Unit 13

Restriction, Elevation and

Degradation of Meaning

Restriction of meaning means that a word ofwide meaning acquires a narrower, specialisedsense which is applicable to only one of theobjects it had previously denoted.

Restriction of Meaning

Examples

liquor

Old Meaning Specialized meaning

liquid alcoholic drink

example

meat

Old Meaning Specialized Meaning

food Flesh of animals

word Old meaning Specialization

disease discomfort illness

poison drink Poisonous drink

wife woman married woman

accident event unlucky event

girl A child A female child

word Old meaning Specialization

starve die Die of hunger

stink Any smell Bad smell

success Result a good result

corpse

a human oranimal body living or dead

a dead bodyesp. of a

human being

现代英语中把日常生活用语转用到科技方面，这也是词义缩小的一种现象。

A clean room 和 a white room 均为日常生活用语，现指用于精密零件制造的“绝尘室”

“A clean room” or “ a white room”,increasingly becomes shop talk.

清洁室或称白室正日益变成专家们的行话。

Elevation of Meaning

Words often rise from a humble beginning to a position of greater importance. This change is called elevation of meaning.

Pioneer: foot soldier who cleared the way for any army by falling trees, etc.

A person who goes before, preparing the way for others,

as a scientist doing exploratory work

Fond: foolish

Tender and affectionate

minister

• Old: an attendant

• New: a person at the head of a department of a state.

marshall

Originally:A horse tender

Present Meaning:Officer of highest rank

craftsman

Old: a person good at cheating

Now: a man who does a skilled job, usu,

with hands

shrewd

Old meaning:

wicked;

malicious

Now:keen-witted;clever or sharp in practical affairs

nimble

• Old meaning:

quick at stealing

• present meaning:

quick of comprehension

见 125 页

Elevation of Meaning

Degradation of meaning

Words with a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense. This is called degradation of meaning or deterioration

Four Kinds of Degradation of Meaning

A. A word falls into disrepute because

of social prejudice

Example

Villain old meaning:a farmer

present Meaning:a man guilty of

evil deeds

clown

Old meaning: a peasant

present Meaning:a man who is clumsy and behaves stupidly

wench

• Old meaning:

a country girl

• present meaning:

a girl of loose character

boor

Old meaning:

a farmhand

present meaning:one who is rough, impolite and clumsy

churl

• Old meaning:

a farmhand

• present meaning:

one who is rude and unfriendly

B. A word becomes less respectable because of euphemism

Examples 见 127 页

C. Middle terms which are neutral in meaning and take on favorable or unfavorable meaning according to context

Examples 见 128 页

Fortune, is a middle term, because it may be either good or bad but the adjective fortunate has a positive value. So with the word luck. The word refers to good or bad luck, especially to good luck. But the adjective lucky only denotes “ having or bringing good luck”.

D. Sometimes a word shows deterioration in some of its uses, but maintain itself in others.

execute

To kill sb. as a lawful punishment

To carry out an order,a plan, a piece of work

4-2-3

Semantic Changes from the Literal Use of words to Their Figurative Use

1. Metaphor

We know that words are used in two ways: literally and figuratively. When used literally, they have their natural and usual meaning. When used figuratively, they have a suggested meaning.

!

A simile is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements, having at least one point of resemblance in appearance, quality, action or effect.

A metaphor, like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.

Metaphor?

There are three major groups of metaphors according to function and character:

A. Anthropomorphic metaphors

B. Animal metaphors

C. Synaesthetic metaphors

A. Anthropomorphic metaphors

Many inanimate objects are compared to the parts of the human body.

the eye of a needle 针眼

the eye of a potato 马铃薯的芽眼

the eye of the hurricane 风眼

the eye of a flower 花心

the eye of a peacock’s tail 孔雀翎斑the eye of the revolution 革命中心

参见 p.32 for More Examples

B. Animal metaphors

A great many inanimate objects, including various instruments, machines and parts of machines are called after an animal.

Cat-o’-nine-tails; 九尾鞭；香蒲

Cat-ice:

thin ice unsupported by water 薄冰

Catmint or catnip 猫薄荷

Catlap: slops, tea, etc. 稀薄饮料

Another large group of animal names can be transferred into words indicating persons.

An ass: a stupid foolish person

A pig:a dirty, greedy or ill-mannered person

A mouse: a person, esp. A woman, who is quiet and timid

A goose: a silly person, esp. female

A cat: a nasty person

A rat: a low worthless disloyal man

A lion: a famous and important person

A fox: a person who deceives others by means of clever tricks

A tiger: a person like such an animal in fierceness, courage, etc.

An owl: a wise-looking dullard.

A mule: a stupid or obstinate person

A dark horse: a person whose abilities are hidden

A mule: a stupid or obstinate person

An ape: a person who copies the behaviour of others

A monkey: a child who is full of annoying playfulness and trick

A parrot: a person who repeats, often without understanding, the words or actions of another

C. Synaesthetic metaphors

They are metaphors used to refer to direct association between the form and the meaning of language. This type of metaphor is based on the similarity of two things.

warm or cold temperature

warm or cold voice

loud music

loud colours

sweet tea

sweet sound or music

piercing wind

piercing sound

a grave face

grave news

a stormy day

a stormy quarrel

stony ground

a stony heart

dirty hand

a dirty night

A number of nouns, adjectives, or verbs in English can be used as metaphors.

1) The use of a Noun as a Metaphor:

A ray of hope

a grain of truth

a shadow of doubt

a flight of fancy

the fire of passion

2) the use of an adjective as a metaphor

Bitter enemy

murderous heat

iron courage

3) the use of a verb as a metaphor:

Time flies.

Time presses.

He bridles his anger.