Unit 1.3 Opportunities for participation. Concepts and Definitions From Play to Sport.
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Transcript of Unit 1.3 Opportunities for participation. Concepts and Definitions From Play to Sport.
Unit 1.3
Opportunities for participation
Concepts and Definitions• From Play to Sport
Characteristics and Objectives
• Play• Leisure and Recreation• Active leisure• Outdoor and Adventurous activities• Sport• Physical Education
PLAY - characteristics
Characteristics of Play
Fun Spontaneous
No strict structure
Rules Changeable and negotiatedIntrinsic Value
Although fun can be serious
Fantasy world
Play - objectivesChildren
• Test boundaries• Experience risk within safe
limits• Socialisation• Promotes independence• Develops respect• Allows social interaction
Adults
• Escape reality• To be childlike• Creativity and fantasy
Leisure• Used to be for privileged few – now essential
for normal life • Done during FREE TIME• CHOICE• RELAXATION• ENJOYMENT
Recreation – “active positive and beneficial” – similar to leisure +
• Refresh mind and body• Recuperate• “re-create” – be creative – participate in
activities for self-fulfilment
• Physical Recreation does all that through physical activity
Active Leisure• Physical recreation normally
linked to sport • Sport – competitive – not
everyone wants competition• Everyone does need physical
activity for health benefits• Active Leisure – physically
active in leisure time – jogging, swimming, aerobics walking
• “Lifetime sports”
Outdoor and Adventurous Activites
• Popularity increased in last 70 years
• Government support
• More availability
Characteristics
Outdoor Recreation• Activity done in natural
environment – woods, lakes• Not all outdoor recreation is
adventure
Adventure Activities• Same environment• Element of challenge and
risk• All adventure activities
considered outdoor recreation
Outdoor and Adventure education
• Using natural environment as classroom
• Children experience danger and risk in controlled manner
• Benefits– Appreciate natural environment– Skills – map reading etc..– Team work– leadership
Challenge and Risk• Difference between outdoor
and adventure lies in the concept of challenge and risk
• Adventure activities have an element of perceived or actual risk
• Perceived risk – dependent on skills and experience and actions they take
• Actual Risk – real danger – real risk – cannot be eliminated no matter how skilful
Risk• Risk relates to predictability• If risk is predictable it is
avoidable – danger is subjective – linked to knowledge and expertise
• At other end of scale a situation can be so unpredictable that danger is real and objective
• Mortlock – experience – risk continuum page 131
objectives
Outdoor rec/education• Learn to appreciate natural
environment• Active leisure, lifetime sport• Experience beyond normal
routine• Escape from mundane
Adventure activities• Excitement, thrill, fear• Self-reliance• Self awareness/discovery• Leadership • Team work• Trust
Urban adventure
• Cost may prevent those from cities experiencing outdoor and adventurous activity
• Overcome by using parks, canals, climbing walls
• Free running has developed to use features in the city to experience the thrill of outdoor education
Sport• Major part of
modern life – “new religion”
• Sport England – 5 million people gave 1 billion hours to sport on a voluntary basis
• Billion pound industry
Defining Sport
• Coakley defines Sport as….• "Sports are institutionalized competitive
activities that involve rigorous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by participants motivated by internal and external rewards."
SportInstitutionalised
• Fixed competitive structures – leagues, cups- overseen by governing body
• Standardised rules – set by governing body
• Rules enforced by officials• Strategies for play, training,
positions, equipment• Codes of conduct
Intrinsic/Extrinsic
• Why people play• Intrinsic – internal factors –
enjoyment, satisfaction
• Extrinsic – external – medals, prizes, money, trophies, praise
• Most people motivated by a combination of the two
Categories of sportBased on National curriculum activities – and distinctive characteristic
• Dance - aesthetic• Games - outwitting
opponents• Gymnastics - replication• Swimming and Water Safety• Athletic Activities –
maximising speed or distance
• Outdoor and Adventurous – challenge and risk
Games – sub divisions
• Invasion - Football• Striking and Field - Cricket• Combat - Judo• Target - Golf• Net sports - Tennis
A sport is….• Competitive• Selective by ability and excellence• Serious – commitment needed• Requires physical endeavour• Organised• Involves “sportsmanship” – codes
of conduct – fair play – morals• Is Darts a Sport?
Objectives of Sport
Fulfil potentialchallenge
Release tension
Health
Self esteemLearn to accept rules
Work with others
Show perseverance
Develop sense of fair play
Benefits to society
socialisationPrevent anti-social
behaviour
Economic benefits
Bring country togetherImprove international relations
Feelgood factor
Create a healthier nation
Sport related problems
Over commercial – win at all costs
Media – has too much influence – can change nature
of game
Hooliganism
Drug abuse
Bad behaviour can influence youth
Media – more spectators than players
Physical Education - characteristics
• “learning through the physical”• Formal body of knowledge with an educational philosophy• Learnt through experience of physical activity• Learning fundamental physical/motor skills• Learning rules, tactics and etiquette of a range of activities.• A means of developing positive social and personal values
such as teamwork and cooperation.• To develop the ability to appreciate the quality of
movement• To understand Health-Related Fitness • To develop a lifelong love and engagement with exercise,
physical activity and sport.
PE – learning how to serve in tennis
Sport – playing for the school
tennis tournament
Recreation – playing tennis at lunch time
How PE, Sport and Recreation overlap
Physical activity continuum
• Level of organisationPlay Leisure Physical Rec/Active Leisure Outdoor PE SportLeast organised most organised
• CompetitionPlay Leisure Outdoor Physical Rec/Active Leisure PE Sport
Least competitive most competitive
Benefits of Physical activity
To individuals
Stress reductionImproved fitness and
health
Develop social relationships
Make friendschallenge
Self-fulfilment
Team working skills
Learn about natural environment
Benefits to society
Improved health of the nation – reduce burden on NHS
Economic benefits
Personal development – role models in society
Shop window effect – high level performers enhance reputation of
country
Reduce anti-social behaviour
Exam Questions
• January 09 2a Mark scheme• June 08 1 Mark Scheme• June 08 2abc Mark scheme• June 08 4 Mark Scheme• Jan 08 1ab Mark Scheme• June 07 3a Mark Scheme
Leisure Provision• Physical Activity has major benefits to society
in terms of health and the reduction of anti-social behaviour.
• Provided by three sectors • Public• Private• Voluntary• What are the characteristics and goals of
each?
Public Sector• Provided from taxation – local or
national• Or through other forms of
government or public support – e.g lottery.
• Local authorities have responsibility for building and maintaining recreation facilities
• Provided for the public good• Some user groups are subsidised
Characteristics of public sector
Funded by taxation and lotteryFacilities aim to break even not to
make profit
Aim to encourage under-represented groups
Pay for entry and useSubsidised for less well off
Run for the good of the community
Day to day management may be by private company – DC
leisure
Joint and dual use – often partners with schools
Private Sector• Commercial companies• Run for profit• Growing sector – many
employment opportunities• Rapid expansion in last 20 years• High quality• Higher cost for membership• Exclusive
Characteristics of private sector
Profit motive
High quality
Higher admission pricesCater for more well-off
members of society
No public service remit
Characteristics of voluntary sector
Not-for-profit
Players pay to play through match fees and subs
Support roles filled by volunteers
Receive grant aid from lottery, Sport England and Governing BodiesWill hold fund raisers
Surplus funds used to improve facilities or services for members
Covers whole range of sport and leisure activity
Inequality of opportunity – advantages and disadvantages of each sector
• Government keen to see more people physically active for 3 reasons
• Improved health – less burden on the NHS
• Reduce crime and anti-social behaviour by engaging people in purposeful physical activity
• Enhance community esteem and cohesion
• 3 sectors because – one sector alone cannot achieve all this
• Inequality because..• Some local areas poorly
provided• Individuals lack
resources• Not everyone aware of
the benefits• Social exclusion or
discrimination
How good is each sector at providing “sport for all”Private Sector
Advantages• React quickly to demand• Meet individual needs• Restrict membership – so
facility is rarely over-crowded
Disadvantages• Costs high • Restrictions – long waiting
lists – exclusive• Discrimination – rules to
prevent some people joining
• Sport may suffer – thought only for certain types of people – tennis – middle class
Voluntary Sector
Advantages• Just needs enthusiasm• Huge range of activities• Exist for the benefit of the
people• Voluntary efforts keep costs
low• Lots of financial support
from government • Sponsors often keen to help
Disadvantages• Unplanned and relatively
uncontrolled – relies on goodwill
• No equal opps remit • Continuity not guaranteed –
relies on voluntary enthusiasm
• No guarantee of financial support
• Can still be socially exclusive
Public Sector
Advantages• Required to act in the public
good• Resources allocated for this
purpose• Not driven by profit motive
Disadvantages• Funds often limited – may
not be enough• Local authorities in
economically disadvantaged areas may have less to spend
• Less financial freedom to borrow money to invest in facilities for the future
“Best Value” – improving the public sector• 1980’s introduced Compulsory Competitive Tendering
(CCT) – Local authorities had to invite private companies to tender for the provision of local services. The best bid won the right to provide the leisure services for that area.
• Replaced in 2000 with “Best Value”• Government policy aimed to improve local
government services – including leisure and recreation – system operates around best value performance indicators – leisure services departments are inspected regularly and judged against criteria known as the 4C’s
4 C’s• Challenge – are councils doing as well as they
can, compared to the best councils• Consult – do they ask local communities what
they think • Compare – do they compare performance with
other councils and the private and voluntary sector
• Compete – have they demonstrated that they are managing the services in the best way possible.
Private SectorSmall- medium size
SpecialistProfit
High Quality Local/Public SectorMulti-sport
Outdoor FacilitiesDual use
Social provision
Voluntary SectorClubs – amateur
Facilities – owned, leased, rentedProvision for self +wider society
Nat. governmentDepartment of
Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS)
Recreational PolicySocial ProvisionSport England
Lottery
Recreation – Who manages what?
The role of National Government
• Department for Culture, Media and Sport• “playground to podium”• Sport England – one of the National sports
Councils – primarily concerned with• Increased participation• UK Sport – development of elite performers
SPORT ENGLAND• Developing community sport and increasing participation nationwide• Major Policy – National Framework for Sport• Key Partners – NGB’s, Sport Equity Alliance, National Sport foundation
to address inequality for some groups• Liase with – Youth Sport Trust and UK Sport to create structure from
first experience to elite performance• Achieves objectives through local initiatives putting into practice
national framework• Locally works with councils, schools and clubs• Allocates funding from taxation and the lottery to achieve objectives• Provides advice to local and national providers• Conducts research in levels of participation to find out why individuals
participate or not• Works with other government agencies to promote wider social policies
for community health and well-being
Exam Questions
• Jan 09 4c Mark Scheme• Jan 08 4c Mark Scheme• June 07 2c Mark Scheme
National Curriculum PE and School Sport
• PE is defined as ..• “a formalised body of knowledge and
experience taught within educational establishments”
• Relatively new subject – 100 years• Developed from two different strands• Public Schools (upper and middle class) –
emphasised team games• State Elementary – health and fitness bias
Public School Sports (1800 -1870)
• Upper Class• Bullying common• Large amounts of leisure time• Hunting, Gambling and drinking• Younger boys used as servants – “fagging”• Played games – “mob sports”• Considered violent by head-teachers• Some saw potential for games if controlled to channel boys energy• Thomas Arnold (Rugby School) used games as a form of “social control”• The importance of Leadership was emphasised – senior boys organised the
matches• Schools began to play each other and became more important• Masters recognised the potential for more than just improving discipline• Promoted games, brought back old boys to coach – standards of play improved as
did facilities and equipment.• Success on playing field a good way of promoting school
Fair Play• Games played with a strict code of conduct• Seen as a way of instilling moral qualities • Leadership, Discipline, Integrity, Loyalty,
Bravery and Decision making.• Games played for the team not the
individual• Ultimately the idea that games developed
both the physical and moral side of an individual was given the term “Athleticism” – “physical endeavour with moral integrity”
• This vision was used by De Coubertin when he created the modern olympic games in 1896
Codification• Games grew in popularity• More schools played each other• Schoolboys took games to university• Need to agree a common set of rules• Groups set up to settle disputes fore-runners
of Governing bodies
Popular Rec Rational Rec•Occasional – Feast Days•Few rules•Violent•Force rather than skill•Participation•Lower Class•Local•Limited structure
•Regular Participation•Complex rules•Highly structured•Spectator based and participation•Refined skills rather than force•Middle/upper class development•Regional/national•Sophisticated equipment
Rational Recreation 1850 - 1890• As games developed in public schools
society was changing• Industrial revolution brought people to
towns from the countryside – urbanisation
• This led to..• Changed work patterns• Less space – cramped terraced housing• Move from seasonal time to machine
time• 12 hour days six days a week – little
leisure time • These all contributed to the decline of
popular recreation but why did rational recreation take it’s place?
Rational Recreation – the middle class• Industrial revolution also created the new “middle class”• People who had profited from industrialisation. • Factory owners, Doctors, clergymen.• Wanted their children to experience the same sort of education as the
upper classes.• Created own version of public schools• With team games and it’s values central to these schools• They wanted to pass these on to wider society because of the physical and
moral benefits associated with team sports.• Factory owners created teams and facilities as did churches to encourage
working people to participate.• They improved working conditions and gradually the standard of living of
the working class improved. They had more money and with the advent of half-day Wednesday and Saturday more leisure time.
• They hoped this would lead to a fitter and more moral society.• Most of today’s sports were created between 1860 and 1890• Rational Recreation was the name given to this new form of organised and
regulated sport.
Social changes – that helped the development of rational recreation
•Pre-industrial•Seasonal Time•Limited Transport•Illiteracy•Harsh Rural Lifestyle•Feudal System•Agricultural•Uncivilized•Lack of technology
•Post-industrial•Machine Time•Improved transport•Business/Admin Skills•More civilized•Middle Class•Industrial•Increased law and order•Technological advancement
State School Education 1870 - 1940Public Schools
• Aims– Develop leaders of society
• Characteristics– Upper/Middle class– Hierarchichal– Prefects– Single Sex
• Physical Activities– Team Games
State Schools
• Aims• Education for the masses• Disciplined and obedient
workforce• Morals• Characteristics• Small, cramped spaces• Local and Free of charge• Mixed Sex
Developments in State School Physical Education
Drill – boys only NCO’s• Girls later• 1890 – Swedish Gym• Focus on therapeutic benefits• Teachers begin to takeover
• WHY?• Health/Fitness• Instil develop discipline/accept role• Easy to implement• Military service• Cheap• Little space required
The Model Course 1902
• Military Drill• Command-Obey• NCO’s• Sticks as dummy weapons
• WHY?• Health/Fitness• Instil develop discipline/accept role• Easy to implement• Military service• Cheap• Little space required
1904-1919• How?• 1904 Swedish system
reinstated – therapeutic• Age/sex differences noted• 1909 – games introduced• 1919 – post WW1
importance of recreation
• Why?• Improve health/physical
development• Medical basis –
preventative measure • Rehabilitation after WW1• Increase enjoyment• Teacher uses more initiative• Control to Education board• Female PE teachers
1933 -1952• What?• 1933 Introduce group work• Moves towards
decentralisation• 1944/post WW2 Child
centred approach • emphasis on skill• Apparatus/gyms• 1952/1954 moving and
growing/planning the programme - individualised
• Why?• Encourage interaction
between teachers and pupils
• Develop creativity• Discovery style• Teacher initiative• PE teaching developed
further• Influence of Dance
movement - Laban
POST WW2 – Key words
• Moving and Growing • Planning the Programme• Child Centred • Exploratory• Discovery• Obstacle• Movement• Recreative
1902 Return to military following Boer War 1904 Syllabus moved away from military towards therapeutic.
19091909 Syllabus became Physical Training1919 Syllabus moved from PT to PE with educational principles
1933World War 2 saw a lead towards Moving + Growing
19541956 – new programme
Introduction Right marker; fall in; stand at ease; attention; right turn; march; halt; about turn; march; halt; left turn; stand at ease
Fall in in 2 lines; attention; right turn; quick march; about turn etc…then free gymnastic running; halt; gymnastic skipping; halt; stand at ease
Free running; signal – 1 large ring; free running; signal 4 rings; free running; 4 lines
Running + leaping; change speed; change direction; change shape; twisting + turning
Arms + trunk
Attention; arms bend; up; bend; forward; bend; side; bend; down; stand at ease
Attention; arms bend + stretch; x2; down; swing forward; up + down; with leg lunges – up + down; halt; stand at ease
In lines – elbow circling ; arms swing forwards+ backwards; cross leg sitting knee to ear; lateral reach + twisting; stand + touch ground; lying-hip turning
Pulling + pushing – pairs; obstinate calf; knee boxing; chinese boxing; pushing + pulling; tug-o-war; arm lock wrestling; crouch tug-o-war
Body + legs Attention; double knee bend; onto hands- down; leg stretches; arms bend + stretch; x2; knees bend; up; stand at ease
Attention; feet astride; trunk forward – bend; swing up with arms raised; down + up; swing sideways; bend sideways with arms raised; halt; stand at ease
Running – statues; farmers seeking rabbits; rabbits hopping + crouch hopping; alternately still on signal
Body curling + stretching; forwards + backwards; lying alternatives; sitting alternatives; kneeling alternatives; standing + twisting
Applied work
Attention; astride with cross; forward, up, bend down; x2; at ease
Jumping astride x2; with arms raising; halt; stand at ease
Class activity skillsThrough vaults in 3s
Supported jumps + vaults in 2s + 3s exploring different alternatives.
With dumb-bells; attention; swing up+downx2; swing up+through x2; halt; stand at ease; halt; right turn; quick march back to class
Catherine Wheel; 1st line arm raised; ready; cartwheel; stand; 2nd line etc; return; deep breathing; arms raising on breathing; walk in lines back to class
Corner activities – Frog jump into hoopsForward roll along mattressThrough vault in 3sHandstanding in pairsGame hand tennis – 2 teams
Apparatus work. Twisting + turning on frame apparatus, boxes + benches. Changing round to new apparatus.
National Curriculum• Education Reform Act 1988 introduced a
National Curriculum with the aim of raising standards by centralising the decisions regarding what is taught in schools and making schools more accountable for their performance.
• Since 1988 the National Curriculum has been revised several times most recently in 2008 when schools again were given more say over what they include in their curriculum.
New Secondary Curriculum• The latest version of the National Curriculum gives
greater freedom to schools to decide what to include depending on the needs and interests of it’s pupils. All schools have a common goal to develop
• Successful learners• Confident Individuals• Responsible Citizens• Every subject including Physical Education should
be aspiring to achieve these goals. How this is achieved is down to individual schools.
Developing school-club links
• “Social inclusion” is the driving force behind the government’s policy for Sport and physical activity.
• Numerous documents have been published to outline how the government plans to use sport and physical activity in the fight against social exclusion.
• A sporting future for all – 2001• Game Plan 2002 - 2 main objectives –
– increased participation– Improved success at international level
High Quality Physical Education and School Sport
• The better students experience of Sport and Physical activity at school the more likely they are to continue into adult life.
• To achieve high quality the government has implemented a number of strategies
• Sports Colleges – now over 400 – receive additional funding to promote good practice in their own and partner schools.
• Youth Sport Trust is the lead body for Sports Colleges and is charged with helping them to deliver the PE and Sport Strategy for Young People (PESSYP) in partnership with Sport England
Exam questions
• Jan 09 2bcd Mark Scheme• Jan 09 3abc• June 08 1 Mark scheme• June 08 3a• Jan 08 1bc Mark Scheme• Jan 08 3a• Jan 08 4a• Jun 07 1 Mark Scheme
Equal opportunities• Sport and physical activity are of benefit to individuals
and society.• Equality of opportunity means that all individuals have
the same chance to participate• Inequality of opportunity exists for some groups of
people because of a number of barriers• Lack of opportunity• Lack of personal resources• Discrimination - stereotyping• Self-discrimination• Group or peer pressure
Who suffers from the barriers to participation?
• Women• Ethnic Minorities• Disabled• Lower socio-economic groups
Gender - Reasons for lower participation of Women
- Domestic Role
- Social Stereotyping
- Sport traditionally established and controlled by men
- Less media coverage
- Less money / power
- Sexism – the belief that one sex is inferior to the other
- Inequalities in sporting opportunities
- Role models
Research
Teenage girls – Sport England 2006
• Perceived lack of interest of friends
• Family uninterested• Concerns over weight and
appearance• Lack of self-confidence• Lack of information about
staying invovled
Muslim women – Womens Sport Foundation 2006
• Negative experiences in schools
• Mixed groups – lack of single sex groups
• Problems with dress code• Lack of positive role models
Solutions to Low Participation
• Equal Opportunities - Suffragettes –Right to Vote – 1917 Sex Discrimination Act (1975)
•Organisations - Women’s Sport Foundation
•More Facilities for women
•Better Links between Schools and Clubs
•Increased Media Coverage
•Health Related Activities in schools – broader curriculum
Ethnic Groups• Group of people who share common origins• Cultural, religious, racial or linguistic.• Sport England research revealed differing
levels of participation by different ethnic groups.
• Certain minority ethnic groups are under represented.
Reasons for Low Participation
- Home and family responsibilities
- Lack of money
- Work / study demands
- Religious beliefs
- NEGATIVE EXPERIENCES
Racism – a set of ideas or beliefs based on the assumption that some races have distinct characteristics that make them more superior to others.
Solutions to the lower participation rates from ethnic minority groups
• Sport Policies – Sporting Equals/CRE
• Information
• Clubs
• Sports leaders / development officers
• Media Coverage – role models
• Campaigns to eliminate racism
Disability• Understand the effect of disability on opportunities for participation
and the role of Disability for Sport England
Disability – a term used when an impairment adversely affects performance
Physical Sensory Mental
Amputee Includes athletes who have at least one major joint in a limb missing,
Cerebral palsy A disorder of movement and posture due to damage to an area, or areas, of the brain that control and coordinate muscle tone, reflexes, posture and movement..
Intellectual disability Substantial limitation in intellectual functioning (an IQ of 70 or below), and two or more of the following: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure and work and have acquired their condition before age 18.
Categories of Disabled Athletes
Les autres 'the others'. A term used to describe athletes with a range of conditions which result in locomotive disorders - such as dwarfism - that don't fit into other classifications.
Vision impaired Any condition which interferes with 'normal' vision.
Wheelchair At least a 10% loss of function of their lower limbs, e.g. traumatic paraplegia and quadriplegia, spina bifida, poliomyelitis, amputees, cerebral palsy and all non ambulant les autres athletes.
Categories of Disabled Athletes
• Horse riding
• Swimming
• Sports that tend to organize events specifically for people with disabilities
Disabled people are more likely to participate in some sports than others. • Which sports are these?
• Why are disabled people more likely to participate in them?
Key Words Key questionsInclusiveness –all people should have their needs abilities and aspirations recognized, understood and met within a supportive environment
Integration – able bodied and disabled taking part together in the same activity
Segregated Activity – People with disabilities participating separately from able bodied.
Which Sports can disabled athletes be integrated with able bodied athletes?
How can sports be adapted to enable disabled athletes to participate?
Tennis – wheelchair users are allowed to let the ball bounce twice before playing it.
Wheelchair basketball – two pushes and one bounce replaces bouncing whilst travelling / dribbling
Swimming – some technique rules can be more flexible for some classifications and visually impaired people may need a tap on the head to let them know they’re nearing the end of the lane.
Adapted Sports
How can opportunities for people with disabilities be improved?
- Raise awareness amongst the disabled about opportunities already available
- Raising awareness amongst the general public about disability issues
- Specialist training programmes for staff who’ll be involved
- Make access to and within facilities more manageable
Aims:
• provide opportunities
• promote the benefits
• support organizations providing opportunities
• educate
• enhance image, awareness and understanding
• encourage development
Disability Sport England
Role - Promote participation in sport for people with all forms of disability
Socio-economic Groups• Generally individuals from the lower socio-economic groups have poorer
health and mortality rates therefore the benefits of physical activity are particularly important to this group. They are very likely to suffer from social exclusion as they have less power, less disposable income etc.
• To help increase their levels of participation the following factors play an important role.
• Attitudes – they can afford sports. Need to change attitudes of other classes to the lower class – see them as equals
• Awareness – lower classes need to be taught how to be physically active – be provided with facilities and knowledge of what they can do
• Adaptation and modification – adapt rules /prices of clubs etc to enable less fortunate to play sports
• School PE – integration of different classes within PE at schools – schools target disadvantaged
• Access – facilities – clubs – can different classes play together?• Funding – government investment programmes to help lower classes afford
sports – provide more ‘free’ provision.
Exam Questions
• Jan 09 3d Mark Scheme• June 08 2cd
Mark Scheme• June 08 3b• Jan 08 3b Mark Scheme