Understanding Human Communication - bsz-bw.deswbplus.bsz-bw.de/bsz306421917inh.pdf · CHAPTER 8 The...
Transcript of Understanding Human Communication - bsz-bw.deswbplus.bsz-bw.de/bsz306421917inh.pdf · CHAPTER 8 The...
e TENTH EDITION
UnderstandingHuman Communication
Ronald B. AdlerSanta Barbara City College
George RodmanBrooklyn College, City University of New York
New York Oxford
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS2009
e BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xiiiAbout the Authors xxi
PART ONE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATIONCHAPTER 1 Human Communication: What and Why 1CHAPTER 2 The Self, Perception, and Communication 31CHAPTER 3 Language 67CHAPTER 4 Listening 101CHAPTER 5 Nonverbal Communication 133
PART TWO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONCHAPTER 6 Understanding Interpersonal Relationships 163CHAPTER 7 Improving Interpersonal Relationships 201
PART THREE COMMUNICATION IN GROUPSCHAPTER 8 The Nature of Groups 229CHAPTER 9 Solving Problems in Groups 259
PART FOUR PUBLIC COMMUNICATIONCHAPTER 10 Choosing and Developing a Topic 287CHAPTER 11 Organization and Support 309CHAPTER 12 Presenting Your Message 335CHAPTER 13 Informative Speaking 357CHAPTER 14 Persuasive Speaking 377
APPENDIXInterviewing A-1
Notes N-1Glossary G-1Credits C-1Index 1-1
Preface XIII
About the Authors xxi
e CONTENTS
PART ONE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 1 Human Communication: What and Why
COMMUNICATION DEFINED 2Communication Is a Process 2Communication Is Symbolic 3
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION 4Intrapersonal Communication 4Dyadidlnterpersonal Communication 5Small Group Communication 5Public Communication 5MassCommunicaton 6
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION 6PhysicalNeeds 6Identity Needs 7Social Needs 8PracticalNeeds 8
MODELING COMMUNICATION 9A Linear Model 9A TransactionalModel 10
COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE:WHAT MAKES AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR? 13
Communication Competence Defined 13
Characteristicsof Competent Communicators 15Intercultural Communication Competence 17Competence in Mediated Communication 20
CLARIFYING MISCONCEPTIONSABOUT COMMUNICATION 23
Communication Does Not Always Require CompleteUnderstanding 23
Communication Will Not SolveAll Problems 24Communication Isn't Always a Good Thing 24Meanings Restin People, Not Words 25Communication Is Not Simple 25More Communication Isn't Always Better 26
SUMMARY 27
KEY TERMS 27
ACTIVITIES 27
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 29
CHAPTER 2 The Self, Perception, and Communication 31
COMMUNICATION AND THE SELF 32Self-Concept Defined 32Communication and Development of the Self 33Culture and the Self-Concept 35The Self-Concept and Communication with Others 37The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 38
PERCEIVING OTHERS 41Steps in the Perception Process 41Narratives and Perception 43Common PerceptualTendencies 44Perception and Culture 48Empathy and Perception 50
COMMUNICATION AND IDENTITY MANAGEMENT 54Public and Private Selves 54Characteristics of Identity Management 55Why Manage Identities? 59How Do We Manage Identities? 59Indentity Management and Honesty 61
CHAPTER 3 Language 67
CONTENTS vii
SUMMARY 63KEY TERMS 63
ACTIVITIES 63FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 65
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 68Language Is Symbolic 68Meanings Are in People, Not Words 69Language Is Rule Governed 70
THE POWER OF LANGUAGE 72Language Shapes Attitudes 72Language Reflects Attitudes 76
TROUBLESOME LANGUAGE 79The Language of Misunderstandings 79Disruptive Language 84Evasive Language 86
GENDER AND LANGUAGE 88Content 88
CHAPTER 4 Listening 101
Reasons for Communicating 89Conversational Style 90Nongender Variables 91
CULTURE AND LANGUAGE 92Verbal Communication Styles 92Language and Worldview 96
SUMMARY 98
KEY TERMS 98
ACTIVITIES 99
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 99
MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT LISTENING 102Listening and Hearing Are Not the Same Thing 103Listening Is Not a Natural Process 104All Listeners Do Not Receive the Same Message 104
OVERCOMING CHALLENGES TO EFFECTIVELISTENING 104
Mindful Listening Requires Effort 105Faulty Listening Behaviors 105Reasons for Poor Listening 107
PERSONAL LISTENING STYLES 111Content-Oriented 111People-Oriented 111Action-Oriented 111Time-Oriented 112
INFORMATIONAL LISTENING 112Don't Argue or Judge Prematurely 113Separate the Message from the Speaker 113Be Opportunistic 114
Look for Key Ideas 114Ask Questions 115Paraphrase 115Take Notes 117
CRITICAL LISTENING 118Listen for Information Before Evaluating 119Evaluate the Speaker's Credibility 119Examine the Speaker's Evidence and Reasoning 119Examine Emotional Appeals 120
LISTENING AS SOCIAL SUPPORT 120Types of Supportive Responses 121When and How to Help? 128
SUMMARY 129
KEY TERMS 130
ACTIVITIES 130
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 131
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5 Nonverbal Communication 133
CHARACTERISTICS OF NONVERBALCOMMUNICATION 134
Nonverbal Behavior Has Communicative Value 135Nonverbal Communication Is Primarily Relational 135Nonverbal Communication IsAmbiguous 137Nonverbal Communication Is Different from Verbal
Communication 138Nonverbal SkillsAre Important 139
INFLUENCES ON NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 139Culture 139Gender 141
FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 142Repeating 142Substituting 143Complementing 143Accenting 144
PART TWO
Regulating 144Contradicting 144Deceiving 144
TYPES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 146Body Movement 146Voice 148Appearance 150Touch 151Space 152Environment 154Time 155
SUMMARY 156
KEY TERMS 157ACTIVITIES 157
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 159
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 6 Understanding Interpersonal Relationships 163
WHY WE FORM RELATIONSHIPS 164Appearance 164Similarity 164Complementarity 165ReciprocalAttraction 165Competence 165Disclosure 166Proximity 166Rewards 166
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERPERSONALCOMMUNICATION 167
What Makes Communication Interpersonal? 167Interpersonal Communication and the Internet 168Content and Relational Messages 169Metacommunication 171
COMMUNICATION OVER THE RELATIONALLIFESPAN 172A Developmental Perspective 172A Dialectical Perspective 176
INTIMACY IN INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 180Dimensions of Intimacy 180Male and Female Intimacy Styles 181Cultural Influenceson Intimacy 182
SELF·DISCLOSURE IN INTERPERSONALRELATIONSHIPS 183
Models of Self-Disclosure 184Characteristicsof Effective Self-Disclosure 187Guidelines for Appropriate Self-Disclosure 189Alternatives to Self-Disclosure 191
SUMMARY 196
KEY TERMS 197
ACTIVITIES 197FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 199
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 7 Improving Interpersonal Relationships 201
COMMUNICATION CLIMATES IN INTERPERSONALRELATIONSHIPS 202
Confirming and Disconfirming Messages 202How Communication Climates Develop 205Creating Positive Communication Climates 206
MANAGING INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT 209The Nature of Conflict 209Styles of Expressing Conflict 210Characteristics of an Assertive Message 213
Gender and Conflict Style 215Cultural Influences on Conflict 216Methods of Conflict Resolution 217Steps in Win-Win Problem Solving 220
SUMMARY 223KEY TERMS 223
ACTIVITIES 224
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 225
PART THREE COMMUNICATION IN GROUPS
CHAPTER 8 The Nature of Groups 229
WHAT IS A GROUP? 230Interaction 230Interdependence 231Time 231Size 232Goals 232
GOALS OF GROUPS AND THEIR MEMBERS 233Individual Goals 233Group Goals 234
CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS 235Rules and Norms 235Roles 237Patterns of Interaction 242Decision-Making Methods 243
CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON GROUPCOMMUNICATION 245
Individualism Versus Collectivism 246Power Distance 247Uncertainty Avoidance 248Task Versus Social Orientation 248Short- Versus Long-Term Orientation 248
LEADERSHIP AND POWER IN GROUPS 249Power in Groups 249What Makes Leaders Effective? 251
SUMMARY 256KEY TERMS 256
ACTIVITIES 256
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 257
CHAPTER 9 Solving Problems in Groups 259
PROBLEM SOLVING IN GROUPS: WHEN AND WHY 260Advantages of Group Problem Solving 260When to Use Groups for Problem Solving 262
GROUP PROBLEM·SOLVING STRATEGIES ANDFORMATS 263
Problem-Solving Formats 264Computer-Mediated Groups 265
APPROACHES AND STAGES IN PROBLEM SOLVING 266A Structured Problem-Solving Approach 266Developmental Stages in Problem-Solving Groups 272
MAINTAINING POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS 273Basic Skills 274Building Cohesiveness 274
x CONTENTS
OVERCOMING DANGERS IN GROUP DISCUSSION 277Information Underload and Overload 277Unequal Participation 278Pressureto Conform 279
SUMMARY 281
KEY TERMS 282
ACTIVITIES 282FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 283
PART FOUR PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
CHOOSING YOUR TOPIC 288Look for a Topic Early 289
DEFINING PURPOSE 289General Purpose 289Specific Purpose 289The ThesisStatement 291
ANALYZING THE SPEAKING SITUATION 292The Listener:Audience Analysis 292The Occasion 296
GATHERING INFORMATION 298Internet Research 298
Library Research 298Interviewing 300PersonalObservation 300SurveyResearch 301
SAMPLE SPEECH 301SUMMARY 305
KEY TERMS 306ACTIVITIES 306
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 307
CHAPTER 10 Choosing and Developing a Topic 287
CHAPTER 11 Organization and Support 309
STRUCTURING YOUR SPEECH 310Your Working Outline 310Your Formal Outline 310Your Speaking Notes 311
PRINCIPLES OF OUTLINING 311Standard Symbols 312Standard Format 312The Ruleof Division 312The Ruleof ParallelWording 314
ORGANIZING YOUR OUTLINE INTO A LOGICALPATIERN 314
Time Patterns 314Space Patterns 315Topic Patterns 315Problem-Solution Patterns 316Cause-EffectPatterns 316
USING TRANSITIONS 317
BEGINNING AND ENDING THE SPEECH 318The Introduction 318The Conclusion 321
SUPPORTING MATERIAL 323Functions of Supporting Material 323Types of Supporting Material 324Stylesof Support: Narration and Citation 327
SAMPLE SPEECH 328SUMMARY 332
KEY TERMS 332ACTIVITIES 332
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 333
CHAPTER 12 Presenting Your Message 335
CONTENTS xi
DEALING WITH STAGE FRIGHT 336Facilitative and Debilitative Stage Fright 336Sources of Debilitative Stage Fright 336Overcoming Debilitative Stage Fright 338
TYPES OF DELIVERY 339Extemporaneous 339Impromptu 340Manuscript 341Memorized 342
PRACTICING THE SPEECH 342
GUIDELINES FOR DELIVERY 343Visual Aspects of Delivery 343Auditory Aspects of Delivery 345
CHAPTER 13 Informative Speaking 357
USING VISUAL AIDS 348Types of Visual Aids 348Media for the Presentation of Visual Aids 350Rules for Using Visual Aids 352
OFFERING CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM 353
SUMMARY 354
KEY TERMS 354
ACTIVITIES 354
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 355
TYPES OF INFORMATIVE SPEAKING 358By Content 358By Purpose 359
INFORMATIVE VERSUS PERSUASIVE TOPICS 359An Informative Topic Tends to Be Noncontroversial 360The Informative Speaker Does Not Intend to Change
Audience Attitudes 360
TECHNIQUES OF INFORMATIVE SPEAKING 360Define a Specific Informative Purpose 361Create Information Hunger 362Make It Easy to Listen 363
CHAPTER 14 Persuasive Speaking 377
Emphasize Important Points 363Use a Clear Organization and Structure 364Use Supporting Material Effectively 365Use Clear, Simple Language 366Generate Audience Involvement 366
SAMPLE SPEECH 369
SUMMARY 374
KEY TERMS 374
ACTIVITIES 374
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 375
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSUASION 378Persuasion Is Not Coercive 378Persuasion Is Usually Incremental 378Persuasion Is Interactive 379Persuasion Can Be Ethical 380
CATEGORIZING TYPES OF PERSUASION 381By Types of Proposition 381By Desired Outcome 383By Directness of Approach 384
CREATING THE PERSUASIVE MESSAGE 385Set a Clear, Persuasive Purpose 385Structure the Message Carefully 387Use Solid Evidence 389Avoid Fallacies 391
ADAPTING TO THE AUDIENCE 392Establish Common Ground 393Organize According to the Expected Response 393Neutralize Potential Hostility 393
xii CONTENTS
BUILDING CREDIBILITY AS A SPEAKER 395Competence 395Character 395Charisma 396
SAMPLE SPEECH 396
SUMMARY 401
KEY TERMS 401ACTIVITIES 401
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION 403
APPENDIX INTERVIEWING A-1
THE NATURE OF INTERVIEWING A-2Interviewing Defined A-2How Interviewing Differs from Conversation A-3
PLANNING THE INTERVIEW A-3The Interviewer's Role A-3The Interviewee'sRole A-9
CONDUCTING THE INTERVIEW A-10Stagesof an Interview A-10The Interviewer'sResponsibilities A-11The Interviewee'sResponsibilities A-12
THE SELECTION INTERVIEW A-13Employment Strategies A-13Tips for the Interviewee A-14Interviewing and the Law A-20
THE INFORMATION·GATHERING INTERVIEW A-22Preparefor the Interview A-22Choose the Right Interviewee A-22Informational Interviewing Tips A-22
OTHER INTERVIEW TYPES A-23The PersuasiveInterview A-23The Counseling Interview A-25The Survey Interview A-25
SUMMARY A-26
KEY TERMS A-26
Notes N-1
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1Index 1-1