWeimargov-ernmentbecamemarkedbyunhappinessanddissatisfactionamongGermanciti-zens.ThisdissatisfactionlaidafoundationfordiscordbetweenGermanyandtheAlliedcountriesthathadpunishedandhumiliateditintheTreatyofVersailles.AlthoughblameforthetermsoftheTreatyofVersaillescouldnotbestrictlylaidontheWeimargovernment,Germany’speopleblameditnonetheless.Germansaccusedtheirleadersofsuccumbingtoa“dictated peace.”TheWeimarRepublic’sfailurearrivedevenmorequicklythanitotherwisemighthave,however,becausefringeorganizationsthroughoutGermany,includingradicalpoliticalfactions,pushedatitsboundariesandpointedoutitsflaws.
GermanswerenottheonlyoneswhofoundtheTreatyofVersaillesunjust.PeopleinothercountriesagreedthatthefinancialburdenplacedonGermanyinanalreadyshakenglobalfinancialscenehadbeentoosevere.TheBritishfinan-cierJohnMaynardKeynes(1883–1946)stoodoutforhiscondemnationofthefinancialtreatmentofGermany.Inadditiontohistraininginfinance,KeynesspokefromanexpertpositionregardingtheTreatyofVersaillesbecausehehadbeenpresentduringthetreatynegotiationsin1919.Thatsameyear,Keynes
1SeLf-cHecK
Which killed more
people, World War I or
the widespread attack of
influenza that followed
the war? How many
people died in both?
dictated peace a forced ceasefire agreement that, unlike other peace nego-tiations, has one side determine all terms
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Unit 16, Lesson 11 867
wouldwriteEconomic Consequences of Peaceinwhichheclaimedthattheentirefinancialstructureoftheglobewouldsooncollapse.Hewouldbeprovenrightinjustoveradecade’stime.
Ultimately,theTreatyofVersaillesdidnotachievepeaceforotherreasons,aswell.Inpart,thiscamefromtheUnitedStateschoosingnottoparticipateinWilson’shard-wonLeagueofNations.Anorganizationliketheleaguecouldnotexertitspotentialpowertothefullestwithouttheparticipationandsupportoftheworld’slargesteconomy.TheUnitedStatessteppedawayfromEuropeanpoliticsinotherways,too.Inaddition,Russiahadundergonetremendouspoliti-calchangeandevolvedintoanewnation,theSovietUnion.OthercountriesinEuropeworriedaboutthenewagendaoftheSovietsandthepracticeofcom-munism,andbegantoquestionthelegitimacyofthereorganizednation.Twoofthelargestcountriesintheworld,theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion,thusbecameremovedfromEuropeintheyearsfollowingWorldWarI.TheTreatyofVersailles,ultimately,didnotdoenoughtomaintainpeaceinEuropeintheyearsfollowingthewar.Just20yearslater,thepeacewouldbebrokenagain.
Groundwork for Revolutions in Russia (1905–1917)AmongthemanylossessufferedinWorldWarIwasthecollapseofthelong-standingRussianmonarchy,representedatitsendbydescendentsoftheRomanovDynasty.Thelastrulingtsarandtsarina,NicholasIIandAlexandra,remainedcommittedtoautocracy.Butwhiletheprevioustsar,AlexanderIII,hadbeenabletoruleautocraticallyupuntiltheendofthe1800s,NicholasIIhadamoredifficulttimemakinghissubjectsconformtohisownabsoluterulethanhisfatherhad.Bythetwentiethcentury,Russiancitizensbegantoagitateformorerights.
Incomparisontoothercountries,Russiancitizensenjoyedfarfewercivilrightsandfreedoms.ThislackoflibertyinmonarchicalRussiaresultedforavarietyoffactors.Russiadidnotstartindustrializinguntilthelatenineteenthcentury,soithadalotofcatchinguptodo.First,Russiaworkedtobringitsrailsystemsuptospeedwiththerestoftheworld.Second,thecountrystartedminingcoalingreaterandgreateramounts.Becauseoftheincreasedmining,Russiacouldalsoproducemoregoodsnecessaryforindustrialproducts,suchasforgingatypeofcastironandthenforgingsteel.Bothcastironandsteelwouldbenecessarymaterialsforavarietyofindustrialproducts.
WhenRussiadidenterfullyintothekindsofindustrialpracticesemployedbytheotherEuropeannations,itdidsoprimarilybecauseoftheeffortsofoneman,SergeiWitte(1849–1915).WitteadvisedtheRussiangovernmentonmattersofeconomyandusedhisfinancialconnectionstobolsterindustrythroughoutRussia.OneofthemostimportantthingsWittedidwasbringRussiaintofinancialparitywiththerestoftheworld,whichheachievedbytransferringRussia’scur-rencytothegold standard.Doingsofosteredinternationalcommerce,sinceothercountriesaroundtheworldfeltthat,bysharingthegoldstandard,Russia“spokethesamefinanciallanguage”astheydid.Russiabegantoappearmore
gold standard a con-stant financial exchange system based on an agreed value of gold
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868 Unit 16, Lesson 11
financiallyreliableininternationalfinancialcircles.Becauseofthat,outsidersinvestedinRussianbusiness,which,inturn,fosteredthegrowthoftechnology,business,andindustrializationthroughoutRussia.
Wittealsobecameinterestedintransportation.ThecreationattheturnofthecenturyoftheTrans-SiberianRailroadcouldbecreditedlargelytohim.RussianscouldtravelallthewayfromVladivostok,aharborcityontheeasternshoresofRussia,tothemajorurbancenterofMoscow.ThisrailsystemcrossednearlytheentirelengthofRussia,coveringadistanceofmorethan4,970miles(8,000km).Intermsoffinance,industrialization,andtransport,Russiahadstartedtocatchuptotherestoftheworld.
Inotherareas,however,Russiastilllagged.SmallercountriesinEuropehadincorporatedindustrializationintomuchoftheircitizens’dailylives,sometimeswithoutachoice.Peopleinthosecountriesflockedinlargenumberstotheirnewcities.Incontrast,Russiabuiltfewcitiesacrossitsvastterritory.Eventhoughpro-ductionhadincreasedconsiderablywithinthecountry,themajorityofitspeoplelivedonfarms.Infact,bythetimeWorldWarIbegan,about82percentofthepeoplelivinginRussiastilllivedonfarmsratherthanincities.Theiroccupationsandlifestylesstayedthesameastheyhadbeenforcenturies,andtheRussianlowerclassesdidnotseetheadvancesthatcitizensofothercountrieshadenjoyed,andtheydidnotseemtobenefitfromanyoftheagrarianinnovationsthathadarisenasaresultoftheIndustrialRevolution.ManyfarmersinRussiasimplycouldnotmakeenoughmoneytosupportthemselves.WhilearistocratsandtheRomanovslivedinglorioushighstyle,thepeasantswhotilledtheirfieldshadbeguntostarve.
Thefarmersbecamesopoor,infact,thattheycouldnotevenaffordtokeepupwiththeformofrenttheyhadtypicallybeencharged,knownasredemption dues.Muchlikelandlordschargingtenantsrent,thefewrichpeopleinRussiawhoactuallyownedthefarmschargedthepeasantsredemptiondues,orloans,thatrequirednearlyhalfacenturytopayoff.Thefarmersgottoliveonandworkthelandthatbelongedtoothers,buttodosotheyhadtopaysteeppricestocompensatefortheirstaysthere.Thetimeperiodfortheduesoftenlastedaslongasorlongerthanapeasant’slifetime.Tomakemattersworse,farmshadbecomeincreasinglycrowded,asmoreandmorefarmersstartedlivingonthesameplotsofland.ThefewwhotriedtoleavethefarmsdidnothavemanyoptionsandusuallyendeduptravelingtothefrontierregionofSiberia.EvenwithsomefarmerstravelingtoSiberia,though,Russia’sfarmlandremainedoccu-piedbylargenumbersofincreasinglyunhappycitizens.Withsomanypeoplelivinginsuchpoorconditionsforsuchalongtime,itseemedthatunrestwaswaitingtohappen.
Indeed,unresthadbeguntobuildamongRussiancitizensfromavarietyofwalksoflife,notjustthepoorpeasantclasswhomadeupthemajorityofthecountry’spopulation.Asthenineteenthcenturygavewaytothetwentieth,NicholasIIandhisbureaucratsstruggledtomaintaincontroloverthecountry.Lawsbecamestricterandtheirimplementationmoreunforgiving,asNicholasIIworkedtomaintainthepowerhisfatherhadgraspedmoreeasily.Inresponsetotheseharsherconditions,however,theRussiancitizensbegantogrowrestlessand
redemption dues like rent, the 49-year charge peasants had to pay for the privilege of farming land that belonged to others
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Unit 16, Lesson 11 869
evenmoreunhappy,ratherthanbucklingdownandgivingintotheadministra-tion.Slowly,organizationsofrebelliousindividualsformed.
Thefirstoftheseorganizationsformedin1898,justsixyearsafterNicholasIItookthethrone,andembracedMarxism.TheRussianMarxistswhoformedthisorganization,calledtheRussianSocialDemocraticLaborParty(RSDLP),basedtheirideasonthoseofGeorgePlekhanov(1857–1918),animportantfoundingfigureoftheMarxistPartyinRussia.ByformingtheRSDLP,theserebelshadbrokenthelaw.Whatcompelledthemtoformtheirnewpartyinspiteofthedangerseemedtobethedesiretogainmoreofavoiceforthemassesinthegovernment.Todoso,theRSDLPknewitwouldeventuallyhavetotakedrasticaction.Thatkindofactioncouldonlybetakenwithaseriousbodyofpeopletoengageinanuprising.TheSocialDemocratsmeanttogathersuchagroupbyunitingRussianlaborers.Withinfiveyears,however,thisgrouphaditselfgrowndividedintoopposingsides,baseduponvaryingdegreesofradicalism.Themajorityfactionfollowedtheideasofarisingpoliticalstar,VladimirLenin,andhadbecomemuchmoreinvestedinaviolentuprising.TheytookthenameBolsheviks,fromaRussianwordmeaning“majority.”TheremainingmembersoftheRSDLPwhoadvocatedalessradicalapproachtookonthenameoftheMensheviks,or“minority”faction.
Inthemeantime,anothersocialistorganization,theSocialistRevolutionaryParty,formedaboutthreeyearsaftertheRSDLPhadformed.Inadditiontotheirsocialistpractices,thetwopartieshadmanysimilarities.Bothorganizationshadgrownoutofpreviouspoliticalparties.TheSocialistRevolutionaries,madeupprimarilyofextremistindividualsfromtheRussiancountryside,hadtheirrootsinanotherorganizationcalledthePopulists.ThePopulistsoriginallyhadtraveledwidelytotrytostirupthelowerclassessothatamasscitizenuprisingcouldbegenerated.WhilethePopulistshadbeenunsuccessful,theSocialRevolutionariescontinuedtotrytoimplementtheirideas.Liketheirpredecessors,theSocialRevolutionarieswantedtounitethepeopletoeffectchange.TheirsocialistvisionincludedpeoplefromallwalksoflifeinRussiaworkingsidebysideinamoreequalgovernmentandsociety.
Twoyearslater,anothergroupformedwithafarlesssocialistideology.Thepeopleinvolvedinthisgroup,calledtheUnionofLiberation,sharedacommonbackgroundofparticipatinginthezemstvos,whichhadgiventhemexperienceingoverningatthesmall,locallevel.Thisgroupalsoadvocatedamoredemocraticapproach,inwhichcitizensofRussiawouldhaveastrongervoiceintheirowngovernment.Lessradicalthantheothergroups,theLiberationPartywantedtosetupaconstitutionalmonarchyinRussia,somewhatpreservingtheexistinggovern-ment.Thequickformationofsomanynewpoliticalgroups,howeverextremisttheyseemed,couldonlymeanonething:changewouldbecoming,andsoon.
first Revolution (1905)Duringtheearly1900s,RussianinstabilityworsenedbecauseoftheeventsoftheRusso-JapaneseWar(1904–1905).Duringthiswar,thesmallislandnationofJapan,stillrelativelynewtoimperialism,humiliatedRussia.Inthepeaceagree-mentsmadeattheendofthewar,adefeatedRussiawasforcedtoacknowledgeJapanesecontrolofterritoryRussiahadbeentargetinginthesouthofManchuria
zemstvos smaller politi-cal administrations, with members gaining seats through an electoral process that governed regions of Russia
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870 Unit 16, Lesson 11
andinKorea.PeoplealreadyunhappywiththestateofaffairsinRussiabecameevenmoreirate,andthepoliticalregimeledbyNicholasIIfounditselffur-therweakened.Almostimmediatelyafterthewar,thefirstofseveraluprisingsoccurred:theRevolutionof1905.
OnJanuary22,1905,adaythatsoonbecameknownas“BloodySunday,”agroupofRussianpeoplegatheredatthetsar’sWinterPalaceinSt.Petersburgforanonviolentprotest.AreligiousmanfromtheRussianOrthodoxChurch,FatherGeorgeGapon,organizedtheprotestasawayforpeopletomaketheirvoicesheardtothegovernment,torequestchangeinacalmanddiplomaticway.SadlyforGaponandhisfellows,theprotestquicklyturnedviolent,asthegov-ernmentorderedthemilitarytofireonthepeopleprotestinginSt.Petersburg.Accordingtothetsaristgovernment,fewerthan100protesterswerekilled,butantigovernmentradicalsclaimedthat4,000hadbeengunneddown.Today,estimatessuggesttheactualnumberwascloseto1,000deadandwounded,includingthosetrampledintheensuingpanic.TheincidentoutragedpeoplethroughouttherestofRussia,andotherprotestsquicklyfollowedacrossthecountry.Workstoppagessoonfollowedtheprotests,asRussianstriedtogivevoicetotheirhorrorandshockovertheeventsofBloodySunday.CitizensfromallwalksoflifeinRussiaprotestedthegovernment’sactionsonBloodySunday,butthemilitaryremainedloyaltothegovernment,atleastforthetimebeing.Exceptionseventothisruleoccurred,ofcourse.ThemostnotablecamefromanuprisingononeofRussia’simportantships,thePotemkin.Thisuprising,whichtookplacewhilethePotemkinwaspostedtotheBlackSea,remainedanisolatedincidentatthetime.
Followingthenationwideprotests,theRussiangovernmenttooktherela-tivelyradicalstepofabolishingallremainingredemptionduesforthelowerclass.Bydoingso,thestateseemedtobetryingtoavertanevenbiggeruprisingbythefarmers,anditwasnottheonlystepthestatetook.InOctober1905,NicholasIIpublishedtheOctoberManifesto,whichofferedthreeimportantreformstoRussiancitizens.One,asafoundation,themanifestopledgedthatthegovernmentwouldcreateaconstitution.Two,withinthatconstitutionwouldbeapromised,government-sanctionedsetofcivilliberties.Three,thegovernmentwouldupholdthatconstitutionandthoselibertiesbysettingupalegislativebody,withmembersvotedinbythepublic,calledtheDuma.Initially,thereformssetforthintheOctoberManifestoseemedtopacifytheRussiancitizens.Thetsarandhisfellowbureaucratsstartedtorelaxintotheideathatperhapstherevolutionhadfullyendedin1906.Withoutwaitinganylonger,NicholasIImovedquicklytoamendsomeofthepointshehadmadeintheOctoberManifestosothat,astsar,hecouldstillemployasmuchpowerandauthorityaspossible.
NicholasIIenforcedtheseamendmentswhencreatingthenewconstitu-tion,knownastheFundamentalLaws.HemanipulatedtheFundamentalLawsinsuchawayastoplacemanylimitationsontheauthorityoftheDuma.First,theDumahadnoauthorityintwoveryimportantareas:theRussianeconomyandRussia’sengagementininternationalaffairs.Thosetwoareasremainedthe
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Unit 16, Lesson 11 871
provinceofthetsarasheadofthegovernment.Second,theDumacouldbedissolvedatanytimethetsarwishedit.Third,iftheDumawasdissolvedorotherwiseunabletoconvene,thenthetsarwouldhavetheabilitytolegislate by decree,orcreatenewlawswithoutanydueprocessinvolvingthepeople’srepresentatives.Fourth,theimportantmembersofthetsar’scabinetcouldnotbecontrolledbytheDuma,leavingmanyotherregionsorelementsofthegovernmentoutsidetheDuma’sprovince.Finally,theDumalostitspositionasthesolelegislativebodyintheRussiangovernment.Instead,itbecamethelowerhouseandhadtobowtotheauthorityofanewlegislativebodycalledtheCouncilofState.ThemembersservingintheCouncilofStatewouldbemuchmoremoderatethanthoseelectedtoserveintheDuma.ThetsarmusthavehopedthatseriesoflimitationswouldhelphimkeeptheDumasubservi-enttohisowngovernment.
AspartoftheOctoberManifesto,participatingingroupsliketheSocialDemocraticLaborParty,theUnionofLiberation,andtheSocialistRevolutionaryPartybecamelegalinRussia.Peopleinthesegroupsdidnothavetohidetheiractionsorbeliefsforfearsofreprisal,andtheycouldstartopenlyadvocatingforchange.Soon,thecurrentpartiesfoundthemselvesjoinedbytwoadditionalparties.Thesenewerpartiesof1905representedlessconservativeindividualsinterestedinpromotingtherightsofpeopleinbusinessandotherprofessions.ThefirstnewgrouptieditsidentitydirectlytotheOctoberManifesto.WhiletheybecameknownmorepopularlyasOctobrists,theirproperpartynameemphasizedthedaythemanifestowentintoeffect,sincetheyformallytitledthemselvestheUnionofOctober17.OfallthepoliticalpartiesinplayinRussiaduringthistime,theOctobristsseemedmostwillingtoworkwiththeexistingstatusoftheRussiangovernment,asadaptedbyNicholasIIinthemanifesto.Theyapprovedoftheconstitution,theDuma,andthenewdefinitionoftheircivilliberties.
The other new group to form during this time, officially called theConstitutionalDemocratsandknownastheCadets,divergedfromtheOctobristsinremainingunsatisfiedwiththestateofgovernmentalchange,andcontinuedtoadvocateformorerights.EventhoughNicholasIIhadestablishedaconstitutiontoworkintandemwithhisowngovernment,membersoftheCadetswantedtoseeRussiabecomeatrueconstitutionalmonarchy.TheylookedtoBritain’sgovernmentasastrong,workingexampleofthekindofregimetheywouldliketohaveintheirowncountry.InBritain,importantofficialsliketheprimemin-isterhadtoanswertotheParliament,nottheking.TheCadetswantedtoseethesamethinginRussiaandhavetheirimportantofficialsanswertotheDuma.
Second Revolution (March 1917)TheoutbreakofWorldWarIprovidedaninternationaldistractionforthoseconcernedaboutRussia’sdomesticproblems.WhenGermanyattackedFrance,RussiaenteredthewarontheAllies’sideduetoitsparticipationintheTripleEntentealliancewithFranceandBritain.Atfirst,RussiaseemedabletomarshalitsmilitaryandmeetGermanyonfairlyequalterms.Soon,though,Germany’s
legislate by decree ruler’s power to create new laws on command without interaction with a legislative body
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872 Unit 16, Lesson 11
militarybeganoverpoweringRussia’s.Justafewmonthsintothewar,inthefallof1914,Russialosttwoimportantbattles,thebattlesofTannenburgandoftheMasurianLakes,anditsarmywouldcontinuetosufferdefeatswhenitengagedwithGermany.
Inthepast,Russia’scapacitytoheavilystockitsmilitarywithpuremanpowerhadmadeitaformidableforce.YetinWorldWarI,themoretechnologicallysavvycountrieshadalargeadvantage.Russiasimplycouldnotkeepup.Thecountrydidnothaveenoughresourcesinmanufacturingtosupportparticipationinaconflictofsuchmagnitude.Thefactthatitspeoplewerescatteredthroughoutthecountrysideonlymademattersworse.
Alittleoverayearintothewar,NicholasIIdecideditwouldbebestifthemilitaryfollowedhisordersdirectly.HesteppedbackfromgoverningRussiamoregenerallytoconcentrateonmilitarystrategy.SoTsarinaAlexandra,hiswife,tookoverthegovernmentofRussiainhisabsence.ThisturnofeventsultimatelyproveddevastatingfortheRomanovs.DuringNicholasII’sabsencefromcourt,AlexandraturnedmoreandmoretothecounselofGrigoriRasputin(1872–1916),aself-styledreligiousmysticknowntosomeasthe“MadMonk,”althoughheneverofficiallyworkedfortheRussianOrthodoxChurch.AlexandrabelievedRasputinpossessedhealingabilitiesthatcouldcurehersonandtheheirtotheRussianthrone,Alexei,whosufferedfromhemophilia,adangerousbloodcondition.
Havingcapturedthetsarina’sdevotion,Rasputintookanactiveroleingovernmentdecisionmaking,leadingAlexandradownanumberofunfortunatepaths.RussiancitizensdislikedthedirectionthegovernmenthadtakenunderAlexandra’s—really,Rasputin’s—direction,andbegantoexpresstheirdislikeanddisrespectfortheentireroyalfamily.InDecember1916,Rasputinlosthislife.Theexactnatureofhisdeathremainsamystery,butitisclearthathewaskilledbyasmallfactionofroyalists,whoremainedloyaltothetsarandhopedthatbyeliminatingRasputintheycouldreturnRussia’sgovernmenttoamorepopularcourse.Bythen,however,itwastoolate.Theroyalfamily’sgriponthethronehadbeguntoslipandultimatelycouldnotberestored.
TheremaininggovernmentbecameshakierandshakierinthemonthsfollowingRasputin’sdeath.Russiancitizenslaunchedamassiveprotestmove-mentinSt.Petersburg,recentlyrenamedPetrograd,inearly1917.Thecitysawrepeatedprotestsandworkstoppagesascitizenstriedtomaketheirfeelingsknown.Inadditiontotheirproblemswiththetsaristgovernment,theRussianpeoplewerefedupwiththeongoingwar.Becauseofthewar,citizensdidnothaveenoughtoeat,andtheyhadtomakeothersacrificesforthewareffort.Theirmoneyhadbecomealmostworthlesssinceinflationhadrisensohigh.
Theunrestcontinued.Totrytoputdownsomeofthepotentialuprising,NicholasIIexercisedhisrightasdescribedintheOctoberManifestotodissolvetheDumaandlegislatebydecree.Yetthepeople’srepresentativesintheDumadidnotappreciatethetsarexercisinghispowerinsuchaway.Soeventhoughtheyhadbeenreleasedfromtheirassembly,themajorityoflegislatorsstayedinthecapital.Indirectdisobedienceofthetsar’sorders,theDumaconvenedunderitsownauthorityonMarch12,1917.Inaprivatesession,itheldits
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Unit 16, Lesson 11 873
ownrapidelectoralprocessandselectedasmallsubgrouptostandforitinthelargergovernment.
Meanwhile,citizenscontinuedtoprotestinPetrograd,andNicholasII,ashehadbefore,commandedhisforcestogetinthecityandstoptheprotestors.ItseemedasthoughBloodySundaymightberepeated.Butinadirectmutinyagainstthetsar,thearmedforcesrefusedtofollowhisorders.Onceinthecity,thesoldierssidedwiththeprotesters,notagainstthem.Nooneremainedtoprotecttheroyalfamily,NicholasIIranoutofoptions.ThreedaysaftertheDuma’sprivatemeeting,NicholasIIchosetoabdicatefromhisthroneonMarch15,1917,accordingtotheGregoriancalendar(accordingtothecalendarthenusedinRussia,thedatewasMarch2).HisfamilyhadledRussiaformorethanthreecenturies,butitsendcameswiftly.Theseriesofeventsthatledtothetsar’sabdicationcametobeknownintheWestastheMarchRevolution.BecauseoftheiruseatthetimeoftheJuliancalendar,RussiansoftencallittheFebruaryRevolution.
WhetherpeoplereferredtotherevolutionastakingplaceinMarchorFebruary,though,thefactremainedthatRussiahadlostitstsaristregime.AnewregimewouldhavetoemergetogovernRussia,andthatregimegrewoutofthesmallgroupofDumamemberswhohadbeenelectedintheprivatemeetingonMarch12.ThissmallergrouptransformedintotheProvisionalGovernmentofRussia.NearlyalltheparticipantsintheProvisionalGovernment,includingitshead,GeorgeLvov(1861–1925),camefrommoreradicalparties.AsingleindividualfromtheSocialist
2SeLf-cHecK
Why did the Russian
people dislike Tsarina
Alexandra?
A Bolshevik crowd of revolutionaries demonstrates during the Russian Revolution of 1917.
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874 Unit 16, Lesson 11
RevolutionaryParty,AlexanderKerensky(1881–1970),representedsocialistthoughtsandinterests.TheProvisionalGovernmenttoldpeoplethatsoontheywouldhavealargervoiceinthewaytheybecamegoverned.Thenewgovernmentenvisionedaneventualregimethatpartookofthebestcomponentsofdemocracyandrepublican-ism,withitsfoundationinafirmconstitution.Itwouldtakeseveralstepstoreachthatstatus,however,includingvotingonmembersofanewelectoralcouncilwhowouldcreatesuchadocument.
ThesocialistpartiestookactionaroundthenewProvisionalGovernmentbymarshalingcitizens,especiallymembersofthelowerclasses,intosocialist-friendlyorganizations.SocialistsinPetrogradencouragedtheRussianpeopletofindrepre-sentationinagroupcalledtheSovietofWorkers’andSoldiers’DeputiesthatstoodbehindtheProvisionalGovernmentanditsplantocreateanewconstitution.ThisprimarysovietinPetrogradsetanexampletoRussia’sotherurbancenters,aswellastolaborersinthecountry,andmoreandmoresovietstookshape.
OnemonthintothecreationoftheProvisionalGovernment,theBolsheviks’leaderLeninarrivedinPetrograd.LeninhadcreatedasystemofideascalledtheAprilThesesandhadbecomedeterminedtoimplementthemthroughoutRussia.First,hetaughttheAprilThesestotheothermembersoftheBolshevikParty,inthehopesthattheotherBolshevikswouldhelpspreadhisnewpoliticalgospel:theideaofproletarian socialist revolution,oranuprisingbylowerclasspeoplethatwouldplaceallthecitizensofRussiaonequalfooting.
proletarian socialist revolution uprising of blue-collar workers and other lower class individuals to gain a government directed by the people
The Bolshevik leader and leading figure of the Russian Revolution, Vladimir Lenin, delivers a speech in Red Square in 1918.
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Unit 16, Lesson 11 875
TheBolshevikswhocalledforthisrevolutionspreadthemessageacrossRussia.Together,underLenin’sleadership,theyfoundedtheirrevolutiononaselectgroupofsignificanttenets.Firstandforemost,theywantedanendtothewar,whichtheyviewedasaimperialisticstruggleinwhichthepoordiedfortheinterestsofthewealthy.Second,theywantedtodrasticallyalterthefarmrentandownershipsystemsetupthroughoutRussia.TheBolsheviksbelievedthatthepeoplewhoshouldownfarmlandwerethefarmers,notthewealthyaristocratswhoneverworked.Givethefarmlandsbacktothepeople,theyurged.Asmembersofsovietsinurbanareas,theysawfirsthandthemalnourishmentthathadoccurredduetothecombinationofaristocraticlandownershipandwartimesacrifice.TheBolshevikswantedtotakenourishmentfromthefarmsandbringittotheirurbancenters.Tosumupalltheserequests,theyusedthesimplesloganof“Peace,Land,andBread.”TheBolsheviksdemandedthesethreethingsrepeatedly.
Inresponse,theProvisionalGovernmenttriedtofindacompromise.Theliberalmembersoftheregimerealizedthatthefarmerslivingonthearistocrats’farmstrulydidneedpropertyoftheirown.However,whiletheBolshevikswantedtosimplyrearrangethepropertiesofownershiponthoseregions,Kerensky,recentlychosenasprimeminister,andtheProvisionalGovernment—whichincludedsomearistocratsinitsranks—didnotwanttostealfromsomeRussianstogivetootherRussians.Kerenskythoughtrearrangingownershipofpropertieswouldencouragefarmerstoabandonthemilitaryandprovokemorediscord.Becauseofthat,theProvisionalGovernmentcouldnotfollowtheBolsheviks’requestforlandorbread.ThelandandbreadtheBolshevikswantedtoappropriatebelongedtootherpeople,andtheProvisionalGovernmentrefusedtotakeitfromthemforredistribution.
What’smore,unliketheBolsheviks,theProvisionalGovernmentdidnotwanttoendRussia’sinvolvementinWorldWarIifitmeantdefeat.KerenskyhadgreatnationalprideandwantedtoprotectRussia’sinternationalreputationbystayinginthewar,ratherthanleavingitonGermany’sterms.ProtectingthisnationalpridebecamelessaquestionofaidingtheotherAlliesandmoreaquestionofrefusingtosurrender.UndertheProvisionalGovernment’sdirection,Russia’stroopsmadeafinalefforttotakebackterraininGaliciaagainstAustriansoldiers.TheRussianslastedonlyalittlewhileinGalicia,though,beforetheAustriansdefeatedthem,whichwasdou-blyhumiliatingforagovernmentwhoseownpeoplewantedittogetoutofthewar.
FailureinGaliciamighthaveledtoarebellionathomeanyway,buttheProvisionalGovernmentdidn’thavethechancetofindout.InPetrogradprotes-torsbegansignalingtheirdisapprovalofthegovernment,especiallyasledbyPrimeMinisterKerensky,anditscommitmenttocontinuingthewarevenmoreaggressively.ThispopularuprisingbecameknownastheJulyDays,andthosepar-ticipatinginitwouldfindtheirfuryagainstthegovernmentincreasewhentheylearnedabouttheRussiandefeatinGalicia.TheJulyDaysshowedjusthowlittlethepeopleofRussiasupportedthenewProvisionalGovernment.
FollowingtheJulyDays,theBolsheviks’leaderLeninworriedthattherebelshadpulledthetriggertoosoonandwithoutanorganizedplanoffollow-through.Withoutsuchaplan,anyshort-termgainsmadethroughtheuprisingwouldbedifficulttoconverttolong-termadvantages.Somewhatsurprisingly,mostofthe
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876 Unit 16, Lesson 11
peopleintheBolshevikPartybackeduptherebelsparticipatingintheuprising.Bydoingso,theywentagainstLenin.Inspiteofthat,LeninwouldbeblamedfortheJulyDaysrebellionasmuchasanyoneelse.HeandthePetrogradSoviethadbeenrightinthattheJulyDaysrebellioncouldnotbesustained—theProvisionalGovernmentdidmanagetoputtherebelliondown.Then,LeninfoundhimselftargetedbythestateandhadtodepartrapidlyfromRussiatoFinland.
WeatheringtheJulyDaysaffectedtheBolsheviksinacomplexway.TheyhadtemporarilydisagreedwithandthenfoundthemselveswithouttheirleaderLenin.Whenlifesettleddownaftertherebellion,theBolsheviksweretargetedbythegovernment.TherelationshipbetweentheProvisionalGovernmentandtheBolshevikPartybecamequitestrained,astheformerdidnotfeelasthoughitcouldtrustthelatter.However,outsidethecurrentgovernmentandamongthepeopleofPetrograd—andRussiainalargersense—theBolsheviksbenefitedgreatly.CommonpeoplelookedattheBolshevikPartywithnewrespectafterdiscoveringtheBolsheviks’supportoftherebellion.Morefanaticalgroupsofcitizens,particularlymembersofthearmedforcesandlaborers,admiredtheBolsheviksandwantedtostandbehindthem.Soon,theBolshevikParty’sranksbegantorapidlygrow.
ThatSeptember, another rebellionagainst theProvisionalGovernmentoccurred.Thistime,itcamefromthemilitary.Themaninchargeofthecountry’sarmedforces,GeneralLavrKornilov(1870–1918),ledthisuprising,oftencalledtheKornilovaffair.KornilovtriedtooverthrowthecurrentgovernmentandmakeRussiaintoamilitarizedstate.HefanciedsettinghimselfupasthesupremerulerofRussia.Hadhesucceeded,eventsinRussiamighthaveturnedoutquitedifferently.KerenskyandtheProvisionalGovernment,caughtbetweentwonearlyimpossiblepositions,reachedouttotheBolshevikPartyforassistanceagainstthemilitarycoup.ThroughtheaidoftheBolshevikPartyandthePetrogradSoviet,Kornilovfailedingainingthegovernmentandoverthrowingthecurrentregime.WhiletheProvisionalGovernmentstillstood,Kerensky’sgrasponpowerhadgrownweaker.WithoutthesupportoftheBolsheviks,thecurrentregimewouldhavecrumbled.
Third Revolution (November 1917)ThefinaluprisingofthisperiodwouldbeknownintheWestastheNovemberRevolutionandwouldcomefromtheveryquartertheProvisionalGovernmenthadsorecentlyreachedoutto,theBolsheviks.LeninandtheBolsheviksstartedplottingtheirmoveagainsttheProvisionalGovernmentinearnest.Lenin’splanwouldworkasfollows:thesecretmilitarybranchofthePetrogradSoviet,knownastheRedGuard,wouldspringintoactiononaspecificdate.TheRedGuardwouldmovethroughoutPetrogradandtakeoverimportantareastolimitthemovementoftheProvisionalGovernment.ThentheRedGuardwouldmovetoswiftlyoccupyallmajorgovernmentbuildings,includingtheWinterPalace,theseatoftheProvisionalGovernment.ThePetrogradSovietwouldassumecontrol.TheBolsheviksputthisplanintoactiononNovember7,1917,anditworkedasLeninhadenvisioned.Noliveswerelost,andonlyafewpeoplewereinjured.Againbecauseofthecalendartheyusedatthetime,fortheRussianstherevolutionoccurredinOctoberandisoftencalledRedOctober.
3SeLf-cHecK
What was the Bolsheviks’
slogan, and to whom
did it appeal?
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Unit 16, Lesson 11 877
Thedayfollowingtherevolution,anewgovernmentheadedbyLeninwasinplace.Inoppositiontothemonarchyandthepreviousprovisionalregime,Lenin’sgovernmenttookthetitleoftheCouncilofPeople’sCommissars.Leninwouldserveasheadofstate,althoughhisofficialtitlemarkedhimasthechairpersonofthecouncil.TwomenwhowouldfigureprominentlyinRussianpoliticsintheyearstocomealsoheldplacesonthecouncil:LeonTrotsky(1879–1940)andJosephStalin(1879–1953).ThecouncilturneditsattentiontospreadingitsgovernmentandvoicethroughouttherestofRussia,usingPetrogradasabase.IttooklittletimefortheBolshevikinfluencetobefeltthroughoutRussia.OneexceptioncameinMoscow,wherethecitizensdisagreedviolentlywiththenewregime.Inlessthanaweek,however,MoscowalsobelongedtotheBolsheviks.UnderLenin’sdirection,theBolshevikregimeandthecouncilinparticularwouldfindthatrevoltinghadbeenthesimplepart.GoverningRussia,whichtwootherregimeshadsorecentlyfailedindoing,wouldbemuchmoredifficult.
Extensions• ReadaneyewitnessaccountoftheBolsheviks’seizureofpowerinJohn
Reed’sTen Days That Shook the World(NewYork:BoniandLiveright,1919,pp.123–129).HowdidJohnReeddescribeLenin?WhatwashisdescriptionofthefailingsoftheProvisionalGovernment?OfallthegroupsvyingforpowerinRussia,whydotheBolsheviksgetthevictoryaccordingtoReed?
SummaryPeoplearoundEuropereeledfromWorldWarIasnewsmallernationswerecreatedandtheshapeoftheworldchangeddrastically.Thewarcostatremendousamountinmoneyandlives,andthepeaceagreementsatitsendactuallyincreasedthechancesoffutureconflict.Meanwhile,Russiahadalreadygonethroughasignifi-cantrevolutionbeforeWorldWarIbegan.Inthatfirstrevolution,thetsaragreedtogranttheRussianpeoplemorerights,buttheyremaineddissatisfied.Dissenterscreatedpoliticalpartiestoadvocateforcitizens’rights.WorldWarImadelifeinRussiaevenharder.Thetsar’spowercrumbledandheabdicated,resultinginanewregimecalledtheProvisionalGovernment.ThisgovernmentwithstoodtwomorerevolutionsbeforegivingwaytotheBolshevikParty.Attheendof1917,LeninandtheBolsheviksruledRussia.
Looking AheadAsRussiascrambledtodealwithitsownseriesofrevolutions,ithadfallenoutoftheinternationalconflictknownasWorldWarI.WhenLeninandtheBolsheviksrosetopower,theywouldtakethatopportunitytoextricateRussiafromtheconflict,eventhoughitwouldmeanlosingatremendousamountofterritoryandcitizenstotheCentralPowers,atleastforthetimebeing.Whenthewarended,Russiawouldnotevenattendthepeacenegotiations,asitwascaughtupinitsowndomestictroubles.Russiahadgottenthroughthreerevolu-tions.Upnextlayacivilwar.
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878 Unit 16, Lesson 11
1. More people died of influenza, 30 million in all. In World War I, by comparison, 10 million people died and 23 million more sustained injuries.
2. She was German, not Russian, and she trusted too much in Rasputin.
3. The slogan, “Peace, Land, and Bread,” particularly appealed to lower and middle class Russian citizens. Farmers in particular wanted to own their own land; almost no one had enough food; and the longer the war went on, the more citizens wanted their country out of the conflict.
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
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Lenin and the Russian Revolution
Unit 16, Lesson 12
KeywordsCommunists
Marxism
telescoping
vanguard party
weakest link in the chain
world revolution
Essential Questions• WhateventsoccurredduringLenin’srisetopower?
• WhathappenedfollowingtheBolsheviks’NovemberRevolution?
• WhatwastheoutcomeoftheRussianCivilWar?
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880 Unit 16, Lesson 12
Set the StageIn Russia, the tumultuous events of World War I would be eclipsed by a series of revolutions as the long-standing Romanov Dynasty gave way to a new regime: the Provisional Government. Yet the Provisional Government did not satisfy Russian citizens, many of whom wanted to get out of World War I, or grant them all the rights to which they believed they were entitled. While Russian soldiers continued to fight in the international conflict, at home a new faction, the Bolsheviks, plotted yet another revolution, offering Russian citizens a peace the Provisional Government seemed unable to provide. The Bolsheviks’ eventual rise to power would pull Russia out of the war completely but also, to the people’s dismay, plunge it into civil war.
The Rise of Lenin and the BolsheviksWhileintheyearsleadinguptoWorldWarIRussia’sfatehadbeensteeredbyoneman,TsarNicholasII,asthewarendedanothermanwouldemergetoleadRussiaintothepostwarera:VladimirLenin.Thetsarcametohispositiontheold-fashionedway,throughinheritance.Lenin’sroadtopowerwouldbeanythingbuttraditional.Lenin’slifebeganin1870,inaruralpartofRussiacalledSimbirsk.SimbirskencompassedasmallvillagenearMoscow,nestledonthebanksoftheVolga.Lenin,whoserealnamewasVladimirIlyichUlianov,wouldgrowupfarawayfromthecapitalcityofSt.Petersburg(rebrandedPetrogradatthebeginningofWorldWarI)wherehewouldforgehisfate.
Atanearlyage,itseemedasthoughLenin’sfutureheldmanypossibilities.PerhapsLeninmighthaveendeduplikehisfather,whohadrisenfrompovertyandheldanimportantleadershiproleintheeducationofyoungchil-dreninthearea,asdirectorofpublicschools.OrmaybeLenincouldhaveendedupintroublelikehissiblingAlexander.WhenLeninwas17yearsold,hisbrotherwasaccusedofplottingtomurderTsarAlexanderIII.Becauseofhisparticipationintheplot,Alexandermethisdeathin1887asastate-mandatedpunishment.
Alexander’sdeathmusthaveaffectedhisbrotherseverely,giventheactionsLenintookintheyearsfol-lowingtheloss.Lenindid,atfirst,attempttocontinueinhisfather’spathbyfurtheringhisowneducation,tak-ingclassesattheUniversityofKazan.However,LeninnevergraduatedfromKazan.Earlyinhiscollegecareer,herevealedhistruepassionbybecominginvolvedincam-pusprotests.AsaresultLeninwasexpelledfromcollege,butheremainedamotivatedanddisciplinedscholar.Hedecidedtopursueacareerasalawyerandbeganteachinghimselffromlawbooks.Bythe1890s,justafewshort
Nicholas II, the last of the Romanov tsars, poses with his family. This group met a tragic end during the Russian Civil War.
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Unit 16, Lesson 12 881
yearsafterhisbrother’sdeathandhisownfailededucation,LeninearnedcertificationtopracticeasalawyerinRussia.
Duringthe1890s,LenintraveledtoSt.PetersburgandbeganlearningmoreaboutMarxism,apoliticalphilosophybasedontheideasofKarlMarx.Lenin’sgrowingMarxistbeliefsledhimtoparticipateinillegaleventsandprotests,althoughnottotheextentthathisbrotherhad.Nevertheless,theauthoritiessooncaughtLeninandsenthimtoaRussianprison.Afterashorttimeinprison,Leninreceivedasentenceofexile.HehadnochoicebuttoleaveSt.PetersburgforSiberia.
Attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,Leninmanagedtoimprovehissitua-tionslightlybyescapingfromSiberiatoSwitzerland.HeplannedoneventuallyreturningtoRussia,butuntilthatdayarrived,LeninstayedbusypromulgatinghisMarxistideasandreachingouttotheRussiancommunityinSwitzerland.LeninachievedthisbyprintingaregularnewsjournalcalledIskra,whichtranslatesfromRussianas“Spark.”OtherEuropeanindividualsriskedagreatdealbyperiodicallybreakingthelawandsneakingissuesoftheIskrabackintoRussia.Eveninexile,Lenin’svoicecontinuedtobeheard.
Infact,eventhoughhehadbeenexiled,LeninsoonmadeaconnectionwithaRussianpoliticalparty,theRussianSocialDemocraticLaborParty(RSDLP).PartiesliketheRSDLPhadtobeclandestineandcareful,whichpartiallyexplainswhyRussianpartymemberstraveledtoLondonforaspecialgathering.Lenin,theninSwitzerland,traveledtoLondontotakepartinthemeeting.Duringthemeeting,thepartyfounditselfdividingintotwoseparatefactionsbasedonhowradicaltheiridealswere.Leninheadedupthemoreradicalside,whichgrewintoanewgroupcalledtheBolsheviks.OpposingthemwasthesmallergroupofMensheviks,whoadvocatedlessradicalchange.
TwootherissuessplitthepartyintoMenshevikandBolshevikfactions.First,theMenshevikswantedtoletmoreindividualsjoinupwiththeircause.Incontrast,theBolshevikswantedtokeepthepartynumberssmall.Ironically,eventhoughMarxistpoliciesultimatelyrestedonlarge-scalesocialchange,theBolshevikswantedtokeepthepartyasasortofexclusivehome,wheretheycouldoperateacommandcenterandexercisealargerdegreeofcontrol.Second,theMenshevikswantedtomakeaslowandsteadyprogresstowardeventualrebellion,basedonanincreasingfoundationofbusinessandfinancialsupport.AsRussiabegancatchingupwiththeWestintermsoftransportationandcommunication,theMensheviksthoughtitspeoplewouldsupportalarge-scalerevolt.Thatrevoltcouldthentakeplaceinalogicalandthoroughmanner.Again,incontrast,theBolshevikstooktheoppositeapproach.TheywantedtoinstigateaRussianuprisingrightaway.
MorethanadecadeafterthatLondongathering,Leninreturnedtohismothercountryin1917,inthemiddleofWorldWarIaspopularrevolutionwrackedRussia.LeninreturnedtoaRussialedbytheProvisionalGovernment,aregimefarmorepermissiveoftheBolsheviks’practicesthantheprevioustsaristregimehadbeen.InApril1917,LeninwroteandpublishedtheAprilThesesthatlaidouthisideasaboutsocialismandMarxism.HispiecemadeiteasierforRussianstounderstandMarxistideaswhilesimultaneouslyurgingRussiancitizensthatanothertimeforrevolutionhadcome.
Marxism philosophy and politics based on Karl Marx’s ideas
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882 Unit 16, Lesson 12
AsexpressedintheAprilTheses,LeninmademanyimportantcontributionstoMarxistpracticesinRussia,andfivestoodoutasespeciallyimportant.First,LeninexpandedonwhatKarlMarxhadarguedaboutcapitalism.Leninurgedhisreaderstorealizethatcapitalismdidnotactalonetoholdbacksociety,buthadtremendoustiestothepracticeofimperialism.Imperialism,Lenincontended,hadmadecapitalismevenmoredangerous.BothMarxandLeninagreedthatcapitalismactedtogiveaminorityofpeoplethemajorityofcontrol.ForLenin,thismeantthatiftheRussianpeopledidnotactupontheirrevolutionarydesiressoon,theywouldnotbeabletoatall.Byintegratingcapitalismandimperialismandcondemningthemboth,LeninsharplyinfluencedthewaysRussianMarxistsunderstoodBolshevikpoliticalbeliefs.
Second,LeninshapedRussianMarxismbychangingthefocusonwherethefirstgreatrevolution,inaseriesofworldwiderevolutionspredictedbyMarx,wouldtakeplace.Marxistsaimedatchangingtheentireworld,notjustindividualcoun-tries.Previously,Marxistshadbelievedthatthefirstpeopletotruly,successfullyrevoltwouldbetheoneslivinginthecountriesthathadtakentheircapitalisticpracticestoofar,andwhohadbecomethemostindustrialized.Thus,manyMarxistsexpectedsucharevolutiontotakeplaceinacountrylikeBritain,whereitdidnot,orGermany,whereindeed,asWorldWarIended,arevolutiondidarise.Leninproposedaradicallydifferentideacalledthe“weakest link in the chain.”AccordingtoLenin’sidea,allthecountriesaroundtheglobethatpracticedcapital-ismhadbecomeconnectedbycapitalismitself,forminga“chain”ofinterlocked,interdependentunitsor“links.”LeninsurmisedthattheMarxistscouldtriggeraglobaluprisingbypullingonorbreakingsomeofthe“weakest”elementsofthechain,therebyaffectingtheother,strongerlinks.ForLenin,thismadeanevengreaterargumentforstartinganuprisinginRussia,asaweakorunderdevelopedlink,andthenexpandingitinternationally.
Third,LeninclungtohisearlierbeliefsthathadseparatedhimfromtheMensheviksbackin1903.Hesuggestedtheideaofavanguard party,orapoliti-calsubgroupthatcouldactasthefrontlineforalargerrebelliouscause.BecauseofthewayRussia’snewProvisionalGovernmenthadsetitselfup,Leninbelievedthataproperrevolutioncouldnottakeplaceinthecountrywithoutemployingavanguardpartymadeupofseriousandexperiencedpoliticalactivists.
Fourth,LeninwentagainsttheMensheviksyetagainbyadvocatingforanimmediateuprising.TheMensheviksdidnotstandaloneintheirbeliefsofexercis-ingmoderationandrestraintinbuildinguptorevolution;othermembersofsocialistpartiesfeltsimilarly.ThesemoremoderaterevolutionariesworriedthattheiruprisingwouldbeunsuccessfuliftheyattempteditbeforeRussiahadfullycaughtuptothetwentiethcenturyintermsofbusinessandindustry.ForLenin,incontrast,notimelikethepresentexistedforrevolution.Tosetitinmotion,Leninproposedtheprocessoftelescoping.Hisparty’ssocialistrevolutionwouldpiggybackontheonethathadjusttakenplace.
Fifthandfinally,Leninemployedsomenewsimpleyeteffectiverevolutionarytactics.Ratherthanadoptingacomplicatedschemetotargetpeoplefromdiffer-entsocialgroupsandclasses,orgettingencumberedbycomplexlistsofcitizens’desiredreforms,Leninhadotherideas.Headvocatedcreatingplain,straightforward
weakest link in the chain idea that capitalist countries had become connected through their capitalism and that by targeting the least strong country, revolutionaries could affect all of them
vanguard party small political subgroup that would move out ahead of a larger rebel-lious cause and direct it
telescoping for Lenin, sliding the socialists’ uprising into a revolution that had already taken place, skipping many steps to get to the final and desired result of a socialist government
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Unit 16, Lesson 12 883
slogansthatlargegroupsofpeoplecouldpickup,suchaschantslike“AllpowertotheSoviets!”and“Peace,Bread,andLand!”Theseshort,powerfulmantrascouldbeeasilyandrapidlyexpressedbylargegroupsofpeoplemarchinginuprisings.Overall,thesetacticsshowedLenintobeasavvymarketerwhounderstoodhisaudience.Aseventsshortlyrevealed,hewouldbeabletoimplementthemwithgreatsuccess.
The November Revolution and the end of World War ILeninhadpreparedhisfellowBolshevikPartymembersforrevolutionwell.EmployingtheconceptoftelescopinghisrevolutionintothelargeroneofMarch1917,Leningavethego-aheadtohispartytostrikeinNovemberofthatsameyear.Itworked.Ifanything,therebellion’ssuccessseemedalmosttooeasy.TheBolshevikPartyhadlongbeenalignedwiththesmallsovietsorcouncilsthroughoutbothPetrogradandvariouspartsofRussia.ThatNovember,theRussianmilitaryelectedtoabandontheProvisionalGovernmentinfavoroftheBolsheviksandthesoviets.Thisleftthecur-rentregimewithoutpopularormilitarybacking,andtheBolshevikshadbarelyanyproblemsforcingitout.Ateverystep,theBolshevikssucceeded,targetingthemoststrategicareasofthegovernmentforthefirstnightoftherebellionandconqueringthemwithnoproblems.
Shortlyaftertherebellion,animportantCongressofSovietsoccurred,wherethemembersofthecouncilsmetandheldelectionsfornewmembers.Thisclosenessofeventsdidnotoccurbyaccident;LeninhadspecificallyorderedhispeopletomoveinearlyNovembersothat,aftertherevolution,theycouldquicklybecomelegiti-mizedthroughthesoviets.Indeed,thesovietsfollowedthatplanexactly.ThroughtheCongressofSoviets,theBolshevikscreatedanewgovernmentlegislativebodycalledtheCouncilofPeople’sCommissars.Tonoone’ssurprise,Leninwaselectedasthechairofthenewcouncil.TheBolsheviksalsotookthistimetoexpandthesuccessoftheirrebellionthroughoutRussia,whilesimultaneouslyachievingtwogoalsthathadbeenimportanttopartymembers.First,theBolsheviksmadesurethatpeopleofthelowerclasses,likefarmers,hadbeenabletotakethefarmstheyworkedonawayfromtheirformerowners,thearistocrats.TheBolshevikssawthisasrestoringlandtothepeople.Second,theBolsheviksworkedtoensurethatallthemanufacturingplantsinRussiabecamereorganizedandledbythelaborers,ratherthancapitalistowners.TheBolshevikssawthis,too,asanecessarymeansofrestor-ingthemasses’powerandrights.
Justafewmonthslater,theBolshevikpartytookevenmoredrasticaction.TheRussianshadrecentlyheldelectionstosendrepresentativestofillspotsontheConstituentAssembly,anotherimportantlegislativebody.Yet,despitetherecentandsuccessfulBolshevikrevolution,membersoftheBolshevikPartyhadnotreceivedasmanyseatsasanotherpartycalledtheSocialistRevolutionaryParty,whichthreatenedtoposesomeseriousproblemsfortheBolsheviks.Theirresponse,underLenin’sdirection,cameintheformofeliminatingtheConstituentAssemblyaltogether.Theotherpartiesresistedthismovestrongly,asdidmanycitizens.AstheRussianCivilWarbegantounfoldasareactiontoLenin’smovetoignorethe
1SeLf-cHecK
What concepts did
Lenin add to socialist
philosophy, as explained
in his April Theses?
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884 Unit 16, Lesson 12
willofthepeople,LeninandtheBolsheviksre-formedintoanewgroupknownmoreformallyastheCommunistParty.TheBolshevikswouldtrytotakesupremeandabsolutecontrolofRussia.
UnderstandinghowtheBolsheviksreactedtotheConstituentAssembly’snewmakeupandthecivilwarthatresulted,though,requiresanunderstand-ingoftheNovemberRevolution.ThisuprisingtookplaceatthebeginningofNovember1917,andtheProvisionalGovernmentwasoustedquicklyandwithlittlebloodshed.LeninsteppedintocreatearegimefocusedonachievingmanysignificantchangesinRussianlife.Thefirsttookplaceonaninterna-tionalscale.UnliketheProvisionalGovernment,whichkeptRussiafightinginWorldWarIeventhoughmanyRussiancitizenswantedtheircountryoutoftheconflict,theBolsheviksagreedwiththeirfellowcitizensthatthewarshouldend.Lenin’sregimeagreedtoarapidsettlementtotheconflict,andbeganplanningwaystobestextricateRussiafromthewar.
Theotherchangesoccurredclosertohome.Priortotherevolutions,Russiahadbeenasocietycomposedoffewaristocratsandmanypeasantfarmers;themajorityhadworkedforthepleasureandluxuryofthefew.TheBolshevikswantedtochangeallthat.Thus,theBolsheviksappropriatedthefarmsthathadpreviouslybelongedtotherichandsuccessfulmembersofsocietyandbestowedtheminsteadtothemembersofthelowerclassesthatlaboredonthoseproperties.Atmanufacturingplants,author-ityandpowershiftedfromthefewinmanagerialpositionstothemanylaborerstheplantsemployed.
Otherchangeswouldbeevenmoredrastic.Thenewgovernmentwantednodistractionsfromitsinexperiencedauthority,soittargetedthetwoechelonsofsocietythatstillpossessedsomepowerthroughoutRussia:religiousorganizationsandaristocraticpeople.TheRussianOrthodoxChurchposedamajorthreattotheBolshevikgovernmentbecauseofitstraditionalinfluenceoverthecountry’scitizens.Inpreviouscenturies,thechurchhadbecomecloselyintertwinedwiththearistocratic,rulingregime.TheBolshevikswantedtomovereligionfartherawayfromthegovernment.Todoso,theyclaimedtheRussianOrthodoxChurchhadbecomeresistanttosocialchange.TheBolsheviksstartedshuttingdownplacesofworship,aswellastheplaceswheremonksandnunslivedandworked.Thegovernmentalsostartedseizingchurchproperty.
TheBolshevikshobbledthechurch’spowerinotherways.Itbecameillegalforofficialmembersofthechurchtosharereligiousideaswithothers.Moreover,thegovernmentrefusedtoacknowledgechurchweddingsasvalid.Peoplecouldonlygetmarriedlegallyaccordingtoagovernmentritual.Thechurch’slossofpowersoonspreadtothearistocracy.Individualsofthearistocraticlevelsofsoci-etyfoundthemselveswithoutthestatussymbolsoftheirclass,astheBolsheviksdidawaywiththepowerofpeoplelikecountsorlords.Anaristocraticpositionbecameworthnothing.
Finally,theBolshevikschangedthewayRussianswrotebymakingtheshapeofCyrillicletterslesscomplicated.AndtheregimeabandonedtheformercalendarRussianshadusedforcenturies,theJulian,infavoroftheGregoriansystemusedbyWesterncountries.
communists formerly the Bolsheviks, a politi-cal group led by Lenin, who wanted to establish a socialist society after an uprising led by the working class
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Unit 16, Lesson 12 885
TheBolshevikssoonhadtheopportunitytomakeotherlegislativechangesaswell.LeninhaddeliberatelyselectedthebeginningofNovemberasastrategictimefortheBolshevikstomaketheirplayandtakedowntheProvisionalGovernment.Oneofthereasonshehadselectedthattimewasbecauseofitsproximitytoaplannedelectoralprocess.TheProvisionalGovernmenthadlaidthegroundworkforavotingprocessthatwouldaddmemberstothenewConstituentAssemblyattheendofthesamemonth.Byswoopinginandtakingoverthegovernmentpriortothevoting,Leninhopedtoquicklygainlegitimacyforhisnewregimethroughthevotingprocess.UnfortunatelyforLeninandthenewBolshevikregime,theresultsofthevotesdidnotfullylegitimizeorgiveauthoritytotheBolsheviks.Thishappenedbecause,atthetime,alargegapstillexistedinRussiabetweenthesmallernumberofpeoplewholivedinurbancentersandthefarlargernumberofpeoplewholivedinruralorisolatedareas.TheBolshevikshadsuccessfullytargetedandwonovermanyofthepeoplelivingintheurbancenters,butwinningoverthewidelyspreadoutlowerclasswouldtakemoretime.ManyofthepeoplelivingonfarmsthroughouttheRussiancountrysidesupportedtheSocialistRevolutionaries.MembersofthispartyreceivednearlydoubletheamountofrepresentationinthenewConstituentAssemblyastheBolsheviks.ThiskindofmajorityintheConstituentAssemblyensuredthattheSocialistRevolutionariescouldkeeptheBolsheviksfromgoverning.
Becauseofthisdynamic,thereignoftheConstituentAssemblywasshortlived.TheassemblycametogetherintheRussiancapitalofPetrogradforthefirsttimein1918,anditsfirstmeetingwasalsoitslast.SincetheBolshevikscouldnothopetocontroltheassembly,theysimplyeliminatedit.TheBolsheviks’nextmove,underLenin’sdirection,cameintheformationofanelite,clandestinelawenforcementteam.ThisteamtookonthenameoftheChekaandworkedsilentlybutmercilesslyonbehalfoftheBolshevikstokeeptherevolutionsafe.ThecombinationofthesetwoactionsshowedthatdespiteLenin’searlierclaimstoreformsocietyonbehalfofthepeople,hehadbecomemuchmoreinterestedinsafeguardingpowerforhimselfandhisparty.OnemanatthetopstillcontrolledthefateofthemanyinRussia.
LeninexercisedhiscontrolfirmlyinMarch1918whenheachievedthelong-awaitedgoalofextricatingRussiafromWorldWarI.DoingsorequiredaseriesofdiscussionswiththeGermangovernmentandculminatedinapeaceagreement,theTreatyofBrest-Litvosk,thatseverelycostRussia.Accordingtothetermsofthetreaty,Russiawouldloseagreatdealofitsterritoryinthewest,aswellasthecitizenswholivedthere:asubstantialamountofitspopulationandlandmass.TheregionsthatwouldbelostincludedanewgroupofsmallcountriesintheBalticscalledLithuania,Estonia,andLatvia.RussiaalsohadtoagreetogiveupPolandandFinlandentirely,andtocedecontrolofpartsofseveralotherregions,includingtheUkraine,Transcaucasia,andBelorussia.DespitethehighcostsoftheseconditionsLeninagreedtothem.
LeninbackeduphisclaimthatRussiahadnootherrecourseinacceptingthetreaty,becauseitsimplycouldnotaffordtocontinuefightinginthewargivenconditionsathomewithanother,morewishfulidea.Hebelievedthetreatywouldbetemporary,sinceGermany’spowerwouldbe,too.Leninbelievedthat
2SeLf-cHecK
How did the Bolsheviks
restrain the power of
the Russian Orthodox
Church?
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886 Unit 16, Lesson 12
Germany’spowerwouldfadewhenthesocialistideasandreformspresentinRussiaspreadoutaspartoftheworld revolution andencompassedGermany.Germanywouldbecomeconsumedbyitsownrevolution,andRussiacouldreclaimthelandsithadlost.
Russian civil War and RebirthLenin’sswiftstrategiesandcleverplanningoftheNovemberRevolutionhadtakentheProvisionalGovernmentbysurprise,andboughttheBolshevikssometimetosetupanddelineatetheirnewregimebeforefacingorganizedopposition.Whileothersstruggledtocometotermswiththechangeingovernment,theBolsheviksmovedaheadandrapidlystartedmakingchangestoRussia’sbureaucraticfabric.ThisincludeddisbandingtheConstituentAssembly,thensigningtheTreatyofBrest-LitvoskandwithdrawingfromWorldWarIinMarch1918.Soonafter,though,membersofotherpoliticalparties,includingtheSocialistRevolutionaries,beganplottingagainsttheBolsheviks.
Bythemiddleof1918,theBolshevikshadbeguncallingthemselvesCom-munists.FromtheirpositionattheheadoftheRussiangovernment,theCommunistsenteredthecivilwarwithmanyelementsofsupport.First,theCommunists’centerofpoweralsohappenedtolieinRussia’scapitalcity,Petrograd.WhilethisdidnotgivetheCommunistswidespreadpowerovermoreruralareas,itmeanttheycouldreachmanypeoplequicklyandenjoyedmoreauthorityinurbancenters.Second,theCommunistshadmadeinroadsintocontrollingmanufacturingplantsandother
world revolution breaking the “chain” of capitalism and estab-lishing socialist reform across the globe
The Red Army served as the revolutionary militia during the Russian Civil War (1918–1922).
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Unit 16, Lesson 12 887
businesseswhentheyturnedthemovertotheworkers,whotheycalledproletariats.Thismeanttheyhadbetteraccesstoproducts,weapons,andtechnologythantheiropponents.Third,becauseofthecombinationofbeingbasedinurbancentersandhavingbetteraccesstomanufacturing,theCommunistscouldsendmessagesandmovefoodorweaponsamongthemselvesmuchmorequicklythantheiroppo-nents.Finally,theCommunistsorganizedanarmytodefendthemselvesfairlyquickly.ThepartyinstalledLeonTrotsky(1879–1940)asthecommanderofthisforce,whichbecameknownastheRedArmy.TrotskyreceivedtheofficialtitleofCommissarofWarand,throughtheRedArmy’ssuccess,soonrevealedhisaptitudeformilitarystrategy.
Incomparison,thesidefightingagainsttheCommunistshadmuchtoover-come.ThissidebecamereferredtocommonlyastheWhites,inoppositiontotheReds.TheWhiteshadamoredifficulttimeorganizingthemselvestocompetewiththeRedArmy.NotonlydidtheWhiteslackthebenefitstheCommunistscouldrelyon,theydidnotpossessacommonunderlyingpoliticalideology.Certainly,theysharedmanycommonideas,buttheydidnothaveaplatformthatunitedthem.Instead,theyrepresentedamélangeofmanylesserpoliticalideologies,withamajorityofSocialistRevolutionaries,butalsocomprisingtheMensheviks(formerlyoftheRSDLP),Cadets,andotherindividualswhohadremainedloyaltothedeposedtsar.PeoplewhoremainedundecidedaboutthecivilwarinotherrespectsworriedthattheWhites’overallplanwouldbetoreinstatethetsarandputthegovernmentbackthewayithadbeen,especiallywhenotherAlliedcountriesintercededtohelptheWhites.
Despitethesesignificantsetbacks,theWhiteArmysurprisedmanybyinitiallywinningsignificantterritory,especiallyinmoreruralregionsofthecountry.Atfirst,theRedArmyhadeveryrighttobeworried.AsearlyasJuly1918,theWhiteArmyclosedinontheregionoftheUralMountains,whichworriedtheBolsheviksbecausethedeposedroyalfamilyhadbeenlivinginEkaterinburg,atownnearthatregion.ItseemedasthoughtheWhiteArmywasdeterminedtofreetheroyalsasafirststepinalonglineofrestoringtheautocracy.Toputastoptoit,theCommunistsintheUralshadtheentireroyalfamilyexecuted,includingthechildren.
Despitethisbrutalact,theWhiteArmypusheditstroopsintothefarreachesofRussia,reachingtheCaucasus,theUkraine,theBaltics,andSiberiaoverthenexttwoyears.However,theRedArmypushedback,gainingvictoriesoverthebranchesoftheWhiteArmyonebyone.IntheCaucasus,PiotrWrangel(1878–1928)andhistroopslosttotheReds;intheUkraine,GeneralAntonDenikin(1872–1947)hadtoadmitdefeat.GeneralNikolaiYudenich(1862–1933),fightingintheBaltics,hadtoconcedethatregiontotheRedArmy,justasAdmiralAlexanderKolchak(1874–1920)hadtogiveupinSiberia.By1920,allofthemostimportantWhiteArmyleadershadbeenvanquishedbytheRedArmy.YetthewarcontinuedastheWhiteArmyrefusedtogiveupfortwomoreyears.
Inthemeantime,Russiahadtocontendwithinternationalaffairs,asJapan,Britain,France,andtheUnitedStatesallsteppedintotrytoaffectmattersinRussia’sdomesticproblems.JapansteppedinduringthebattlesinSiberiatotrytohelpthe
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888 Unit 16, Lesson 12
WhiteArmy.TheotherthreeAllies,actingagainstGermany,alldeployedforcestoRussiainanattempttoprotectsomenaturalresourcesthatGermanycoveted.ManyoftheAlliesaidedtheWhiteArmyagainsttheRedArmy.Butthisaidcamemoreasagesturethanathoroughhelpinghand;theAlliesdidnotactsignificantlyagainsttheCommuniststohelptheWhiteArmyrevoltcompletely.Ultimately,then,thisinterferencematteredmorebecauseofwhatitwasthanwhatitaccomplished.Thewinningside,theRedArmy,wouldenterintothenextyearswithangeragainsttheAlliesforcrossingitsbordersandattemptingtomeddleinwhatitsawasaprivatematter.ThisattitudewouldaffectthewayRussiaapproachedinternationalrelationswiththeotherWesterncountriesforyearstocome.
civil War consequencesThecivilwarhadseriousconsequencesforRussia.TheCommunistshadonlyrecentlyregainedtheterritoriestheyhadlostasaresultofsigningtheTreatyofBrest-LitvoskwithGermany.NearlyalltheregionsRussiahadregainedaftertheofficialendofWorldWarIwouldreengagewithRussiatosecuretheirownauton-omy,andabouthalfofthemwouldsucceed.Indeed,fourcountries—includingFinlandandthethreenewlycreatedterritoriesofLithuania,Estonia,andLatviaintheBaltics—managedtosuccessfullywithdrawfromRussiaandemergeasautono-mousentities.Anothercountry,Bessarabia,didnotachieveitsownautonomybutfellinsteadtothecontrolofRomania.TheUkraine,Georgia,andArmeniaallwenttobattlefortheirautonomy,butultimatelydidnotsucceed.Morechangeswouldcomein1920.Priortothatpoint,Polandhadbowedtopressurefromlarger,morepowerfulcountrieslikeRussiaandGermany.Butin1920,thetablesturned,andPolandattackedRussia.PerhapsbecauseRussiahadbecomeweakenedbytheongoingwarbetweentheRedandWhiteArmies,PolandgainedenoughgroundtomakesignificantdemandsbyMarchofthefollowingyear,whenthetwocountriesagreedtotheTreatyofRiga,whichgrantedPolandsignificantterritorythathadformerlybelongedtoRussia.
Inthemeantime,theCommunistsutilizingtheRedArmycontinuedtoreshapeRussiansocietyaccordingtotheirideals.Inparticular,theypromotedatemporarysetofpolicies,calledWarCommunism,whichgavethegovernmentevenmorepowerovertheentirenation.First,thegovernmentusedWarCommunismtoseizecontrolofmanybusinessesandmanufacturingfirms.Thegovernmentalsotookoverotherimportantorganizationsusedbycivilians,suchasthosethatprovidedcoverageagainstdisasteranddeath,andfinancialinstitutions.Inaddition,thegovernmentforbadepeoplefrommarketingorexchanginggoodswithoutgoingthroughthestate.ItsoonbecameevidentthattheCommunistswantedthegov-ernmenttobeconnectedtoeveryimportantaspectoftheeconomy.
TheideasofWarCommunismdidnothingtohelpdefraythefinancialandothercostsofthecivilwar.Itisimportanttorememberthatevenbeforethecivilwarbegan,theRussianshadencounteredsevereshortagesoffoodandsuppliesfromfightinginWorldWarI.Thegovernmentsoonstartedemployingapolicyotherregimeshadpreviouslyrejected,demandingthatfarmersgiveuptheirhard-wonfoodstuffstopeopleinurbancenters,wherefoodshortageshadbecomesevere.Naturally,this
3SeLf-cHecK
Which two sides fought
in the Russian Civil War,
and what politic parties
were they made up of?
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Unit 16, Lesson 12 889
causedanimositybetweenfarmersandothercitizenswhosawthemselveslosingtheproductsoftheirlabor,oftenwithoutfaircompensation.
EvenwithaspecialcommitteecalledtheSupremeEconomicCouncilsetuptowatchoverRussia’sfinances,thecountrystruggledtomakeendsmeet.Russia’sentirefinancialsystemthreatenedtocollapsealtogetheras,onebyone,eachele-mentofitsinfrastructurestartedtogiveway.Thecollapseofoneareawouldleadtothecollapseofanother,asnothingexistedtoartificiallybolstertheeconomy.First,theoutputoffoodandotherproductsfromfarmsthroughoutRussiasloweddownsubstantially,followedalltooquicklybydecreasedoutputfromfactories.Eveniffoodandproductshadbeenproducedatahigherrate,Russianswouldnothavehadthemoneytoaffordthem.Trainsandothermeansoftravelsloweddownandthreatenedtostopaltogether,whichinturnseverelyhamperedtheRussians’abilitytosendmessagesbackandforthtoeachotheracrossgreatdistances.AllofthisseparatedtheurbancentersfromthesurroundingfarmlandofRussiaevenmore.Theurbancenters,isolatedfromthefarmlands,quicklybegantorunoutofsupplies,andstarvationloomed.
TheCommunistgovernmentdealtwiththisdilemmamercilessly,punishingthosewhodisobeyedtheircommands.TheCommunistsusedcurrencywithverylittleactualvaluetopurchasedesperatelyneededproducts,andthenpunishedpeoplewhoattemptedtoprotesttheblatantunfairnessofsuchexchanges.Publicfeelingworsened,particularlyinagriculturalandruralareas,becauseofunfairtreatment,lackoffood,andincreasingpoverty.Soon,theproblemsbetweensocialclassesthatCommunistshadhopedtoeradicatereturnedwithavengeance.ThisnewRussiahadbecomedividedintofarmersaccumulatingvaluableproducts,likefood,livingoutonthelandandcityfolkwhosawtheirfinancesslippingdailyforlackoffood,theverythingthefarmershoarded.
Ultimately,theCommunistsemergedvictoriousfromthecivilwar.Thisvictorycameaboutbecauseofacomplexconcentrationofelements.Foremostamongthoseelementswasasharedpoliticalideology.ThisBolshevikideology,towhichmostCommunistssubscribedabsolutely,hadatransformativepower.ItfilledtheRedArmywithdeterminationandconviction.TheCommunistsdrewontheRussiancivilians’dislikeoftheWhiteArmy’swillingnesstoinvolveforeignersoroutsidersinRussianmatters,evenastheyemployedtheChekatodotheirdirtywork.ThesecretpolicespiedontheWhiteArmywithgreatsuccess.Moreover,whilebreakdownsinsendingandreceivingmessagesaffectedbothsidesofthewar,theCommunistshadamorecentrallocationthantheWhiteArmyandfounditeasiertoexchangecommuniquésamongthemselves.
Incontrasttotheseelements,theWhiteArmycouldnotpresentastrongfront.Theydidnotshareapoliticalideologyandhadtoendureinfightingwithintheirownranks.Asaresult,theycouldnotmeettheRedArmywithasmuchconviction.TheWhiteArmyhadalsobecomefarmorescatteredandwidespreadthantheRedArmy,givenitsconnectiontoalargerpopulation.Whentransportbrokedownandmessagescouldnotbeexchanged,theWhiteArmybecameforciblyseparatedintoisolatedgroups.Asof1922,itseemedthattheCommunistshaddefeatedtheWhiteArmyandheldRussiafirmlyintheirgrasp,eventhoughpocketsofrebellionpersisted.
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890 Unit 16, Lesson 12
Afterstabilizingthegovernment,theCommunistssetouttopunishtheirformerenemiesandextinguishanypossibilityofafurtherrebellion.Indoingso,RussiahopedtosetitselfapartfromFranceintermsofpostrevolutionarybehavior.SomeoftheFrenchrebelsbecamemorelenientaftertheirvictoryandpermittedsomeoftheiropponentstolive.Incontrast,theCommunistswantedtoeradicatealltheiropponents.ThiserabecameknownastheRedTerror.TheCommunistsjustifieditbypaintingthetargetsoftheRedTerrorasopponentsofthestateandtheworkingclass.Onceagain,theyusedtheChekatodotheirdirtywork.ThetargetsoftheRedTerrordidnotgetchancestodefendthemselvesorevenappearincourt.Onceaccused,theycouldbeimmediatelyexecuted.ManymembersoftheWhiteArmy,aswellasmembersofthearistocracyandtheupperclasses,diedduringtheRedTerror.Later,historiansspeculatedthatthenumbersofthedeadcouldhavereachedmorethan2 million.TheCommunists’brutalpoliciesbecamesupremelyeffective.Followingtheendofthecivilwar,theCommunistswouldnotencounteranyfurtherproblemswithpotentialrevolutionariessupportingpreviousregimesorpoliticalparties.
Meanwhile,evenasthecivilwarended,theCommunistregimehadbeenforcedtoadmitthatRussia’scurrentfinancialsituationcouldnotcontinue.TheyearpriortotheRedTerrorsawasignificantmilitaryuprisingagainstthegovernment.Thisupris-ingtookplaceinFebruaryandMarch1921andinvolvednavalforcesstationedatKronstadt.SinceKronstadthadpreviouslybeenontheRedArmy’sside,thisuprisinghitLeninandtheCommunistshard.ThegovernmentrealizedatlastthatsomethinghadtogivewayandthatthecurrentfinancialstateinRussiasimplycouldnotbesustained.LenincreatedanewmeansofapproachingfinanceinRussiacalledtheNewEconomicPolicy(NEP).DespitetheCommunists’passionatedesiretoabolishcapitalism,thenavaluprisinghadmadeLeninrealizethatRussiansocietycouldnotyetsucceedwithoutit.Asaresult,Lenincompromisedbyreturningtosomecapital-isticpracticesandincorporatingthemintoRussianfinance,allthewhilestressingthetemporarynatureofsuchcapitalism.LeninwantedtousecapitalismonlytomaketheRussianeconomystronger.OnceRussia’sfinancialstrengthhadreturned,capitalismcouldbeabolishedforgood.
LeninthenembarkedonanotherseriesofstepstohelpstrengthenRussia’sfinances.Tobolsterpopularpublicopinion,Leninhaltedthecurrentpolicyoftakingfoodfromthefarmersandotherruraldwellerstogivetopeopleinurbanareas.Tosupportthischangeinpolicy,Leninimplementedotherfinancialplanstoswellthemarkets.Insteadofhavingtogiveuptheirfoodtotheurbandwellers,farmerswouldsimplyhavetopaytaxesonit.However,thetaxwouldbecollectedingrains,ratherthanmoney.Thegovernmentcouldthenredistributethegrains.Whateverthefarmershadleftoveraftertheyhadpaidtheirtaxesandfedtheirfamiliestheycouldthenexchangeforothergoodsormoney.Thismorepositiveapproachtofarmingandtaxationenabledfarmerstoworktowardgreaterharvests,whichinturnincreasedRussia’stradeandproduction.Leninalsosetuplegislationthathelpedlowerclassfarmersincreasetheirproduction.Theycouldtemporarilyleasefarmstoplanton,aswellasundertakeharvestsontheirown,andtheygainedtherighttotakeonlaborerstoworkallthelandintheircontrol.
Slowly,theseelementscombinedtoincreaseandstabilizetheRussianeconomy.Russianfinancesgotyetanotherboostfromoverseasentrepreneurs.Inreturn
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Unit 16, Lesson 12 891
forspecialdeals,theseentrepreneurshelpedboostRussia’sfinancesbackupsothatthecountrycouldentermoresecurelyintointernationalfinance.FiveyearsaftertheRedTerror,in1927,theRussianeconomyhadrecoveredsubstantially.
Extensions• WatchthesilentfilmTen Days That Shook the World.Thisfilmchroniclesthe
BolshevikRevolutionof1917.HowcouldthisfilmserveaspropagandaforaCommunistgovernmentinRussia?Ofthecharactersinvolved,whoisthemostcompellingandwhy?
SummaryAsthetsarfellfrompower,Leninsawhisownpoliticalfortunesrise.HisearlytraininginthelawandMarxistthoughtpreparedhimforthejobastheleaderoftheBolsheviksafterthatgroupsplinteredfromthelargerRSDLP.IntheAprilTheses,LeninstronglyinfluencedthepracticeofsocialisminRussiaandlaidgroundworkforrevolution.AfterthesuccessfulNovemberRevolution,LeninandtheBolsheviksmademanyreformstoRussia.TheyremovedtheConstituentAssemblyanddecreasedthepowerofthechurchandthearistocracy.InMarch1918,LeninmadeapeacetreatywithGermany,andRussialeftWorldWarI.Thecountrythenplungedintoacivilwar,inwhichover2millionpeopledied.By1922,theCommunistgovernmenthadtakenfirmcontrolofRussia.
Looking AheadAsRussiadealtwithcivilwarandthenattemptedtorebuilditseconomy,othercountrieswatchedclosely.Downtroddenmembersofformerempiressawthepositive(forsome)outcomeoftheRussianRevolutionwithenvyandaspiration.Soon,othercountrieswouldstarttryingtomimictheRussians’success.Lenin’sprojectedvisionofaworldrevolutionwouldbegintocometrue,atleasttempo-rarily.ItwouldbeginnowhereelsebutwithintheboundariesofRussia’sformerlybitterenemy,Germany.
1. The connection between capitalism and imperialism; the idea of a “vanguard party”; the belief that capitalist nations had become “weakest links in a chain”; the concept of “telescoping”; and new plain, bold strategies for revolutionary groups to follow when explaining their wants and needs
2. By taking away its lands and goods, by closing its places of worship, by making it illegal to share
religious ideas, and by invalidating religious marriages
3. The Red Army was made up of Communists, formerly Bolsheviks. The White Army was made up of Cadets, Mensheviks, Social Revolutionaries, and royalists. The Whites received aid from Allied countries, including Britain, France, Japan, and the United States.
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
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Russian and German Revolutions
Unit 16, Lesson 13
Keywordsauthoritarian
monarchy
liberal provisional republic
Essential Questions• HowdidtheGermanandRussianrevolutions(in1918and1917,
respectively)compare?
• WhathappenedintheGermanRevolutionof1918?
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Unit 16, Lesson 13 893
Set the StageRussia’s revolution in 1917 toppled a dynasty that had ruled the country for more than 300 years and had become one of the few remaining monarchies in the West. The years that followed the revolution would trace a bloody trajectory in Russia. However, immediately afterward, in 1917, people in other countries admired the Russians for liberating themselves from an oppressive government and creating real political change. Other nations’ citizens would try to emulate the Russians by attempting their own revolutions grounded in Marxist ideology. The first country to do so would be the beleaguered nation of Germany.
Similarities and Differences Between the Russian and German RevolutionsRussiaofferedothercountriesinEuropeanexampleofasuccessfulgovernmentaluprisingfollowingahumiliatingsurrenderinWorldWarI.AfterbothAustria-HungaryandGermanysubmittedtotheAllies,thepeopleofbothcountriesbegantoagitateforsocialchange.TheuprisinginAustria-HungarydifferedsubstantiallyfromtheonethathadtakenplacesorecentlyinRussia,however.Theuprisinginthisformerlypowerfulempireconcentratedontwoprincipalelements:individualnationbuildingandgovernmentbyelectoralrepresenta-tion.Theoldimperialnationwantedtotransformintoindividual,autonomouszonesthatrepresentedallcitizens.Fouryearsearlier,itwouldnothavebeenpossible.Austria-Hungary,thenledbytheHapsburgDynasty,hadbasicallyenteredintothewartosafeguarditsmassiveimperialstate.IthadbeentherumblingsofdesireforautonomyfromsmallerregionssuchasSerbiathathadlaidgroundworkforeventualwar.Inshort,Austria-Hungaryhadgonetowartoprotectsomethingthatnolongerexisted.Itsimperialstatewasdissolvedatwar’send.
Thus,Austria-Hungarysplitintodisparateparts.AustriaandHungaryseparatedfromoneanotherandformedtheirownsmallnations.Anothernewcountry,Czechoslovakia,emergedfromtherubble.Meanwhile,theSerbianpeople,strength-enedbythewar,formedanothernewnation:Yugoslavia.YugoslaviaincludedSlavicpeoplesfromthesouthernregionoftheformerHapsburgEmpire.Thus,justlikethat,theHapsburglinedisappeared.Initsplace,severalsmallnationsbeganconcen-tratingoncreatingtheirowngovernments.Theyhadmanymoreproblemsaheadofthem.Yetinaworldwheredistinctionsamongclassesofpeoplehadmatteredsogreatlyforsuchalongtime,assoonasWorldWarIhadended,theseparationofclassesbecamelessimportant.PeopleinthisregionofEuropeworkedtogetheracrossclassestoformtheirnewnations.Problemsbetweenclasseswouldpersist,ofcourse,but,momentarilyatleast,classwarfarewasreplacedwithadesiretobuildnewandimprovedcountries.
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894 Unit 16, Lesson 13
WhileeventsinpostwarAustria-HungaryborelittlesimilaritytotheRussianRevolution,thatwouldnotbetrueofeventsinGermany.TheGermanRevolutionofNovember1918hadmanysimilaritiestotheRussianRevolutionthathadprecededit.
TheWeimarRepublicisthenamegiventothefederalrepublicandparlia-mentaryrepresentativedemocracyestablishedin1919inGermanytoreplacetheimperialformofgovernment.ItwasnamedafterWeimar,thecitywheretheconstitutionalassemblytookplace.Generallyspeaking,GermanyandRussiabothwentfromonesimilarstatetoanothersimilarstateduringtherevolution-aryprocess.Atfirst,eachcountryhadbeenruledbyasystemofauthoritarian monarchy,whichresultedinafewpleasedpeopleatthetopofsocietyandagreatdealofunhappypeopleinthemiddleandbottomofsociety.ThepeopleinGermanyandRussiaallfinallybecamefedupwiththiskindofgovernment,whichdidnotrepresentthem,andmostofeachcountry’spopulationspartici-patedinasubstantialrebellion.Aftertheserebellions,bothcountriesendedupwithanewformofgovernmentthatcanbestbedescribedasaliberal provisional republic.Bothgovernmentsproclaimedthemselvesastemporary,bothremainedcommittedtogradualchange,andbothseemedtopromiserepresentationbyelectiontothepeople.Moreover,eachoftheseliberalprovi-sionalrepublicscenteredonsocialistpoliticianswithbeliefsthattendedmoretothesideof“slowandsteady”change.Inoppositiontoeachofthesegovern-ments,bothcountrieswatchedasunionsoflaborersandmembersofthearmedforcesbegantospringup.
ThesimilaritiesbetweeneventsinRussiaandinGermanyendedwiththeprovisionalrepublics.InRussia,atthispoint,moreextremerebelssuchastheBolsheviksperseveredandeventuallylaunchedasecondrevolution.Russia’sProvisionalGovernmentfelltotheBolshevik,laterCommunist,regime.Incontrast,inGermanythemorecautiousmembersoftheSocialDemocraticPartytriumphedoverthecommunistrevolutionaries.TheGermancommunists,inretrospect,wouldbelievetheyhadfailedandawealthiermiddleclasshadtriumphed.Russia’sBolshevikshadsucceededinlargepartbecauseofLenin’sleadership;GermanydidnothaveaLenintoguideitsfellowMarxists.
Results of the German Revolution TheabsenceofaleaderlikeLeninwasnottheonlyreasonGermany’srevolutiondidnottakethesameultimatepathasRussia’s.ManyotherfactorscombinedtokeepGermany’sgovernmentmoremoderate.Russia’sMarxistssimplyhadbecomemoreradicalthantheGermans.GermanyhadapoliticalpartyknownastheSocialDemocrats,whichpresentedamixtureofsocialistandMarxistideas,andhadexistedpriortoWorldWarI.InGermany,though,thispartywasmoreradicalinnamethaninaction.
TheGermanSocialDemocrats,likeearlyrevolutionariesintheUnitedStates,wantedtobringdemocracytotheircountry.Thepeopleinthispartyalsowantedtoestablishmoreindividualrights,orcivilliberties,forpeopleinGermany.Ratherthanabolishcapitalismoutright,theywantedtoslowlyease
1SeLf-cHecK
What two things did
the people of Austria-
Hungary hope to achieve
through revolution?
authoritarian monarchy system of government where a royal leader has nearly absolute control
liberal provisional republic temporary form of government that has popularly elected representatives and is invested in gradual reform
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Unit 16, Lesson 13 895
awayfromitastheymovedtoanotherfinancialsystem.AllthesegoalsmarkedthemasverydifferentfromtheBolshevikrebels.Additionally,theGermanSocialDemocratsremainedveryinvestedinkeepingtheirnationunitedandsecure—unlikeLenin,whodidnothesitatetoreleaseterritoriesintreatiesorplungetheBolsheviksintocivilwar.Inotherwords,theydoubledasGermannationalists.Assuch,theyremainedunabletotolerateanyhintofinternaltroubleintheirowncountry,suchasthepossibilityofyetanotherrevolutionorinternalwar.
InRussiatheBolshevikshadfoundaidandcommongroundwiththecoun-cils,whichrepresentedbothlaborersandmembersofthearmedforces.Withthecouncilsbehindthem,theBolshevikshadbeenabletoapproachrevolu-tionwithsomeconfidence.InGermany,theoppositewastrue.PeopleintheGermancouncilsfavoredamoderateapproach.Inthesuccessful,large-scaleuprisingsinhistory,themajorityofthemmovedforwardbecausetheyhadthebackingandsupportofthemasses.Theyfoundtheirstrengthinnumbers.Ittookmanypeopletomakenewpolitics.WithoutthatkindofmasssupportinGermany,futurerevolutionarieswouldbeisolatedandalone.
Russia’sProvisionalGovernmenthadformedafteraninternalstrugglewhenthecountry’srulerabdicated.Atthetime,RussiahadbeenengagedinWorldWar Iandhadbeenlosing,buthadnotyetbeendecisivelydefeated.Incontrast,the
Karl Liebknecht cofounded the Communist Party of Germany with Rosa Luxemburg.
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896 Unit 16, Lesson 13
GermanSocialDemocratswhoruledGermanyaftertheNovemberRevolutionbegantheiradministrationontheexactsamedaythatGermanycededvictoryinWorldWarItotheAllies.TheSocialDemocrats’regimewouldbeforeverlinkedtotheendofWorldWarI.
Initially, insomewaysthisconnectionbecameapositiveonefortheGermans.BythetimeGermanyacknowledgeditslossinthewar,itsarmedforceshadbecomedepressedanddistraught.Incedingvictorywithdignity,thegovernmentbroughtitsarmedforcesbacktogetherandgavethembacktheirself-respect.Manyofthemorepowerfulfiguresinthearmedforceshadtraditional,moderatebackgrounds,anditempoweredthemtosharetheirvalueswiththegovernment.
Thisconnectiontothemilitaryinfactpreservedtheprovisional,moderateregime,whichwastestedsoonafteritsemergence,inJanuary1919.JustasLeninhadinspiredtheBolshevikstorevoltagainsttheprovisionalgovernment,sotoodidtwoGermanextremists,KarlLiebknecht(1871–1919)andRosaLuxemburg(1870–1919),attempttogatherfollowersandrevoltagainsttheirownprovisionalgovernment.Leninhadthesupportofanarmy;LiebknechtandLuxemburgworkedagainstit.Facedwithpossiblerebellion,theGermanSocialDemocratsactedimmediatelytobringinthesympatheticarmedforcesontheirbehalf.Therebellionendedalmostassoonasitbegan,asthetwoleaderssurrenderedtothearmedforcesandweresummarilyexecuted,afardifferentfatethanLenin’s.ThefactthatLiebknechtandLuxemburgdiedfortheirideassplittheSocialDemocratsintwo.Themoreradicalmembersofthepartyleftitasanactofprotest,andsetupaCommunistpartyoftheirown,onethatsharedsimilarideastothoseofLenin.
Yetdespitethecrueltythemoreliberalpartymembershadendorsed,thefactthattheyhadpreventedaBolshevik-stylerebellionprobablypreservedGermany.True,thegovernmenthandledtheuprisingwithgreatviolence.Hadtherebellioncontinued,however,Germanywouldhaveprobablyendedupingreatdanger.InJanuary1919,Germanyoccupiedavulnerableplaceontheworldstage,withitsformerenemieswatchingitcloselyastheypreparedthetermsofpeace.InRussia,asuccessfulrevolutionbytheBolshevikswouldbefollowedbyintensecivilwar.WhatifthesamethinghadhappenedinGermany?Givenotherconditions,itseemslikelythathadthearmynotstoppedLiebknecht,Luxemburg,andtheirfollowers,Germanywouldhavebeensetonapathtowardinternaldiscord,tornbetweentwoseparatebutequalopposingparties.ThatwouldhaveleftGermanyvulnerabletoAlliedinterference.AsoneconditionoftheNovember1918initialpeacetreaty,theAlliedforceshadlefttroopsinpartofGermanywhiletheycompletedtheTreatyofVersailles.ItwouldhavetakenverylittletimeforthesetroopstoreachBerlin,theGermancapital,andiftheAllieshadenteredinthemiddleofacivilwar,Germanyasanationmighthaveneverrecovered.
ScholarshavefrequentlycriticizedGermany’sgovernmentduringthistimeforitsoverlyharsh,crueltreatmentofitsrebelsandforitspoliticalparty’sabandonmentofMarxisttenets.However,itseemslikelythattheterribleactionsthispartyendorsedalsoworkedtokeepitsnationtogether.
2SeLf-cHecK
What was the
German Social
Democrats’ attitude
toward capitalism,
as opposed to the
Bolsheviks’ attitude?
3SeLf-cHecK
Which two people tried
to spur a Communist
revolution in Germany?
What happened
to them?
Rosa Luxemburg became a popular and outspoken revo-lutionary in Germany after the armistice in November 1918. She was an important leader in the Spartacist movement.
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Unit 16, Lesson 13 897
Extensions• Read“Oh!How—GermanIsThisRevolution!”byRosaLuxemburginThe
Class Struggle(Vol.III,No.4,August1919).HowdoesthepenalsysteminGermanyin1918demonstratebourgeoisbrutality?HowdoesLuxemburgfeelaboutcapitalpunishment?Why?WhatisthefirstdemandofLuxemburgtotheWorkers’andSoldiers’Council?
SummaryRussia’srevolutionarymovementsinspireduprisingsinmanyothercountries.Austria-Hungarydissolvedintoagroupofindependent,republicannations:Austria,Hungary,Czechoslovakia,andYugoslavia.ItsrevolutionsseemedverydifferentfromRussia’s.Initially,Germany’s1918revolutionseemedeerilyliketheRussianRevolutionof1917,asbothcountriestransferredfrommonarchiestoliberalrepublics.YetwhileRussiaenduredanotherrevolutionandbecameaCommunistcountry,Germany’srevolutionstoppedwiththeliberalrepublic.Itwouldcontinuetochangeaccordingtomoderateterms,aftercruellyavertinganotherpotentialCommunistrebellion.
Looking AheadGermanyweatheredthepotentialradicalrebellionandcomethroughwithitsmoderategovernmentstillintact.Lifewouldbegoodforashorttime,andanewgovernment,theWeimarRepublic,wouldrise.Yetbythesummerof1919,whenthetermsoftheTreatyofVersailleshadbeenrevealed,Germanywouldbeplungedintodespair,devastatedbytheharshtermsofthepeace.Manycitizenswouldblametheirgovernmentforthoseterms,althoughinthatmatterofinternationalnegotiation,theWeimarRepublichadbeenpowerless.WoundedbytheTreatyofVersailles,Germanywouldfallunderthespellofanewpoliticianwhopromisedrevengeforthehumiliatingpeace.Anotherinevitableconflictloomed.
1. Autonomy for individual nations, government by electoral representation within those nations
2. The German Social Democrats wanted to phase out capitalism slowly, while the Bolsheviks wanted to abolish it right away.
3. Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg; both were executed
SeLf-cHecK ANSWeRS
Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.
Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.