UNIT 15 THE COLD WAR, THE KOREAN WAR, AND THE VIETNAM WAR 15:1 The Origins of the Cold War:● Many conflicts of the Cold War began at the Yalta summit meeting in February 1945.● The “Big 5” (USA, Britain, France, USSR, and China) had a veto in the UN. ● The status of Poland and the rest

of Eastern Europe was a major factor in the Cold War. Both sides wanted to control the region for the following reasons:√ Economics: both sides wanted access to the markets and resources of Eastern Europe.

√ Security: Neither side wanted the other’s armed forces in Eastern Europe.√ Ideology: The Soviets wanted to spread Communism and the West wanted to establish democratic-capitalism in Eastern Europe.

15:1 The Origins of the Cold War continued:

√ Domestic politics: Truman was under tremendous political pressure not to let Eastern Europe fall under Soviet domination

15:2 The early Cold War:● The West interpreted the Greek Civil War as the first step in a world-wide Communist conquest.● In May 1947 President Truman said that it would be the policy of the US to “support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation” and the policy of Containment was born—the US would not allow Communism to spread.● Congress backed up the Truman Doctrine by appropriating $400 million and the Greek Communists were defeated.

● Beginning in 1948 the US implemented the Marshall Plan and billions of dollars were given to Europe to help it rebuild from the devastation of World War II.

15:2 The Berlin Blockade and the formation of NATO:● From June 1948 to May 1949 the Soviets blocked Western access to West Berlin. The US and Britain responded by airlifting in supplies.

15:2 The early Cold War:

George Marshall

15:2 The Berlin Blockade and the formation of NATO continued:● In April 1949 the US and 11 other nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) stating that “an attack on one would be an attack on all.” The USSR responded by forming the Warsaw Pact with its satellites. ● President Truman moved US forces to bases in Europe.

15:3 The Communist Victory in China:

● The Communists under the leadership of Mao Zedong used the war with Japan to gain support from the peasants.

● The Nationalist government under Chiang Kai-shek was weakened by the Japanese invasion, disunity, and corruption.● After years of fighting the Communists won in December 1949. The Nationalists fled to Taiwan.

Mao

Marshall, Chiang, Chaing’s wife,

15:3 The Korean War, 1950-1953:● Korea was divided at the 38th parallel after World War II.● In June 1950 Communist North Korea attacked South Korea and President Truman sent in US forces under the auspices of the UN to help the South.

1:3 The Korean War, 1950-1953 continued:

● The US responded to the North Korean attack because:√ It wanted to keep its influence in Asia by supporting it allies.√ The Democrats had to prove that they were “tough on Communism.”

√ Containment—The Communist victory in China and the Berlin Blockade reinforced the idea that the US had to respond forcibly to Communist aggression. The US mistakenly thought the Korean attack was directed from Moscow.

√ The war could be used as a justification to rearm the military.

● When UN forces approached the Chinese border in late 1950 Chinese troops entered the war.● President Truman relieved General Douglas MacArthur of his command of the UN forces when MacArthur argued that the war should be expanded beyond Korea.● After the election of

President Eisenhower an armistice was signed in July 1953. The country remained divided at the 38th parallel. Over 54,000 Americans died in Korea.

Douglas MacArthur

President-Elect Eisenhower in Korea

Marines at Inchon

15:3 The Korean War, 1950-1953 continued:

15:4 The Suez Crisis and the Hungarian uprising:● Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal in the summer of 1956.● Israel, Britain and France attacked Egypt in October 1956 at the same time that the Soviets were crushing an uprising in Hungary.

● The US and the USSR applied great pressure on Israel, Britain and France and they withdrew from Egypt.● The US did nothing to help the Hungarians and the Soviets regained control of Hungary.

15:4 The U-2 Incident:

● A US U-2 spy plane was shot down over the USSR. When President Eisenhower denied the flights were taking place Premier Khrushchev produced the captured pilot and a May 1960 summit meeting in Paris was ruined.

15:4 The Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis:

● In April 1961 Cuban exiles, trained and supported by the US, invaded Cuba at the Bay of Pigs in an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro.● The forces were defeated and President Kennedy had to admit US involvement and pay Castro $60 million to get the captured exiles freed.

15:4 The Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis continued:

● In October 1962 the US discovered that the USSR was placing offensive nuclear tipped missiles in Cuba.● The US placed a naval blockade around Cuba and prepared to invade Cuba unless the missiles were removed.● The USSR backed-down and the

missiles were removed. The US removed some missiles from Turkey as a compromise, but the world came very close to nuclear war.● The crisis caused both sides to be more careful in the future. Castro and Khrushchev

15:4 The Cuban Missile Crisis continued

15:4 The Berlin Wall:● In April 1961 the USSR solved the problem of East Germans escaping to the West by building a wall across Berlin.

Ho Chi Minh

15:5 The Vietnam War:● The US became involved in Vietnam for the following reasons:√ Containment—the US thought that the USSR was directing the Communist movement in Vietnam.√ Ideology—support American values.√ Economics—maintain the Open Door in Indochina.√ Security—keep the balance of power in Asia intact.√ Domestic politics—Politicians had to appear strong in the fight against the “spread of Communism.”

Dulles creates SEATO

• (SEATO), alliance organized (1954) under the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty by representatives of Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. Established under Western auspices after the French withdrawal from Indochina, SEATO was created to oppose further Communist gains in Southeast Asia. According to John Foster Dulles SEATO’s principal role was to sanction the U.S. presence in Vietnam

● During 1946-1954 the Communist Viet Minh, under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh, fought the French. US leaders supported the French because:√ They wanted French support for Containment in Europe.√ They wanted to counteract the Communist victory in China.√ They saw a connection between “Communist aggression” in French Indochina and Korea.

15:5 The Vietnam War continued:

15:5 The Vietnam War continued:● After the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu, Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel (Geneva Accords). With the promise of unification elections.● The leader of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, refused to allow unification elections and in 1957 the Vietcong began an uprising and the US sent military advisors to help the South.

Diem and Eisenhower

• Buddhists began to protest Diem’s policies.• SEATO created to prop up Diem’s regime.• The Vietcong’s (VC) political arm National Liberation Front (NLF) was formed in South Vietnam to aid Ho Chi Minh in the north. •NLF assasinated over 2,000 south Vietnamese government officials. ● In November 1963 Diem was assassinated and the Communists appeared to be winning the war.

15:5 The Vietnam War continued:

15:5 Map of The Vietnam War

Johnson and Vietnam• Johnson’s War -- Political aspect

"I’m not going to be the president who saw SE Asia go the way China went."

• Keeps most of Kennedy’s cabinet:             -Dean Rusk - Sec. of State: Major proponent of the domino theory             -Robert McNamara -- Sec. of Defense: claims responsibility for war in 1995             -McGeorge Bundy - NSC.

• Johnson rejects any settlement in Vietnam not guaranteeing a non-communist government.

15:5 The Vietnam War continued:● The August 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave President Johnson a free hand in Vietnam and the US began bombing the North.● US combat troops were introduced into Vietnam in March 1965.

Congress almost unanimously passes ResolutionJohnson orders a “limited” retaliatory air raid, stated and sought a “no wider war.” Major point: LBJ’s major error was using the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution to justify his widening of the war without seeking congressional and popular approval. He sought to protect his Great Society programs by keeping the war’s decision-making secretive.

His lack of trust in the Joint Chiefs of Staff after the Cuban Missile Crisis meant top military officials were not part of the war's policy process.

No evidence exists that LBJ intentionally sought to escalate the war.

NPR NEWS

• Walter Cronkite: History's Lessons

• Gulf of Tonkin's Phantom Attack

• Faulty Intelligence Played Role in Decision to Engage Viet Cong

• by Walter Cronkite 

ESCALATION

• - As situation unraveled, initial objective of S. Vietnamese stabilization no longer viable. -The further U.S. got in, the harder it was to get out -Military demanded more bombing & escalation - Key cabinet officials advised escalation; Ike also -Domino theory continually cited despite China turning inward during its Cultural Revolution and Soviet desire to promote negotiations. -Under advisement, Johnson considered escalation w/o assurances that it would succeed.

• This was the fatal flaw in U.S. policy.

OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER

• "Operation Rolling Thunder was a frequently interrupted bombing campaign that began on 24 February 1965 and lasted until the end of October 1968. During this period U.S. Air Force and Navy aircraft engaged in a bombing campaign designed to force Ho Chi Minh to abandon his ambition to take over South Vietnam.

• The operation began primarily as a diplomatic signal to impress Hanoi with America’s determination, essentially a warning that the violence would escalate until Ho Chi Minh "blinked," and secondly it was intended to bolster the sagging morale of the South Vietnamese.

TROOP ESCALATION

• 1965 -- 184,000; • 1966 -- 385,000; • 1967 -- 485,000; • 1968 -- 538,000

Increases in US troops matched

by increased numbers of North

Vietnamese soldiers fighting

with the Vietcong and increased

aid from USSR and China.

TET OFFENSIVE

● The February 1968 Tet Offensive caused US public opinion to turn against the war.

● President Johnson did not run for re-election and after his 1968 victory President Richard Nixon “Vietnamized” the war.

● In April 1970 US and ARVN troops invaded Cambodia.

TET OFFENSIVE

• -67,000 Vietcong attacked 100 cities, bases, and embassy

• Offensive lasted approx. one month.

• Thousands of casualties on both sides.

• Tet Offensive not militarily successful for Vietnam but psychologically destroyed American hopes.

                                                                                                                                                                  

                                                                        

                                                                                                                                                                  

                                                                        

                                                                                                                                                                  

                                                                        

CRITICS OF US POILCY

• New Left • Massive student protests

began focusing on the Vietnam war.

• Many occurred at university campuses.

• Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) became more militant, used violence & turned to Lenin for its ideology.

• New Left lost political influence after it abandoned its original commitment to democracy and

non-violence.

CRITICS OF US POLICY

• Antiwar movement • Starts with 1965 bombing escalation;

antiwar sentiment explodes. • Religious, anti-nuke, women, civil rights

groups all joined in the anti-war effort. • Draft the biggest cause for protest Draft

numbers increased from 5K per month in 1965 to 50K per month in 1967.

• Poor were twice as likely to be drafted as middle class (until lottery in 1970)

• Thousands of draft registrants fled to Canada; others burned their draft cards

• marchers yelling "Hell no, we won’t go," and "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?"

CRITICS OF US POLICY

• Press• Technology allowed Vietnam to be

brought into American’s living rooms with very little censoring of the press.         -Walter Cronkite -- "What the hell is going on. I thought we were winning the war. It seems now more certain than ever that the bloody experience in Vietnam is to end in a stalemate. The only rational way out is to negotiate."             - Johnson: "If I’ve lost Walter, then it’s

over, I’ve lost the Average Citizen"

CRITICS OF US POLICY

• Press• Editorials in Newsweek, Time, and

Wall Street called for negotiated settlement.

• Military assessments and data was questioned.

• Body counts did not account for guerrilla war; McNamara defended them since U.S. was fighting a war of attrition.

• Public support for the war eventually plunged from 40% to

26%.

CRITICS OF US POLICY

• HAWKS• Hawks defended president’s policy

and drew on Truman’s containment policy.

• John Birch Society (formed in 1958) Radical Right organization est. to combat what was perceived to be communist infiltration into American life.

• Tet changed public opinion dramatically            Hawks -- 62% to 22% from Jan 1968 to March 1968; Doves from 22% to 42%

• DOVES• argued war was a civil war in which

U.S. should not get involved. • Argued South Vietnam’s government

not democratic, opposed large-scale aerial bombings, use of chemical

• weapons, and the killing of civilians.            

• Rejected the domino theory pointing out increased losses of American lives and the economic cost of the war.

ELECTIONS OF 1968• Johnson’s popularity dropped from 48% to

36%

• McNamara’s departure rocked Johnson’s confidence of his political support.

• Eugene McCarthy, liberal from Minnesota, ran an antiwar campaign in New Hampshire and nearly got 1/2 the vote on March 12; inspired Robert Kennedy to run.

• March, Robert Kennedy launched antiwar based campaign.

• March 31, 1968 -- Johnson announced he would not seek another term             - "I have decided that I shall not seek and I will not accept the nomination of my party for another term as your President."

• Tet, McCarthy, and RFK contributed to LBJ’s decision.

• Vietnam had claimed a presidency

                  

1968 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS

• Robert F. Kennedy assassinated after winning CA primary over Eugene McCarthy.

• Assassin a Palestinian named Sirhan Sirhan Assured Vice President Hubert Humphrey of the Democratic nomination.

• Republicans nominated Richard M. Nixon

• Nixon committed to continuing war until enemy settled for "honorable peace."

• -Governor George C. Wallace of Alabama: American Independent Party. Advocated putting blacks back into their place while bombing North Vietnam "back to the Stone Age."

• Nixon def. Humphrey by 1% of popular vote but by 301 to 191 in electoral votes.

NIXON AND VIETNAM

After his 1968 victory PresidentRichard Nixon “Vietnamized”

thewar. Nixon DoctrineVIETNAMIZATION =The plan was to

encourage the South Vietnamese to take more responsibility for fighting the war. It was hoped that this policy would eventually enable the United States to withdraw gradually all their soldiers from Vietnam.

South Vietnam would receive US money, weapons, training, and advice so that they could gradually take over the burden of fighting the Vietcong.

MY LAI INCIDENT

• My Lai Massacre, 1968 (revealed to public in 1969)

• Lt. William Calley massacred 350 civilians in the village of My Lai

• Calley court martialed, convicted of murder, & sentenced to life in prison.

• Calley claimed to follow direct order; sentence lowered to 10 years.

• Public outraged and hundreds of thousands protested

OPERATION PHOENIX• the Phoenix program was allegedly

designed to conduct arrest and assassination operations against suspected Vietcong and Vietcong sympathizers. The Phoenix program was developed and operated by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the United States Army, and components of several South Vietnamese intelligence and law enforcement agencies.

• program resulted in the arrest, detention, brutal interrogation, and execution of thousands of Vietcong fighters and sympathizers at the hands of South Vietnam police and intelligence agencies

SECRET BOMBINGS OF CAMBODIA & LAOS

                                                                                             

CAMBODIA & LAOS• President Richard Nixon announced to

a national television audience that US troops were invading Cambodia, the country west of Vietnam through which the North Vietnamese military was supplying their troops in the South. In fact, the US had been conducting bombing raids in Cambodia AND Laos for over a year. The American bombing of Cambodia & Laos was a closely guarded secret primarily because the U.S. was not at war with either country.

• President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor, Henry A. Kissinger, unleashed B-52 carpet bombing for over fourteen months against a people who still tilled the soil with water buffalo. The 3,500 bombing sorties resulted in 600,000 deaths.

15:5 The Vietnam War continued:● In February 1971 the ARVN invaded Laos and suffered a severe defeat.● In March 1972 US airpower help defeat a major NVA attack on the South.● To reassure South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van

Thieu, and to pressure the Communists, President Nixon ordered massive bombings of North Vietnam during December 1972.

PROTESTS

• KENT STATE

PENTAGON PAPERS• Former defense analyst Daniel Ellsberg leaked government documents in regard to

war effort during the Johnson years to the New York Times. • Classified documents revealed that the government had misled the Congress and the

American people regarding its intentions in Vietnam during the mid-1960s. • Primary reason for fighting was not to eliminate communism but to "avoid a

humiliating defeat.“• Gulf of Tonkin truth revealed. • White House tried to block publication Supreme court overruled Nixon.• Government’s credibility received another heavy blow.

CHRISTMAS BOMBINGS OF HANOI & HAIPHONG

• American pilots flew nearly 4,000 sorties, including more than 700 by high-flying B-52s. Those ''area bombers,'' incapable of precision, had never been used against cities before.

● In January 1973 a Paris Peace Accord was signed and US forces left Vietnam. “Peace with Honor”● The Communists triumphed in Vietnam in 1975 and unified the country.● The war divided the US. It was relatively easy to avoid military service if one wanted to do so.

15:5 The Vietnam War continued:

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

15:5 Troops in Vietnam:

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

1961-

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

Com

bat

Dea

ths

15:5 Vietnam Combat Deaths:

COSTS OF WAR

• - 58,000 dead Americans, 300,000 wounded; MIA’s -2,583

• Over 2 million Vietnamese dead; MIAs - 300,000

• $150 billion spent on the war rather than on social programs.

• A large percentage of Americans came to distrust their government (even more so after Watergate Scandal)