Unit 1: Hitler, Anti-Semitism, and Germany 1900-1933

Anti-Semitism

● Definition: discrimination against or prejudice or hostility toward Jews.● Some of the earliest records of modern anti-Semitism:

○ The Crusades○ The Plague○ Russian pogroms in Russification○ Blame from World War I

● Jews have often been used as ‘scapegoats’ when it is perceived that there is no one else to blame○ i.e. the Plague or post WWI

Hitler & Anti-Semitism● Hitler grew up with anti-semitic influences in his everyday life

○ Georg von Schonerer, Austrian Pan-German politician○ Karl Lueger, Mayor of Vienna○ Richard Wagner, Composer

● Blamed the Jews for Germany’s loss in WWI○ This is pretty significant! We’ll get to why in a second...

● But Hitler wasn’t just anti-semitic in shaping the new Third Reich, he also discriminated against (in turn put into Holocaust camps)…○ Physically/mentally disabled ○ People of color○ Women ○ Those with mental illness○ Romani○ Political opponents/Soviet POWs/Allied POWs○ Bystanders who refused orders/”Enemies of the State”

○ Jehovah’s Witnesses○ Homosexuals○ The list goes on...

What made Hitler Anti-Semitic and discriminatory?

Adolf Hitler & Anti-Semitism

Childhood

● Born April 20, 1889 - Braunau, Austria● Was one of 6 children - three siblings died at early ages● Born to Alois (Schickelgruber) Hitler & Klara Polzl

○ Father changed his name to Hitler - his stepfather’s last name - as he was born out of wedlock & resented this

○ This shaped Adolf’s perspective of women as he grew into his adult life

● Klara began as a maid in Alois’ home during his first marriage, only to marry him once his first wife died○ She was also his first cousin once removed/second cousin - not confirmed○ She died when Adolf was 18 y/o

Childhood cont’d

● 1898 - moved to Linz in Upper Austria (capital - Habsburg, Austria)● Education

○ Younger years: attended a Benedictine Monastery School → part of the choir! ○ Secondary School: wanted to become an artist○ Father wanted him to become a civil servant like him → not what Adolf wanted

● Adolf dropped out of high school after his father's death & applied to Vienna Academy of Fine Arts○ Failed to gain entry THREE times!○ Who did he blame?

Move to Vienna

● After his mother's death in 1907 Adolf moved to Vienna → lived here until 1913○ Moved to pursue his dream of a career in art○ Failed AGAIN - couldn’t draw people, focused on architecture

● While in Vienna he sold all of his possessions, used up his inheritance, & became a homeless drifter ○ Slept on park benches & in soup kitchens - around age 19○ Refused to work a day job as it was below him○ Survived on the money made from selling the occasional painting/postcard/etc.○ BUT actually had some sort of working relationships with Jews at this point!!!

● He sold what was left of his father’s possessions & moved to Munich - around age 24, 1913○ He was attempting to avoid forced conscription of the Austrian military

Importance of Vienna

● Mayor of Vienna was anti-Semitic - Karl Lueger○ Enforced laws that limited Jewish business and social life (i.e. they couldn’t participate in the

civil service)○ Accused Jews of sacrificing Christian children - blood libel○ Limited Jewish participation in education○ Referred to Jews as the “Jewish Problem” - something Hitler and his higher-ups often used in

their rhetoric up until 1945

● Became interested in German Nationalism - partly from his idolizing Lueger ● Received his first taste of politics

○ Lueger & Schonerer!○ Lueger: good with big crowds & how to channel protests in large crowds○ Schonerer: “elitist nationalism”

●

Other Important Political Influences - Vienna● BEER HALLS & COFFEE HOUSES!

○ This is where Hitler found most of his inspiration○ He would listen to others talk about politics and their hatred of Jews and other groups of

people

● He loved to debate○ Would get into arguments walking down the street

● Even though he spoke out against the Jews, his favorite singers and actors at the time were all Jewish

● By 1910, Hitler had finally become overcome with hatred of the Jewish people○ Known as “anti-semitism”

● He became involved in politics because of his public speaking ability○ Also how intense his speeches were○ First learned what political propaganda was, then how to use it

Fleeing Austria → Military Service

● Left Austria at 24 y/o to avoid mandatory military service○ Supported himself here with more artwork until the outbreak of war

● Signed up for military service in Germany in WWI○ Bavarian unit of the Germany Army (Bavaria → southern state of Germany)○ Initial role was a regimental messenger → promoted to Corporal○ Wounded twice, blinded by mustard gas at the end of the war○ Awarded several medals → Iron Cross being one!

● When the armistice was signed Nov. 11, 1918 he was in the hospital○ This threatened demobilization → return to civilian life○ Why would this pose a threat/instill anxiety or fear in Hitler?

World War I Background● 1914-1918● Argued over who started this

○ Serbian nationalist assassinated an Austrian Archduke○ Austria demanded Serbia complete a list of unreasonable demands○ Serbia said no, so Austria mobilized...so Russia mobilized...so Germany mobilized...so France

mobilized...and eventually when Germany invaded Belgium Britain mobilized!○ The USA didn’t join until Germany sunk the Lusitania & sent the Zimmerman telegram

● It was thought that it would ‘be over by Christmas’○ But became a war of attrition → trench warfare

● Warfare methods:○ Blitzkrieg○ Kamikaze bombings○ U-boat submarine warfare○ Tanks, machine guns, mustard gas!

Germany Loses & Hitler’s Anger

● Treaty of Versailles was signed to end World War I○ Treaty was FORCED by the Allied powers onto Germany → sign or else○ War Guilt Clause → Germany is at total fault for the war, MUST pay reparations to the Allies

● Appalled at anti-war sentiment among the Germans, & that German politicians would sign the Treaty of Versailles○ Stab in the Back theory: Germany was stabbed in the back by corrupt, weak politicians & Jews

who influenced them○ Also a conspiracy amongst Jews, Marxists, & Communists to downfall Germany○ This began his development of a social Darwinist race-theory

● Hitler soon became friends with a man named Dietrich Eckart○ They went around to cafes and beer halls speaking out against the wrongs done by German

politicians & Jews○ Eckart was editor of an anti-semitic newspaper

Dietrich Eckart

● Volkisch poet○ Volkisch: ethnic/national○ Poetry focused on one

‘pure’ German race● Co-founder of German Workers

Party● Opposed Treaty of Versailles● Wrote the “Twenty-Five Points”

of the German Workers Party alongside Hitler, Gottfried Feder, Anton Drexler

● Part of the failed Beer Hall Putsch

Social Darwinism & Hitler’s Race-Theory

● Social Darwinism: “survival of the fittest” used to justify racism, nationalism, imperialism, social inequality, & eugenics dating as early as the mid-1800’s○ Eugenics: sciences of reproduction with desirable characteristics

● Hitler’s race-theory revolved around social darwinism and the Jewish question: What to do with/how to remove Jews & other non-desirables from ‘pure’ German territory○ What’s the first thing we should notice here about Hitler’s classification of Jews?○ In Hitler’s eyes ‘pure’ German territory should be land that holds German speakers/culture or

land previously taken from Germany○ Little known: death wasn’t always the first goal! We’ll discuss later!

● First goal, Sept. 16, 1919: discriminatory legislation against Jews

The Nazi Party

Post-War Military Recruitment

● Hitler was recruited as a military informant → tasked with gathering intelligence on potential Marxists, “educating” Bolsheviks, etc.○ Excelled so much in his training, he became a trainer for the Army!○ This is what led him to attend his first meeting of the German Workers Party

● Discharged from the Military March, 1920 after joining the DAP

German Workers Party

● A “völkisch (race-based)-nationalist organization”● Pro-nationalism● Eventually renamed the “National Socialist German Workers Party” or Nazi

Party as we know it today (DAP → NSDAP)○ Interesting considering Hitler HATED socialism○ How did he change the perspective on socialism in this change of name here?

● Created their ‘Twenty-Five Points’ as previously discussed, some aims of the DAP program included...○ national unity based on ‘racial criteria’○ expansion of the nation’s territory○ revocation of the Treaty of Versailles (why??)○ exclusion of Jews from citizenship & all occupations and professions requiring citizenship○ halting non-German immigration

The Nazi Party

● Hitler became Fuhrer of the Nazi Party by 1921○ Fuhrer means leader in German!

● Used military contacts to grow membership to 55k by late 1923○ Hermann Goring○ Ernst Rohm → established the SA, or Sturmabteilungen better known as storm troopers, used

throughout the Nazi regime

● Growth of the party:○ “violent political confrontation between paramilitary formations [SA] and political movements on

both the right and the left”○ German anger at the occupation of the Ruhr region by France & Belgium (this was a term of

WHAT treaty??)○ The recession that emerged prior to the Great Depression

Beer Hall Putsch

● Rather than participate in Weimar elections for LEGAL means for power → alliance with “dictatorial” Bavarian govt. in south Germany○ Adolf Hitler○ Gustav Ritter von Kahr○ General Otto Hermann von Lossow○ Colonel Hans Ritter von Seißer○ Goal: overthrow govt. in Berlin

● Nazi goal: nationalist central govt., authoritarian styled● Bavarian goal: independent Bavarian govt. distanced from Berlin, also

authoritarian

Beer Hall Putsch cont’d

● Attempted coup d’etat○ First Bavarian state govt. → then Berlin!○ Bavarian govt. openly supported nationalist march on Berlin → secretly believed those in military

& civil service in Berlin would do the “dirty work” for them (aka bring down the central govt.)○ But volkisch nationalist coalition was impatient → VIOLENT overthrow!

● Hitler & conspirators planned to crash Nov. 8 meeting at Munich beer hall○ Depose the govt. → force the Bavarian leader to legitimize Hitler’s movement○ SA seize administrative & military buildings (administrative could be anything from parliamentary

to post offices to banks)

Beer Hall Putsch cont’d

● Nov. 8 - Hitler marched w/ his personal bodyguards to Bürgerbräu Keller○ @ 8:30pm, joined SA in surrounding the beer hall○ Fired a single shot into the ceiling → surrounded by bodyguards marched to the front to

confront von Lossow, von Seisser, and von Kahr○ Essentially bullied them into supporting his putsch○ Rebels took their places (two big places, Reichswehr & Munich Police Dept.)

● BUT once free of Hitler, leaders denounced the movement & ordered police & troops to suppress the movement○ Hitler took a few hours to figure out what next → big mistake!○ Stopped at Feldherrnhalle (statue in center of of the major square of Munich) → major clash!

● Hitler was arrested & put on trial

Trial & Jail

● Many right-wing acts at this time committed in the name of “sincere patriotism” often received leniency (why do you think this would be??)

● Hitler’s defense: German govt. betrayed the people signing Versailles & HE was defending Germany, also direct communist threat to Germany○ Convicted of high treason○ Again, sympathetic judge → minimum sentence of five years in minimum security○ Only served 9 months

● In prison…○ Didn’t have to wear a prison uniform○ Essentially had free roam○ Sent & received many many letters!○ Even a personal secretary who he used to write Mein Kampf (1925)

Mein Kampf

● Volume 1, 1925○ Published while Hitler was in prison

● Volume 2, 1926 after Hitler’s release from prison● Summary of Mein Kampf:

○ “Race-based nationalist, social Darwinist, and anti-Semitic vision of human history...to secure Germany’s survival and greatness in the future through military conquest and seizure of “living space” (Lebensraum) in the East, on the territory of a conquered Soviet Union, which would be cleansed through annihilation and/or decimation of indigenous populations.”

● Aside from this being a MASSIVE propaganda tool, Hitler was relatively unknown prior to his putsch!○ His putsch & Mein Kampf inflated his popularity around the nation

What conditions made it possible for Hitler to rise to power?

The Weimar Republic

Germany Post World War I: Political Effects

● Weimar Republic: government of Germany, 1918-1933● Germany suffered from a destroyed population from war

○ 19% of their male population was dead (why male??)○ Mass malnutrition & starvation from war○ Mass worker strikes

● Germany passed power from Generals Hindenburg & Ludendorff to Chancellor Max von Baden & two Social Democrats (one being Friedrich Ebert!)

● Nov. 1918: German Kaiser (emperor) abdicated → mass unrest in Bavaria, antiwar demonstrations, etc. had broken out○ Friedrich Ebert & Wilhelm Groener made an agreement

●

Germany Post World War I: Political Effects cont’d

● Ebert-Groener Pact:○ Ebert wouldn’t reform officer corp. or reduce armed forces → Groener would promise support of

the military in the maintenance of order & defending govt.○ Necessary with clashes between left & right wing extremists → use of paramilitary org. In Berlin

clash (15k dead in 9 days)○ This is an example of the use of the military for WHAT purpose(s)?

● August 11, 1919: Weimar Constitution became law○ Established a president, chancellor, & Reichstag (parliament)○ President: seven year term elected by popular vote, control the military, call new Reichstag

elections, also ability to impose Article 48 (this is EXTREMELY important later!!!)○ Chancellor: appointing a cabinet, day to day administration of govt., ideally a member of the

majority party in the Reichstag → meant to give every German a voice in govt.○ SURPRISINGLY (but not really when we discuss it later) this proportional representation, mixed

with Nazi tactics, is what allowed for Nazi gain in govt.

Germany Post World War I: Economic Effects

● Lost 13% of their land in the Treaty of Versailles○ 16% of their coal bearing land, and 48% of their iron ore rich land○ Why is this so important??

● Forced to pay reparations (what clause was this??)● Cost of living rose 12x to meet inflation● Bright idea was: let’s pay reparation by printing more money!

○ Value of money went down → HYPERINFLATION!○ 1920: 64.8 marks = $1; 1923: 4,200,000,000,000 = $1○ PEOPLE WERE LITERALLY BURNING MONEY FOR WARMTH IT HAD THAT LITTLE VALUE!○ Bread cost ~200,000,000,000 marks by 1923!!! It was only 160 in 1922!!!

Germany Post World War I: Cultural

● Germany experienced a “Roaring 20’s” era just like other modern European nations○ People were moving into cities for work○ Berlin was a major cultural hub

■ Major nightlife with bars & cabaret clubs■ A major center for LGBTQ life & movement even! One of the largest at the time!■ A center for the sexual liberation movement!

● The Weimar Constitution improved voting rights○ Men AND women over the age of 18 had the right to vote as of 1919

● Center for intellect○ i.e.: Albert Einstein, Franz Kafka

●

Germany Post World War I: Global Economic Crisis

● Triggered by US Great Depression○ Yes, the Great Depression was only in the US! Any other nation who felt the effects of this was

affected by the Global Economic Crisis triggered by their reliance on the American stock market/industry!

● The US pushed their Allies (which were who??) to pay their debts○ So these Allies pushed Germany to pay their debts!

● Germany was faced with the issue: cut spending to balance the budget OR jumpstart the economy by increasing the budget

● 1930: Bruning → “austerity program” (a cutback program)○ Cut spending & programs specifically for those in need

1924-1930

Hitler’s Release From Prison

● Immediate goals post-release:○ Legalize & reunite the Nazi party → made illegal after Hitler’s ILLEGAL putsch in Munich○ Lift the ban on HIS political activity (he was banned from political activity after the putsch)○ Reorganizing the Nazi paramilitary groups to be strictly loyal to their political leadership (what

was this group??)

● 1925: Schutzstaffel was created, better known as the SS○ Bodyguards, or “personal security”, to Hitler & other Nazi leadership

● Reorganization of the party to ensure loyalty to Hitler

Nazi Political Strategy

● 1925: reorganized with roughly 27.1k members● NSDAP principles:

○ Engage in electoral politics (before, don’t participate! revolt!)○ ABOLUTEEE loyalty of paramilitary forces to leadership (what were these forces??)○ Programs targeting new voters & “left-out” voters → different than before!○ Overcome traditional divisions (i.e. Catholic vs. Lutheran, labor vs. management, etc.)

● Themes used to overcome traditional divisions & stoke fear:○ Inadequate natl. defense & sovereignty ○ COMMUNISM○ Treaty of Versailles “enslavement”○ “Increasing moral depravity” (wearing down of moral value)

● Promoted a nationalist renewal○ Restore German strength & pride by “tearing up the Treaty of Versailles”○ Become self-sufficinet & create a prosperous economy with full employment → a system based

on talent & “national patriotism” one held○ “Cleanse” Germany of mass/popular media, criminal activity, “asocial behavior, and immoral

expression”○ Eradicate the “Marxist threat” to German politics & culture○ Remove foreign & Jewish influences that “undermined German society”

1928 Elections

● Paramilitary formations used for violent intimidation of voters○ Nazi party speakers blamed this on the left & the Jews○ Violence was consequence of “honest patriotic sentiment”○ BUT Nazi’s only earned 2.6% of the vote!

● What turned the tides for Nazi growth at the turn of the century:○ Abandoning putsch attempts○ Collaboration with conservative nationalist forces & international bankers to restructure German

reparation payments → better manage German WHAT

1930 Elections

● The Weimar was falling APART!○ Bruning: tried to persuade President Hindenburg → Article 48 → new Reichstag elections!

● Nazi’s entered these elections○ Public imagination: the Nazi party was “untainted” by Weimar policies (economic policies, etc.)○ Modern technology helped too! Planes, trains, and automobiles

● Sept. 4 1930: Nazi’s earned 18.3% of the vote in Reichstag○ New voters, unemployed voters, & those alienated from the middle class weighed heavily into

this voting

1930-1933

● Hindenburg using Article 48 → ended government by parliamentary consent○ How? Why?

● This showed electoral weaknesses, his refusal to work with Social Democrats, and the illusion about the ability to tame the Nazi Party

Growth of Nazi Party Formations

Constant Elections

● Just over 129k members in 1930○ Over 450k members by summer, 1932

● SA Membership:○ Less than 77k, January 1931○ 260k by the end of 1931

● SS Membership: ○ Less than 300, January 1929○ 52k by 1933

● Nazi strategy:○ “Encouraged initiation of violence to intimidate or distract political rivals” → Hitler used legal

means & blamed the violence on his opponents and crisis conditions of the Weimar to gain power

●

Hitler’s Charismatic & Modern Electoral Practices

● Hitler was EXTREMELY charismatic when addressing crowds● Modern campaigning strategies

○ Market research: Hitler & the Nazi party would identify concerns, hopes, etc. of voting groups to USE in speeches

○ Air transport to travel around the nation quickly ○ Massive, carefully choreographed rallies throughout Germany → remember, Nazi’s were trying

to connect WHAT they other parties had failed to do?

● 1932: lost for president against Paul von Hindenburg

Government by Emergency Decree

● Hindenburg appointed Franz von Papen as Chancellor● von Papen appeased Hitler, essentially

○ Lifted the ban on SA & SS○ This guaranteed no insurgence against both himself & Hindenburg!

July 1932 Elections

● 1931: there was a rebellion by the East Prussian & Berlin SA○ Hitler survived this with the help of Joseph Goebbels, Ernst Rohm, and the Berlin SS

● July 31, 1932: NSDAP earned 37.3% of the vote in the Reichstag → largest party in German history!○ BUT Communists earned 14.3% of the vote → agreement had to be reached by other parties

with either socialists or Nazi’s (neither was really ideal, but Communists were worse)○ Hitler rejected Vice Chancellorship○ Hindenburg refused to appoint Hitler Chancellor○ So a governing majority (coalition government) was impossible

● Reichstag was dissolved in September → new elections called in November

November 1932 Elections

● Nazi vote dropped to 33.7% in the Reichstag○ Hindenburg refused to appoint HItler as Chancellor AGAIN○ NSDAP was becoming bankrupt → essentially they budgeted for the inevitability that he was

going to come to power!

● von Papen was dismissed as Chancellor in November○ After Schleicher came to Hindenburg with a plan to divide Nazi’s he was appointed as

Chancellor

● BUT von Papen resented Schleicher attempted to replace him, & with Nazi losses, he saw his opportunity to push Schleicher out○ Willing to offer Hitler Chancellorship in this spot → confident they could control him and Nazis

January 1933 Agreement

● Agreement reached: Hitler would be Chancellor & Franz von Papen would become Vice Chancellor○ All cabinet positions but one would go to German Nationalist People’s Party politicians○ The one remaining position could go to a Nazi party member○ Hindenburg wasn’t in favor of this BUT von Papen argued that Germany was out of any other

alternative

● Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany, January 30, 1933

Who financed Hitler’s rise to

power?

Can you guess???● Gustav Krupp - One of if not

the biggest weapons manufacturer in Europe

● Hugo Stinnes - German Industrialist and Politician

● Fritz Thyssen - German Steel Magnate

● Albert Vogler - German Industrialist and Munitions Manufacturer

● Adolph Kirdorf - Head of the German Coal Owners Association

● Kurt von Schroder - German Banker

● Putzi Hanf-staengl - Friend and Protege of FDR

● Paul and Max Warburg - American Bankers - Paul was chairman of Bank of Manhattan and NY Federal Reserve and Max was chairman of I.G. Farben a major chemical company

● Max Ilgner - American Banker

● General Electric● Prescott Bush - George

Bush's Grandfather● J.P. Morgan - American

Banker and founder of Chase bank

● Henri Deterding - Royal Dutch Shell

● John Davison Rockefeller - Standard Oil

● Deutsche Bank● Henry Ford - American

Automotive Manufacturer● OPEL - German Auto

Manufacturer● ALCOA - Aluminium

Company of America● DOW Chemical● Bendix Aviation● SIEMENS● Charles Gates Dawes -

Calvin Coolidge Vice President

● DuPont

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