Understanding Global Politics: Feminist Approaches Good girls, bad girls in IR?

Understanding Global Understanding Global Politics: Feminist Politics: Feminist

ApproachesApproaches

Good girls, bad girls in IR? Good girls, bad girls in IR?

Feminist International Relations Feminist International Relations TheoryTheory

FFeminist IR taking off in late 1980seminist IR taking off in late 1980s Influenced by postmodernist theories Influenced by postmodernist theories Note stronger longer links between Note stronger longer links between

feminism and postcolonial studiesfeminism and postcolonial studies Feminist IR scholarship marked in Feminist IR scholarship marked in

Millennium special issues arising from Millennium special issues arising from Feminist IR conferences: 1988, 1998, Feminist IR conferences: 1988, 1998, 2008 2008

Key Feminist IR approachesKey Feminist IR approaches

Liberal feminismLiberal feminism Socialist/marxist/critical feminismSocialist/marxist/critical feminism Constructivist feminismConstructivist feminism Radical feminismRadical feminism Postmodernist/poststructuralist feminism Postmodernist/poststructuralist feminism Postcolonial feminismPostcolonial feminism

Key feminist IR textsKey feminist IR texts

Cynthia Enloe. Cynthia Enloe. Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International PoliticsFeminist Sense of International Politics. 1989.. 1989.

Jean Bethke Elshtain. Jean Bethke Elshtain. Women and WarWomen and War. 1987.. 1987. Ann Tickner. Ann Tickner. Gender in International Relations: Gender in International Relations:

Feminist Perspectives on Achieving Global SecurityFeminist Perspectives on Achieving Global Security. . 1992.1992.

V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan. V. Spike Peterson and Anne Sisson Runyan. Global Global Gender Issues: Dilemma in World PoliticsGender Issues: Dilemma in World Politics. 1993. 1993

Christine Sylvester. Christine Sylvester. Feminist Theory and International Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Postmodern EraRelations in a Postmodern Era. 1994.. 1994.

Sandra Whitworth. Sandra Whitworth. Feminism and International Feminism and International RelationsRelations. 1994. 1994

Jill Steans. Jill Steans. Gender and International Relations: An Gender and International Relations: An IntroductionIntroduction. 1998.. 1998.

Women, War and PeaceWomen, War and Peace

• Women for war or for peaceWomen for war or for peace• Aristophanes’ play Aristophanes’ play LysistrataLysistrata• First feminist IR text?First feminist IR text?

Public man, private womanPublic man, private woman

• ‘‘So it has been since the days of Hecuba, and of So it has been since the days of Hecuba, and of Hector, Tamer of horses: inside the gates, the Hector, Tamer of horses: inside the gates, the women with streaming hair and uplifted hands women with streaming hair and uplifted hands offering prayers, watching the world’s combat from offering prayers, watching the world’s combat from afar, filling their long, empty days with memories afar, filling their long, empty days with memories and fears; outside, the men in fierce struggle with and fears; outside, the men in fierce struggle with things divine and human, quenching memory in the things divine and human, quenching memory in the stronger light of purpose, losing the sense of dread stronger light of purpose, losing the sense of dread and even of wounds in the hurrying ardour of action and even of wounds in the hurrying ardour of action (Eliot, (Eliot, The Mill on the FlossThe Mill on the Floss 1996: 405).’ 1996: 405).’

See Jean Elshtain’s See Jean Elshtain’s Public Man, Private Public Man, Private Woman, 1981 Woman, 1981

Feminist IR scholarshipFeminist IR scholarship

Not just academic approach?Not just academic approach? ““feminism , unlike non-feminist feminism , unlike non-feminist

postmodernism, is not merely a postmodernism, is not merely a contemporary development in the contemporary development in the sociology of knowledge, but is embedded sociology of knowledge, but is embedded in a rich and varied history of women’s in a rich and varied history of women’s struggle and women theorising from the struggle and women theorising from the experience of struggle” (True 1996: 211)experience of struggle” (True 1996: 211)

Concept of genderConcept of gender

““gender refers to the asymmetrical social gender refers to the asymmetrical social constructs of masculinity and femininity as constructs of masculinity and femininity as opposed to ostensibly ‘biological’ male-female opposed to ostensibly ‘biological’ male-female differences ...; the hegemonic western brand of differences ...; the hegemonic western brand of masculinity is associated with autonomy, masculinity is associated with autonomy, sovereignty, the capacity for reason and sovereignty, the capacity for reason and objectivity, universalism and men, whereas the objectivity, universalism and men, whereas the dominant notion of femininity is associated with dominant notion of femininity is associated with the absence or lack of these characteristics” the absence or lack of these characteristics” (True 2001: 236)(True 2001: 236)

Concept of gender as challenge Concept of gender as challenge to traditional IRto traditional IR

Empirical-ontological challenge of mainstream IREmpirical-ontological challenge of mainstream IR Mainstream IR approaches have excluded women’s lives Mainstream IR approaches have excluded women’s lives

and experiences from their field of enquiryand experiences from their field of enquiry Feminist interest in women’s place in IRFeminist interest in women’s place in IR gendered structures of IOs – women marginal in gendered structures of IOs – women marginal in

international security or economic decision-makinginternational security or economic decision-making But women victims of war and IPEBut women victims of war and IPE

• women’s role in development;women’s role in development;• flexible female labour in IPEflexible female labour in IPE• Women in forced prostitution & trafficking Women in forced prostitution & trafficking • through processes of commodificationthrough processes of commodification

Bringing women and their Bringing women and their perspectives into IRperspectives into IR

““Bringing women’s lives into view through Bringing women’s lives into view through gender-sensitive research has policy-gender-sensitive research has policy-relevant and material effects. Indeed, relevant and material effects. Indeed, feminists argue that only when women are feminists argue that only when women are recognised as fundamental players in recognised as fundamental players in economic and political processes will they economic and political processes will they share an equal role in societal decision share an equal role in societal decision making” (True 2001: 247).making” (True 2001: 247).

Gender as constitutiveGender as constitutive

foundation of knowledge is exposed as foundation of knowledge is exposed as stemming from the standpoint of men, not from stemming from the standpoint of men, not from objective, value-free and universal criteriaobjective, value-free and universal criteria• key IR concepts are related back to a male standpoint key IR concepts are related back to a male standpoint

and then redefined with the help of a feminist and then redefined with the help of a feminist standpoint: standpoint:

• ““through a feminist lens, the traditional generic actors through a feminist lens, the traditional generic actors and units of analysis in IR, statesmen and nation-and units of analysis in IR, statesmen and nation-states in the context of an international system, are states in the context of an international system, are revealed as social constructions based on a gender-revealed as social constructions based on a gender-specific, masculine mode of being and knowing” (True specific, masculine mode of being and knowing” (True 2001)2001)

Gendered constructsGendered constructs

man is understood as competitive, man is understood as competitive, rational, individualistic and violent, which rational, individualistic and violent, which leads to the conceptualisation of a war of leads to the conceptualisation of a war of all against all within international anarchyall against all within international anarchy

feminism needs to develop an alternative feminism needs to develop an alternative understanding to include production and understanding to include production and reproduction and the importance of human reproduction and the importance of human relationshipsrelationships

Gendered stateGendered state

• not a coherent actor, but idealised vision of Western not a coherent actor, but idealised vision of Western manhoodmanhood

• relates back to separation between private and public in relates back to separation between private and public in Athenian state formAthenian state form

• private realm as the international realm is characterised private realm as the international realm is characterised by anarchy, which needs to be brought under controlby anarchy, which needs to be brought under control

• assumption that the state is an internal order masks the assumption that the state is an internal order masks the subjection and control of women by mensubjection and control of women by men

• challenge of constructed boundaries between the challenge of constructed boundaries between the domestic and international and the private and public domestic and international and the private and public spheres that distinguish legitimate from illegitimate spheres that distinguish legitimate from illegitimate forceforce

Gender as TransformativeGender as Transformative

• Feminist epistemologyFeminist epistemology• seeks to deconstruction of positivist social science as seeks to deconstruction of positivist social science as

based on male-masculine epistemologies: based on male-masculine epistemologies: • ““the positive pursuit of objectivity…is dependent upon the positive pursuit of objectivity…is dependent upon

particular masculine subjectivities” (True 2001: 257)particular masculine subjectivities” (True 2001: 257)• gender is concerned with the politics of knowledge and gender is concerned with the politics of knowledge and

the related power dimension the related power dimension • the very existence of the category “gender” has the very existence of the category “gender” has

marginalised females through putting women into a marginalised females through putting women into a subordinate groupsubordinate group

• a feminist perspective seeks to contextualise theoretical a feminist perspective seeks to contextualise theoretical claims, theorise relationships, situate political struggles claims, theorise relationships, situate political struggles and homestead subjectivities (True, 2001: 262)and homestead subjectivities (True, 2001: 262)

Robert Keohane’s engagement Robert Keohane’s engagement with feminist IR theorywith feminist IR theory

Separation of feminist approaches into three Separation of feminist approaches into three groups:groups:

feminist standpoint theoriesfeminist standpoint theories: positive contribution : positive contribution in that they highlight our masculine in that they highlight our masculine conceptualisation of key IR concepts and, with the conceptualisation of key IR concepts and, with the help of a feminist redefinition of these concepts, help of a feminist redefinition of these concepts, further our understanding of world politicsfurther our understanding of world politics

feminist empiricismfeminist empiricism: good in that it focuses on : good in that it focuses on women’s role in IR, but theoretically naïve, women’s role in IR, but theoretically naïve, because by taking IR concepts as their starting because by taking IR concepts as their starting point of investigation without questioning them point of investigation without questioning them

Robert Keohane’s engagement Robert Keohane’s engagement with feminist IR theorywith feminist IR theory

Post-modern feminism:Post-modern feminism:• dangerous, dead-end approach, which should not be dangerous, dead-end approach, which should not be

pursued: problem that it rejects a “scientific”, positivist pursued: problem that it rejects a “scientific”, positivist epistemologyepistemology

• ““agreement on epistemological essentials constitutes agreement on epistemological essentials constitutes a valuable scientific asset that should not be a valuable scientific asset that should not be discarded lightly” (Keohane 1989: 249)discarded lightly” (Keohane 1989: 249)

• ““We will only ‘understand’ each other if IR We will only ‘understand’ each other if IR scholars are open to the important questions scholars are open to the important questions that feminist theories raise, and if feminists are that feminist theories raise, and if feminists are willing to formulate their hypotheses in ways willing to formulate their hypotheses in ways that are testable – and falsifiable- with that are testable – and falsifiable- with evidence” (Keohane 1998: 197);evidence” (Keohane 1998: 197);

Cynthia Weber’s ‘Good Girls, Little Cynthia Weber’s ‘Good Girls, Little Girls, Bad Girls’ articleGirls, Bad Girls’ article

Cynthia Weber’s criticism of KeohaneCynthia Weber’s criticism of Keohane General point:General point: Keohane mutilates rich, feminist IR scholarship Keohane mutilates rich, feminist IR scholarship

by cutting the body into several parts and by cutting the body into several parts and erecting new boundaries: erecting new boundaries:

““Keohane’s text, having performed a textual Keohane’s text, having performed a textual mutilation of the feminist body, is in a sense mutilation of the feminist body, is in a sense ‘criminal’. It stands as evidence of its author’s ‘criminal’. It stands as evidence of its author’s attempted murder of the feminist body” (Weber attempted murder of the feminist body” (Weber 1994: 348)1994: 348)


danger of exclusive emphasis on positivist danger of exclusive emphasis on positivist epistemology, disregarding all approaches outside epistemology, disregarding all approaches outside this understanding of social science: “Keohane’s this understanding of social science: “Keohane’s authorial body textually disciplines the feminist body authorial body textually disciplines the feminist body of literature through categorical mutilation made of literature through categorical mutilation made possible by singular scientific/disciplinary vision”possible by singular scientific/disciplinary vision”

power implications: by drawing new power implications: by drawing new boundaries, Keohane as academic eminence boundaries, Keohane as academic eminence decides what type of scholarship is acceptable decides what type of scholarship is acceptable within IRwithin IR

NB Position of women and ethnic minorities in NB Position of women and ethnic minorities in discipline of IR? Only good girls welcomed!discipline of IR? Only good girls welcomed!


Three different strategies of discipling feminist IR:Three different strategies of discipling feminist IR:• fetishisation of feminist standpoint theory: incorporation fetishisation of feminist standpoint theory: incorporation

into main IR body as useful for further the positivist into main IR body as useful for further the positivist scientific projectscientific project

• temporal displacement of empirical feminism: considered temporal displacement of empirical feminism: considered to be less mature, but potentially useful, especially if to be less mature, but potentially useful, especially if combined with more mature feminist standpoint theorycombined with more mature feminist standpoint theory

• spatialisation of post-modern feminism: those parts of spatialisation of post-modern feminism: those parts of feminist IR theory, which cannot be incorporated in the feminist IR theory, which cannot be incorporated in the ordered procedure of “scientific” investigation are ordered procedure of “scientific” investigation are expelled from the acceptable domains of the disciplineexpelled from the acceptable domains of the discipline


Feminist, holistic perspective on multiple Feminist, holistic perspective on multiple strands:strands:• ““looking through feminist lenses …means seeing looking through feminist lenses …means seeing

modern science and/or international relations theory modern science and/or international relations theory from at least three perspectives at once, no one of from at least three perspectives at once, no one of which is privileged over the others. While which is privileged over the others. While acknowledging the tensions and complications this acknowledging the tensions and complications this creates, both feminist authors welcome rather than creates, both feminist authors welcome rather than attempt to constrain the rich, transformative visions attempt to constrain the rich, transformative visions looking through feminist lenses enables. They utilise looking through feminist lenses enables. They utilise feminist lenses to analyse the social world and, as a feminist lenses to analyse the social world and, as a result, transform their own worldviews” (Weber 1994: result, transform their own worldviews” (Weber 1994: 339)339)

Place of feminist IR theories Place of feminist IR theories todaytoday

incorporation of feminist theories into IR in incorporation of feminist theories into IR in 1990s, see e.g. IR textbooks1990s, see e.g. IR textbooks

feminist ontology v epistemologyfeminist ontology v epistemology feminist themes, slower acceptance of feminist themes, slower acceptance of

feminist methods and sources of feminist methods and sources of knowledgeknowledge

Women in International Relations Women in International Relations

Women as peacemakers, sustainable Women as peacemakers, sustainable development actors, human rights development actors, human rights advocatesadvocates

Women in development (WID)Women in development (WID) Gender and development (GAD)Gender and development (GAD) Gender and peacebuildingGender and peacebuilding http://www.international-alert.org/http://www.international-alert.org/

women/women/

Gender and PeacebuildingGender and Peacebuilding

UN Security Council Resolution 2000 UN Security Council Resolution 2000 Security Council Resolution on Women, Security Council Resolution on Women, Peace and Security October. (SCR) 1325 Peace and Security October. (SCR) 1325

International Alert Gender and Peace International Alert Gender and Peace Building (2003) Building (2003) Women Building Peace: Women Building Peace: Sharing Know-HowSharing Know-How • http://www.international-alert.org/pdfs/knowHo

wPaper.pdf• http://www.international-alert.org/women/http://www.international-alert.org/women/

Women and pacifismWomen and pacifism

Long historical association of women Long historical association of women and pacifism and feminist writing and pacifism and feminist writing outside IRoutside IR

Good girls or bad girls for Good girls or bad girls for peace?peace?

• Greenham Common Women’s Peace Camp 1981-2000Greenham Common Women’s Peace Camp 1981-2000• Against Cruise missiles being sited at the RAF Against Cruise missiles being sited at the RAF

Greenham Common Airbase Greenham Common Airbase

Bad girls in IR?Bad girls in IR?

To what extent have feminist IR To what extent have feminist IR studies or global peace and studies or global peace and development policies assumed ‘good development policies assumed ‘good girls’ and marginalised role of ‘bad girls’ and marginalised role of ‘bad girls’ in global politics? girls’ in global politics? • New attention to female combatantsNew attention to female combatants

Making ‘bad girls’ ‘good girls’Making ‘bad girls’ ‘good girls’

• A sewing teacher, (L), trains a group of Liberian A sewing teacher, (L), trains a group of Liberian ex-combatants on Oct. 12, 2005. 2 years since ex-combatants on Oct. 12, 2005. 2 years since the war's end, some 20,000 female fighters, fully the war's end, some 20,000 female fighters, fully 1/5 of all ex-combatants, have been demobilized 1/5 of all ex-combatants, have been demobilized and are being trained to reenter society.and are being trained to reenter society.AP PhotoAP Photo

• http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/19037/securitization_and_desecuritization.html19037/securitization_and_desecuritization.html

Little Women sewing longing for Little Women sewing longing for action of waraction of war

‘‘I’m dying to go and fight with papa, and I can I’m dying to go and fight with papa, and I can only stay at home and knit like a poky old only stay at home and knit like a poky old woman” and Jo shook the blue army-sock till woman” and Jo shook the blue army-sock till the needles rattled like castanets, and her ball the needles rattled like castanets, and her ball bounded across the room.’bounded across the room.’

‘‘They adopted Jo’s plan of dividing the long They adopted Jo’s plan of dividing the long seams into four parts, and calling the quarters seams into four parts, and calling the quarters Europe, Asia, Africa and America, and in that Europe, Asia, Africa and America, and in that way got on capitally, especially when they way got on capitally, especially when they talked about the different countries as they talked about the different countries as they stitched their way through them.’stitched their way through them.’

Jessie Willcox SmithJessie Willcox Smith

Sewing in feminist thoughtSewing in feminist thought

Virtuous girls sewingVirtuous girls sewing Sewing and women’s oppressionSewing and women’s oppression Rebellious girls rebelling against Rebellious girls rebelling against

sewingsewing Post-feminist knitting as hobbyPost-feminist knitting as hobby Policy language of empowerment v Policy language of empowerment v

emancipation emancipation Sewing as emancipatory occupation?Sewing as emancipatory occupation? Turn to gender and developmentTurn to gender and development

Gender and developmentGender and development

Sen’s ‘Missing Women’ article BMJ, March 1992Sen’s ‘Missing Women’ article BMJ, March 1992• Women’s excess mortality as result of gender biasWomen’s excess mortality as result of gender bias• Figures contested but agreement that women & girl Figures contested but agreement that women & girl

child suffer worse from poverty e.g. malnutritionchild suffer worse from poverty e.g. malnutrition Importance of women’s agency and wellbeingImportance of women’s agency and wellbeing Good thing in itselfGood thing in itself Also role in developmentAlso role in development

• Child survivalChild survival• Population control & reducing fertility ratesPopulation control & reducing fertility rates

Kerala, IndiaKerala, India

Female education & literacyFemale education & literacy Female property rightsFemale property rights Higher child survival Higher child survival Lower fertility ratesLower fertility rates

Women’s agency, work & Women’s agency, work & gender equalitygender equality

‘‘working outside the home and earning an working outside the home and earning an independent income tend to have a clear independent income tend to have a clear impact on enhancing the social standing of impact on enhancing the social standing of a woman in the household and society’ a woman in the household and society’ (Sen, 1999, p. 191)(Sen, 1999, p. 191)

Important issue for women’s emancipationImportant issue for women’s emancipation Yet global development strategies since Yet global development strategies since

1970s have advocated family non-wage 1970s have advocated family non-wage labour rather than wage labour outside the labour rather than wage labour outside the homehome

Women & microenterpriseWomen & microenterprise

Grameen Bank or BRAC Bank Grameen Bank or BRAC Bank microcredit approach for womenmicrocredit approach for women

Muhammad Yunus of Grameen Bank, Muhammad Yunus of Grameen Bank, Nobel PrizeNobel Prize

Extremely impressive repayment Extremely impressive repayment rates (almost 98%)rates (almost 98%)

Link to other changes e.g. lower Link to other changes e.g. lower fertility ratefertility rate

Criticisms of microenterprise for Criticisms of microenterprise for womenwomen

Economic empowerment?Economic empowerment?Ameliorates position of women in existing social Ameliorates position of women in existing social

positions & gender roles rather than transforming positions & gender roles rather than transforming lives of poorlives of poor

Size of loans granted linked to social class of recipientSize of loans granted linked to social class of recipientMicrocredit approach more organised – not chaotic & Microcredit approach more organised – not chaotic &

violent collection of monies owed of commercial violent collection of monies owed of commercial But microcredit loan rates similar to commercial rates But microcredit loan rates similar to commercial rates Microcredit loans may be too small for viable business Microcredit loans may be too small for viable business

so may be used towards existing family business, so may be used towards existing family business, although formally loans for women’s own businessalthough formally loans for women’s own business

•unpublished research by Tahera Choudrey, 2002unpublished research by Tahera Choudrey, 2002

Microenterprise socially Microenterprise socially empowering women?empowering women?

• Disciplining poor critique Disciplining poor critique • Microcredit extra-financial conditionality disciplining Microcredit extra-financial conditionality disciplining

womenwomen• Conditionality of loans often include non-financial Conditionality of loans often include non-financial

conditions e.g. related to fertilityconditions e.g. related to fertility• Discipline of group microcredit may reinforce Discipline of group microcredit may reinforce

communal discipline & conservativism against communal discipline & conservativism against individualindividual

• Empowerment v emancipation Empowerment v emancipation • Making women responsible for family welfare in Making women responsible for family welfare in

retreat of state employment, welfare & subsidiesretreat of state employment, welfare & subsidies Rita Rita Abrahamsen (2000) Abrahamsen (2000) Disciplining Democracy: Development Discourse and Good Disciplining Democracy: Development Discourse and Good

Governance in AfricaGovernance in Africa. London: Zed Books.. London: Zed Books. Mark Duffield (2007) Mark Duffield (2007) Development, Security and Unending WarDevelopment, Security and Unending War. Cambridge: Polity.. Cambridge: Polity.

International emancipation of International emancipation of women? women?

How far have international peace and How far have international peace and development policies gone beyond development policies gone beyond stereotypes of women? stereotypes of women?

Understanding Global Politics: Feminist Approaches Good girls, bad girls in IR?

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