Understanding and Addressing Oppositional and...

Promoting Positive Social Development

Understanding and Addressing

Oppositional and Defiant

Classroom Behaviors

spencer J. Salend • Shawna Sylvestre

Justin seemed to delight in irritating Mr.Howe. Even the simplest request fromMr. Howe resulted in resistance fromJustin. Although Mr Howe initially dealtwith Justin's resistance by trying tocajole, convince, or bribe him to comply,he was losing patience with Justin. Mow,when Justin refused to do something,Mr. Howe became angry and quicklythreatened him in front of the class,which Justin seemed to enjoy even more.

Mr Howe realized that he was play-ing into Justin's hands and contactedthe school's prereferral team, whichincluded Ms. Douglas, a special educatorwho had worked with Justin and hisfamily. The team collected informationabout Justin and his behavior. They ana-lyzed several recent incidents to identifythe actions of Justin and Mr. Howe thatprecipitated and maintained their powerstruggles. Justin's family also discussedhow they use routines and how theystructure transitions to avoid confronta-tions with him at home. On the basis ofthis information, the team concludedthat Justin truly enjoyed his confronta-tions with Mr. Howe. The team then col-laborated with Mr Howe to create a planto try to reduce Justin's power struggles.They determined which classroom ruleswere nonnegotiable and what the conse-quences would be for violating them.They used these rules to establish ahome-school contract with Justin's fami-ly. They also discussed ways for Mr.Howe to change his instructional tech-niques to motivate Justin and involve

him in the learning process and in mon-itoring his own behavior.

Mr Howe also tried to change hisdemeanor and facial expressions withJustin. He calmly gave Justin brief, easy-to-follow directions and provided himwith some choices. If Justin resisted, MrHowe briefly listened to Justin's expla-nation and either discussed it privatelywith him or quickly exited the situation.When Justin complied with Mr. Howe'srequests. Mr. Howe occasionally and pri-vately acknowledged this behavior byemploying quick walk-by reinforcementsuch as a gesture, whisper, or pat on theback or left a note for Justin to find laterin the day.

Educators like Mr. Howe teach arange of students with special needs,including students who exhibit opposi-tional and defiant behaviors (Jenson,2001; Woolsey-Terrazas & Chavez,2002]. Such students engage in a varietyof behaviors designed to resist therequests of authority figures. Thesebehaviors often interfere with schoolperformance [see box, "Oppositionaland Defiant Behaviors").

Teachers must be knowledgeableabout the unique characteristics of theirstudents so that they can plan andimplement educational programs thataddress the students' individualstrengths and needs. This article usesthe experiences of Mr. Howe and Ms.Douglas to provide suggestions forunderstanding and addressing the diffi-

culties associated with educating stu-dents who exhibit oppositional and defi-ant behaviors (see box, "LabelingStudents"). Although this article pres-ents these suggestions in the context ofpromoting the learning of students whoengage in oppositional and defiantbehaviors, they can be used to supportthe learning of all students.

OppositioiHil and DvfiantBehaviors

Students who exhibit oppositionaland defiant behaviors engage in apersistent pattern of manipulative ornoncompliant behavior. Thesebehaviors, which occur frequentlyfor a minimum of 6 months, mayinclude a combination of the follow-ing:

• Refusing to comply with rules.• Blaming or arguing with others.• Losing their temper.

• Being easily angered, frustrated,and annoyed.

• Cursing and using inappropriatelanguage.

• Having low self-esteem.• Appearing to enjoy annoying and

bothering others.

• Seeking attention [Jenson, 2001;Woolsey-Terrazas & Chavez,2002).

32 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Labeling Shidenls

Educators have recently used Iheterm "oppositional defiance disor-der" to describe the oppositional anddefiant behaviors of students; how-ever, educators need to he aware ofthe problems associated with label-ing students. Such terms as "opposi-tionat defiance disorder" locate prob-lems within students rather thanwithin the educational system. Theselabels can also limit the way that oth-ers perceive and interact with stu-dents, thereby disabhng the studentsacademically and hindering thedevelopment of their self-esteem.Educators must recognize that notwo students are alike and that eacheducatioiial program must be basedon individual strengths and behav-ioral challenges rather than on alabel.

These 14 suggestions are as follows:• Access prereferral services.• Encourage family collaboration and

communication.• Collect assessment data and perform

a functional behavioral assessment.• Address students' learning and moti-

vational difficulties.• Provide social skills instruction.• Offer attribution training.• Build relationships with students.• Develop students' self-esteem.• Give students choices.• Be aware of verbal and nonverbal

communication.• Teach students to use self-manage-

ment interventions.• Follow routines and foster transitions.• Establish and teach rules.• Learn more about oppositional and

defiant behaviors.We next discuss these suggestions in

detail.

Acceu Prereferral Services

Prereferral services are an essentialresource for teachers like Mr. Howe andstudents like Justin. Prereferral servic-es—sometimes called a teacher assis-tance team, an instructional support

team, or a child study team—are part ofa preventive problem-solving processthat can assist classroom teachers inaddressing challenging students beforethe teacher needs to refer the studentfor a special education placement(Ormsbee, 2001). The prereferral teamgathers information to develop a plan tohelp the teacher successfully teach thestudent. The team determines prerefer-ral interventions on the basis of theindividual student's strengths and chal-lenges; his or her educational, social,and medical history; and his or her lan-guage and cultural background, as wellas the teacher's concerns and the natureof the learning environment. In the situ-ation of Justin and Mr. Howe, the teamcan work collaboratively with teachersand family members to develop a planthat includes a range of methods.

Encourage Family Cellabercrtionand Communication

As the example of Justin and Mr. Howeindicates, good collaboration and com-munication with students' families canstrengthen the connection betweenschool and home and create a sharedcommitment to learning (Salend. 2005).Therefore, educators should view fami-lies as a valuable resource and partnerin the educational process and shouldinclude them in the prereferral process.Since members of a student's family canshare useful information about howthey manage the child's behavior athome, families can help the team under-stand the student. Family members alsocan collaborate with educators to imple-ment interventions to foster students'positive behavior For example, an effec-tive intervention for students whoexhibit oppositional and defiant class-room behaviors is a home-school con-tract in which teachers communicatewith the student's family regardingbehavior in school and famihes rein-force the child's improved behavior.Before implementing a home-schoolcontract, all parties should discuss andagree on the specifics of the contract.When the system is in place, follow-upcommunication regarding its implemen-tation and effectiveness is also essential.

Celied Assessment E>ata andPerform a FunctionaiBehavioral Assessment

During the assessment process, the pre-referral team collects dala needed toidentify and develop a plan to addressthe student's academic and socialbehaviors. The team uses these data toexamine existing learning and behav-ioral patterns and to identify the extentto which other factors [e.g., experientialand cultural factors, unsettling familyevents, and variables related to theinstructional program) may explain thedifficulties that the student is experienc-ing in school. In developing these pro-files and making these determinations,educators take measurements in a vari-ety of areas, including the student'sbehavior in the classroom and at home,as well as his or her academic perform-ance, social relationships, learning pref-erences, emotional status, and commu-nication skills.

Since oppositional and defiantbehavior may vary depending on theenvironment, examining the student'sbehavioral patterns at school and athome is important. Educators can col-lect this information in a variety ofways:

• Direct observation of students in avariety of settings can provideinsights into behavioral and academ-ic skills, as well as the student's inter-actions with others.

• Educators can record measurementsof behavioral and social skills bycompleting checklists, rating scales,and questionnaires related to a range

Good collaboration and

communication with

students' families can

strengthen the connection

between schooi and home

and create a shared

commitment to learning.

TEACHING ExcEPTiONAL CHILDREN • JULY/AUGUST 2005 • 33

of behaviors in a variety of settings(Taylor, 2000).

• Interviews, sociograms, and self-con-cept measures—in addition to anexamination of school records anddocuments indicating the numberand types of discipline referrals,behavioral incidents, and interrup-tions—can provide supplementaldata.

• An assessment of student behaviorshould also include a functionalbehavioral assessment, or FBA(Murdick, Gartin, & Stoekall, 2003;see box, "What Is a FunctionalBehavior Assessment?").

In addition to assessing students'behavioral and social skills, educatorscan develop academic performance pro-files by using standardized criterion-ref-erenced and norm-referenced testing.Such assessment techniques as per-formance-based and portfolio assess-ment, curriculum-based measurement,rubrics, dynamic assessment, learninglogs, and self-evaluation can help pro-vide more complete profiles of studentsand can identify their academicstrengths, needs, and learning styles, aswell as the impact of tbese factors onlearning and behavior {Salend, 2005).

Address Students' Learning andMetivatienal Difficulties

The learning and motivational difficul-ties of students can affect their behavior.Teachers can use innovative and moti-vating differentiated teaching practicesto minimize resistance behaviors thatare related to these difficulties. A varietyof teaching strategies, instructionaltechnologies, and curricular approachescan accommodate students' individuallearning strengths, preferences, andstyles, as well as their experiential, cul-tural, and language backgrounds(Salend, 2005).

Providing students with access tomeaningful, interesting, and challeng-ing curricula and age-appropriate andcreative instructional programs is also acritical factor in establishing a learningenvironment that helps students andmotivates them to succeed [Tomlinson.2002). Educators can enhance studentmotivation by using high-interest activi-

What Is a FunctionalBehavior Assessment?

A functional behavior assessment(FBA) is a person-centered, problem-solving process that involves gather-ing information to help determinethe function of specific problembehaviors and the variables thatappear to lead to and maintain thebehavior (Sugai, Homer, & Sprague,1999). Educators and family mem-bers can then use this behaviorassessment to select interventionsand develop a plan to help studentsengage in behavior that is moreappropriate and more prosocial.

ties, relevant and integrated content,and culturally relevant topics andinstructional materials that relate to stu-dents' lives (Kern, Bambara, & Fogt,2002). Teachers can share with studentswhy tbe content, process, and productsassociated with learning activities areworthwhile for them. They can use stu-dent-directed learning to help studentsbecome involved in instruction and gaina sense of ownership in their education,thereby increasing students' motivation,seif-efficacy, and learning (Brown,2002)

Learning activities that studentsenjoy, that pique their curiosity, andthat use novelty can also motivate stu-dents. Suspense, fantasy, color, andtechnology can arouse student interest.In developing classroom examples andassignments, educators can use the stu-dents' interests and experiences, as wellas popular characters, items, andtrends. Active academic games areanother way to incorporate novelty intothe instructional process. These gamesshould be cooperative rather than com-petitive and should be structured toinvolve all students.

Provide 5ocial Skills Instruction

Justin and students like him often lacksocial skills and can therefore benefitfrom social skills instruction. Socialskills teaching helps students learn howto work in groups, make friends, and

recognize and respond appropriately tothe feehngs of others. It also can helpthem resolve conflicts; understand theirown strengths, challenges, and emo-tions; and deal with frustration andanger (Morris, 2002).

By clearly explaining the desiredbehavior, its importance, and when itshould be used, teachers can help stu-dents develop their social skills.Teachers also can demonstrate, explain,role-play, and practice using the behav-ior, in addition to providing studentswith numerous opportunities to use it innatural settings with peers (Lo, Loe, &Cartledge, 2002). Teachers can providefeedback, employ cues to promote theuse of social skills in various settings,and teach their students to use learningstrategies that foster social interactions(Bock, 2003; Presley & Hughes, 2000).

Teachers also teach social skills hyusing social skills curricula, literature,and student reflection. Williams andReisberg (2003) and Elksnin andElksnin (1998) provide a list ofresources that can assist in teachingsocial skills to students. Students canwork in groups to read, discuss, androle-play juvenile literature around thetheme of social skills (Cartledge &Kiarie, 2001; Gut & Safran, 2002). Toencourage students to reflect on theirsocial skills, teachers can ask them torespond to the following questions:

• What did you do to get along withothers?

• How well did it work?• How do you think the others felt

about what you did?• What did you learn from this experi-

ence? (Church, Gottschalk, & Leddy,2003)

Offer Atfribuiion

Students who exhibit oppositional anddefiant behaviors can benefit from attri-bution training, which involves teach-ing them to understand how theiractions affect their success and failure.By offering attribution training, teacherscan help students develop the belief thattheir actions affect their success. Thisunderstanding can in turn minimize theextent to which the students blame oth-ers for their own difficulties. Students


who understand positive attributionsrecognize and acknowledge that theirsuccessful performance is because ofeffort, ability, and other factors withinthemselves; however, students who failto understand attribution often attributetheir difficulties to others and to exter-nal factors.

Teachers can use a variety of strate-gies to help students learn to use posi-tive attributions (Salend, 2005). Theycan assess and foster their students'positive attributions by teaching themto use attribution self-report scales anddialogue pages. For example, afterinstructional activities, teachers cangive students an attribution scale to ratethe level of difficulty of the task, theireffort, and the factors that contributedto their success (Corral & Antia, 1997).Similarly, students can respond to dia-logue pages that ask them what they didto succeed, why they succeeded, whatprevented them from succeeding, andwhat they can do to be even more suc-cessful (Kozminsky & Kozminsky,2002). In addition, educators can teachtheir students to do the following:

• Understand how attributions andeffort affect performance.

• View failure as the first part of learn-ing and a sign of the need to workharder.

• Focus on improvement and analyzepast successes.

• Talk about mistakes and assumeresponsibility for successful out-comes.Teachers can also encourage stu-

dents to use positive attributions bymodeling them, having students self-record them, responding to students'correct responses with effort feedback("You're really working hard"} or abilityfeedback ("You have the skill to dothis"), and by responding to students'incorrect responses with a strategy orinformational feedback {'"Tty anotherway of doing this") (Corral & Antia,1997; Yasutake, Bryan, & Dohrn, 1996).

Build Relcrtionshlps WHhSfudenh

Although building meaningful and gen-uine relationships with and among allstudents is essential, it is an especially

important factor in teaching studentslike Justin. Teachers can facilitate rela-tionships with students by creating alearning environment that is based onmutual respect and by learning aboutwhat is important to their students.They can foster relationships with theirstudents outside, as well as inside, theclassroom by attending extracurricularactivities in which tbeir students partic-ipate and by connecting classroomactivities with students' interests andhobbies.

Teachers also can build relationshipswith their students by establishing andmaintaining rapport with them.Teachers can establish rapport by

• Talking to students about topics thatinterest them.

• Showing an interest in students' per-sonal lives.

• Sharing their own interests.• Giving emotional support.• Letting students perform activities in

which they excel.• Greeting students by name.• Recognizing special events in stu-

dents' lives, such as birthdays.• Displaying kindness.• Spending informal time with stu-

dents.• Comphmenting students (Owens &

Dieker, 2003).

Students who fail to

understand attribution

often attribute their

difficulties to others and to

external factors.

In addition to defusing difficult class-room situations, humor can help teach-ers and their students develop a goodrelationship and create a positive class-room atmosphere (Duckworth et al.,2001). A teacher who effectively useshumor can help put students at ease,gain their attention, and help them seeteachers as individuals. However, when

a teacher uses humor, he or she must becertain that it is not directed toward stu-dents as ridicule or sarcasm; that stu-dents do not misinterpret it; and that itis free of racial, ethnic, rehgious, sexual,or gender bias and connotations. To usehumor appropriately and strategically,teachers also need to be aware of eventsin the students' lives, their schools, andthe world.

Develop Students' SeM-Esteem

Helping students develop their self-esteem is another way for teachers toestablish a positive learning environ-ment. Teachers can help develop self-esteem by giving students opportunitiesto demonstrate their competence to oth-ers and to perform skills, roles, and jobsthat others value (Jones, 2002).Teachers also can foster their students'self-esteem by listening to them; show-ing them that they value the students'ideas, opinions, interests, and skills;and involving them in the decision-making process. Other methods includerecognizing students' achievements andtalents, teaching them to use self-man-agement techniques, asking them toperform meaningful classroom andschool-based jobs, and posting theirwork in the classroom and throughoutthe school (Pavri, 2001).

Acknowledging positive aspects ofstudents' behaviors can promote self-esteem in students and can strengthenthe bond between teachers and theirstudents (Hester, 2002). Educatorsshould tailor these comments to stu-dents' ages, skill levels, and cuhuralbackgrounds. Educators should recog-nize effort, as well as specific behaviorsand outcomes, and should acknowledgethe individual achievements of studentsrather than comparing their perform-ance with that of others.

Give Students Choices

Educators can lessen power struggleswitb students by allowing them to makechoices. Such choices can also fostertheir self-esteem. Since students mayinitially have difficulty making choices.teaching them how to make and expresstheir choices is important, in addition to

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • JULY/AUGUST 2005 • 35

Acknowledging positive

aspects of students'

beiiaviors can promote

seif-esteem in students and

can strengthen tiie bond

between teachers and their

students.

helping them understand the conse-quences of their choices (Cook-Sather,2003]. Teachers can also facilitate thechoice-making process by providing stu-dents with options and by allowingthem to make some choices duringnonacademic activities. During instruc-tional activities, teachers can give stu-dents choices regarding the order inwhich they begin and complete assign-ments, the instructional materials thatthey will use, the classroom placeswhere they will work, and the class-mates with whom they would like tocollaborate [Jolivette, Stichter, &McCormick, 2002).

Be Aware of Veriial andNonverbal Communication

Both verbal and nonverbal communica-tion affect teachers' relationships withtheir students. When students andteachers do not understand these com-munications, the resulting miscommu-nication can escalate conflicts betweenstudems and teachers. Therefore, verbaland nonverbal communication shouldfoster positive interactions, should beconsistent with students' behavioralexpectations, and should communicateattitudes. For example, Mr. Howelearned to use facial expressions andeye contact to communicate to Justinhis approval, interest, concern, andwarmth. In responding to students,teachers should be sensitive to the non-verbal behaviors of their students andshould interact with them by using con-gruent and culturally appropriate non-

verbal and verbal messages. As Mr.Howe realized, teachers also should tryto avoid making threats, using body lan-guage tbat communicates disapproval,and responding emotionally during con-frontations.

Teachers can use verbal and nonver-bal cues as physical gestures to promptand acknowledge prosocial behavior(Marks et al., 2003). These cues alsocan establish routines, promote efficien-cy, or signal to students that theirbehavior is unacceptable and should bechanged. For example, as Mr. Howe dis-covered, educators can use individual-ized eye contact, hand signals, headmovements, and notes to quickly andcovertly indicate affirmation, correction,or the need to refocus on appropriatebehavior. When teachers work with stu-dents from different cultural and lan-guage backgrounds, using cues that areculturally appropriate is important.

Teach Students to Use Seif-Management intervenHons

Because self-management strategiesactively involve students in monitoringand changing their behaviors, they areespecially good techniques for studentshke Justin to learn to use (Daly &Ranalli, 2003). Self-management strate-gies include the following:• Self-monitoring, whereby students

record their behaviors by using adata-collection system.

• Self-evaluation or self-assessment,whereby students learn to evaluatetheir in-class behavior according tosome standard or scale.

• Self-reinforcement, whereby studentsare taught to evaluate their behaviorand then deliver self-selected rewardsif appropriate.

• Self-instruction, whereby studentsverbalize to themselves the questionsand responses necessary to- Identify problems ("What am 1

being asked to do?" ).- Generate potential solutions

("Wbat are the ways to do it?").- Evaluate solutions (What is the

best way?").- Use appropriate solutions ("Did I

do it?").

- Determine whether the solutionsare effective ("Does it work?").

Teachers can increase tbe effective-ness of these strategies by using combi-nations of them, by giving studentsnumerous opportunities to practice andmaster them, and by prompting stu-dents to use them (King-Sears & Bonfils,2000). The use of technology can fur-ther enhance the success of these strate-gies. For example, educators can teachstudents to use personal digital assis-tants and auditory-based technologysystems to prompt themselves todemonstrate, self-record, self-evaluate,and self-reinforce their prosocial behav-iors (Bauer & Ulrich, 2002; Post, Storey& Karabin, 2002). Students also canlearn to use software packages to graph,store, access, and reflect on theirprogress in changing their behavior(Gunter, Miller, Venn, Thomas, &House, 2002).

Foiiow Routines and FosterIkansitions

Since unexpected changes in classroomroutines can cause students who exhib-it oppositional and defiant behavior toact out and respond in defiant ways(Hall, Williams & Hall, 2000). followingconsistent and predictable routines andfostering transitions from one activity toanother are important. When studentsknow tbe routines and activities thatthey can expect in the classroom eachday, they are more likely to believe thatthey are in control of their environment,which can reduce instances of defiancein the classroom.

Establishing and following a regularschedule that includes ongoing class-room routines can improve studentlearning and behavior (Downing &Peckham-Hardin, 2001; Hester, 2002).Good scheduling involves consideringstudent characteristics as well as impor-tant features of the educational programand classroom. In establishing routinesand schedules, it is generally helpful to

• Begin the school day or classroomperiod with an activity that is moti-vating and interesting to students.

• Sohcit input from students in plan-ning routines and schedules.


• Post and review daily schedules androutines.

• Share an agenda for each of the day'slessons.

• Coordinate schedules and routineswith other professionals.

• Alert students in advance to changesin tbe routines and schedule.

An important aspect of the dailyschedule and routines is making transi-tions from one activity to the next(Salend, 2005). When transitions occurwithin tbe classroom, students whoexhibit oppositional and defiant behav-iors may become frustrated and unclearabout their place in the classroom, andthey may therefore behave inappropri-ately. Teachers can use a variety ofstrategies to foster smooth and quicktransitions. They can act like disk jock-eys or newscasters who use segues toprepare listeners for the next recordingor story. For example, teachers can pro-vide verbal, musical, or physical cues assegues to signal to students that theyneed to prepare for a new activity andcan give them specific directions formoving to the next activity (Gibson &Govendo, 1999; Hester, 2002). Whenstudents come from a less-structuredsocial activity like lunch or recess to asetting that requires quiet and attention,educators can use a transitional activity.For example, following recess, theteacher can ask students to write intheir journals one topic of discussion ina specific class on the previous day.Teacbers also can minimize problemswith transitions by allowing students topractice making transitions and teach-ing them to use learning strategies thatfacilitate transitions (Marks et al.,2003). For example, Babkie and Provost(2002) offer mnemonic-based learningstrategies for helping students maketransitions in hallways and school cafe-terias.

Establish and Teach Rules

When working with students likeJustin, establishing classroom rules androutines and fostering transitions fromone activity to another are helpful tech-niques (Salend, 2005). Allowing stu-dents to be involved in developing therules communicates to them that they

Important Internet Resources

Big's Place (www.bigsplace.com/ODD.html)This site provides a variety of links to information on oppositional behaviors. Thelinks are organized by category and include research, special medical programs,publications, and family support groups.

Conduct Disorders.com (www.conductdisorders.com)This site, designed by families of challenging children, offers a variety of sugges-tions and alternatives for working with individuals with a variety of behavioralissues. It also provides suggestions for further reading, articles, links, and a dis-cussion forum.

Kwik Link Internet Services (www.klis.com/chandler/pamphlet/oddcd/oddcd-pamphlet.htm)This site offers information, resources, and case studies related to students whoexJiibit oppositional behaviors and conduct disorders, as well as information onthese behaviors and disorders in combination with sucb other issues as attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder, depression, substance abuse, and anxiety.

Internet Mental Health (www.mentalhealth.com)This site disseminates research about a variety of mental health disorders. It offersan online encyclopedia that contains information on diagnosis, treatment,research, medications, and related links.

Not My Kid.org (www.notmykid.org/parentArticles/ODD/default.htm)This site offers information and resources on a variety of aspects related to oppo-sitional behaviors, including symptoms from infancy to adolescence, suggestionsand strategies for promoting positive behaviors, professional interventions, and avariety of ways to obtain further support and information.

New York Online Access to Health (www.noah-health.org)This bilingual site (Spanish and English) contains facts about a wide variety ofhealth issues and offers information on oppositional behaviors, including symp-toms, treatment, advocacy, and resources.

Kentucky.gov (www.state.ky.us/agencies/behave/homepage.html)This site addresses a variety of behavioral issues and includes such helpful fea-tures as a question-and-answer forum, intervention strategies, links to the feder-al laws concerning individuals with disabilities, and professional organizationsthat provide current research.

Uplift-Wyoming (www.upliftwy.org/pubhcations/dls/odd_pub.pdf)This site provides a booklet containing information about the symptoms associ-ated witb oppositional and defiant behaviors, as well as helpful suggestions formaking everyday life easier for all those involved.

Global Internet (www.users.giobalnet.co.uk/ -̂ ebdstudy/disordl/oppose.htm)This site outlines potential indicators related to oppositional and defiant behav-iors and provides intervention strategies, including behavioral management, self-control instruction, self-esteem enhancement, and family education. It also pres-ents information on the advantages and disadvantages of various strategies.


are responsible for their actions.Students also are more likely to followrules that they help create. Therefore,teachers can work with students todevelop reasonable rules that addresscooperative and productive learningbehaviors, guide classroom interactions,and are acceptable to students andteachers. For example, Mr. Howe canask Justin and his classmates what rulesthey think the class needs, presentclassroom problems, and ask studentsto brainstorm solutions and rules toaddress these problems; or Mr. Howecan have students create a classroomconstitution or mission statement.Students also can provide suggestionsregarding tbe consequences for follow-ing rules and the violations for breakingthem.

Teachers can follow several guide-lines to make classroom rules meaning-ful to their students. They can makesure tbat their rules are stated conciselyin positive terms, that rules are easy tounderstand, and that they are usable inmany situations and settings. Rules alsoshould have some flexibility that isbased on students' individual differ-ences and circumstances. When excep-tions to rules exist, teachers can identi-fy tbe exceptions and discuss them inadvance. Similarly, when teachers need10 make allowances for students likeJustin to accommodate tbeir uniqueneeds and behaviors, they should dis-cuss and explain to the class the ratio-nales for these allowances.

Helping students learn tbe rules isalso important (Hester, 2002). Educatorsoften need to describe and demonstratethe observable behaviors that make upthe rules, give examples of rule viola-tions and behaviors related to the rules,and role-play rule-following and rule-violating behaviors. Teachers and stu-dents can also discuss the rationale forthe rules, the contexts in which rulesapply, and the benefits of each rule.Teachers can review the rules frequent-ly with the class at the beginning of theschool year and periodically ask stu-dents to review or practice them.Teachers must also enforce the rulesconsistently, acknowledge students forfollowing the rules, and offer positivecorrective feedback to students who ini-

tially fail to comply so that they can suc-ceed in the future.

Learn More About Oppositionaland Defiant Behaviors

Special education is a field that is con-stantly changing. New research, modelprograms, teaching and classroom man-agement strategies, and legislation relat-ed to such issues as students whoexhibit oppositional and defiant behav-iors are evolving. Since effective profes-sionals strive to keep abreast of newdevelopments and continue to developtheir skills, teachers can engage in avariety of activities to learn more aboutthese students. For example, teacherscan read journal articles and books suchas those in this article's reference hstand can view Web sites (see box,"Important Internet Resources") thatoffer information and resourcesaddressing issues related to studentswho exhibit oppositional and defiantbehaviors.

Final Timuglits

The challenge of teaching requires thateducators understand and address theunique characteristics of all students,including those who exhibit opposition-al and defiant behaviors. Rather than

The challenge of teaching

requires educators to

understand and address the

unique characteristics of aii

students, inciuding those

who exhihit oppositional

and defiant hehaviors.

focusing on students' labels, successfulteaching requires that educators employa variety of individualized assessment,instructional, collaboration, and class-room management strategies to pro-

mote learning and positive behavior. Ualso means that educators establishpartnerships with families and otherprofessionals to collaboratively plan,deliver, and monitor the effectiveness ofeducational programs. We hope thisarticle will help educators respond tothese challenges by presenting informa-tion to help them better understand andwork more effectively with studentswho exhibit oppositional and defiantbebaviors and their families.

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Spencer J. Salend (CEC Chapter #615),Professor, Department of EducationalStudies. State University of New York atNew Paltz. Shawna Sylvestre (CECChapter #615), Special EducationTeacher. Pine Bush Central SchoolDistrict, New York.

Address correspondence to Spencer J.Salend. Department of EducationalStudies. OMB 11. State University of NewYork at New Paltz. 75 Manheim Blvd.,New Paltz, NY 12561, [email protected].

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 37,

No. 6. pp. 32-39

Copyright 2005 CEC.


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