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1The Textbook Writer’s Manual

The process of learning is influ-enced by many factors. Besidesthe state of the learner’s brain,

the learning materials can stimulate thelearner in a way that reinforces learn-ing. Since textbooks form an importantmedium for the learning process, theway materials are written andpresented is important. Equally impor-tant is how learning takes place. Thusan overall view of learning theory andhow it can be used to guide textbookwriting is worth consideration.

Learning Theory

A number of issues within learningtheory are important in guidingtextbook writing. These are discussedin detail in the chapters in Part I, andcan be summarized as follows:w Cultural and experiential

familiarity: This is particularlyimportant for young children whocome to school having alreadyacquired a large number of skills,concepts, knowledge, values andattitudes. Texts should begin fromthe known and familiar, andprogress to the unknown andunfamiliar. School and thereforetextbooks should in generalreinforce learning that has alreadytaken place. Some learning may beretrogressive, however, and should

Introduction

not be reinforced, e.g., gender bias.It is therefore important to identifywhat the child already knows andwork towards what is unfamiliar orunknown to the child.

w Attention spans: Many people havea short attention span, especiallychildren, that may be no more thanfive to ten minutes long. Beyond thisspan the learner is easily distracted,interest will waver and learning willbe interrupted. The actual length oftime will depend on the age andinterest of the learner, the complexi-ty of what is being learnt, and theway the material is presented.

w The practice of skills, concepts,knowledge, attitudes and values:Practice sessions should be spacedover the time available. Thetextbook writer should consider notonly the short term (less than oneyear), but also a complete educationcycle, e.g., the whole of primaryeducation, the whole of secondaryeducation. This is because manyskills take years to develop and areoften hierarchical. The learnerbegins with simple skills and buildsup to more sophisticated ones atlater stages in the education cycle.

w Bloom’s Taxonomy: This is a tool forchecking the level of skills being

2 The Textbook Writer’s Manual

developed in the curriculum andtextbook. Many textbooks developonly low-level skills and thus do notprepare learners for higher levellearning processes. Pupils mayacquire a great deal of knowledge,but may have developed very fewconcepts, and perhaps cannot utilizethe knowledge except for repetitionin rote-learning examinations.

w School curriculums and textbooks:These are known to either extend orlimit the child’s learning. Somecurriculums offer only a narrowrange of skills, concepts andknowledge, and sometimes these arelearnt at a very superficial level.Other curriculums may offer awider range and may alsoencourage the development ofhigher-level mental skills.

w Cultural values: These are consid-ered to be very important by parentsand society. Parents may prefer areligious school, for example, even ifthe curriculum is narrow, becausethe school reinforces thecommunity’s culture and values.

National Aims andObjectives of Education

Every society and nation has certaingoals that it expects to accomplish byeducating its people. These includefactors that touch on core values suchas democracy, human rights, nationalunity and patriotism, along withstrategic concepts such as familyplanning, health education, a scientificapproach to problem solving andagriculture as the basis of develop-ment. For educationalists, the mostcritical factor is how these generalprinciples can be interpreted in thesyllabus and in the textbooks in con-

nection with each subject – e.g., math-ematics, building, language – and forthe various class levels.

Curriculum Aims for EachSubject AreaSubject area objectives incorporateskills to be developed, specific con-cepts to be introduced, and underlyingvalues and attitudes. Areas of concernfor textbook writers include:w Technical correctness: It is essential

for the textbook to present accurate,up-to-date information and researchin the subject area. Archaic and out-of-date concepts, knowledge andskills in our textbooks areretrogressive. Every effort shouldtherefore be made to ensure therelevance and technical accuracy ofwhat is taught.

w Specific skills: These should beintroduced hierarchically fromsimple to more complex.

w The amount of time needed to teachand practice the skills: The textbookshould be planned in such a waythat there is sufficient opportunityto practise these skills spaced overtime (three months, six months, oneyear, three years, six years, etc.) sothat important skills are fullyinternalized. It is thereforeimportant that specific skills beclearly identified, and that all ofthem be thoroughly covered.

w Integration of concept andknowledge: These should beidentified clearly. For example, the

Begin from the known andfamiliar and progress to theunknown and unfamiliar, fromthe simple to the more complex.


ability to use the simple presenttense is a skill. The concepts andknowledge that can be covered toteach the simple present tense canvary widely, by using examples thatillustrate both the verb tense and arange of applications that apply tothe learner’s world.

Profile of the StudentConsideration should be given to thebackground and present profile of thestudent, and the expected final profile.That is, the textbook writer shouldhave clearly in mind what the outcomeof learning should be.

The Language QuestionThe language (or languages) used asthe medium of instruction is definedwithin a country’s education policiesand guidelines. Textbook writers needto be aware of this, and develop thetext accordingly, depending on thelevel of the learners.

Cultural Reflection in theCurriculumCultural perspectives should be givenhigh consideration. It is important toroot the learners in their own contextwhile at the same time exposing themto other people’s cultural realities. Alsoimportant is the fact that cultures aredynamic, and that they vary from localto national and international.

Teaching and LearningMethodologiesThe most important idea here is notonly to use child centred approaches inteaching but also to ensure thatlearning is fun. Writers must be flexibleto include teaching/learning methodsfor a wide variety of teachers bothtrained and untrained. Thisconsideration should be given to bothpupils’ textbooks and teachers’ guides.

Integrated LearningDifferent subjects across thecurriculum need to be integrated for aholistic learning process to enhanceindividual development and self-fulfilment

Evaluation of TextbooksEach textbook must be evaluated for itseffectiveness in achieving nationaleducation goals as well as specificsubject objectives. The evaluationshould include the genderresponsiveness of the textbook.

Pupil and Student AssessmentExaminations tend to be veryimportant in Africa, as they providewidely accepted ways of screeningchildren’s access to limited secondaryand higher education opportunities.

Issues to consider in textbookwriting include:w How far the textbook will provide

for this need.w Types of examination questions.w The types of assessment and how

these affect learning.w Whether the assessment system

encourages certain types of learningand thinking.

Piloting the Textbook

It is essential to test the textbook beforeit is finally printed. This is done with afew teachers and children in a fewselected schools. The way it is donedepends on the expected targets, as itis critical that feedback be receivedfrom these. The outcome of the trialsshould be taken seriously, since thesuccess of a textbook is judged notonly by its technical content, but alsoby its usefulness to the teachers andpupils, in terms of language, genderresponsiveness, page layout andreadability in general.


Part IApplying Education Policy and

Learning Theory1 – Goals and Objectives of Education

2 – Learning Theory as a Guide to Textbook Writers

3 – Cultural Reflection and Textbook Writing

4 – Teaching/Learning Methodologies

5 – Textbooks and the Integrated Curriculum

6 – Assessing Learning Outcomes


1Goals andObjectives ofEducation

Preparation of school textbooks,like the syllabus, is based on theassumption that the country has

well articulated national goals andobjectives for all educationalprogrammes, subject areas andactivities at different levels ofeducation. Every country has its clearlystated educational goals and objectives.Education is associated with theachievement of these goals andobjectives, which in turn leads tonational and personal development.

While many goals are common tomany nations, some are unique andspecific to individual countries. Theemphasis placed on each goal may alsodiffer depending on the developmentneeds of the country. Some countriesinsist that their education systemsstress religious and moral values,while others prefer to leave these toparents and society. Others emphasizeeconomic development as theoverriding goal of education. Theimportance of these and other values,skills and attitudes means theeducation process is a catalyst andprerequisite for development.

1.1 Meeting NationalGoals

Among the most frequently cited goalsand objectives of education are:

w Enabling learners to acquire knowl-edge, skills, expertise and attitudesneeded to exploit their individualpotential and talents, for a desirableand sustainable quality of life.

w Promoting positive attitudestowards healthy lifestyles includingappreciation of physical activitiessuch as good health andenvironmental protection.

w Developing the ability for inquiry,critical thinking, rational judgement,thinking through enquiry, and theuse of all the senses.

w Laying a firm foundation fortechnological, industrial and otherareas of development includingmastery of the basics forentrepreneurship and productivity.

w Fostering national unity within amulti-cultural, multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and, where relevant, multi-racial diversity.

w Instilling the values of democracyand promoting social justice, moralresponsibility and obligation,including harmonious coexistenceamong the people.

w Enhancing understanding,appreciation and respect for otherpeople, their cultures and religions.

w Promoting conscious appreciation ofthe need for international under-standing, cooperation betweennations and respect for the conceptof peace.


w Inculcating respect for the elderly,and promoting understanding andappreciation of the abilities andlimitations of people with specialneeds and other disadvantagedgroups in society.

w Fostering love for the country(nationalism and patriotism).

w Instilling moral values, promotingtheir practice and developing anunderstanding of God.

w Developing communication skills.w Fostering national understanding of

the history and socio-cultural milieuof own traditions.

w Developing leadership qualities andself-confidence.

w Developing understanding andappreciation of cultural andrecreational activities and the abilityto participate in them.

w Developing positive attitudes andcultivating a culture of happiness.

1.2 Meeting PersonalGoals

Education is also expected to inculcatein learners:w Capacity for creativity, innovation

and critical thinking.w Culture of hard work and the need

for participating in productiveactivities.

w Positive attitudes towards healthylifestyles such as nutrition, familyplanning and well being,environment, water and sanitation.

w Self-reliance and self-confidence inknowledge acquisition andreadiness for positive change.

w Inquisitive minds and thirst forknowledge.

w Sound moral values that incorporateintegrity, understanding andtolerance.

w Social consciousness, responsibilitytowards others and family values.

w A firm foundation for participationin social and economic affairs of thenation.

1.3 Fostering NationalUnity

In a country with people from differentethnic groups, cultures, religions,languages and races, it is important foreducation to help them to live andinteract as one nation. This can beachieved if the values of coexistence,appreciation and respect for others areintegrated into the curriculum.

Education must inculcate a senseof nationhood in young people through

Discussion Points

The Thailand National EducationAct (1999, amended 2002)articulates one of the objectives ofeducation thus:

“Education shall aim at the fulldevelopment of the Thai people inall aspects: Physical and mentalhealth; intellect; knowledge;morality; integrity; and desirableway of life so as to be able to live inharmony with other people”.

1. Get a copy of your country’sblueprint on education and/or thesyllabus and find out how thegoals and objectives are stated.� Which ones are not included

in the Thailand list?� Which of the listed goals and

objectives are also critical toyour country?

2. Define and elaborate eachobjective along the linespresented in this chapter.

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the promotion of positive attitudes ofmutual respect that contribute toharmony and nationalism. Educationfor national unity emphasizes the

factors that unite people and playsdown divisive elements. It helps tobuild characters that champion thesevalues. In many African cultures, thereexist traditional prejudices that arefrequently expressed by adultsconcerning the food, customs, andsocial and cultural attributes of oneethnic group or clan or the other. Theeducation system should strive to wipeout such prejudices and enable learnersto view and treat each other withmutual respect and understanding.

Right from an early age, childrenshould be taught and organized in away that forces them to learn aboutother cultures. Art, drama and musiclend themselves to cross culturalappreciation.

1.4 Providing for theAcquisition of PositiveKnowledge, Attitudesand Skills Necessaryfor Development

Education is widely acknowledged as aprerequisite for development. This isbecause the human resource is theprimary asset a nation has fortriggering and acceleratingdevelopment. Education needs toequip young people with relevantknowledge, skills and attitudes forcreative thinking, critical decision

making, innovation, self-reliance andentrepreneurship. It should alsoinculcate the culture of hard work andthe ability to make right choices.

The content and methodologies ofeducation should reflect andencompass critical areas of social,economic and cultural development.They should integrate appropriateattitudes towards technological andindustrial development. Education atall levels should incorporate pertinentissues in development such asenvironmental conservation, goodhealth, proper nutrition, and issuesrelating to water conservation andmanagement. Teaching and learningmethodologies should be so structuredas to influence young people forknowledge acquisition, for examplethrough broad reading and sharpeningthe curiosity to know and to learn.

Attitudes are best shaped throughcharacter portrayal, counselling androle modelling. Skills can be acquiredthrough formal teaching, by emulatingothers and by engaging in creative,practical activities. A textbook cansupport this by providing instructionsfor the development of a particularskill, e.g., recipes in cookery, guide-lines on how to undertake a scientificexperiment, or examples of howpeople perform certain desired roles.

The art of critical thinking can becultivated through well calculated andgraded levels of questioning during thecourse of any one lesson. Theguidelines spelt out in the textbookshould guide the teacher in asking in-

Example

How would you as a science writerfoster unity on the topic “Pollution”?

!? ?

Theoretical learning producesrobots while practicalexperimentation and discoveryas modes of learning producethinking individuals with concreteknowledge and skills.


depth questions that compel learnersto think creatively and to freely andconvincingly give their opinion.

1.5 Promoting SoundMoral Values

Education needs to provide for thedevelopment of knowledge, skills andattitudes that can instil the moralvalues essential for enabling childrento grow into responsible, self-disciplined and self-reliant individuals.Language, literature, history andmaths textbooks should highlightcharacters that are worth emulating,characters that help learners to makesound judgements in the face ofnegative pressure. The content of allsubjects should aim at rewardingvirtue and condemning vice. Thepresentation of role models providesthe most effective method of instillingpositive character and discipline. Theentire education system shouldemphasize the need for learners todistinguish between right and wrongand also the need for zero tolerance ofnegative, antisocial behaviour.

Integrity should never becompromised. Such emphasis at thedifferent levels of the education systemwill hopefully minimize corruption

and other vices in society, whenbacked by an effective legal system andsocial support. One of the roles of theschool is that of providing a commonground for exposure of desirablevalues for the majority in a country.The textbook writer needs to be awareof this at all times.

1.6 Promoting SocialConsciousness andResponsibility

Within an education system thatprovides for equal opportunities forall, education should promote theconcept of social responsibility and

Examples

1. What do you think will happenwhen we add ……… to………..?

2. Why do you think Judybehaved the way she did?

3. Compare a lemon with anorange by explainingsimilarities and differences.

4. “The government isperforming badly”. Discuss.

!? ?

Example

1. In a religion lesson, a writercould pose a question like theone below:

Samira, a school leaver, waslooking for a job. When she wentto the first office the managerinsisted on being given a bribebefore employing her.

What should Samira do?

è In answering the question, thelearner will take a stand for oragainst corruption.

2. In writing about a topic on“Drug Abuse” the textbookwriter will not only discusswhat it is and all it entails, butcan encourage the teacherand the learners to visit thestreets, look at the way of lifeof street children (many ofwhom are drug addicts) andoffer help to them.

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concern about the needs of others. Thiscan be achieved through numerousopportunities for activities that fostersocial consciousness and service acrosssocial, economic, gender andgeographical divides. It can also beinculcated through the portrayal ofpositive characterization. Socialawareness, when deliberatelycultivated, leads to personaldevelopment that is not selfishlymotivated.

Textbooks should emphasizevalues and practices that socialize theyoung towards respect for the elderlyand the sharing of whatever resourcesare available. The values ofcooperation, sharing and appreciationof each participant’s contribution needemphasis in subject areas. Youngpeople need constant reminders aboutminding the welfare of the lessfortunate in society. The textbook canreflect young people and adults whoactually practise such concerns, forexample taking care of the elderly orassisting orphaned children.

1.7 Promoting Respect forthe Development of aNation’s VariedCultures

One of the evils of colonialism was thedenigration of African cultures andtraditions. Although most nations haveengaged in efforts to restore theAfrican character to history andculture, there is still the hoveringdanger of cultural and economiccolonization. Young people areparticularly vulnerable when they arebombarded with cultural attributes ofother people that are supposed to besuperior to their own.

In order to avoid the dangers ofmedia images from foreign cultures,education needs to instil in youngpeople a firm understanding of theirnation’s varied cultures and anappreciation of their validity and valuewithin contemporary society. Wellgrounded in their cultures, youngpeople would be less likely to be sweptaway by the waves accompanyingrapid social changes in development.Like national unity, national cultures intheir different manifestations shouldfeature in school textbooks as

Move from the known to theunknown, build from the simpleto the complex.

Examples

1. In a history lesson on traditional society, points can be shown in twocolumns as follows:

Practices not acceptable today Practices acceptable� Witchcraft � Reconciliation� Female genital mutilation � Belief and worship of God� Forced marriage � Hard work� Early marriage � Respect for life

� Sharing

2. In conclusion the writer can give the dangers of continuing unacceptablepractices and encourage learners to practice what is acceptable.

!? ?


background information and in theirown right as learning material. Thetextbook should be suggestive ofdifferent but valuable traditions,practices and other attributes ofculture, e.g., examples of dress,housing, food, music and drama. Itshould also draw the learners’attention to negative aspects of theirown cultures and traditional practices– that is, no culture is perfect.

1.8 PromotingInternationalConsciousness andPositive Attitudestowards Other Nations

No nation is an island by itself. We areall part and parcel of the wider societyregionally and internationally. Mediainfluence and the rapid process ofglobalization are also ensuring thatinformation dissemination is moreefficient, and that what happens inother nations influences and affectseverybody. It is therefore importantthat young people learn to become partand parcel of this larger globalcommunity and to appreciate theirrights, benefits, obligations andresponsibilities.

As young people grow older, it isalso important that their world andtheir experiences be broadened beyondtheir nation’s boundaries to othernations and communities. The idealpractice in education is to move fromthe known to the unknown. However,the school and the textbook are not theonly agencies of education. It istherefore critical that formal educationtake media influences into account andhelp young people to see beyond theirown boundaries, while at the sametime empowering them not to be sweptby negative aspects of globalization.

1.9 Instilling a Culture ofHard Work

Ideally this can be achieved throughthe processes of efficient timemanagement in and out of class,through creative and interestingactivities, and through a practicalapproach. A boring and theoreticallesson will kill the interest andenthusiasm of the learner. In additionto the teachers’ guide, the textbookneeds to be suggestive of the teaching/learning methodologies to be adoptedand also give suggestions on teaching/learning aids. All subjects of thecurriculum lend themselves to suchinterpretation.

Students need sustainedmotivation to discover for themselves.Time spent listening to the teacherneeds to be brief, and to be precededand immediately followed by action.Children may also need guidance onhow to spend their free time. This isnot to deny them leisure or self-motivated play, but to provide forlonger-term improvement in planningtheir lives, rather than “hanging out”.Exercises and manageable homework,which the children do out of class, canachieve two goals: monitoring howwell what is taught/learnt has beenunderstood and internalized, andteaching children to work withoutnecessarily being supervised. The latteris a lifelong skill all learners need. Itreinforces commitment to andpersistence in the completion of a task.

Details of effective teaching/learning methodologies, resources andactivities are provided in Chapter 4.

A boring and theoreticallesson will kill the interest andenthusiasm of the learner.


1.10 Laying a FirmFoundation forTechnological andIndustrialDevelopment

It is important that education inculcatein the learner knowledge about andpositive attitudes towards theeconomic sectors that form thebackbone of the country’s economy soas to capture the aspirations of thenation for future development. Acountry whose agricultural base isimportant, for example, will ensure theemphasis and appreciation ofagricultural skills and technology inthe curriculum. How agriculture istaught/learnt in school determines theinterest of future citizens in the sector.The countries of Southeast Asia –Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand –are well known for their involvementof the private sector in determiningcurriculum content, and for providingjob attachment programmes forstudents.

As future employers the privatesector knows what skills it needs andcan help ensure that these areintegrated into the school curriculumand teaching methodology. Textbookwriters can include contacts with the

private sector as essential componentsin the learning processes, e.g., throughvisits, career talks and projects. Inaddition, learners should bedeliberately encouraged to work withmanipulative toys and tools from anearly age to appreciate the value oftechnology in development.

1.11 Selecting Content

Content selection, while adhering towhat is articulated in the syllabus, willtake into consideration teaching/learning approaches that areappropriate for integrating the valuesidentified above. These values are besttackled when integrated into teaching

The overall goals and objectivesfor one country’s (Kenya)education include:� Fostering national unity� Providing for the acquisition

of knowledge, attitudes andskills necessary fordevelopment.

� Promoting sound moralvalues.

� Promoting socialconsciousness andresponsibility.

� Promoting respect for anddevelopment of the nation’svaried cultures.

� Promoting internationalconsciousness and fosteringattitudes towards othernations

� Instilling the culture of hardwork.

� Laying a firm foundation fortechnological and industrialdevelopment.

Discussion Points andExercises

1. Discuss exercises that connectschool with industry.

2. Design a debate that comparestwo professions/occupations.

3. Identify a classroom project thatwould engage children inagriculture/entrepreneurship andexcite them about it.

!? ?


methodologies. They cannot be taughtin isolation of educational content. Forthis reason they must be clear in theminds of textbook writers. Therationale for the selection of thecontent should also be guided bycertain principles, from human rightsto the development of human potentialand the age level of the learners. Theseprinciples are detailed below.

1.11.1 Education as a BasicHuman Right

Education is today recognized as abasic right of all individuals. Neverthe-less, education has a purpose and isnot merely an end in itself. If we definecontent as the subject matter of educa-tion, it needs to include knowledge,values, skills and attitudes. The WorldDeclaration on Education for All,Article I, defines basic learning contentas

knowledge, skills, values andattitudes required by humanbeings to be able to survive, todevelop their full capacities, to liveand work with dignity, toparticipate fully in development, toimprove the quality of their lives,to make informed decisions, and tocontinue learning.

Education is vital for personal andsocial development. It should providethe learner with a firm foundation ofknowledge for further learning anddevelopment. The acquisition ofliteracy triggers the possibilities of self-reliance in knowledge acquisition since

learners can now read and search forneeded information independently andon their own.

1.11.2 Acquisition of Skills andKnowledge, and Develop-ment of IndividualPotential

At each level, the content should aim atequipping learners with knowledgeand skills essential for survival, fordeveloping their individual potentialand for enhancing their quality of life.It should also promote their capacityfor making rational and informeddecisions on any issues affecting them.

The preparation of the curriculumincluding textbooks therefore needs totake into consideration the content thatis relevant and of greatest value at anylevel of the education system. It is alsonecessary to develop criteria for whatshould be included and the level ofunderstanding expected. This isdetermined by the breakdown of thesyllabus into units and topics. Thecriteria should also incorporate issuessuch as the national philosophy, andthe adequacy of information needed ordesirable at a particular level, in linewith the goals and objectives set tomeet local, national and global socio-economic challenges in the syllabus.

1.11.3 Specific Goals andObjectives of Education

The treatment of goals and objectivesof education will vary according to theage of the learner. Early childhoodeducation, for example, is oftenreferred to as preparation for learning.Its goals may include monitoring thechild’s physical development,providing an enabling environment foremotional development, stimulatingthe child’s mental development,enhancing communication and creativeskills, and continuing the socialization

The content should aim atequipping learners withknowledge and skills essentialfor survival, for developing theirindividual potential and forenhancing their quality of life.


process by instilling in the youngdesirable habits and manners. Mostlearning will necessarily be based ongroup experience and activities thattrain children to express themselves ina variety of media – oral as well asnon-verbal.

1.11.4 Age/Level of the LearnersThe age and the level of the learner aremajor determinants of content. It isimportant not to bombard youngchildren with concepts and knowledgethey cannot understand or do notneed. Also critical is the inclusion of

mechanisms for monitoring andevaluating comprehension and qualityassurance. In countries withinadequacy of access, such evaluationwould lead to a way of determiningwho moves on to the next level andwhat factors should determinetransition besides the age of thelearner. Examinations and entry testsare usually designed to indicate whichlearner is ready for the next level.

At the elementary or primary level,the goals would include initiation intomore formal learning, mastery oflanguage and other communicationskills, and literacy, numeracy andwriting skills. Following the mainprinciple in all education that learningshould move from the simple to themore difficult, and from the known tothe unknown, at this stage also familiarcontent is introduced such asdescriptions of the child’s family,school and community. Learning willalso begin to take the shape of distinctsubjects around which knowledge isclassified.

1.12 Conclusion

National educational goals andobjectives as articulated in this chapterare intertwined with the nationaleducational framework, usuallydemonstrated within the developmentpolicies. Education policies, where theyexist, are based on the nationaldevelopment goals and indeededucational objectives in particular.This chapter has put a lot of emphasison the learners and factors thatenhance learning, an understanding ofwhich is important to textbook writers.Critical to these, and as rightlydiscussed, is the whole field of learningtheory and children’s developmentand mental maturation. This concern isdiscussed in the next chapter.

!? ? Discussion Pointsand Exercises

Engage in a brainstorming sessionon the best ways of integratingcritical economic issues/sectors intothe curriculum – syllabus, textbooksand methodologies – with particularreference to specific subjects. Forexample, the value of agriculturalproduction – food crops and cashcrops – can be the subject oflanguage learning where learnersare given comprehension passagescontaining relevant examples inagriculture. It can also behighlighted in mathematicalproblems/calculations such as:

Mrs. Mwakio is a small-scalefarmer. Every Thursday, she takesher produce to the market for sale.Last week she sold:A sack of beans for _____________Two bunches ofbananas for _______________Three dozen eggs at ____________per dozen.

How much money did she get thatday?


2Learning Theoryas a Guide toTextbook Writers

What we know about how thebrain works and how welearn is of interest in the

expected textbook output. Yet despiteconsiderable research and speculationin these areas, this science is still in itsinfancy. Only in the last decade havewe managed to develop thetechnologies to measure what happensin the brain in the form of varioustechniques for brain scans. These brainscans have shown that different partsof the brain are responsible fordifferent types of mental functions,strengthening the findings ofeducational psychologists such asHoward Gardner who had posited thatthere are different types ofintelligences. At the same time, thedevelopment of sophisticatedcomputer software has thrown light onhow the brain works, particularlythrough the development of computersystems that mimic learning andproblem solving.1

Teachers and textbook developershave to rely on what is already knownin order to improve the ways ofteaching and learning. Educationalpsychology over the last few decadeshas brought out a great deal ofknowledge about how learning takes

place, even among children. Thischapter looks pragmatically at learningtheory and how it can be utilized as aguide in textbook writing.

2.1 Moving from theKnown to the Unknown

When children come to school theyalready know many things. They havealready learnt a language that they areable to speak fluently and they knowhundreds if not thousands of words intheir mother tongue. They haveestablished strong relationships withtheir family and community members.They know their neighbourhoods, andmost important of all they havedeveloped some of the values andattitudes that characterize theirculture. Young children thus come toschool having already acquired a largenumber of skills, concepts, knowledge,values and attitudes.

School, and therefore textbooks,should in general reinforce the learningthat has already taken place. It istherefore important to identify whatthe child already knows. Movementshould be from the known to theunknown. Textbooks, especially for theearly grades of primary school, need tobuild on the knowledge and skills thatthe child brings to school. The textbookshould link up to and even reflect the

1See Steven Pinker, How the Mind Works, PenguinBooks, 1997, which advances theories on how themind functions in line with work on physicalbrain scans and computer programming.


culture the learner is familiar with. Thetextbook should also link up to theearlier experiences and values of thechild. This means that it is importantfor the textbook writer to study thechild’s culture and to incorporate itinto the textbooks.

2.2 BiologicalDevelopment andReadiness for Learning

Modern educational theory andpractice is strongly influenced by thework of Jean Piaget (1896–1980), whosedetailed case studies of children’sthought and learning processes leddirectly to the development ofeducational processes based onbiological maturation, physicalexperience and social interaction.Piaget, whose initial training was inbiology, observed that children’sthought processes developed throughrelatively constant, invariant andsuccessive stages from the simpler tothe more complex, linked closely tobiological development. At each of

these stages Piaget concluded that thechild reached an intellectualequilibrium that had to be disturbedby internal and external stimuli,internal being inborn and externalbeing the intervention of environment,experience and society, before the nextstage could be developed. This processof equilibrium, followed bydisequilibrium, assimilation,accommodation and re-equilibration,would lead to ever higher levels ofmental activity. Thus Piaget’s schemewas based on dynamism andtransformation from lower to higherlevels of mental processes.

As a result of Piaget’s work,educationalists today accept the theoryof maturation, a readiness for learningthat is partially biological and partiallyexperiential. This has influencedclassroom practice considerably. Todayclassroom activity, particularly in thelower grades, is concerned withpreparation for learning as much aswith learning itself. Words are moreclosely linked to objects and to actions.There is more understanding that thereare chronologically successive modelsof intelligence, necessitating differentclassroom methodologies ranging fromthe more concrete to the moreabstract.2

Piotr Galperin, an educationalresearcher, tested Piaget’s ideas withan experimental group of six-year-olds.This group did better not only than thecontrol group but also than 10- and 11-year-olds. Galperin’s five stepsincluded creating a preliminaryconception of the task, throughobservation and play. Whilst this wasnot actual knowledge, it created thecondition for the discovery ofknowledge. Second, it involvedmastering the action using objects,

2 E. Stone, An Introduction to Educational Psychol-ogy, Methuen, London, 1966, pp. 134–50, gives agood summary of Piaget’s work.

!?? Discussion Points andExercises

1. Find out how many words thechild already knows in themother tongue. How would yougo about doing this?

2. What are the main interests ofa child of six? What skills doesthe child already have?

3. What are the importantrelationships for the youngchild?

4. What type of values andattitudes are common:w In the child’s family?w In the community?


because the child cannot learn in apurely theoretical way. Instead,learning originates from materialobjects and physical actions. Third, thechild had to verbalize what was learnt.This verbalization frees the child fromthe necessity of manipulating externalobjects. Fourth, the child transfers theaction from the verbal to the mentalplane, through whispers that becomesilent thoughts. Finally, the childconsolidates the mental action. At thisstage the child can anticipate theaction. It has been internalized.

Galperin suggests that theformation of mental action proceeds inthese definite stages, and if one stage isnot adequately mastered, subsequentlearning is impaired.3

2.3 Attention Span

As indicated in the Introduction,attention span is an important issue forconsideration in textbook writing.People have short attention spans,especially children. The textbookshould take this into consideration.Lessons should be broken up intoseven to ten minute sections, withopportunities to teach a new skill (orconcept, or piece of knowledge), andseveral opportunities spaced over timeto practice these skills in differentways.

In particular, more learning takesplace through action or when doingsomething, rather than throughpassively listening to a teacher. Thusattention can be increased if the learneris able to learn through doing.Children will learn more if afterlistening for a few minutes, they aregiven an opportunity to put what islearnt into practice, by writing about itor by making a drawing, or by talkingto a classmate about it.

2.4 Multiple Opportunitiesto Practise a Skill

Knowledge and skills can betemporary or permanent. Before a skillbecomes permanently entrenched, it

3 P. Galperin, “An experimental study in theformation of mental actions”, in E. Stone, Readingsin Education Psychology, Learning and Teaching,Open University Set Book, Methuen, London,1977, pp. 145–53.

!? ? Examples

A teacher will effectively preparelearners by:w Giving them specific tasks.w Encouraging manipulation of

objects in the environment.w Encouraging verbalization as

manipulation is going on.w Giving the child a chance to

internalize what has been learnt.w Finding out whether the

objective is achieved (throughfollow-up exercises).

ExercisePrepare a 40-minute geometrylesson on “Volume” following thestages suggested above.

!? ? Discussion Points andExercises

w Prepare a 40-minute lessonteaching one specific skill, butproviding for changes in activityevery 7–10 minutes.

w What types of activity aresuitable for a young child ascompared with a teenager?


has to be practised many times, as wellas in many different ways. This is animportant point for the textbook writerto note. Practice of skills, concepts,knowledge, attitudes and values iscritical, and this practice can be spacedover the time available. As pointed outin the Introduction, the textbook writershould consider not only the shortterm (less than one year), but also thewhole education cycle – the whole ofprimary education, or the whole ofsecondary education. Many skills takeyears to develop. Skills are often alsohierarchical, and can be developedeither in simpler or in more complexways.

Moving knowledge from thesuperficial to the “innate” is animportant task. An example of this islearning to ride a bicycle or to drive acar. Initially these skills have to bedeliberate, and take a lot ofconcentration and practice, but oncethe knowledge and skills have beenfully internalized, they become secondnature, and we can ride a bicyclewithout thinking about every move wemake. The same is true of mental skills:many skills may be difficult to acquireat the beginning, but after they aremastered they become second nature.

It is therefore important to workout which knowledge and skills areabsolutely essential to master to thelevel of second nature, whereas otherknowledge and skills may be seen asephemeral. It is often possible toidentify key skills (such as basicreading skills and basic mathematicalskills) and to ensure that they are fullymastered. A language teacher maywant to concentrate, for example, ononly five sentence patterns in Grade 1,ensuring that these sentence patternsare fully internalized. In order to teachand learn these five sentence patternsmany different concepts and wordsmay be introduced, particularly

utilizing those concepts and words thatare relevant to the interests of thelearners at that stage of development.Thus whilst the same five sentencepatterns may be relevant tools for asix-year-old, a teenager and a middle-aged learner, these three groups will beinterested in very different subjects. Ateenager may be more interested inlearning the sentence patterns throughrap or pop music, whilst an adult maybe interested in utilizing the sentencepatterns within a professional context.

2.5 Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a critical tool forassessing the level of skills beingdeveloped in the curriculum andtextbook. Many textbooks developonly low-level skills. For example,pupils may have a good grasp ofEnglish for day-to-day communication,but may be totally unable to readsimple scientific texts. Pupils may havea great deal of knowledge, but mayhave developed very few concepts andperhaps cannot utilize the knowledgeexcept for repetition in rote-learningexaminations.

Bloom hypothesized that thelowest level was knowledge, followed


w Give ten different ways in which askill can be practised. How canthese be incorporated into thetextbook?w How would you space practice

opportunities over the course of ayear?w What sort of differences would

you envisage in preparing practicematerials for a six-year-old ascompared with a teenager?


by comprehension, then application.Knowledge may consist of being ableto repeat what you have heardcoherently. Comprehension entailsbeing able to repeat the knowledge inyour own words. These are recognizedas lower forms of thinking. Thus thelearner who can apply knowledge toreality or to new circumstances isutilizing a higher level of cognitivedevelopment than one who can merelyrepeat knowledge coherently.

Analysis is a higher level thanapplication. Analysis involves breakingup a piece of knowledge into itscomponent parts. Synthesis, the abilityto create something new from elementsof old knowledge, involves creativelyusing a more in-depth knowledge ofthe subject. Finally, evaluation, or theability to judge, was seen as the highestlevel of cognitive development.4

2.6 Limiting or Extendingthe Child’s MentalDevelopment

School curriculums and textbooks canextend or limit the child’s learning.Some schools offer only a narrowrange of skills, concepts andknowledge, and sometimes these arealso learnt at a very superficial level.Other schools may offer a wider rangeand may also encourage the develop-ment of higher-level mental skills.Some textbooks may offer a lot ofverbiage, but develop very few skills.

Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotskylooked at the role played by societyand culture in the formation of themind. Vygotsky’s experimentsdemonstrated that social relations andsocial demands play a critical role inthe development of various levels ofthought. The human mind is not onlyacted upon by internal and externalstimuli as in Piaget’s model, but canalso actively modify the environmentand reality. Human beings can inventand perfect tools that can transform thesurrounding environment, and this canbe done cumulatively such that historycan transform the future. Notsurprisingly, Vygotsky called hisapproach “historical”, “cultural” or“instrumental” psychology. In otherwords, the human mind can bestretched or extended by the demandsof human culture through education.An undemanding culture andeducation will fail to develop thehuman mind to its highest levels.Vygotsky believed that:

The tasks with which society facesthe youth as he enters the cultural,professional and civic world ofadults undoubtedly are an impor-tant fact in the emergence ofconceptual thinking. If the environ-ment presents no such tasks to the

4 For a more detailed understanding of Bloom’sTaxonomy consult B. Bloom, ed., A Taxonomy ofEducational Objectives: The Classification of Educa-tional Goals, Longman, London, 1956.


1. Choose a skill you are trying towrite about in your subject area(e.g., reading, arithmetic,science), and create lessons todevelop learning at the variouslevels identified by Bloom suchas knowledge, comprehension,application, analysis, synthesisand evaluation.

2. Exchange your lessons withyour colleagues, and analyseeach other’s lessons utilizingBloom’s Taxonomy.

3. Develop examples of how toteach the various levels ofcognitive skills in your subjectarea.


adolescent, makes no new demandson him, and does not stimulate hisintellect by providing the sequenceof new goals, his thinking fails toreach the highest stages, or reachesthem with great delay.5

He added:

With assistance, every child can domore than he can by himself – eventhough only within the limits set bythe state of his development….Therefore the only good kind ofinstruction is that which marchesahead of development and leads toit; it must be aimed not so much atthe ripe as at the ripening function.6

Vygotsky’s experiments withchildren showed that there is ahierarchy of mental developmentranging from the primitive or naturalstage, corresponding to pre-intellectualspeech and pre-verbal thought as ababy, to a pre-conceptual stage inchildren, which he called complexes.Complexes resemble real concepts orreal thought, but lack logic and depth.Whilst Vygotsky to some extentconfirms Piaget’s findings of the needto go from the concrete to the verbaland finally to abstract conceptualiza-tion, he goes further to show thatlanguage can be used as a short cut toabstract concepts without the necessityof going through the concrete, physicaland experiential stages. Languageenables the child “…to form concepts,…to draw conclusions fromassumptions, to master logicalconnections, to cognize (sic) laws, farsurpassing the boundaries of direct,personal experience”.7

Vygotsky’s work is relevant to

quality in primary education in so faras it emphasizes that the demandsmade by society generally through itseducation system will affect the child’slevel of conceptual attainment.Members of societies that make a lowerdemand, such as the illiterate peasantsociety studied by Vygotsky’scolleague, A.R. Luria, were unable tomake theoretical abstractions, whereasthose who belonged to an intermediategroup of people who had taken somecourses or worked on a collective farmwere able to categorize and abstract.8

Another aspect of Vygotsky’swork, as he explained in “Play and ItsRole in the Mental Development of theChild”, is his perception of play as the“leading edge” of the child’spsychological development. Playaffords the child a “zone of proximaldevelopment” through which boththese new motivations and a new kindof attitude towards reality are created.The critical point is that in playchildren create an imaginary situationto guide their actions – a world ofmeaning is created that then hasmotivational force.9

This emphasis on play isimportant. Play allows children tocome to grips with reality and is alsopart of their introduction into thesocio-cultural structures and values oftheir society. As such the commontrend in modern education is to seeplay as a fundamental and inextricablepart of the learning process. Play tochildren is real work, as it allows themto remake reality as well as to internal-ize the social and psychological

6 Ibid, pp. 103– 4.7 A.R. Luria, quoted in E. Stone, An Introduction toEducational Psychology, Methuen, London, 1966, p.122.

8A.R. Luria, Cognitive Development, Its Cultural andSocial Foundations, Harvard University Press,Cambridge, Mass., 1976, pp. 77–8.9 From L.S. Vygotsky, “Play and its Role in theMental Development of the Child”, quoted in J.V.Wertsch, ed., Culture, Communication and Cogni-tion: Vygotskian Perspectives, Cambridge Univer-sity Press, 1986.

5 L.S. Vygotsky, Thought and Language, MIT Press,Cambridge, Mass., 1977, pp. 58–9.


controls and parameters imposed bysociety. The concept of play as anessential and integral method childrenuse to understand and re-create thereality around them has profoundlyaffected teaching and learningmethodology and processes. Learningthrough various forms of play is todayan accepted educational methodology.

Vygotsky’s stress on the criticalimportance of human intervention, andon the accumulation of these interac-tions in language, naturally led to hisconception of language as the “store-house of human knowledge”. Specialcultural instruments like writing andarithmetic enormously expandedhumans’ powers, making the wisdomof the past analysable in the presentand perfectible in the future.10

Language, in literacy, is thereforecritical to mental development.Thought itself cannot exist without thehelp of language. Language organizesbehaviour and creates culture.Vygotsky identified language as a keyto intellectual development.

2.7 Types of Intelligence

Some people are better at mathematics,others at sports or music, and othersstill at languages. Howard Gardner, inhis book Frame of Mind: The Theory ofMultiple Intelligences,11 looks carefullyat seven different forms of intelligence.These are:w Linguistic intelligencew Musical intelligencew Logical–mathematical intelligencew Spatial intelligencew Bodily–kinaesthetic intelligence

w Outer directed personal intelligencew Inner directed personal intelligence

2.7.1 Linguistic IntelligenceLanguage is one of the most importanttools used by human beings. Gardnerhas identified four aspects of linguisticintelligence. The first one is the ability“to use language to convince otherindividuals of a course of action”. Thesecond is the capacity to use languageto help you remember information,which can vary widely. Language canalso be used for explanation. Much ofteaching and learning occurs throughlanguage in either spoken or writtenform. Language remains one of themost important tools for conveyingmeaning, whether this is about feelingsor about scientific discoveries andinventions. Language can be used foranalysis or for creation.1210 A.R. Luria, The Making of Mind, Harvard

University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1979, p. 44.11 Howard Gardner, Frame of Mind: the Theory ofMultiple Intelligences, Basic Books, Harper Collins,New York, 1993.


Give examples of lower leveldemands as compared with higherlevel demands your society makeson children.1. Can you give such examples

for different disciplines such aslanguage and mathematics?

2. How would you integrate playinto a language lesson forseven-year-olds? A sciencelesson for ten-year-olds?

3. Is play important only for youngchildren? Is there a role for playin adult education or theteaching of teenagers? Howwould you integrate play into ascience lesson at secondaryschool level?

12 Ibid, pp. 77–8, 96.


2.7.2 Musical IntelligenceThere are some children who arenaturally talented in music, with agood ear for tunes and an innate senseof rhythm. Music is often linked toemotions, and to affective develop-ment, i.e., to the development of thefeelings and values of people. Gardnerrightly regarded this form of intelli-gence as an important area foreducation.

2.7.3 Logical–MathematicalIntelligence

Gardner saw this form of thoughtas linked to

a confrontation with the world ofobjects. For it is in confrontingobjects, in ordering and reorderingthem, and in assessing theirquantity, that the young child gainshis or her initial and most funda-mental knowledge about thelogical–mathematical realm. Theindividual becomes more able toappreciate the actions that one canperform upon objects, the relationsthat are obtained among thoseactions, the statements (or proposi-tions) that one can make aboutactual or potential actions, and therelationships among those state-ments (going from the concrete tothe abstract).13

2.7.4 Spatial IntelligenceSpatial intelligence is linked to theability “to perceive the visual worldaccurately, to perform transformationand modifications upon one’s initialperceptions, and to be able to recreateaspects of one’s visual experience, evenin the absence of relevant physicalstimuli. One can be asked to produceforms or simply to manipulate thosethat have been provided.” In otherwords, spatial intelligence is the abilityto perceive and to create visually and

artistically. It includes areas such asgeometry and architecture. Spatialintelligence may be fundamental toengineering and mechanics, areas ofknowledge that may be quite differentfrom linguistic skills.

2.7.5 Bodily–KinaestheticIntelligence

The linkages between the body andmind are fundamental. One of the bestknown adages is that of “A healthymind in a healthy body”. Sports, forexample, have been seen for centuriesas a means of building character,leadership and unity. Bodily–kinaesthetic intelligence is thedevelopment of physical skills, linkednot only to sports, but also to danceand drama. The body can express themind, and conversely the mind cancontrol the body. Bodily–kinaestheticskills can be developed within theclassroom and school environment, forexample using dance and music toteach mathematics or language.

2.7.6 Personal IntelligencePersonal intelligence is described asunderstanding oneself andunderstanding others. Understandingoneself, such as understanding one’sown feelings and motives, requires along period of development. Personaland character developments are

13 Ibid, p. 129.

Discussion Point

From an educational point of view itis possible to use spatial intelligenceto strengthen learning. A picture,diagram or graph may be mucheasier to understand than a writtendescription. Even the way theexplanations and exercises areorganized on a page may help orhinder meaning.

!? ?


integral parts of education, includingthe development of personal andsocietal values. People’s behaviours arelinked to their understanding ofthemselves, of their own emotions andpersonal needs. The other aspect of


1. Would you accept the seventypes of intelligence identified byGardner? Discuss the impact oftrying to develop different formsof intelligence in textbookwriting.

2. Try combining different forms ofintelligence within the samelesson, e.g., developing personalvalues linked to mathematics orscience, or developing spatialintelligence when teachingscience, or using linguisticintelligence to teach values.

3. Can music and dance be used toteach academic subjects such aslanguage and mathematics?Work out a lesson that combinesthese different types ofintelligence.

personal intelligences is theunderstanding of other people,including their feelings, theirmotivations and their intentions.Understanding human nature is one ofthe most important as well as mostdifficult set of skills to learn: it beginsfrom early childhood, and continuesthroughout life.

2.8 Conclusion

Subject goals are based on widereducational objectives. Oneeducational goal shared by Africannations is the preservation of culturalheritage, no matter how varied thismay be for any given nation. As such,cultural reflection is an importantaspect of textbook writing. It is inrecognition of this aspect that the nextchapter is devoted to culture, andespecially the importance of itsconsideration in formulatingcurriculums and textbooks.


3 CulturalReflection andTextbook Writing

Culture can be identified as thebasic worldview of a society. Itencompasses the values of the

society. For example each societydefines its important and valid aims inlife. It also defines the types of relation-ships, with their rights and duties, thatare acceptable within that society.

The worldview may be incorpor-ated into a religion (such as Buddhism,Christianity, Islam, etc.) or into anideology (such as capitalism,liberalism, socialism, etc.). Even whenit is not officially incorporated into areligion or ideology, culture exists inthe accepted rituals and relationshipswithin the society. It involves the waypeople behave, with some forms ofbehaviour being acceptable in somesocieties, but not others.

Culture also includes theinstitutions and legal frameworkswithin a society, such as the marriagesystem, the property ownership systemand so on. These institutions providethe framework for human interactionwithin the society. The school is animportant institution for inductinglearners into the world in which theywill live. The school is a microcosm of

society, as pupils learn how they aresupposed to behave in the world as awhole.

Values differ from society tosociety, although there are some corevalues, shared by all people. Thesecore values are encapsulated in codessuch as the Ten Commandments andthe instruments of human rights suchas the United Nations Declaration onHuman Rights.

3.1 Factors InfluencingCulture

Culture is dynamic. In a rapidlyevolving society children’s culture maybe very different from that of theparents. Culture has changeddramatically over the past century allover the world, through the impact ofeducation, wars, migration – as well asnew technologies.

The two World Wars not onlyaltered the balance of power, theychanged cultures in almost everycountry. The powerful influence ofinformation and communicationstechnologies, such as television andcomputers, has changed the world,making it into a global village. It is alsopossible to influence culturedeliberately, through socialengineering, advertisements and socialmarketing, legislation, or other means.

Culture involves the basic worldview that determines how peoplebehave in a particular society.


The school has become one of themost important systems ofsocialization, and therefore of culturalinfluence. Within the school system,the textbook is one of the mostpowerful tools for social acculturation.

Cultural values enter into thecurriculum, either consciously or in ahidden way. The “hidden” curriculummay not be clearly enunciated but it istaught nevertheless. For example, thetime-tabling used in a school mayfamiliarize children with the world ofwork by making them accustomed totime keeping and continuous concen-tration. The hidden curriculum mayalso induct them into the prevailingsocial hierarchy, such as the classsystem in Britain or the caste system inIndia. It may include gender bias eventhough everyone may vehementlydeny there is any gender bias withinthe school system! This hidden genderbias may be subtly or not so subtlyinculcated in the classroom behaviourexpected of boys and girls.

3.2 Incorporating CulturalValues into theTextbook

Given the critical importance ofculture, it is important to take thisaspect into consideration whenpreparing a textbook. Even amathematics or science textbook maycontain a great deal of culturalattitudes and values, as the followingexamples illustrate.w One mathematics book teaching

about “sets” asked the teacher tochoose one boy, and then asked theboy to choose four girls. Then asecond boy was chosen, and he wasasked to choose four girls. Thus two“sets” each consisting of one boyand four girls were formed! Thusthe mathematics lesson provided avivid display of gender bias as wellas of social values.

w Another example of the hiddencurriculum is when men and boys intextbooks are pictured in activeroles such as working and makingdecisions, whereas women and girlsare pictured in passive roles, such aslistening to the radio and loungingaround. Doctors and pilots may bedepicted as men, whereas nursesand secretaries are nearly alwaysdepicted as women.

3.3 Incorporating a TimePerspective

An area that concerns the textbookwriter is how much the textbookshould concentrate on the past, such asthe past culture and history, and howmuch it should look ahead, such as thefuture that the children will face asgrownups. Of course the past isimportant in terms of pride in one’s

Discussion Points andExercises

1. Discuss what you would considerto be some of the significantcultures within your country.

2. Are young people’s culturessignificantly different from thoseof their parents? Of theirgrandparents?

3. Are there contradictory as well ascomplementary cultures in yourcountry?

4. What are the overt curriculums inyour school? What hiddencurriculum can you detect in yourschool?

5. Examine an existing textbook.What are the values inculcatedby the textbook? Is there anyexample of a hidden curriculum?

!? ?


cultural heritage and learning fromboth the achievements and themistakes of history.

On the other hand, it is importantto introduce the challenges andpossibilities the children will face as

adults, such as possible workexperiences or exercises in socialresponsibility through elections andparliament, as well as other realities ofmodern life. Once again these pointswould apply to almost any subject.Teaching of science can be related tothe science utilized in the communityor in the country’s industries. Teachingof mathematics could be linked toelections. Teaching of language couldbe linked to future work and familyresponsibilities.

3.4 Incorporating NationalIssues into theTextbook

One of the ways of deciding what toinclude in addition to the publishedcurriculum is to examine state plansfor different areas. This could providea pointer to areas of importance.


An important aspect of textbookdevelopment is to work out anddiscuss with colleagues the attitudesand values that you would like toincorporate into the textbook.Examples can include:

1. Respect for authority: Throughobedience or development ofindividual opinions and individualdecision making powers. How fardo present textbooks emphasizeindividual decision making, say, inscience or language teaching?

2. Faith in one religion or respectfor different religions: Can bothbe combined, say, in the ethicscurriculum or the languagelearning curriculum?

3. Hierarchy or equality andequity: Try doing a mathematicsor technical subject lesson thatemphasizes equity.

4. Population control as a socialresponsibility: How wouldpopulation education enter intothe textbook? For example, howmany children are depicted infamilies in your textbooks? Isthere a population policy and howis it reflected in the overtcurriculum? In the hiddencurriculum? Try doing amathematics lesson based onyour country’s population policy.

5. HIV/AIDS: Can learning aboutHIV/AIDS be incorporated intodifferent subject curriculums?

6. Gender issues: How would youincorporate gender issues into thedifferent subject textbooks?

!? ? Discussion Pointsand Exercises

What are the generally agreed aimsof your society, e.g., democracy,human rights, family planning,health education, national unity,national pride, a scientific approachto problem solving, agriculture asthe basis for development, urbanindustrialization as the basis fordevelopment, etc. Do someresearch to find out possibleapproaches, and hold a paneldiscussion on how these pointsshould be dealt with in your book.


One of the pitfalls to avoid is theinclusion of current political figures inthe textbook. Whilst this may be aquick way of winning favour with thepowers of the time, the popularity islikely to be short term. Many textbookshave been thrown away just becausethey incorporated political figures wholater lost power. A rule of thumb is notto include anyone who is still alive inthe textbook.

3.5 IncorporatingInternational Issuesinto the Textbook

A broad international consensus hasbeen built around certain issues, andlarge numbers of countries have signedpledges to support and implementthese concepts or frameworks. Theseinclude the United Nations Declarationon Human Rights, the pledge ofEducation for All, populationeducation, environmental protection,the fight against HIV/AIDS and

others. Textbook writers need to beaware of these and incorporate theminto relevant texts.

3.6 Incorporating Valuesinto the Textbook

Since values must always enter intoevery textbook, it is important for thewriters to think through the type ofvalues they would like to incorporateinto the textbook and discuss this withcolleagues very thoroughly. Examplesof values could include counting gunsinstead of counting chickens in an earlygrade mathematics textbook. Picturesof soldiers with guns may be a way ofglorifying war, something commonlyfound in literature of liberationmovements.

3.7 Language Use

Language as a medium of instruction isdefined within a country’s educationpolicies. It is generally accepted thatchildren can handle two languagesquite well. Generally these would bethe child’s mother tongue and aninternational language. The teacherand the textbook writer shouldconsider how the two languages can beused to ensure optimal learning.

Since children come to schoolalready knowing their mother tongue,it is generally accepted that initialliteracy should be in the language thechild already knows. This also isimportant in terms of the basiceducational principle of going from theknown to the unknown, from thefamiliar to the new. By utilizing thelanguage the child already knows, it ispossible to develop basic literacy oftenwithin a few months. Some childrenbecome literate within a few weeks.

Children can be introduced to thesecond language aurally and orally –


1. What aspects of the Declarationon Human Rights can be incor-porated into a language textbook?A mathematics textbook?

2. How would you includeenvironmental protection in ascience textbook? A mathematicstextbook? A language textbook?

3. How can population education beincluded in the science textbook?The mathematics textbook? Thelanguage textbook?

4. How can the fight against HIV/AIDS be incorporated into thescience textbook? Themathematics textbook? Theethics textbook?



1. Values may be introducedthrough examples given forexercises, for example countingthe number of people owninghouses compared with countingthe number of people withmalaria may provide the sameskills development, but mayintroduce very different concepts.

The same can be true of thesentence pattern examples: Inintroducing, say, 5–10 sentencepatterns a year, it is possible toutilize, and to encouragestudents to create, manydifferent examples for practice.Create a mathematics lesson ora language lesson teaching oneskill, but introducing differentconcepts and values.

2. Utilizing the interests of thelearners to enhance learning is awell known teaching tactic. Whatvalues would be suitable for ayoung child of 6 as comparedwith a teenager of 16?

3. What traditional values arecommon in your society and howwould you incorporate some ofthem into different subjects likemathematics, science,language?

4. What new values are enteringyour society and how would youincorporate them into thedifferent subjects likemathematics, science,language?

that is, they will hear it and speak it,but do not need to read and write ituntil they have mastered literacy intheir mother tongue. Literacy in thesecond language should be introducedlater, usually at least three monthslater. If the same script is utilized forboth languages this can be a simplerand more complementary exercise.Where the scripts are different, theremay be difficulties.

Sometimes it is useful to teachimportant concepts in both languages.For example secondary science can betaught in an international language,but supplementary reading could bemade available in the mother tongue.This is a useful strategy because somechildren are perfectly capable ofunderstanding the principles andconcepts, but are hampered by theirpoor command of the internationallanguage.

3.8 Conclusion

Establishing cultural links with theworld in which the learner lives andoperates helps to make learning botheasier and more relevant. Culturecomes into every subject. When thecultural issues are not examinedcarefully, the hidden curriculum cannegate what is required in the overtcurriculum. Learners may becomeaverse to a subject because itcontradicts their culture, or because itappears alien. Negative self-imagesmay be formed – or reinforced – if thetextbook provides negative rolemodels. For example, some textbooksextol and romanticize life overseas,whilst denigrating life in their owncountry. Racism and sexism may creepinto the hidden curriculum. Thetextbook writer should be aware ofthese challenges.


4 Teaching/LearningMethodologies

Atextbook should include anumber of differentmethodologies for teachers to

choose from. Some teachingmethodologies may be specific toparticular teachers and subjects beingtaught. However, achievement of theset objectives and the level of thelearners are important factors inselecting the methodologies. Thechoice of teaching/learning methodsgreatly influences the learning process.Methods should be learner centred,with emphasis on what has been learntrather than what has been taught.

4.1 Teacher CentredMethods

Teacher centred learning means theteacher dominates, is the source ofknowledge, and tells pupils what tolearn and how to learn it. The amount

of teacher dominated teaching variesfrom teacher to teacher. Probably halfof school time is presently devoted toteacher centred learning. Teachercentred methods of teaching/learninginclude lectures, demonstrations andmodelling. They should be usedsparingly because the child is inactivewhile the teacher is in motion – this canlead to boredom and inattention.

4.1.1 LecturesLectures form an essential mode ofteaching for all levels of schooling, asthey are often the fastest way ofproviding information. This methodcan be improved if:w In preparing lessons the teacher

keeps in mind the seven-minuteattention span of most learners.

w There is a change of activityperiodically, for example allowingpupils to repeat what they haveunderstood, to write down what theyhave understood, to ask questions orto apply what the teacher has said toreal life situations.

4.1.2 Demonstrations/Experiments

In this form of teacher dominatedteaching, the teacher undertakes ademonstration or experiment. It iseasily organized, as only the teacherneeds to do the experiment, and it canbe highly effective.

!? ? Teaching/Learning Methods

w Play especially for young childrenw Lecturesw Experiments and demonstrationsw Group discussions and debatesw Site visitsw Nature walksw Question and answer sessionsw Dialoguew Quizzes and puzzlesw Projects


4.1.3 Modelling a SkillModelling involves demonstratinghow something is done step by step. Itmeans the teacher actually performsthe skill rather than only speakingabout it. For example, pupils can formsentences along a model given by theteacher. Pupils often find it simpler tofollow a model than to follow spokenor written instructions. Modelling islearning by seeing and doing, ratherthan only by listening and obeying.

4.2 Pupil Centred Methods

Pupil centred teaching/learningmethodologies are numerous. Theyrange from group work to naturewalks, structured play to story telling.The following sections describe severalsuch methods.

4.2.1 Working in GroupsThis methodology is particularlyimportant in a multi-grade situationwhere two to four grades may beworking in the same classroom. Theteacher may be working with onegroup while the other groups work ontheir own. If group work is to functionsuccessfully, the teacher must be veryclear about the work the children are todo for the period, the procedures to befollowed, the outcomes expected andthe agreed ways to measure thelearning. Group work thus requirescareful preparation by the teacher,with adequate learning materials madeready beforehand. In preparation forthe multi-grade classroom, many of theactivities incorporated into thetextbooks and teachers’ manualswould entail group work.

Groups usually consist of five toeight pupils, which is a small enoughnumber to allow everyone to partici-pate fully. Larger groups may leavesome children as passive observers, anundesirable outcome. However, muchdepends on how the group work isorganized. Group work shoulddevelop into a routine that takes placeevery day in an orderly manner.Different forms of group work include:w Ability grouping, where children of

the same level of learning are placedtogether, for example advancedlearners work together with otheradvanced learners, and slowlearners work together with otherslow learners. This is a useful wayof allowing bright students to move


1. Examine a primary schooltextbook. Determine the percen-tage that is teacher centredlearning and that which is pupilcentred.

2. Prepare a textbook lesson thatinvolves the teacher explainingone specific skill for sevenminutes. Add seven minutes ofactivity in which the pupils workin pairs applying what they havelearnt from the teacher. Addanother ten-minute activity inwhich the pupils write down intheir own words what they havelearnt. Then add another activitywhere the pupils draw or make agraph where this same point isillustrated. Finally, get the pupilsto either judge their own work orjudge each other’s work. This willrequire an assessment frame-work, which the whole class canagree upon beforehand.

3. Given that much teaching andlearning will remain teachercentred, prepare a lesson wherethe teacher’s presentation can belivened by:w An experiment demonstrated

by the teacherw An audio-visual presentation


ahead as quickly as possible, whilstslow learners are not discouragedby having to compete with veryadvanced pupils. The teacher couldspend more time with the slowlearners. Depending on what isbeing learnt, however, ability group-ing may only be useful for certainactivities. Limiting ability groupingto just one or two periods a week isusually sufficient to allow the highflyers to achieve their full potential.

w Mixed ability grouping, the mostcommon, as it allows the betterpupils to help the weaker pupils tolearn as a group. The differentgroups can compete against eachother to see which group is best.This is generally more sociallyacceptable than individualcompetition. In a multi-gradesituation, an older and moreadvanced pupil can be placed incharge of an activity, e.g., reading ormathematics for a period.

w Interest grouping, which impliesdividing the children according toan expressed interest and isparticularly useful for project work.Children interested in cars, forexample, can do a project on cars,while those interested in pets do aproject on pets. This type ofgrouping can be very useful in amulti-grade situation, especiallywhere there is a shortage of booksand other educational materials.Thus one group could be doingmathematics as another is doingreading and another science.

4.2.2 Play as a MethodologyPlay is the cutting edge of the child’spsychological development. Asdiscussed earlier, play is a normalactivity for all children, and is a waythrough which they learn to cope with

reality. It is a most useful way oflearning. Play is to a child what workis to an adult, and children may learnmore from play than by merelylistening to the teacher all the time.

Play helps children to internalizesocial and psychological controls andparameters imposed by society. Forexample, through play learners learnsharing as all members of a team needto be given a chance to play or to useequipment. Conflicts will arise andthey will need to resolve themamicably. Leadership is also built, asthe choice and acceptance of leaders ineach game and activity is desirable.

Examples of playful activities andgames that can be used include:w Card gamesw Crosswordsw Guessing gamesw Number gamesw Playing with sandw Skipping gamesw Spelling gamesw Spot the wordsw Story tellingw Water play

Play materials should be includedin the classroom, and set periodsallowed for this play. These shouldgenerally include aspects ofcommunity, family and adult life.Children like role play, for exampleplaying as mother, father, farmer,doctor, teacher. Play also provides theopportunity to practise what has beenintroduced. Thus an addition andsubtraction lesson can be put intopractice through playing shoppingwhere pupils buy articles from a shopor market. Language learning can be

The emphasis is on what islearnt, rather than on what istaught.


put into practice in play, e.g., greetingsand conversation.

4.2.3 Pupils Doing Their OwnResearch

This requires access to a library andother resource materials. The multi-grade project could aim at developinga small and low-cost class library,which would allow pupils to find outand utilize information on their own.Another important resource is thecommunity itself. Interview techniquesthrough which pupils can collectinformation from their own familiesand communities are importantaspects of this methodology.

4.2.4 Experiments andDemonstrations

These involve practical activitiesthrough which a variety of lessons in asubject can be learnt, using everydayobjects or specified equipment. Theyare ideal for learning, since studentsobserve and participate actively.

4.2.5 Story Telling/Mime/RolePlay

Story telling is very effective inteaching especially when it is drama-tized by the pupils. Puppets andimitations may be used to make it evenmore interesting. Telling stories andother dramatizations:w Help boost children’s imagination.w Help learners explore their own

ideas, attitudes and feelings.w Help them develop familiar topics

relating to their lives.

w Enhance creativity.w Develop learners’ communication

skills.

Mime also promotes the skills ofobservation and interpretation.

!?? Activity

Which game would be the mostappropriate for teaching younglearners the multiplication tables?

!? ? Example

Pupils can be given instructions todemonstrate the various forms ofwater: solid, liquid and gas.

Experiments and demonstrationssucceed where:w There is enough information

concerning the procedure of theexperiments. For example: In thisexperiment you may start with ablock of ice and give details ofhow this will be turned to a liquidand later to a gas.

w The resources to be used in aparticular experiment are statedexhaustively. For example: In thisexperiment you will need asource of heat, the block of iceand a container for heating.

w Advice on how some of thematerial can be improvised if notavailable is provided. Forexample: In this experiment, acandle can be used as a sourceof heat.

Note: If the school has no access toice, the experiment may be limitedto only two forms of water, but canmove from liquid to gas and back toliquid.

!? ? Activity

Select a topic that can best betaught through story telling, givingthe details of the props needed.


4.2.6 Group DiscussionsGroup discussions help learners to:w Learn to take turns.w Share books and other facilities

being used, such as paint and tools.w Learn and practise cooperation.w Learn to consider the interests of

others, not just their own.w Listen to other people’s opinions.

Competition in teams enableslearners to support one another in anendeavour to ensure that their teamwins.

4.2.7 Nature Walks/Study Visits/Field Trips

Getting outside the classroom not onlybreaks the monotony of learning inclass, but can enhance learning byenabling the learner to come intocontact with real objects and situations.Concepts learnt in class are graspedand understood faster in this way.Relevant sites that can be visited,depending on the age of the learnersand the objective of the learning,include: the school compound, theneighbouring community, game parks,animal orphanages, zoos, museums,rehabilitation centres, streets,children’s homes, factories, farms,railway yards, among others! Goodpreparation is needed, especially ifparents are to be involved in paymentof some fees. Consultation with schoolauthorities should be put intoconsideration too. Proper supervisionand safe transportation are otherimportant factors.

4.2.8 Use of Resource PersonsThese are people who are experts incertain areas. They can be members ofstaff in the school, parents, or peopleoutside the school such as doctors,pilots or social workers. The resourcepersons should be selectively chosen toensure that the topic of discussion iswell tackled. They should be briefed onthe general needs of the learners. Thelearners, too, must be prepared to askrelevant questions as they interact withthe resource persons.

4.2.9 Questions and AnswersThis is a very effective way of teachingbecause it enhances pupil involvementin the learning process. It can be usedat different times in the course of thelesson:w At the beginning of a lesson to

review the previous lesson or tointroduce a new topic.

w In the course of the lesson tomonitor understanding of a concept.

w At the end of a lesson to find outwhether the stated objectives havebeen achieved.

Through this technique, the teacheris able to identify the needs of thepupils and therefore plan for themeffectively.

4.3 Considerations in theSelection of Teaching/Learning Methods

A writer must have adequate informa-tion about the general needs of thereader and the age/level for which thetextbook is intended. Other considera-tions are the type of teaching/learningactivities that might be appropriateand the type of resources that areneeded – and likely to be available.

!? ? Activity

Let the learners discuss in groups:“How does the spread of HIV/AIDSaffect a country?”

“What is the impact of modernmedia on traditional culture?”


4.3.1 Age GroupA book for children aged 12–14 yearswill have a different perspective fromone for younger or older children. Thewriter needs to bear in mind theemotional, psychological, physical andmental changes occurring in children’slives at different ages, in an endeavourto address them. This background isimportant as it influences:w The use of language.w The concepts and skills being taught.w Illustrations being used.w Examples and exercises.w The length of the book and of each

chapter, and the degree ofsimplicity/complexity of words andsentences.

w The explanation of words andstatements used.

w Assessment tests and other modesof evaluation.

w Methodologies recommended foruse.

4.3.2 Level of the LearnersA textbook writer should bear in mindthat some of the textbook users mightbe learners with special needs andtherefore look for ways ofaccommodating them. For example,some exercises and assessments shouldcater for “slow” learners. Examplesshould be graded from very simpleand straightforward to more complex.

The textbook writer will need tocome up with effective teaching/learning activities, which aim atachieving the stated objectives, basedon specific topics in a subject. Thewriter also needs to ensure that thenational goals are being addressedthrough the activities.

4.3.3 Teaching/LearningActivities

A teachers’ guide and the pupils’textbook should include a variation ofteaching/learning activities,

!?? Using QuestionsEffectively

An important issue is the type ofquestions that are asked by theteacher. Do they require parrot-likerepetition, or do they develop higherlevel thinking?

w Questions can vary from thesimplest form of allowing pupilsto repeat what has been learnt intheir own words, to applying whathas been learnt to new situationsor creating new knowledgebased on previous learning.

w The teacher’s skill in formulatingquestions leads to whether thepupils’ learning is lower level(e.g., parrot learning) or higherlevel (e.g., ability to makedeductions from giveninformation).

w The teacher, using Bloom’sTaxonomy as a framework totest whether the questions willelicit lower or higher levels ofcognitive development, utilizesdifferent types of questions.

w A teacher can ensure that allpupils have an equal opportunityto answer questions during alesson by giving them oneminute to write down theiranswers before the answers aregiven orally.

w Another way would be to dividethe class into groups of five toeight pupils per group, and geteach group to work on aproblem. This could be the sameproblem across the groups, thusproviding an element ofcompetition between groups, ordifferent problems for differentgroups, thus enabling more to becovered.


specifically selected to help thelearners grasp the concepts beingtaught, acquire the knowledge andapply it in day-to-day activities. Thesetoo must be carefully tailored to enablelearners to achieve the lessonobjectives and the national goals.Learning activities should:w Adequately enhance the

understanding of the concepts.w Be tailored to the level of the

learner.w Be challenging enough to develop

the human mind.w Stimulate the child’s intellect.w Enhance discovery and curiosity.w Provide sustained motivation for

learners to find out for themselves.w Involve a lot of action.w Encourage the learners to work

without necessarily beingsupervised.

w Have clear instructions to avoidmisunderstanding.

There is a wide selection ofactivities that can be incorporated intothe textbooks. They include:w Chantingw Demonstrationw Dramatizationw Drawingw Expositionw Field tripsw Group discussionsw Nature walks

w Observationw Practical workw Projectsw Question and answerw Readingw Recitationw Role playw Singingw Story tellingw Visits

4.3.4 Teaching/LearningResources

Teaching and learning resources arethings that are used to help a teacherachieve learning objectives. They arecrucial to the learning process becausethey help the learners to use more thanone sense (sight, smell, hearing, taste,touch), thus increasing understanding.They also enhance retention, interest,curiosity and attention and makeconcepts and ideas more real.

The teachers’ guides for a textbookneed to include suggestions for severalappropriate resources depending onspecific topics. This enables theteachers to be well prepared for thelessons. Some of the resources can beincluded in the pupil’s text, as well,such as diagrams, graphs, tables andpictures.

An author may select teaching/learning resources from manycategories, including:w Living things – plants and animalsw Non-living things such as:

– Metals – batteries, wires, nails andtins

– Non metals – wood, charcoal,plastics, rubber, paper, glass,fibres, soap, bulbs, candles

– Liquids – water, ink, milk,kerosene

Other possibilities are listed in thebox below – which is not likely to beexclusive!

!? ? Discussion Point

Obtain a copy of your country’ssyllabus and find out how the goalsand objectives are stated. Write alesson on the topic “EnvironmentConservation”. Include teaching/learning activities that aim atachieving national goals andobjectives of education as stated inthe syllabus.


4.4 Conclusion

Conventional wisdom holds that thereare as many teaching/learningmethodologies as there are teachersand learners. This chapter hashighlighted some of the commonlyused methodologies in the teaching/learning process. Specific, practicalmethods depend on the circumstancesof the teacher, the learners and thelearning environment, as well as theavailability of teaching/learningresources. Even in constrainedcircumstances each subject may haveits own specific methodologies ofteaching/learning.

As a textbook writer, it isimportant to have knowledge aboutdifferent methodologies so that youcan effectively develop the skills andconcepts – and the intelligence of thelearners – through their use. Thechoice of a specific methodology willbe determined by the topic at hand.For example:w A topic about plants and animals or

the environment would best belearnt by suggesting the need to visita farm, game reserve or a nationalpark.

!??w Atlasesw Audio tapesw Chartsw Cutting toolsw Drawing toolsw Encyclopaediasw Environmentw Filmsw Flash cardsw Games equipmentw Glue/paste

w Guest speakersw Historical sitesw Hymn booksw Librariesw Mapsw Modelsw Museumw Musical instrumentsw Newspaper cuttingsw Photographsw Pictures

w Postersw Radiow Recorded materialsw Regaliaw Relevant magazinesw Rulers, metre sticksw Teacher advisory centresw Test booksw Toysw Video tapesw Workers’ tools

w A topic on HIV/AIDS can mosteffectively be learnt throughresearch, where learners areencouraged to read magazines,newspapers and books, watchdocumentaries on television, andinquire from resource persons in thecommunity to get as muchinformation as possible on thespecified topic.

w A book for young learners shouldinvolve various suggestions ofsongs, games, mimes, drawings,paintings and recitations, which arevery exciting ways of learning forthem.

In general, teacher centredmethods of teaching should be kept toa minimum, mainly in introducing newtopics or activities. The mainmethodologies and those that are mosteffective are the learner centred.

Integrating elements of differentsubject matters is another importantapproach to learning. An integratedcurriculum requires a combination ofsubjects for holistic learning. This isdiscussed in the next chapter, althoughthe methodologies highlighted aboveapply across the board.

Selected Teaching/Learning Resources


5Textbooks andthe IntegratedCurriculum

One of the frequently desired,as well as fashionable,teaching methodologies is that

of the integrated curriculum, forexample combining mathematics withsocial studies, or science withlanguage, or building constructionwith ethics. It can be very difficult tointegrate subjects, however, becauseteachers, who are among the mostimportant players in curriculumreform and interpretation, havegenerally been trained to teach subjectsseparately, and may become quiteagitated and disorientated if thesubject boundaries are not respected.

A teacher of physics may not feelqualified to teach English, or a teacherof accounts may not feel comfortable inhandling ethics. Teachers feel they havebeen trained to teach a particular sub-ject, and they are good at teaching thatsubject, but they do not feel confidentteaching an integrated curriculum. Buta good example of how an integratedcurriculum can work is the issue ofHIV/AIDS, which may cross manysubject boundaries such as values,science, environment, sociology, healthand so on through individual andgroup behaviour, peer pressure, etc.

Teachers may express discomfortat dealing with such a subject becausethey do not know enough about it. Thisis where the textbook writer can bringin information across the spectrum.

Despite the reservations of manyteachers, an integrated approach toteaching and learning can be anenriching experience both for theteacher and for the pupils. Rather thantrying to integrate every subject, it maybe best to begin by introducing someintegrated curriculum for two or threehours each week, whilst maintainingthe separate subject format most of thetime. The textbook writer must keep inmind that it is the teacher whoimplements the curriculum, and so thetextbook must be teacher friendly.

5.1 Approaches toCurriculum Integration

Among the approaches the textbookcan present to support an integratedcurriculum are projects, problemsolving and team teachingmethodologies. These are discussedbriefly below.

5.1.1 The Project MethodThe project is done either individuallyor by a small group. It centres on atopic that is of interest to the pupilsand by its nature is often multi-disciplinary. A topic could be dealtwith in a number of different ways,such as historically, statistically,scientifically. Pupils can collect most ofthe information by themselves,


organizing their own research andpresentations.

Projects enable topics to be linkedin a common theme. They stimulateinterest and encourage learning acrossseveral curriculum subjects. Topicssuch as air, water, shapes, clothes,plants, animals, homes and transportare effectively taught through projects.

This can be demonstrated withwater, for example, in the followingways:w In language, vocabulary such as

stream, flow, splash can be used.Activities in water, e.g., swimming,fishing, waves, can be discussed. Acomposition can be written on “TheUses of Water”. A discussion canalso focus on how to avoid pollutingwater. Use real or imagined storiesrelating to water.

w In maths, measurement of liquidscan be enhanced, e.g., ¼ litre ofwater, ½ cup or bottle, the numberof cupfuls that fill a container.

w In science, an experiment can beconducted to show the threedifferent states of water: solid,liquid, gas.

w In art, one can find pictures showingdifferent sources of water, e.g., rain,rivers, springs, or draw wavypatterns and sceneries depictingwater.

w On the environment, learners cancollect pictures showing pollution ofwater and articles on environmentaland water conservation.

w In music, sing songs about the sea.There are songs connected withwater, rain, lakes, seas and oceans,clouds, floods, and storms.

5.1.2 Problem Solving ApproachWhat is learnt in the classroom can beapplied to analysing and solving real-life problems. Questions are posed thatrequire a multi-disciplinary approachto answer. Pupils then have to find

different possible solutions to theseproblems. The practical application oflearning provides good opportunitiesfor integrated learning.

5.1.3 Team TeachingThis provides opportunities forintegrated teaching and learning. Ascience teacher and a language teachercan work together to teach certainprogrammes, each utilizing their ownspecialization effectively.

!? ? Activity

Write down how a topic on“Animals” can be taught effectivelyusing the project method. Recordhow this topic can be integratedinto:w Languagesw Mathsw Religious studiesw Sciencew Artw Environmentw Music


1. Devise some topics for projectwork that would require anintegrated approach.

2. Consider problems thecommunity is facing at present,and how teachers and pupils canaddress some of these issues inthe classroom.

3. Devise some exercises thatwould enable teachers fromdifferent disciplines to worktogether, e.g., the mathematicsteacher with the social studiesteacher, the ethics teacher andthe science teacher.


5.2 Integration of DifferentSubjects in TextbookWriting

Many textbooks are written withemphasis on their specific subject andno connection between that subject andanother. The textbook writer needs toknow that for young children,especially, knowledge is knowledge –children do not see it as isolatedsubjects. The national goals for eachsubject are also not recorded by

subject. For example in Kenya, one ofthe national goals is to fosternationalism, patriotism and nationalunity. All textbooks must therefore aimat achieving this goal. Deliberate actionneeds to be made by textbook writersto link the content of each subject toother subjects. This can be done in anumber of ways.

5.2.1 IntegratingComputers intoDifferent Subjects

Learning computers is becomingincreasingly important. Computers

!? ? Selection of Computer Learning Programmes

Subject Programme Company

KindergartenMaths ABC 123 Word Perfect Mainstreet, 1995English ABC 123 Word Perfect Mainstreet, 1995Art & Craft Music Colour Book Disney Interactive, 1996Reading Lion King, Casper Disney Interactive, 1995

PrimaryMaths ADI Maths Sierra Edutainment, 1995English ADI English Sierra Edutainment, 1995Kiswahili Crosswords (Made in Riara) Expert Software, 1995Geography Encarta Encyclopaedia Microsoft Corporation, 2000History Encarta Encyclopaedia Microsoft Corporation, 2000Art Crayola Art Studio Davidson and Associates 1995Reading Casper 2, Pocahontas Pixel Genius Entertainment Inc.

1995

High SchoolMaths GCSE Maths Davidson and Associates, 1994English GCSE English Davidson and Associates, 1995History GCSE History of the World Davidson and Associates, 1995Geography GCSE Geography Davidson and Associates, 1995Biology GCSE Biology Davidson and Associates, 1995CRE The Bible Davidson and Associates, 1995KCSE revision Tutorial Revision Interactive Learning, 1990Physics GCSE Physics Davidson and Associates, 1995Chemistry GCSE Chemistry Davidson and Associates, 1995

Key:GCSE = General Certificate of Secondary EducationCRE = Christian Religious EducationKCSE = Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education


create different images in the learners’minds and help them perform tasksfaster. Learners at all levels should beaware – and unafraid – of howcomputers work. Students should beable to use computers in learningmathematics, languages, science andother subjects.w In maths, computers aid

calculations. Even a “slow”computer can add hundreds ofthousands of numbers in onesecond. Powerful computers canadd millions of numbers per second.Learners can do arithmetic, mistakefree, with the use of computers, amajor step from manual exercises.

w In language, learners can usecomputers to sort, add andrearrange words in any waydesired. Computers are particularlyhelpful in doing self-correction.

Computers can be programmedwith information in different subjects,which learners can refer to. Theinformation in the box on the previouspage shows programmes alreadydeveloped and in use in Kenya, amongother countries.

In writing a text, an author shouldinclude information on how thecomputer can be used to reinforce theconcept being taught in differentsubjects. Computers can also beprogrammed in such a way thatlessons can be taught/learnt withoutthe teacher’s presence. They enhanceself-learning.

Teachers’ guides should givedetails on how lessons should beprogrammed for effective use bylearners.

5.2.2 Integrating Art intoOther Subjects

The growth of the mind is enhanced bythe ability to perceive and to createvisually and artistically. Art enableslearners to express themselves, thinkand decide, develop observation, andhone eye–hand coordination. Thefollowing are examples of how readerscan involve their art skills in varioussubjects:w Geography lessons, by drawing

maps to visualize concepts learnt tostrengthen learning.

w Mathematics questions on area,perimeter, volume are betterunderstood when learners visualizeand draw them.

w Science by making models of organsand their functions.

5.3 Conclusion

Approaches in teaching/learning needto take on board the integration ofdifferent subjects across thecurriculum. The integrated approachenhances holistic learning forindividual development and self-fulfilment. It also makes sense, as thelearners understand fully the existinginterrelationship between them and thesocial and physical world. The nextchapter deals mainly with modes ofassessment, with the first sectionpointing out that integration ofknowledge from other subject areasforms one criterion for evaluation.


6AssessingLearningOutcomes

Since educational opportunitiesare limited in most Africancountries, examinations have

been utilized to screen pupils, allowingonly a small minority to acquiresecondary schooling and an evensmaller percentage to move into highereducation. Because of this, pupils,parents, teachers and schoolauthorities tend to measure theirschool success in terms of their successwith examinations. The curriculum istherefore closely tied to theexaminations. The textbook writermust take assessment andexaminations seriously into account.

It is unfortunate that mostexaminations at primary andsecondary school levels in Africa tendto concentrate on lower level cognitiveskills, and almost totally neglectaffective skills. Yet an educationsystem that promotes only lower levelskills seriously handicaps its people.The textbook writer can help tocounter this tendency by thinkingcarefully about how to assess thelearning the textbook is intended topromote.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of cognitiveand affective skills (see Chapter 2)provides the foundation for thedevelopment as well as for the testingof skills that can be nurtured througheducation. As textbooks are key in theachievement of these skills, writers

need to be certain that their textbookprovides the medium through whichthe skills are learnt.

6.1 Assessing Pupils’Performance

There is need to continually assesspupils’ performance in order to:w Find out whether the objectives of

the lessons have been achieved.w Ensure that the specified skills have

been learnt.w Monitor a pupil’s progress

throughout the course of study.w Motivate learners as they work

harder and for longer hours whenexaminations and tests are near.

w Test the effectiveness of teaching.w Stimulate high-level thinking and

formation of attitudes.

!? ? Example

The ability to use the simple presenttense is a skill. A wide range ofconcepts and knowledge can becovered in the context of teachingthe tense. Examples include, “I havea gun”, “I like farming”, “We havemany animals”, “Democracy isgood”. Each of these sentencesuses the simple present tense toconvey important concepts,knowledge, attitudes and values.


w Test recognition of facts, ability tomake simple generalizations andability to apply information andprinciples.

w Identify individual learning needs ofpupils (help a teacher to improveteaching skills).

w Form the basis for individual pupil’sperformance report.

6.2 Types of Evaluation

Among the common types ofevaluation that guide the pupilassessment process are diagnostic,formative and summative.

6.2.1 Diagnostic EvaluationThis type of assessment can be carriedout at the beginning of the lesson orduring the course of the lesson. Thepurpose is to establish what skills havebeen learnt or not learnt. This gives theteacher direction on the areas toconcentrate on in presenting the lesson.

6.2.2 Formative EvaluationThese assessments enable the teacherto collect data that help identify areas

of difficulty or those that requirechange of methodology. Theevaluation is carried out in the processof teaching.

A form like the one below willfacilitate this type of evaluation.

!? ? Example

In a science lesson on “Differencesbetween Plants and Animals”, it isimportant to ask questions such as:w What qualities do plants have that

animals do not have?w What do animals do that plants

cannot do?w What differences are there in the

way people use plants andanimals?

These questions will help you to findout what learners know and whatthey do not know so that you canconcentrate on what they do notknow and build on what they know.

!?? Example

MATHEMATICS ASSESSMENT

Subject Assignment Date Teacher’s comments SignShape Card 16 21st Lesson well understoodMeasurement 2Kg 19th Square number concept

not graspedNumber Card 17 17th Order of size understoodMeasurementof angles Page 14 Ex 14 15th Measurement of angles

well understood

Pupil’s comments on week’s work:I had difficulty understanding the work on measurement.

Teacher’s comments on week’s work:Achieng, your work has been encouraging this week. Do your best to get high scores inall the exercises. See me on Wednesday at break time so that I can explain the topic onmeasurement.

NB: The teacher will need to change the method used in teaching “measurement” so thatAchieng can understand.


6.2.3 Summative EvaluationThese examinations play a major rolein grading learners for promotion tothe next level, e.g., nationalexaminations. It should go withoutsaying that the textbook should coverthe information required for thenational examination.

6.3 Assessment Methods

There are three main methods ofassessment: choice free, choice typeand multiple choice.

6.3.1 Choice Free AssessmentsIn these types of assessments, noalternative solutions are provided.Specific types include:w Structured assessments, in which

the questions mainly test recall offacts, as the learner is expected to fillin blank spaces. Answers arerecorded as single words or shortsentences. Such questions are highlyrecommended for lower primarylevels, where learners are stilldeveloping their language skills.

w Practical work, where learners aregiven tasks such as modelling ordrawing. The teacher then assessesand rewards accordingly. Theseassessments test ability to performgiven tasks and behaviour change.Checklists like the one providedbelow can be used effectively toevaluate learners’ progress as theygo through their practical lessons.

w Essay assessments, where thelearner is given a main topic to writeon. This open-ended questioningtechnique requires detailed, wellorganized information. It stimulatesa learner’s creativity. The essay typeof assessment is not recommendedfor lower primary learners.

!? ? Example

A _______________ is a non-livingthing.________________ is one of thevalues we have learnt about duringthis lesson.

!? ? Example

Group: BNumber inGroup: 4Name of pupil: RazakSubject: Art and craft:

Mosaic creationTask: To create a

beautiful mosaicas instructed bythe teacher.

CriteriaPlans how to carry out work üWilling to share materials üVery talkative xGood listener üGives others an opportunity üWorks easily with group xEasily distracted xPatient enough tocomplete task üInterested in the taskuntil it is complete üRemembers to tidy upthe working surface ü

!? ? Example

Learners are asked to write anessay on the following topic:“Industrialization Is the Key toDevelopment in Any Country”.


w Oral questions in class. Questionsessions can be very effective as theyhelp the teacher to establish thelearners’ ability and memory, and tomonitor the concentration oflearners and the effectiveness ofteaching.

w An oral test, which is very useful atall levels especially lower primarywhere learners’ learning ability andconcentration are targeted. Pupilstell the teacher what they knowabout the topic of discussion.

w Observation of behaviour, as part ofa process to assess skills, attitudesand behaviour change. Observationis effectively used when learners aredramatizing, singing, going onstudy visits, reciting, miming,chanting, playing games, interview-ing resource persons and doingother practical work. Individualattitudes and behaviour can beevaluated as the lesson goes on.

w Questionnaires and attitude scales,which involve questions specificallytailored to elicit reactions fromlearners to help in finding outwhether the necessary values havebeen learnt. A questionnaire like thefollowing could be used here. Such aquestionnaire can provide a lot ofinformation about a learner’sbehaviour and attitude towardslearning.

!? ? Sample ObservationChecklist

Attitudes/BehaviourPatient xConsiderate üAccepts responsibility üHard worker üTidy xEasy to work with/pleasant üKeeps time üWilling to share ü

!?? Sample Questionnaire

Tick in the box containing the answer that is closest to the way you feel.

1. Do most pupils in class like you?

2. How would you rate your handwriting?

3. Do you enjoy making new friends?

4. Do you enjoy sports activities?

5. Do you find it difficult moving to new work?

6. Are you talkative?

7. Can you concentrate for long periods?

8. Do you often ask questions in class?

9. Do you often forget your assignments?

10. Are you good at spelling?

11. Do you enjoy creative writing?

12. Do you plan before starting any practical work?

13. Are you always present in class?

14. Are you always punctual?

15. Do you like school?

YES

YES

GOOD

YES

YES

YES

YES

YES

YES

YES

YES

YES

YES

NO

NO

POOR

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NOYES

YES


6.3.2 Subjective Choice TypeTests

There are two major examples ofsubjective choice questions:w Alternative response, which

presents a right answer and a wronganswer. The learner is expected tohighlight the right one.

w Matching items: Two columns areprovided. Learners are expected tomatch the items on the left-handside with those on the right-handside.

6.3.3 Objective or Multiple-Choice Questions

These consist of written questions orincomplete statements, which areknown as the stems, and a numberchoices to complete the statement. Oneof the choices given is correct but theother three are distracters. There arefive types of multiple-choice questionsdepending on what they test:w Knowledge, in which the questions

test whether the learner remembersthe facts taught:.

w Comprehension, which requires alearner to know more than one typeof information.

w Application, in this type of question,knowledge learnt is used to solvenew problems or situations. Thistype is recommended for upperprimary and high school pupils.

!? ? Example

Write true or false:

1.Milk is a form of matter. ____2.The young of a goat is a calf. ____

!? ? Example

Match the following nations with thecontinents to which they belong.

Nation Continent1. Namibia ___ Europe2. Austria ___ Asia3. India ___Africa

!? ? Example

The sun rises in thea) Northb) Southc) Eastd) West

!? ? Example

Which of the following planets isclosest to the sun?a) Saturnb) Marsc) Venusd) Jupiter

The learner is expected to know theorder of the solar system so as toselect the right answer.

!? ? Example

How best can you help beggars?a) Give them food.b) Help them to get employment.c) Tell them God helps those who

help themselves.d) Tell them to ask their relatives for

help.

Although the learner is aware thathelping a beggar is good, thequestion requires coming up with themost effective way to do so.


w Analysis, in which the informationlearnt is broken down intocomponent parts, making itsorganizational structure clearer. Inthis way a learner can analyse aquestion. These types of questionsare recommended for learners inupper primary and high school.

w Synthesis, which is a combination ofdistinct ideas into a complete whole.

6.4 Points forConsideration in thePreparation of PupilAssessments

One principle for pupil assessments isto divide test questions roughly intothree parts, with one third that can besuccessfully tackled by any studentwho has followed the course. Thisthird would cover lower level skillssuch as recall, being able to repeatwhat has been learnt more or lesscoherently and in their own words.The second third should be moredifficult, but could be tackled by anyserious student. This would testmiddle level skills. The last thirdshould be difficult, so that only thevery best students can succeed withthem.

Tests devised in this way wouldhelp discriminate between the weakestand the most able students, whilst atthe same time allowing weak studentswho work hard to attain at least a thirdof the marks. Other elements of theassessment, discussed briefly below,include creativity, diversity andfairness, complemented by teachers’teamwork.

6.4.1 CreativityThis is the ability to come up withsolutions to stated problems. A goodassessment should give learners thefreedom of coming up with their ownsolution to a problem rather thanlimiting them to specific answers fromwhich the choice is made.

6.4.2 DiversityThere is need to use a variety ofassessment methods to ensure that allthe objectives have been achieved.Each method has its owndisadvantages.

!?? Example

Which of the following pairs ofqualities do you think are mostimportant in marriage?a) Joy and peaceb) Gentleness and goodnessc) Patience and self-controld) Love and faithfulness

The learner is expected to know theimportance of each quality inmarriage, and to identify the pairs ofqualities that greatly strengthen amarriage.

!?? Example

The following statements describethe characteristics of a certain soiltype:w Has very fine particlesw Is heavy and contains little airw Is sticky when wetw Cracks when dry

The soil described above is likely tobe:a) Sandy soilb) Loam soilc) Siltd) Clay soil

The learner is expected to knowenough about the characteristics ofall types of soil to identify the correcttype of soil according to the question.


6.4.3 FairnessTo make a fair assessment there is needto:w Recognize different levels of ability

and achievement of individuallearners so that the assessments areneither too hard nor too easy.

w Provide enough examples andexercises in each chapter. Thisenhances the understanding of thelearners, as they are able to confirmareas of doubt with teachers.

6.4.4 TeamworkTeachers need to work as a panel whilepreparing for assessments. Areas ofconsideration are:w Topics to be tested.w Number of questions to ask.w How long the test should be.w Types of questions to ask.

The textbook writer shouldstimulate the teachers to consider theseissues, for example through the activitygiven below.

6.5 Preparing Learners foran ExternalExamination

As mentioned earlier, examinations arelargely used in screening learners asthey move into secondary school andinstitutions of higher learning. It istherefore of paramount importance forthe textbook writer to give guidelinesto the learners on ways of preparingeffectively for external examinations.

6.6 Conclusion

This chapter has discussed issuesrelated to the assessment of the resultof the teaching/learning processes.Textbook writers must be aware ofthese issues and provide for them inthe text. The assessment of the learningoutcome is a continuous process,however, and does not end with thetextbook. Teachers must incorporate itinto their lesson preparation routine,and the textbook and teachers’ guidecan provide pointers for doing so.

!? ? Activity

As a guide to teachers, suggest thefollowing:w Prepare a 30-minute

assessment involving bothchoice and choice-free types ofassessment, starting withsimple and moving to difficultquestions.

w Explain how you will effectivelyassess the attitude andbehaviour of your learners inclass.

!? ? Example

Advise the learner to take thefollowing points into consideration:w Important topics that must be

revised.w Different ways in which

examination questions may beasked.

w Topics that need more revisionthan others.

w Preparation of a revision timetable.

w Study techniques.w Proper way of conducting

oneself during exams.w Importance of counselling.

The assessment of the learningoutcome is a continuous processand does not end with thetextbook.


Part II

Getting Down To Business7 – Textbooks and Gender

8 – Some Language Issues in Textbooks

9 – Technicalities of Textbook Writing


7Gender as a concept refers to

the roles of girls, boys, womenand men as defined by their

society. The process of the definition iscontinuous and goes on fromchildhood to adulthood. The actualdefinition for each society is reflectedthrough the division of labour (genderroles), available opportunities andallocation of responsibilities, as well asthe whole aspect of access to andcontrol of assets, resources anddecision making processes.

Many institutions reinforce thesocial construction of future womenand men from that of girls and boys.Among these institutions formalschooling has been the most important.

7.1 Why Gender Is aCritical Issue inTextbook Writing

Textbooks are important socializingagents. They present a world fromwhich girls and boys adopt respectiverole models that influence theirthoughts, attitudes and life aspirations,and relations with the opposite gender.Textbook writers are themselves theproducts of a socialization processwith held values, attitudes andassumptions about girls, boys, womenand men. Their attitudes and valuesinfluence the images they portray and

the relationships they build among thecharacters they select.

Although in many cases thewriter’s input in a textbook is atechnical skill, such as simplemathematics or grammar, the writercan make learning more practical andinteresting by creating a world withhuman characters doing things. Theprocess of humanizing even highlytechnical subjects especially at theprimary level makes learning real andpractical. It helps learners to visualizethemselves in the textbook context, andcan be used in all subjects throughtexts, stories and illustrations, forexample:w Narratives about how people live,

relate with each other and organizethemselves.

w Problem solving based on people’sactions and reactions towards thephysical and social world aroundthem.

A major challenge fortextbook writers is to portrayrelationships between girlsand boys, men and women,without perpetuating genderstereotypes.

Textbooks andGender


The cultural attitudes and valuesheld by textbook writers are readilyreflected in the books they produce.Whether subtly or overtly, illustrationsand narratives in the textbook tell astory about the life of girls/boys andwomen/men as they relate with oneanother. The textbook thus portraysthe gender realities of the social world.

Examples of gender bias are citedin Chapter 3. Section 3.2 points outhow teaching methodologies mayresult in gender imbalance. The sectionalso cites examples of the hiddencurriculum, portraying boys and menin active roles, while girls and womenare portrayed in passive roles.

As learners internalize themessages in the gendered world oftextbooks, their self-images andaspirations in life are affected eithernegatively or positively. Textbookwriters need to deliberately encouragegirls in Africa to strive for leadershippositions by including role models theycan emulate.


Some common attitudes and heldvalues regarding gender indifferent cultures:

Men and boys are:AggressiveDecision makersIndependentGood in maths, sciences andtechnical subjects

Women and girls are:SubmissiveTo be seen not heardDependentGood in languages and art

What attitudes and values are heldin your community with regard tomen and women? Add to the listsabove.

As the writer of the textbook youmust consciously and deliberatelyendeavour to portray women andmen in complementary roles.

!? ? Activity

You can identify the hiddencurriculum by picking a story andundertaking the following analysis:

w Who is seen?w Who is named?w Who is more powerful and how

is the power used?w Who has access to and/or

control over what assets/resources?

w Who is telling?w Who is being told?w Who is helping whom?

Source: ABC of Gender Analysis, FAWE,1997.

!? ? Example

w Are girls consistently portrayed inand around homes, doingreproductive roles?w Are boys consistently portrayed

away from home and performingroles that are of more “value” ascompared with those of girls?w Are women often failing in what

they are portrayed as doing?w Are men portrayed as always

succeeding as compared withwomen?


7.2 Making TextbooksGender Responsive

As an important medium of learning/teaching textbooks should be written insuch a way that they empower bothgirls and boys on equal basis. This inturn should have positive influence ontheir learning, retention, completionand performance within the educationprocess. This can only happen if thewriters:w Are committed to challenging the

unequal relationships that existbetween girls and boys and womenand men in their societies.

w Present girls, boys, women and menon equal basis, with relationshipsthat place value on all of them asessential human beings with therights to prosper and belong.

w Use gender responsive language andavoid use of gendered terms likemankind, manpower, watchmen,etc.

w Present girls, boys, women and menperforming similar roles,successfully and in equal positionsof power.

What the exercise above presents isa simple gender analysis to establishthe gender responsiveness of a text.The exercise is useful for textbookwriters to assess the gender respon-siveness of their texts in order to:w Measure their successes and failures

in mainstreaming gender in theirtexts.

w Assess the extent to which they arechallenging the unfair and unequalrelationships that exist in thesocieties.

w Identify stereotypes and other issuesof gender inequality in the text forrevision.

7.3 What a GenderAnalysis Is All About

The analysis is a simple gender screenthat aims to establish whether the textin question empowers girls and boys,on equal basis. It seeks to quantify theportrayal of women, men, girls andboys under different analyticalcategories in the textbook. On thewhole, the analysis helps to explainqualitatively the gender map of thetext and possible implications to thelearners, by showing the level ofgender awareness within the text.

The outcome of the analysis shouldbe the identification of any genderdiscrimination and disparities. Thismay require revision of the text toensure it portrays a gender responsiveperspective. Ultimately, such aportrayal can help contribute to a morehumane and gender responsivesociety, where women and men areseen as important for each other’ssuccesses and survival, and for thenation’s development.

Textbook writers can design asimple framework against which theirtext can be screened for gendersensitivity. The framework forms a

!?? Exercise

1. Pick any story in any textbookand count how many times:w Girls are portrayed?w Boys are portrayed?w Women are portrayed?w Men are portrayed?

2. Consider:w What each category is doing?w Who is using what resources?w Who is portrayed as

powerful?w Whose roles and performance

are enviable?


criterion against which the analysis isdone, on the basis of issues rangingfrom narration to speech, fromownership to illustrations.

7.3.1 Narration of the TextThe analysis considers how thenarrative addresses – implicitly orexplicitly – the following questions:w What activities are girls, boys,

women and men undertaking?w Who is active / passive?w What technology is being used?w Who is seen / not seen?

7.3.2 SpeechThe roles of characters are usuallyreflected in the patterns of their speech.The analysis asks:w Who is speaking?w What is the nature of speech – e.g.,

giving orders?w Who is giving instructions and who

is obeying?w Who is providing the answers/ the

solutions?

7.3.3 Use of LanguageSocietal values and norms are learntthrough language, as much as they arelearnt through observation and thesocialization process. Language is oftenfound to be full of genderdiscrimination and bias. Terms usedmay totally exclude or minimize onegender, and in most cases thoseexcluded or ignored are women andgirls. Such terms include: mankind,manpower, watchman, fireman,

policeman, chairman, etc. Textbookwriters are encouraged to use nondiscriminatory and gender neutralterms such as workforce, humanresource, security guard, fire fighter,police officer and chairperson (orsimply chair, as chairperson has itselfbecome a gendered word and ingeneral use refers only to a femalechair) .

Pronouns can still present aproblem. One simple way out is to useplural nouns and their pronouns –children/they – in cases where thepersonality is not specifically namedand the gender is not relevant.Changing pronouns from he to shesimply accentuates bias, the use of“he/she” is awkward, and discerningwriters avoid the construction “s/he”.Another trick that is particularly usefulfor giving instructions is to put them inthe second person – direct thenarrative specifically to the reader.

Other ways biases are exposedthrough language are in namingcharacters. Often only or mostly menand boys are named, while girls andwomen are unnamed. This is especiallyevident in stories and illustrations. Allcharacters need to be given equaltreatment through the use of nounsand naming within the text.

7.3.4 Ownership and OtherForms of Power Control

Gender bias is found in control ofresources. The gender analysis asks:w Who is in ownership positions and

for what assets/resources?w Who is in what position of power?w On whom is the power being used?

7.3.5 IllustrationsImages are powerful. Children identifywith the people they see in the picturesin their books. The gender analysisshould examine the images carefullyand consider the following:

A gender analysis intends toidentify any gender discrimina-tion and disparities. Theoutcome of the analysis mayrequire revision of the text toensure it portrays a genderresponsive perspective.


w What are the girls, boys, women andmen doing?

w Is there any gender stereotyping?w What are the sizes of the girls

compared with those of the boys?w What are the sizes of the women

compared with the men?w How is colour applied for each

gender?

7.4 Conclusion

An ideal textbook represents girls/boys and women/men in such a waythat they relate on equal terms inlanguage, illustrations and narration.This is one way in which textbookwriters can contribute towards theestablishment of a society free ofgender bias and where issues of humanrights are upheld and respected.

Needless to say that genderresponsiveness should be an essentialcriterion among those used todetermine the approval of anytextbook for official use in education.

!?? Discussion Point andExercise

Take any textbook and do a simpleanalysis of the illustrations:1. Count how many times girls,

boys, women and men appearin the illustrations.

2. What different activities are thegirls, boys, women and mendoing?

3. Who is more visible in theillustrations?


8 Some LanguageIssues inTextbooks

Language is the medium oflearning most concepts. Besidesthe gender and social conscious-

ness issues discussed in earlierchapters, textbook writers must keepin mind that the kind of language theyuse and they way they use it canhinder or facilitate learning. Thespecific language used in textbooks isdetermined by a country’s educationpolicy. Other considerations relate tothe way language is used to present thetechnical content.

8.1 Language Policy

A policy guideline is especiallynecessary in a country that hasmultiple languages and dialects –commonly referred to as mothertongues. For example in Kenya themajority of children are faced with atrilingual situation very early in theirschool life. Besides English being theofficial language, Kiswahili is thenational language. All three languages– English, Kiswahili and the mothertongue – are expected to feature withvarying degrees of emphasis at thevarious levels of the education system.

In general, the use of the mothertongue as the medium of instruction isrecommended in the first three years ofprimary school. The Kenyan systemteaches English as a subject up to the

end of third grade, after which itassumes the role of medium ofinstruction. Kiswahili is taught as asubject throughout primary andsecondary education. Other languages,including French, Arabic and German,are offered as optional subjects at thesecondary school level. Both Englishand Kiswahili are examinable at alllevels of education and therefore tendto be taken very seriously.

The teaching of literacy in thevarious mother tongues ishandicapped by the lack of textbooksand other learning materials. This isbecause most publishers are unwillingto print books whose market is limitedto small ethnic groups. Other countrieshave different language scenarios.

As indicated above, the mothertongue is strongly recommended as themedium of instruction for beginners.This is because of the need to linkschool with home and to ensure thatearly learning takes cognisance of thechild’s preschool experiences. It is alsobecause of the essential relationshipsamong language, culture and conceptdevelopment. Even when handledwell, the introduction of a second orforeign language does interfere withthese essential components ofdevelopment since language is criticalto the expression of concepts andculture.


8.2 All Teachers AreLanguage Teachers

How often have you heard thisstatement?

As a means of communication,language belongs to all subjects in thecurriculum and all subjects needlanguage to express themselves. It isalso a well acknowledged fact thatlanguage cannot be learned in avacuum. Language revolves aroundissues and concerns affecting languageusers everywhere.

8.2.1 Language TextbooksWriters of language textbookstherefore need to be very familiar withsuch issues and endeavour to exposelearners to them even as they preparematerials on listening, speaking,reading and writing skills. It is in thelanguage learning area more thananywhere else that the concept ofintegrated learning becomes mostrelevant. Sentences and passages forreading and comprehension, précis,and written compositions shouldreflect concerns such as goodbehaviour/manners, environmental

issues, health and nutrition, HIV/AIDSrelated information, economic andtechnological development, andscientific discoveries, among others.Literature, whether integrated intolanguage or as a separate subject, isideal for reflecting these and manyother issues specific to other subjects ofthe curriculum.

It follows therefore that thelanguage textbook writer should reflecton the content of other subjects andwork closely with experts in thosesubject areas to ensure appropriateinclusion of essential information inlanguage and literature textbooks.

8.2.2 Other Types of TextbooksIn a similar vein, it is important thatteachers of subjects other thanlanguage recognize the critical rolethey can play in advancing languagelearning and use. They will do thismore efficiently if language learning isintegrated into the content of eachsubject and its correct usage is madedeliberate in all lessons. For example,science teachers may introducescientific terminology that isunfamiliar, difficult and complicated inmeaning, without realizing theimportance of the appropriate methodsand processes recommended forthorough understanding. They woulddo well to sit with language teachersand learn modalities of introducingnew words and terminologies toensure such new learning is thoroughlyunderstood and remembered.

Terminologies learned theoreticallyare easily forgotten. This takes us backto the classic formula of moving fromconcrete to illustrative to abstract. Nowonder so many students in highschool chemistry have a problem withterms such as “mole concept”! At facevalue, no student can connect thephrase with any previous knowledgeof language. Its introduction therefore

!?? Activity

1. Using your country’s EducationPolicy, outline the languagepolicy at the various levels ofeducation.

2. What textbooks and othermaterials are available for usein each language?

3. Discuss the impact and qualityof the teaching/learning processin each identified language atthe various levels.


needs to be thorough andcomprehensive, relating it to itsscientific rather than ordinarymeaning. In order to demystify science,it is important to start by demystifyingscientific language.

The other area that needs attentionis the correct use of language by allteachers, beginning with writers oftextbooks. Unless other teachers uselanguage correctly, insist on correct useof words, proper sentence structure,punctuation, pronunciation, etc., theycan undo what language teachers wishto achieve. All subject areas need toreinforce each other. As a textbookwriter, you need to ensure correct useof language in all its forms andespecially in the teachers’ guide. It isworth noting that any textbook shouldbe reviewed by a professional editor aswell as education professionals toensure that the book actually says whatthe writer intends to say and says itproperly.

Another point for the writer tokeep in mind is the mechanics ofpresenting the material in theclassroom, or displaying knowledge onexaminations. Handwriting is anessential component of expression.Poor handwriting can lead toillegibility, thus discouraging learnersand even causing low marks where acandidate may have the right answer.In the exercises you propose in yourtextbook, keep reminding teachers andlearners alike of these essential

standards, besides the factualinformation per subject.

8.2.3 Language LevelAll textbook writers need to be awareof the language competence of theiraudience. Textbooks that are written infamiliar language facilitate self-learning. This means that students whoare self-motivated will not need theteacher all the time.

The order and pace used bylanguage teachers to introduce newlanguage learning items should beadopted for other subjects so thatteachers avoid bombarding learnerswith new linguistic items as this canhinder learning.

8.3 LanguageStandardization

Although it is the final business of thepublisher to ensure that textbooks usestandard language and approved style,the writer also needs to be aware ofthese considerations. Standardlanguage avoids the use of slang,dialect and unnecessary mix oflanguages. Where it is imperative thatother languages feature, translationshould be made immediately available.For example, it is appropriate that adifficult scientific name of a tree, fruitor flower should be accompanied by itscommon name in a well known locallanguage. Such equivalents willfacilitate faster learning throughconnection with the real item (or itspicture).

8.4 Conclusion

This chapter has tried to highlightlanguage as the critical medium oflearning and of textbooks. The issue oflanguage policy in education is apolitical decision that is articulated in

Any textbook should bereviewed by a professionaleditor as well as educationprofessionals to ensure thatthe book actually says whatthe writer intends to say andsays it properly.


the Education Act. In situations withmultiple language use, where names ofobjects and concepts may need to betaught in two or more languages,translation into other commonlanguage becomes an issue.

It is important that languagetextbook writers familiarize themselveswith the content and special namesused in the various subjects of thecurriculum. Only this way canlanguage lessons reinforce conceptslearnt in other subjects. From the other

direction, it is also important for alltextbook writers to ensure that theyuse generally accepted standard andcorrect language. Textbook writers andteachers of other subjects need to beproficient in all aspects of the languageof instruction, especially grammar.Learners need consistency in the use ofany language. Correct use of languageby all teachers regardless of subjectthereby becomes complementary tolanguage learning.


It is time now to discuss some ofthe “nitty-gritty” issues involved inproducing the textbook. These

range from the writing style toelements of editorial format, from theway questions are posed to the layoutof pages. Not all of these may be underthe control of the writer, but theyshould be considered in thepreparation of the text. And before youbegin, look again at the syllabusfollowed in your country.

9.1 The Syllabus

The textbook writer’s focus in writingboth a pupil’s textbook and a teachers’guide is to fulfil the requirements ofthe syllabus. The writer should beguided by the specific objectives statedin the syllabus at each level and morespecifically in each topic.

The writer will need to come upwith effective teaching/learningactivities that aim at achieving thestated objectives, based on specifictopics in a subject. The writer alsoneeds to ensure that the national goalsare being addressed through theactivities.

9.2 The Flow of Text

Information in the text should flow likeoil in an engine for maximumreadability. The flow will be facilitatedif the textbook writer keeps some basicprinciples in mind.

9.2.1 The Importance of anOutline

It seems so elementary, but before youstart to write prepare an outline of thematerial in the way you want topresent it. The outline should bedetailed enough to indicate not onlytopics and subtopics in the subjectmatter, but also the points where thereshould be exercises or examples toreinforce the material.

9Technicalities ofTextbook Writing

!? ? Discussion Point

Using your country’s syllabus:

1. Find out how the goals andobjectives are stated.

2. Write a lesson on the topic“Environment Conservation”.Include teaching/learningactivities that aim at achievingnational goals and objectives ofeducation as stated in thesyllabus.

Information in the text shouldflow like oil in an engine formaximum readability.


9.2.2 Presentation of the MaterialAt the beginning of the book the textshould tell learners in broad termswhat is expected of them by the timethey have finished the book, forexample how the book fits into theexamination process. This is usuallywell stated in the syllabus and can alsobe in the teachers’ guide.

Similarly, the start of each chaptershould give the learner an overview ofthe chapter’s:w Contentsw Sequence (how the subtopics follow

each other).w Interrelationships (how all topics are

connected to each other)

This enables learners to knowwhere they are going and assists themin the reading task. Having done this,the writer should make sure that allthe points that are said to be coveredare actually included. Readers getconfused if they are told to expectsomething that does not materialize.Similar explanations may be needed atthe beginning of major sections withinchapters.

9.2.3 Paragraph OrganizationParagraphs should be organized insuch a way that the information givenis systematic and logical. This makesthe readers’ task easier and moreenjoyable. Each paragraph shouldcontain a “topic sentence” presentedearly in the paragraph.

9.2.4 ConsistencyLong-standing conventions guide theuse of language in its printed forms –formatting, typography, headingstyles, punctuation, spelling, etc. Whenthese conventions are not followedconsistently, the readability of the textis affected. Use the same format fordifferent types of information in thetextbook – examples, definitions, test

questions, etc. Use the same term forthe same use – here we are talkingabout textbook writers, not authors, forexample. Call characters by the samename – a discussion of the latepresident of Malawi might refer to himas either Hastings Banda or KamuzuBanda, but should not go back andforth. Spell words the same way everytime they are used – the name of thetown in Kenya can be eitherLokichogio or Lokichoggio, but thetextbook should use the same spellingevery time.

Consistency also applies to the useof series – sets of ideas or conceptsstrung together in a single sentence orplaced in a list. All the items in the setshould be the same grammaticalconstruction. This is known as parallelconstruction and is one of the marks ofa careful writer.

!? ? Examples

Parallel Construction

Wrong: “The committee’smandate was the compilation ofcases, to analyse the data andevaluating the responses.”

Right: “Proposed activities for thecommittee include planning thecurriculum, implementing thechanges and evaluating theresults.”

Don’t add an item to a series thatis not related to the other itemswithout first ending the series:

Wrong: “For the field trip thestudents visited the museum,Parliament, the city park and foundmuch to learn.”

Right: “For the field trip thestudents visited the museum,Parliament and the city park, andfound much to learn.”


9.2.5 CapitalizationUse of an initial capital (uppercase)letter sends a signal that the capitalizedword is the name of something. Whenwhole words are capitalized, the signalis that the term is important in someway. Used indiscriminately,capitalization:w Reduces the importance of words

that should be given an initialcapital or set in all capitals.

w Spoils the appearance of a printedpage.

w Confuses readers.

Initial capital letters should beconfined mainly to proper nouns.Words in all capitals should be limitedto titles and chapter headings.

9.3 Making the Most ofHeadings

Chapter headings and subheadings aresignposts on the reader’s journey. Letthe heading style guide the readerfrom the main topic through subtopics.Try not to have more than threeheading levels, as readers may get lost.The type style used for the headingswill probably be chosen by thepublisher, but the writer needs toindicate clearly what the differentlevels are. Headings must be clear,concise and specific. They should helpthe reader predict what is coming next.

The contents of the heading shouldbe reinforced as soon as possible to

clarify the subject matter introduced inthe heading. The textbook writer mustkeep referring to the subject of theheading, to remind the reader of whatthe topic is about. If this is not done,the reader will feel uncertain andinsecure about the subject matter.

9.4 Illustrations

Illustrations, pictures and other imagesare an integral and indispensable partof all textbooks. Examples of illustra-tions include diagrams, maps, tables,photographs and graphs – amongothers. They must be appropriate andfunctional. Do not include anillustration just for the sake of it.

Examples of the use ofillustrations:w Pictures are crucial in children’s

reader/story books.w In a science lesson where a cow is

giving birth, this can be presentedbest through a photograph, not adiagram or a table.

w In a geography lesson, thetemperature of a place representinga certain climatic region is bestrepresented through a bar graph.

w In a science textbook, informationabout useful and harmful animals isbest represented through a table asshown in the box below.

!? ? Activity

Consider the following headings,select the one you prefer andexplain why you prefer it.

Urbanization and Agriculture

How Urbanization InfluencesAgriculture

* The second heading is morespecific and clear than the first one.

Illustrations:w Help the reader to visualize

concepts learnt to strengthenlearning.w Add value to the information

and make the readerunderstand it better.w Add colour to the information.


Tables and figures that illustratespecific points in the text should benumbered consecutively through thebook or chapter and clearly labelled.The text should refer to them bynumber, and they should be positionedto follow the point of reference asclosely as is practical given the layoutof the page. That is, if the text refers toTable 1, the table should be reasonablyat hand so the reader does not have tosearch through several pages to find it.

9.5 Examples andExercises

Examples given should enhance theconcepts being taught. Adequateexamples should be given to explain:w Foreign wordsw Technical termsw New vocabularyw New concepts

In order to enhance the under-standing of the work being tackledboth examples and exercises should:w Be adequate to enable the learner to

understand the concept beingtaught.

w Be geared to the level of the learner(not too easy or too hard).

w Have variety (structured questions,essay, multiple choice questions,matching, etc.)

w Be relevant to the syllabus and thetopic being studied.

w Be challenging to the learner.w Stimulate the learner’s intellect.w Encourage practical experimenta-

tion, discovery and curiosity so thatthe learner naturally wants to readmore on the topic taught.

w Provide sustained motivation andenable learners to continueexperimenting and finding outmore.

w Involve a lot of action to monitorwhat is being learnt.

w Encourage learners to work withoutnecessarily being supervised.

w Have very clear instructions toavoid being misunderstood.

!??

!? ? Activity

What examples and exercises canyou give to explain the topic,“Political Systems beforeColonization in Africa”?

!?? Sample Table

Name of animal Where found Is it useful? Is it harmful?

Fly In the air/on the wall/around garbage No Yes

Flea On a person or animal/in cracks in the floor No Yes

Mosquito In the air/on the wall No YesBee In the air/on the

window/flowers Yes YesGecko On the wall/behind

the cupboard Yes No

Activity

Select a topic of your choice andconsider the best type of illustrationto use to add value to your content.


9.6 Glosses

There is need for the writer to explainnew terms within the text. A textbookthat is full of strange new words thatare not defined anywhere will bedifficult for the learner to understand.The new term should be explained thefirst time it is used.

A glossary of new words orphrases, in alphabetical order, shouldbe compiled and placed at the end ofthe text. Glossaries are useful inrevision, as they provide meanings ofunfamiliar words/phrases. Sometimesthey also indicate the pages where thewords appear. It is helpful to thereader if the new word or term is set ina different type (e.g., bold italic) the

first time it is used to signal that itsdefinition can be found in the glossary.

Glossaries should be as simple aspossible. They should be written insuch a way that readers have thegreatest opportunity of understanding.Some considerations in writingglossaries are:w Ensure that the grammar is simple.w Use familiar words for the level

intended.w Add examples that clarify the

meaning.w Think of unusual, memorable ways

of making the meaning clear.

9.7 Research andInformation Sources

The textbook writer will normallyspend considerable time doingresearch on the subject or topic of focusto ensure that the facts presented arecorrect and that the subject matter iswell tackled. There is need toacknowledge the authors of sources ofinformation. This can be done with a

!? ? Example

In a religion lesson, the followingterm can be explained:

The living dead are people wholived during a person’s lifetime buthave also passed away. If yourgrandfather passed away when youare alive, he is a living deadaccording to traditional Africanbeliefs.

!? ? Example of a Glossary

Aloe A plant that produces asweet-smelling liquid that is usedas medicine and as a perfume

Amen A Hebrew word thatmeans “It is so” or “May it be so”. Itcan also be translated “certainly”,“truly”, or “sure”. In Revelation 3:14 it is used as a name for Christ.

Barley A cultivated grain similarto wheat, grown as a food crop.

Breastplate Part of a soldier’sarmour made of leather or metal; itcovers the chest and sometimesthe back, to protect against arrowsand the blows of a sword.

Circumcise To cut off theforeskin of the penis. In biblicaltimes it was used as a sign ofGod’s covenant with His chosenpeople. Israelite boys werecircumcised eight days after theywere born. Muslims alsocircumcise their boys on the eighthday.

Demon An evil spirit with thepower to harm people; it wasregarded as a messenger andservant of the Devil.


reference list or a bibliography. Whilesimilar, these are not the same.

A reference list contains only thoseinformation sources that are referred toin the text, while a bibliographyusually contains those sources plusothers that are expected to be ofinterest. Reference lists are usuallyused with very technical or scholarlymaterial that requires a citation andreference to support the points made inthe text. A bibliography is moregeneral and provides informationsources that may not be referred todirectly but have helped inform thetext. Sometimes a text may have both areference list and a list of othersuggested information.

Either type of list should containenough information to enable aninterested person to identify and locateany of the items on the list. Longaccepted conventions require that thelists include:w The name(s) of the author(s) of each

work, arranged with surname firstfor the first author

w Year of publicationw Title of the workw Publisherw Place of publicationw Other appropriate information, such

as the name of a conference where apaper was presented

The lists are alphabetizedaccording to the surname(s) of theauthor(s). If there is more than onework by the same author, they areusually arranged with earliest first.Publishers usually have their own

preferred style for the format of theindividual items in the list (forexample the order of the information,and whether titles are italicized orenclosed in quotation marks), but it isthe responsibility of the writer toensure that all the elements areincluded and the information isaccurate. And it is very helpful to thepublisher if the initial list is presentedin a consistent format.

An example of a bibliography is foundat the end of this manual.

Besides the bibliography, tips canbe given on obtaining furtherinformation on different topics. Thiscan be in terms of:w Supplementary material such as

other textbooks and pupils’workbooks.

w Improvising materials.w Types of resource persons who can

be contacted to reinforce a topic.w Audio or video cassettes, reference

books, newspapers and journals, testpapers, etc., that may be available inthe market and can enhancelearning.

9.8 Length of the Book

It helps when you economize on theinformation. Unnecessary details willoverload the readers’ brain withincoming information. This willdiscourage them from reading further.The following points should be noted:

!?? Activity

1.Select words for glossing on thetopic “Transport” for third gradepupils.

2.Compile your own glossary.

!? ? Activity

1. Choose a topic and identify thepossible sources of informationyou need to write on it.

2. Select two textbooks and discussthe way the different writers dealwith the issues raised in thischapter.


w If students are given too manydetailed points, major points ofinformation will get lost.

w The syllabus should be a guidetowards economizing the informa-tion. Details from the syllabusshould not be included in the text.

w Only the topics and contentidentified for the learner in thesyllabus should be included.

w The information should aim atachieving the objectives stated foreach topic in the syllabus.

w The length of the book also dependson the age for which the book isintended. A book for 4–5-year-oldsshould generally be shorter than onefor 11–12-year-olds. This is becausethe amount of content is determinedby age and the attention span of thelearner, which the writer mustdetermine.

9.9 What the Book WillLook Like

While the final responsibility for thebook’s appearance rests with thepublisher, the writer’s own ideas areusually important for ensuring that theappearance complements the technicalcontent.

9.9.1 Page LayoutThis refers to the appearance of theinformation on a page. It should bedone in such a way that it enhancesreadability and ease of reference. Thisinvolves rational use of print sizes orboldness in highlighting topics andsubtopics.

Writers are advised to take careusing bullets. As with capital letters,when everything is put in bulleted liststhey lose their impact and may becomeboring or even confusing. A good mixof narrative and lists is the betterapproach.

9.9.2 Cover DesignThe design of the cover is veryimportant. It serves as a poster for thebook. The cover should create theimpression of “pick me up and readme”. This will cause the reader to wantto read the content of the book. Anunattractive book is repulsive,especially to young readers.

9.10 Conclusion

This chapter has looked at some of thepoints to consider when the textbookwriter actually sits down to producethe book. First, of course, is theassumption that the content is up todate and factual, and that it conformswith the national syllabus. The flow oflanguage, organization of material, andprovision for illustrations, activitiesand assessments are all the job of thewriter. Heading formats, page layoutsand other elements discussed are likelyto be the province of the publisher. Thewriter should keep them in mind,however, because a well organized andpresented text is more likely to attractthe interest of a publisher.

!? ? Activity

Consider the two different layoutsbelow:

Communication is the passing ofmessages from one person to another.Long ago people passed messages bybeating drums, blowing horns, sendingsmoke signals or dispatching fastrunners.

###

Traditional means of communication

Long ago people passed messagesfrom one person to another by:w Beating drumsw Blowing hornsw Sending smoke signalsw Dispatching fast runners


Conclusion

This textbook writing manualwas conceived with theintention of addressing concerns

about the quality of textbooks in Africaand other regions with a similar need.The authors have tried to provideguidance on critical issues to beconsidered by the textbook writer. Theguidelines are those every writer canuse to evaluate the material that ispresented, and the way it is presented,to ensure that the needs of teachersand learners in specific contexts andenvironments are taken care of. Wemust therefore reiterate that themanual is not a prescription. As atextbook writer you must bring yourown knowledge, experience andcreativity to bear on the ideaspresented in the different sections andchapters. You must, as well, situateyour textbook firmly within thenational curriculum and syllabus.

Supplementary Materials

The importance of the author’s knowl-edge on effective teaching methodscannot be over emphasized. The follow-ing book is very useful in this area:

Dawn Quist, Primary TeachingMethods, Macmillan, Malaysia, 2000.

In addition, every textbook writermust have a copy of the syllabus in thesubject of choice. This provides direc-

tion on what the learners are expectedto learn. It is like the compass thatguides a pilot through space.

Textbook Policy

For most African countries, the officialpolicy on textbook preparation andselection is the responsibility of thegovernment. A statement on this isusually contained in the Education Act.Some countries have an officiallyaccredited body for such preparationand selection. Some may have a fullyfledged institute, while others have acurriculum research and developmentunit/department within the Ministryof Education. The rationale for havinga specific body is driven by the need toprovide for uniformity and equity inthe provision of education and tomaintain set standards and quality.

In Kenya, for example, the KenyaInstitute of Education (KIE) isresponsible for prescribing the set oftextbooks to be used at primary andsecondary levels. It does this through avariety of panels covering each subjectof the official curriculum. KIE invitespublishers to submit relevant textbooks

This manual is not a prescription,but a guide to help textbookwriters apply their own knowl-edge, experience and creativity.


in each subject. The KIE subject panelsthen recommend up to six textbooksthe schools can select from. The panelsuse well known criteria, available totextbook writers and publishers, thatinclude quality issues, correctness offacts, gender responsiveness, culturalawareness and cost.

Some countries leave the issue oftextbook selection either to the localeducation authority or to the schoolitself. In Malaysia schools are free toselect the textbooks from the varioussources in the market. Thailand, on theother hand, has its giant teachers’cooperative publishing house under-take the commissioning and publishingof most textbooks. The Ugandansystem is more centralized because thegovernment provides textbooks toschools. The government selects booksfrom a set of three per subjectapproved by an evaluation panel. As inKenya, private publishers compete insubmitting their books for selection.

Whatever process is chosen, itshould guarantee quality, the incorpo-ration of up-to-date knowledge, andthe affordability and availability oftextbooks on a continuous basis.

Essential syllabus changes shouldbe introduced with sensitivity to thetime factor. Enough time needs to beallowed for the preparation of newtextbooks, their pre-testing andadequate orientation of teachers. Suchchanges, especially for poor countries,should also be sensitive to cost implica-tions. Parents should not be burdenedwith the purchase of new textbooksdue to frequent syllabus changes.

Teachers need to be activelyinvolved in any syllabus changes andenabled to own the change process.They should always be trained andencouraged to use relevant oldtextbooks as sources for additionalexercises and examples. Suchinformation would be contained in theteachers’ guide accompanying eachtextbook or set of textbooks.

Assessing a Textbook

Around the world, especially incountries with relatively centralizededucation systems, the textbookmarket is perhaps the most profitablefor any publisher. Hence there is stiffcompetition to publish books andmaterials that would win the approvalof selection panels. On the other hand,it is important that the panels be seento be fair to all publishers. Theinvolvement of all stakeholders in theestablishment of a selection criteria istherefore very important. The panels,however, need to be independent ofany undue influences.

Both textbook writers and thosecharged with identifying set books fora given curriculum should judge thetextbook carefully to ensure it isappropriate for the subject matter andlevel of learner. The following aresome questions that should guide theassessment of a textbook:w Does it integrate the knowledge

from other subject areas?w What values and attitudes are devel-

oped in each subject curriculum?w What values and attitudes do the

words and pictures carry?w Is there gender bias in the textbook?w What are the specific curriculum

aims for each subject area?w Are the specific skills being

introduced divided hierarchicallyfrom simple to more complex?

w Is the amount of time to teach andpractise the skills worked out?

w Is the textbook planned in such away that there are sufficientopportunities to practise these skillsspaced over time so that importantskills are fully internalized?

w Are the concepts and knowledgeareas to be covered identified?

w Is the writing clear and easy tofollow?

w Does the layout aid readability?w Are the illustrations, tables and

other graphics appropriate?


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Elimu Yetu Coalition. 2003. Gender andEducation: The Challenge of EducatingGirls in Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya:ActionAid Kenya.

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Education Physiology, Learning andTeachings. Open University SetBook. London: Methuen.

Gardner, H. 1993. Frame of Mind: TheTheory of Multiple Intelligences. NewYork: Harper Collins Basic Books.

Gitachu, R. and M. Marumbas. 1999.“Celebrating girls’and women’sachievement in education”. Reportof the proceedings of the FAWE/Ministry of Education seminarconvened during InternationalWomen’s Week to recognizewomen’s achievements. KenyaInstitute of Education, Nairobi,Kenya, 8–9 March.

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