Published by Universidad Nacional de Colombia • ISSN 1657-0987 • www.agenciadenoticias.unal.edu.co/english-news

http://www.unperiodico.unal.edu.co • un_periodico@unal.edu.coBogotá D.C. - Colombia • Issue 7 • March 2012

Nation Health Ecology ScienceAn “Oil Boom”? For how long?

90% Precisionin Detecting Breast Cancer

Erosion Alert at Colombian Beaches

Dinosaur Discovered in Boyacá

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Physicists have designed a device for automobiles to make it possible with a high degree of reliability to determine what occurs in a traffic accident and thus facilitate judicial proceedings. A black box, but for automobiles.

The Black Box:from Aircraft to Automobiles

Found in the Department of Nariño, near the Ecuadorian border, captivating because of its bright colors, but above all because of its enor-mous tongue, which is twice as long as its body, the world's longest until now.

A New Bee Species with an Unusually Long TongueA New Bee Species

with an Unusually Long Tongue

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Hermann Sáenz,Unimedios

When traveling along the road leading to the Salto del Tequen-dama waterfall (in the Department of Cundinamarca), one normally detects an aroma similar to rot-ten eggs that seems to come from the waters of the Bogotá River. It actually comes from a gas known as hydrogen sulfide (H

2S), which is produced not only by contami-nation of the aquifer but is also emitted by meat processing indus-tries and electric power generation along the river banks.

To control these odors, com-panies some years ago resorted to installing water-based biologi-cal filters, aimed at decreasing the number of parts per million (ppm) of H2S in the environment. How-ever, the expected results did not materialize: the reduction of sul-fide was minimal and the biofilters lasted just eight months.

That is why in 2009 they decid-ed to issue an invitation to submit innovative ideas aimed at finding a solution. At that point, researchers from the International Center for Physics (Centro Internacional de Física – CIF), which is part of the Universidad Nacional, presented a pilot program that was able to mit-igate 97% of the gas emanations. “During the critical moments of H2S emission, concentrations had hitherto reached between 300 and 800 ppm. Now, using the biofil-ter that we have invented, they have been reduced to 24 ppm and sometimes even less”, says Martha Guardiola, director of the Biotech-nology Group at the CIF.

Initially, the mechanism made using organic materials (molasses, cow and sheep manure, sugarcane bagasse and vegetable material among others) would process very high concentrations of sulfide for a week and a half, but then be-came exhausted. The CIF experts decided that they would have to improve the system.

The explanation as to how it works is simple: the biofilter is colonized by microorganisms, which paradoxically come from the sulfide and are responsible for biological degradation of the volatile contaminants. “When a

A system that uses microorganisms to degrade sulfur, which is the main environmental pollutant in the zones around the Bogotá River, is reducing concentrations of hydrogen sulfide gas, which is highly corrosive and damaging to the health of the inhabitants.

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gas molecule enters the layers of the biofilter, it begins an extensive journey that takes it to the organic material, where the microorgan-isms find the perfect food for their reproduction. There, using their enzymes, they decompose the H2S and eat one of its main com-pounds: the sulfur. That is why the product subsequently emitted in-to the environment is no longer a sulfide”, according to José Enrique García, director of the Group for Applied Physics for Technological Development at the CIF.

What is new about this pro-cess is that, to improve the action of the microorganisms, the appli-cation of water was eliminated, because its high pH levels (acidity) not only affected the food but also shortened the filter’s useful life. “Now they can reproduce without any problem and unceasingly help to eliminate the bad odors”, adds researcher Guardiola.

A gas that must not be underestimated

H2S irritates the eyes, dries out the nasal mucus and leads to colds, frequent symptoms among those who must put up with this odor on a daily basis. If the con-centration in the air exceeds 300 ppm, it can even cause dizziness and fainting. That is why professor Guardiola says that hydrogen sul-fide must not be underestimated. “If concentrations go beyond 500 ppm, it can be imperceptible to the nose while generating brain damage”.

The biofilter for the pilot proj-ect carried out by the CIF was installed at a company located between San Antonio del Tequ-endama and Mesitas de Colegio (Cundinamarca), whose emissions affect four villages with a popula-tion of around 1500 inhabitants. In this area, H2S concentration tends

to rise between 3:00 and 5:00 a.m.Another characteristic of this

gas is its highly corrosive action. According to the CIF researcher, “even when concentrations are low, iron or any other element al-loyed with it is destroyed. In many cases, industries seek the benefits from the biofilters not only to re-duce toxicities emitted into the en-vironment but also to lower main-tenance costs for their equipment, which tends to suffer deterioration from the H2S. Among local farm-ers, the corrosion damages roofs and fences”.

Protective measures

The system created by the CIF makes it possible to measure the environment in real time and monitor it through a webpage in order to calculate the entry and exit of the gas. This part of the sys-tem was not easy to achieve.

“It implied designing a mech-anism that would constantly mea-sure the quantity of gas entering and leaving the filter, and that would be sufficiently robust to not corrode due to aggressive condi-tions from the medium and high H

2S concentrations”, recalls José García.

In accordance with the esti-mated time frames, the biofilter should last a bit longer than a year, but has actually now been in operation for nearly two years. Despite the rugged conditions, the measurement mechanisms remain intact, which shows the success of the system as a whole.

Currently, researchers at the CIF are designing a new biofilter for another company, also near the Bo-gotá River. “We need to adjust it to the characteristics of the particular company, because there are differ-ences between a paper producer or an electric power plant and a meat processor. Each biofilter is a world in itself due to the type of distribu-tion that it applies to the gas. Also, the H

2S never appears on its own but is always accompanied by an-other type of gas, depending on the particular kind of industrial pro-cess. We even have to redesign the biological material used to nourish the microorganisms”, concludes Professor Martha Guardiola.

Researchers from the International Center for Physics (CIF) gather mi-crobiological samples from the substrate to evaluate their efficiency in the biofiltration system that has been installed at the company on the banks of the Bogotá River.

River Bogotá

Microorganisms Clean the Airaround the Bogotá River

Executive Director: Carlos Alberto Patiño VillaPress Chief: Nelly Mendivelso Rodríguez Copy Editor–Translator: Edward Helbein

Associate Spanish Editor: Carlos Andrey Patiño Art Editor: Ricardo González Angulo Spanish Copy Editor: Verónica Barreto Agencia de Noticias UN Editors: Félix Enrique Blanco, Luis Miguel Palacio

Printing: Imágenes Gráficas Expressed opinions are those of the authors alone and don’t compel or compromise principles by the Universidad Nacional de Colombia or politics by the UN Periódico.

Web Page: http://www.unperiodico.unal.edu.co Mail: un_periodico@unal.edu.co Phones: (571) 316 5348 - (571) 316 5000 ext. 18384 / Fax: (571) 316 5232 Edificio Uriel Gutiérrez Carrera 45 Nº 26-85, piso 5º. Bogotá - Colombia ISNN1657-0987

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3Nation

With an average production of 900,000 barrels per day, the country's current oil reserves would be exhausted in around four years. Rather than engaging in useless debate about a bonanza, analysis must focus, for example, on the ability to find 180 million barrels per year of new exploit-able reserves in order to maintain the production levels that have been achieved.

Germán Corredor Avella,Director of the Colombian Energy Observa-tory (Observatorio Colombiano de Energía)

Research Center for Development (Centro de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo, CID)

Economic Sciences FacultyUniversidad Nacional de Colombia

For several months, diverse media have been insisting on the existence of an oil boom that will serve as one of the big locomotives for this country's development in coming years. This has generated a rather useless debate as to whether the increase is real or if it is simply a fallacy to speak of a bonanza in a nation which, as has frequently been said, is not an oil country. It is more enriching to analyze for how long the production that has been achieved until now can be sustained.

In the light of the figures, Co-lombia has undoubtedly achieved a significant increase in its pro-duction. From 741,800 barrels per day in January of 2010, it reached 890,000 in March of 2011 and a bit more than 900,000 in April (see graph 1).

Those results are truly encour-aging and at the same time have generated increased revenues in foreign exchange from exports along with relative tranquility re-garding oil supplies for domestic consumption in the near future.

However, and without aiming to be overly pessimistic, it is worth-while to analyze the sustainability of this scenario in the future. With an average production of 900,000 barrels per day, current reserves (see graph 2) would be exhausted in around four years. To maintain production at this level for an addi-tional decade, it would be necessary to have around 180 million barrels in new reserves or exploitable re-serves annually. This is a significant figure when we take into account that the discoveries being made in this country are of small volumes and the probability of large discov-eries is relatively low.

It is even more worrisome that there is a decreasing trend in the annual level of reserves since 2000, despite a substantial rise in explor-atory activity.

It would therefore appear that maintaining a level of production of around 1 million barrels per day over a reasonably prolonged period of time is not very probable, unless large-scale discoveries are made to increase the reserves, or oil provi-sions can be recovered in current fields that cannot be extracted us-ing existing technologies.

The number of exploratory wells and the activity generated around them has grown in recent years. They have gone from 17 in 2000 to 110 in 2010, with a suc-cess rate of around 30%, which is quite satisfactory. However, it is not enough to increase the num-ber of wells drilled and the per-centage of achievements; the find-ings must also be larger, because otherwise the pace of extraction will be greater than the increase in reserves, which will inevitably lead to exhaustion and the loss of self–sufficiency over a relatively short period of time.

In that sense, the sustain-ability of the increase in oil pro-duction depends on the results of exploratory activity. What has been obtained until now is insuf-ficient and it will be necessary to at least double the number of wells explored in order to have a greater probability to increase the reserves. The mechanisms devel-oped by the National Hydrocar-

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(2010-2011) average monthly produc-tion in thousands of barrels per day

Annual oil reservesin millions of barrels

Graph 1.Source: Ministerio de Minasy Energía (MME)

Graph 2. Source: MME.

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Linear trend

bons Agency (Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos – ANH) have been successful and as yet unexplored areas are immense, thus it is per-fectly possible to achieve this in-crease in exploration.

Benefits

It is evident that oil production now brings significant economic benefits in terms of foreign ex-change, royalties, tax receipts and, to a lesser extent, increased em-ployment; thus the importance of working to maintain this increase, as much as possible, for a lon-ger period. Additionally, Colom-bia is seeing an unusual appear-ance of small and medium-sized companies –able to compete with the large international compa-nies–, dedicated to providing ser-vices ranging from basic geology, seismic, analysis of prospectives, electricity generation, drilling, the taking of measurements and logs, etc., which are the ones that best reflect technological transference and the direct added value stem-ming from oil activity.

Decreased production due to a falloff in reserves can lead to the shutdown of these firms, unless they are prepared to export their services, which is feasible given the high quality of national human resources. This is a fundamental task to guarantee sustainability of the sector. The same applies to the training of technicians and pro-fessionals in the universities and specialized institutes.

Collateral costs

It is also important to point out certain costs generated by oil activity. In the environmental field, despite technological im-provements and greater resources aimed at forestalling such effects, hydrocarbon production contin-ues to cause damages, particularly to bodies of water, agricultural zones, roads, etc.

In the Colombian case, this activity intensifies the lack of se-curity, prostitution, drug addiction and other undesirable social evils. In countries such as Canada, they have been able to convert these bonanzas into better quality of life. Here that possibility remains to be seen. Corruption and lack of at-tention to the basic needs of the populations near the centers of production and the migrants gen-erated by this activity have imped-ed truly sustainable development. In this context, sustainability ap-pears more difficult to achieve. If the use of these considerable re-sources cannot be effectively and efficiently channeled, one of the best opportunities that the coun-try has had in the last 100 years to surmount the problem of pov-erty and all of its nefarious conse-quences will have been lost.

In conclusion, more explora-tion, more education and training, a broader vision of external mar-kets on the part of national oil ser-vice companies, zero corruption in the use of royalties, better projects

and greater planning in the use of resources are absolutely necessary premises to be able to effectively speak of an oil bonanza, in the sense of Colombia having better living conditions for its popula-tion and better conditions for the well–being of future generations. Anything else is simply a semantic debate.

An “Oil Boom”? For how long?

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Johanna Ruiz Bolaños,Unimedios

With greater precision than in conventional methods for detect-ing cancerous masses, biomedi-cal engineers at the Universidad Nacional (National University) launched their Support System for Breast Cancer Diagnosis, a dis-ease that affects 7,000 Colombian women each year (according to the 2010 National Survey on De-mography and Health / Encuesta Nacional de Demografía y Salud 2010) and which can be cured as long as it is discovered in time.

This system, as explained by biomedical engineer Fabián Narváez, “can detect masses in 80.3% of cases and determine the classification of pathology or se-verity, in other words, whether it is benign or malignant, with 85.3% precision”.

He clarifies that the system is based on single projection mam-mography, or in other words that screening is carried out on wom-en who do not show any symp-toms, but have perceived some type of anomaly when they exam-ine themselves. “X–rays are used to create two projections of each breast in order to have two per-spectives”.

With those mammographs, radiologists can see each breast and compare them. “The idea is to compare the images and make an inspection. The supposition is that, given their nature, there must be symmetry and a similar dis-tribution of tissues”, according to Narváez.

With this approach, the ex-perts seek zones that have been affected or show indications of masses. That is the idea behind the system implemented by the UN: superimposing the images provides conclusive results.

Less margin for error

Masses are a constant head-ache for experts, as existing meth-ods are not totally effective because while they easily detect microcal-cifications (the more advanced tu-mors), they do not detect masses that are frequently confused with other types of afflictions. Also, this is not the only problem. Breast im-plants, which are very popular, can sometimes affect the results.

But this new platform will make it possible for physicians, whether specialists or not, to have a much more reliable technique to detect an illness that if not caught

in time can be fatal. Narváez ex-plains that the objective of the Support System for Breast Cancer Diagnosis is to provide an effective tool in even the most remote zones of the country, where it is practi-cally impossible to gain access to an expert.

Differences between the CADS

and the Support System

The new method was created under the Bi–rads Protocol, use by radiologists to identify and com-pare mammographic masses. Ac-cording to the biomedical engi-neer, depending on the form and size of the mass, it is possible to determine whether it is benign or malignant and suggest timely treatment.

“This led us to analyze the general functioning of the systems. There are currently various plat-forms called CADS, or Computer–Assisted Diagnosis, which serve as automatic tools to detect or seg-ment regions of interest. They are guides to enable radiologists to easily identify if there is an abnor-mality in the breasts”.

The problem with the CADS is that, because they use math-

ematical algorithms, there is the risk that detection will not be ex-act. “Depending on the volume of cases, a bias can be created which leads to various errors”, according to Narváez.

This happens because infor-mation is used from one single projection, whereas the support platform makes it possible to su-perimpose two images at the same time. Also, the CADS system does not make annotations, because it merely locates the region where the mass can be found. “Our system shows the characteristics of the masses, their size, form and loca-tion. This is something completely new”, stresses Fabián Narváez.

According to studies carried out by the Telemedicine Group at the National University (Grupo de Telemedicina de la UN), CADS have 85% sensitivity in detecting microcalcifications, but only 65% in detecting masses, a relatively low percentage which means that these tools are not widely accepted in real clinical scenarios.

“In addition to describing the region in radiological terms, the objective is to suggest a diagnosis, although ultimately it is the radi-ologist who makes that decision”, according to the engineer.

This is how it works

The two projections that have been made are used, one from above and one in profile. They are then superimposed, and the mass is analyzed based on the observa-tions.

The process is used to obtain an image of crisis levels, which is then used to make one description of the form and another of the tex-ture to determine whether or not the mass is malignant. Its contours are determined compared to the rest of the tissues and the decom-position of the image is obtained. This helps to define five character-istics: texture, contrast, porosity, form and the details of the edges, which makes the information even more valuable.

The system is based on image recovery through visual content, similar to the platform used by Google when searching for photo-graphs. “We generate a database with cases already diagnosed and verified through biopsies”, says Narváez.

When a new case appears, the radiologist marks the region of in-terest and the system compares it with already–diagnosed cases. Then a set of images is found in-dicating similarities with small tu-mors. This comparison measure is called KNN.

The radiologist then uploads the images into a database on the National University Medical Fac-ulty webpage, which subscribes to a public domain of the University of South Florida that has a record of 2,600 case involving breast can-cers, with detailed graphic infor-mation along with their character-istics. All of those data make it pos-sible to suggest a new diagnosis.

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The platform will be able to be used by radiologists and personnel who are not experts so that they can gain access to the program; they send the x-ray and the system provides a result.

Original Image

CAD Analysis

As opposed to current methods that are 65% effec-tive, a new system created by engineers at the Na-tional University makes it possible to detect breast cancer with nearly 90% precision.

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90% Precisionin Detecting Breast Cancer

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Orthopedic Surgeries in the Technological Vanguard

Elizabeth Vera Martínez,Unimedios

Skeletal deformations can produce pain and affect a person's physical performance. Diagnostic imaging such as x–rays, computer-ized axial tomography and mag-netic resonance allow orthopedists to identify and locate the precise areas of these alterations, helping them to plan the needed surgical correction (osteotomy).

The osteotomy consists in cutting the bones to modify their form and orientation, as explained by specialist Carlos García Sarm-iento, an orthopedist at the Uni-versidad Nacional de Colombia (National University of Colombia), who points out that in this man-ner the deformation is repaired in order to relieve pain and improve the patient’s affected parts.

Skeletal imperfections can be congenital (at birth) or acquired, due to fractures, degenerative pro-cesses such as aging and excessive weight.

The Biomechanical Research Group at the Mechanical and Mechatronical Engineering De-partment, led by Professor Carlos Julio Cortés Rodríguez, with par-ticipation by engineers Mauricio Cuervo, Óscar Rodríguez and Indy Araque, is developing an innova-tive physical prototype for surgical planning, which focuses on the affected part of the patient's body through computerized three–di-mensional modeling.

This technology is an impor-tant medical tool that offers great-er orientation, safety and precision during a surgical intervention, ac-cording to specialist García.

Pelvic region

During the first years of life, the pelvis is made up of the Il-ion bones (large and flat) and the ischium bones (round and curved, which help to support the body's weight when seated) and the pubis (which joins together the two sides of the pelvis). These are slight-ly separated and, as the person grows, become joined together to form what in adults is referred to as the coxa and which, along with the sacrum, make up the pelvic region.

The pelvis is therefore a ring-like structure that, if fractured in a certain place or if its segments are separated, produces a fracture or luxation in another place.

The hip is made up of two bone structures, one known as the acetabulum (a spherical cavity in

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The diagnostic images create the part of the bone to be remodeled in 3D, and, using a rapid prototype, the final piece is made.

The model reproduces the texture and tissues of the pelvis in a nearly real form, thus making it possible to have a three-dimensional geometric rec-ognition of the bone.

X-rays and other advanced imaging technologies provide specialists with the most accurate possible information on the part of the skeleton to be surgically treated. Now, a three-dimensional computer modeling tool and a prototype adapted to each patient will make it possible to carry out such surgeries with greater precision and in less time.

the pelvis) and the other as the femoral head (a massive sphere at the end of the femur). Its joint makes possible the movement of the inferior members, the forward movement of the human body and enables the body to support its own weight. Improper fit between these two parts results in pain and limping.

Until now, using imaging technologies, physicians have been able to see the location of fractures or other deformations, but the work of the Biomechanical Group goes further.

“This tool incorporated by the engineers at the National Univer-sity is innovative in our field be-cause it enables surgeons to have

a physical prototype similar to the bony structure prior to surgery. Thus, we are able to approach the area that must be cut or modified with greater precision”, says the orthopedist.

Rapid prototyping

Based on three-dimensional modeling software, a customized database is created called Dataset, into which all of the patient's data and pathology is introduced, ex-plains Professor Cortés Rodríguez. “The idea is that this program, once the complete and precise in-formation is received, creates a physical impression of the par-ticular osteal system”.

At that point in the process, the specialist can use the computer to observe the condition of the bone in all its angles (three-dimensional form). With this technology, the information is exported through a special format, called STL (pro-gram), which is used to physically create the required prototype.

The model is generated through additive production by layers (rap-id prototyping), similar to a “three-dimensional impression”, that cre-ates the specific part of the human body using polymeric material with textures and colors similar to the real tissues. For orthopedist García Sarmiento, the product of this im-pression, in other words, the bony structure copied from the patient, facilitates manipulating and be-coming familiar with the situation before the surgery.

“The additive manufactur-ing technique by layers is able to clearly reproduce the details, with geometries that would be impos-sible to imitate using conventional processes”, according to Professor Cortés Rodríguez.

Advantages

Using the physical sample of the osteal structure or of the re-gion of interest, which contains a representation of the bony tissue from each of the patient’s scanned axial cuts, a specialist can guide his approach and see the exact morphology that he will have to deal with. He can thus shorten the duration of the operation while improving the probability of a suc-cessful surgery.

“The solid three–dimensional models make it possible for these surgeries to be constantly im-proved, because diagnostic imag-ing by itself frequently does not facilitate the characterization of a deformation”, says this specialist at the National University, who suc-cessfully tested the technique last year on a child with hip dysplasia. This congenital anomaly occurs because the acetabulum and the head of the femur are not correctly joined, thus producing pain and skeletal alteration.

“The technique has shown itself to be very valuable in com-plex surgeries, insofar as simple interventions such as luxations of the bones of the fingers, hands or feet are sufficiently well managed through imaging”, said Professor Carlos García.

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The cause of this degenerative dis-ease remains a mystery. Colombian scientists are following the clue of two genes that are involved in in-herited cases. The goal is to find answers involving sporadic cases, which represent nearly 95% of those diagnosed.

Hermann Sáenz,Unimedios

Parkinson’s is a disease that occurs when the neurons that produce dopamine are slowly de-stroyed. Without this important neurotransmitter hormone, brain cells cannot appropriately send messages, leading to loss of mus-cular function, which worsens over time.

Between 5% and 10% of cases are hereditary; the rest occur spo-radically. There is speculation that constant contact with herbicides, pesticides or similar products could cause this disorder. In Colombia, some 75,000 people suffer from it and a large percentage of those di-agnosed are above the age of 65.

Why are 90% to 95% of re-ported cases sporadic? What genes are involved? Gonzalo Arboleda, coordinator of the Cellular Death Group at the Genetic Institute of the Universidad Nacional de Co-lombia, is working to decipher this enigma.

“We are particularly interested in two genes associated with Par-kinson’s, Parkin and Pink1, which undergo mutations in the inherit-ed form and have the particularity of leading to the disease in people under the age of 20”, he says.

The main pathological char-acteristic is damage to the dop-aminergic neurons that constitute the so-called black substance, lo-cated in the nucleus of a part of the brain known as the mesencepha-lon. These cells to a great extent control body movements.

The accumulation of a protein within these neurons known as Lewy Bodies has been detected, whose manifestation begins in the mesencephalon and which, later on, affects other areas of this vital organ such as the limbic and corti-cal zones.

At the Genetics Laboratory of the UN experiments are carried out with animals and show how the disease affects the motor system of certain rats.

There are only two groups in Colombia working in this field: one at the Universidad de Antioquia and this one at the Genetics Institute at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

Health

With the passage of time prob-lems of movement and cognitive type symptoms such as memory loss appear. The UN neurologist affirms that in very advanced stag-es the genes show peculiar clini-cal characteristics. “Brains with these mutations do not have Lewy Bodies, but do show degeneration of the black substance, in other words, destruction of the dop-aminergic neurons”.

It is known that there is a mu-tation of these two genes that gives rise to the disease and that the death of these neurons occurs in the inherited types, but the genetic cause in the sporadic cases is un-known.

“We have cultivated mouse neurons; it is an interesting model because they are dopaminergics that express very particular mark-ers that have their prolongation and potentials for action, which is why we want to find out why they die”, according to Arboleda.

In the Genetics Laboratory at the Universidad Nacional they re-move the Parkin and Pink1 genes to observe what happens with the neuron. “We have found that these two genes are involved in the dy-namic and natural protection of the mitochondria, the organelle of the cell that provides much of its energy.”

“If the cell lacks the ability to ensure that the mitochondria are in a certain place, it will not have sufficient energy to carry out its tasks. At the same time, if the organelle fails to degrade when it must do so, this leads to chaos that can cause premature cellular death and reach damaging lev-els. That is what interests us: to see how neurons survive when the gene is extracted and how these processes can or cannot regulate the genes”, explains María José Contreras, a doctoral student in biomedical sciences and member of the research team.

They have also investigated what happens if, instead of taking them out, more are applied. “We have found a toxin of environmen-tal origin that has been associated with one type of Parkinson's. It is a lipid called ceramide; we have observed that if the gene is over–expressed, the neurons are more

resistant to the toxin and do not die”, says Arboleda.

If the genes mutate they lose their function; that is why, think-ing about a possible therapy for Parkinson's, the ideal would be to increase the function of those genes given that they protect the neuron and mitochondria.

Contreras clarifies that all hu-man beings have the Parkin and Pink1 genes, the difference being that people with hereditary Par-kinson's have the mutation, which prevents them from fulfilling this function correctly and generates the disease.

It is not known what happens in the sporadic cases. Studies have shown that exposure to herbicides and similar substances are risk factors; in general, animal models use these substances in the experi-ments.

“We are working with rats that are injected with the toxins and a model is generated in which the problem appears; it is a practice which is just now getting underway at the UN. There are also transgenic models, in other words, with muta-tions in some of these genes that also generate motor problems, but these experiments are carried out with Drosophila flies.”

Although the experts recog-nize that we are far from achieving a cure for Parkinson's, this research helps to decipher the mysteries of this complicated disease step–by–step.

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Parkin and Pink, Genesthat Signal the Appearance of Parkinson’s

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Gimena Ruiz Pérez,Unimedios

What if a medical consulta-tion could tell you that in 10 years time you will suffer from cancer, Parkinson's, arthritis or other af-flictions, but that treatment to pre-vent the onset of the disease could begin now? Surprising isn't it? Re-searchers from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the United States and from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Medellín are working jointly to achieve this important scientific advance.

Over the course of several de-cades, professor David C. Schwartz developed an optical map in mi-crochannels (set of “tubes” or “tanks” created on a microscopic scale using lithography methods, 1 million times smaller than normal tubing), which makes it possible to completely sequence and ex-tract the human genome in high-resolution.

This technique is based on the organized presentation of DNA molecules that are then analyzed using visual tools such as the opti-cal microscope.

Predictions in a short time

Although the procedure was created years ago, the complete analysis of a genome – from its preparation until its interpretation – takes months. That is why, based on this first advance, professors at both institutions developed a methodology to optimize and re-

duce the time for the procedure to just hours, through the use of nanochannels (1 billion times smaller than microchannels ).

“This is the only method that currently exists in the world to analyze the genome at a resolu-tion of various nucleotides (the basic unit of DNA). There are lat-est generation techniques that cre-ate sequences, but none have the quality, simplicity and low cost of optical nanomapping. This means that in a few years we will be able to have a clinical tool that will en-able us to compare good and bad genes to predict whether a person will suffer from diabetes or if their offspring will have malformations”, says Juan Pablo Hernández Ortiz, a professor at the Mining Faculty at the UN in Medellín.

"In optical nanomapping we mark the DNA at various points and then pass it through a nano-channel, where we stretch it and read it optically as though it were a barcode. This reading enables us to extract the genome”, he reports.

Thus, using a computational model (developed at the UN), a dig-ital experiment is carried out into which all of the physical elements of the process are incorporated.

The researchers have per-formed experiments with sequenc-es and genomes of animals and humans using the procedure. Ac-cording to professor Hernández, “in the physical experiment, the virtual simulation process is repli-cated. A DNA solution is taken, in other words, from a chromosome, it is separated and the DNA mol-

ecules are extracted. They are then placed in a saline medium and enzymes are added that adhere to determined parts of the mole-cules, creating a fluorescent point. Using a syringe, this substance is then injected into a microchannel, and in an electrical field, the mol-ecules are forced to pass through the nanochannels. By combining this information, the genetic code is extracted one by one.”

State-of-the-art in medicine

He affirms that perfecting this technique would make it possible to advance in other hitherto unex-plored fields. “There are diseases whose origins have not been deter-mined and it is not known how to prevent them. They are aberrations of our genetic code that could be clarified through this procedure”.

For professor David C. Schwartz, “the project is discover-ing ways of obtaining data from the so-called ‘individual genetic profile’, fostering medical advances through the development of new computer programs and machines that rapidly and economically read the biological information of each individual”.

"When medical science is able to gain access to this technique, complications from these illness-es will decrease. In the economic sphere, people will spend less on medications, more will be known about conditions such as cancer and diabetes and many new dis-eases will be preventable”, recon-

structive plastic surgeon Claudia Mora acknowledges from her per-spective.

Catalina López Correa, vice president for Scientific Affairs at Genome Québec, stresses the way in which microfluids technology and nanotechnology applied to the study of DNA and genomics in gen-eral (DNA, RNA, study of proteins) is accelerating and facilitating re-search such as optical mapping. “Its impact on the development and validation of new genetic tests and the way of diagnosing and treating diseases such as cancer and other cardiometabolic condi-tions is huge”.

“Seeing and reading the com-plete book of life”. That is how pro-fessor Hernández views the pro-cess that can be carried out using this technology: “DNA is simply a language of four letters that tells us all of the functions of living things. Using the high-resolution genome, we will also be able to study the way to create vaccines and treatments. In this way, a field of research will also open up for other disciplines such as pharmaceuticals and bio-engineering”.

The project entitled ‘Study of DNA in Nanochannels for High–resolution Genome Studies (Estu-dio de ADN en nano–canales para estudios de genoma de alta resolu-ción) is financed by the National Institute of Health (NIH) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) of the USA through the Nanoscale and Engineering Center (NSEC) of the University of Wisconsin–Mad-ison.

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Using knowledge of the genome to anticipate diseases that a person will suffer is close to being a reality. A technique developed by researchers at the University of Wisconsin—Madison and the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, based on tiny structures known as nanochannels, is helping to de-cipher the genetic code with greater detail and speed.

A Virtual Technique Will Make ItPossible to Predict Genetic Diseases

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Jeinst Campo Rivera,Unimedios

The crisis that Colombia has gone through over the past five years because of the rainy seasons has resulted in the destruction of millions of crops and numerous victims in much of the national territory. Experts agree that one of the gravest errors has been the lack of prevention and follow-up on the country's main river flows.

According to the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and En-vironmental Studies (Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estu-dios Ambientales – Ideam), the in-stitution responsible for monitor-ing the behavior of water levels in the rivers, along with some of the Regional Autonomous Corpora-tions (Corporaciones Autónomas Regionales – CAR), in Colombia there are around 800 hydrologi-cal stations distributed around the main hydrographic river flows such as the Magdalena, Cauca and Amazon, measuring and recording their levels directly or indirectly. However, even with this informa-tion they have not been able to accurately predict floods.

Thus, researchers at the Uni-versidad Nacional de Colombia (National University of Colombia) in Palmira and from the IRD in France (Institut de Recherche pour le Développement) have been working for the last five years on the development and application of a hydrological monitoring net-work based on information ob-tained from space. The goal is to efficiently and precisely measure the levels of Colombia’s main riv-ers and observe their behavior over time.

One of these systems is al-ready operating in the Orinoco basin. It was created by Professor Juan Gabriel León, who holds a doctorate in Earth and Environ-mental Sciences, along with Astrid Lili Puertas, an Environmental En-gineering student. With data from the Envisat satellite, the research-ers obtain information to deter-mine the amount of water flowing through the rivers.

Without the need to install physical measurement stations on the rivers –which must be physi-cally observed on a daily basis, as performed by the Ideam– the ex-perts in 2008 were able to identify around 600 remote virtual stations or monitoring points in Colombia detected by satellite. Around 208 are located in the country's main river basins (see graphic 1).

Incomplete official information

“A virtual station is defined as any intersection that occurs be-tween the sweep of a satellite and a body of water that it identifies, based upon which it is possible to obtain information on variations in water levels over a given period of time”, according to student As-trid Puertas.

The data on the Orinoco were organized by the researchers us-ing the so-called Altico database (altimetry for Colombia), which they supplemented with hydro-logical data obtained from the Ideam. In this initiative, Professor León found that the Ideam fur-nished reports from only 20 of the 64 stations corresponding to this important basin, with incomplete reporting for some periods.

“If the authorities responsible for disaster prevention and the

scientists consult this informa-tion, they will definitely be work-ing based on incomplete records, which generates many uncertain-ties; that may be the reason why it is so difficult in this country to precisely predict the overflowing of the large rivers that cause flood-ing”, affirms the professor.

Using the Envisat satellite, the researchers at the National Uni-

versity identified 120 virtual sta-tions in the Orinoco River basin (the world's third most abundant), obtaining precise information on variations in the water levels in 2002 and 2008.

By comparing the records of one of these virtual stations with those of a physical station installed in the field by the Ideam, whose geographical positions are exactly

the same, a similarity is observed in their series, thus leading to the conclusion that the information obtained from space is accurate and reliable (see graphic 2).

Astrid Lili Puertas affirms that “this research is very impor-tant, not only because it provides supplementary data to those of the Ideam, but because it makes it possible to have a monitoring station anywhere in the country, regardless of the existing social or demographic conditions that would normally affect traveling to it. Meanwhile, it may be possible for scientists to gather key infor-mation on the Orinoco basin”.

Useful for generating early warnings

In addition to identifying vir-tual points from which to carry out satellite monitoring of the water levels in the basins, the researchers were able to estimate flows, in oth-er words, to analyze the amount of water flowing through the rivers, which could make it possible to know beforehand at what specific level there could be an overflow.

“We make these assessments by applying a hydrological model, which could provide us, for exam-ple, with information on the limits of flooding”, says León.

However, the researchers clar-ify that it is the relevant entities that must be responsible for the prevention of natural disasters, and that this type of reports is reli-able for feeding their early warn-ing models.

Professor León concludes that “the control bodies must be called upon to work together with ac-ademia to develop high–impact projects, which are the basis for working to improve their model-ing methodologies and prevention plans”.

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Graph 1

Graph 2

Using data obtained in space, researchers measured river levels in the Orinoco basin and the approximate amount of water contained in its main river flows. They were thus able to develop a hydrological monitoring network that governmental institutions would be able to use to predict flooding and avoid possible catastrophes.

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Using Satellite Informationto Warn of Overflowing Rivers

Using Satellite Informationto Warn of Overflowing Rivers

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The Black Box:from Aircraft to Automobiles

Hermann Sáenz,Unimedios

After an air accident, part of the work of first responders is to find the aircraft's black box where the flight parameters and conversations of the crew during an emergency are recorded. The compilation of those data makes it possible to reconstruct what hap-pened before the accident and to determine its causes.

Inspired by this idea, Plinio Teherán, Professor of Physics at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia (National University of Colombia), created an apparatus based on the same principle, but to establish what has happened before, dur-ing and after a traffic accident. It is called the Testigo Digital Au-tomotor (Digital Automotive Wit-ness) (TDA) and, in contrast to the black box on an aircraft, it does not record conversations but merely records the dynamics of the move-ment of a vehicle as it travels.

The professor has been work-ing for the last 15 years as a con-sultant for the Attorney General's Office to try to clarify the facts in vehicular collisions, and has ob-served that the mathematical pat-terns used for this purpose obtain reliable results in very few cases. “We carry out this work without being paid, at the request of the judicial institutions. It requires a lot of time and a sufficiently high technological level in order to ob-tain better and timely data”, adds Teherán.

That is why, along with two Physics and Engineering students, he built the TDA, as it is called, to reliably save the information, so that the trajectory, in other words the way in which an automobile moves, can be reconstructed.

The apparatus consists of ac-celerometers, memories and cir-cuits, and is able to measure when an automobile backs up, turns to the right or left, goes over a bridge or reduces speed, etc. Because it is digital, its data is then processed in a computer, where an emulator then creates an animated version of the vehicle’s last movements.

Increased accidents

According to statistics kept by the Road Prevention Fund (Fon-do de Prevención Vial), there are around 5,000 deaths each year in Colombia due to traffic accidents. “In 2000 there was a peak of 7,000 highway deaths. As a result of cam-paigns to promote the use of seat belts, the figure fell to 4,200, but motorcycle accidents have once again led to an increase”, com-ments Teherán.

Injuries due to traffic ac-cidents have reached 50,000 per year. Data on how many of these people die after being hospitalized is not yet available because death certificates always give a different cause of death, such as cardio-respiratory failure.

The Colombian Insurers’ Fed-eration (Federación de Asegura-dores Colombianos – Fasecolda) in 2010 recorded around 250,000 ac-cidents involving vehicular dam-age but without injuries, and in the great majority of such cases the guilty party is never deter-mined. “It appears that drivers do not care if they break the law be-cause they feel sure that they will never be prosecuted. Given that lack of concern, along with the in-ability of the system to prosecute the responsible parties, it is only

Physicists have designed a device for automobiles to make it possible with a high degree of reliability to determine what occurs in a traffic accident and thus facilitate judicial proceedings. A black box, but for automobiles.

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natural that there is an increase in the number of accidents”, explains the physicist.

That is why the idea is to con-vert the TDA into a forensic tool, so that responsibility can be deter-mined and cases can be promptly and fairly resolved. This system is actually an improved version of Wii, which uses accelerometers. “When the racket moves, the com-puter records it because the accel-erometer indicates the angle that is activating the device. The accelerometers in the game consoles are of lesser quality than the ones we use, because Wii is not able to deal with an increase in velocity on the or-der of 300 g (gravities), which is what happens when an auto-mobile collides with a truck”, ac-cording to Yamid Núñez, a Masters student in Physics at the UN and a member of the project.

The TDA, whose size is similar to that of a cellular phone, has been subjected to processes of ac-celeration and tested in different parts of vehicles and even motor-cycles, where it has been shown to record every movement. The appa-

ratus is installed near the gearshift lever underneath the radio, a zone rarely affected by the deformation following a serious collision. At the same time, the device would be enclosed in a steel box that only a competent authority would be permitted to open in order to re-cover the information.

The apparatus would be ca-pable of recording as many as 10,000 pieces of data per second, which is enough to reconstruct

what happens during a collision. The necessary information, with certain algorithms, is permanently recorded in an inviolable memory. “We are working to provide the apparatus with a sufficient degree of invulnerability, so that the data could not be altered mechanically, electrically, or by hackers”, says Teherán.

One of the big advantages of this device in the court system is

that it would make it possible to resolve cases in less time. Current-ly, with the new accusatory crimi-nal system, two years or more can pass between the time when an accident occurs and when formal charges are brought. The TDA pro-vides virtual animation of the ac-cident in five minutes and would therefore substantially reduce the timeframe for trial.

In addition to being con-vinced of the valuable contribu-

tion of the TDA in clarifying what has happened during a traffic accident, Teherán and his students are sure that, if each driver were to have one of these apparatus installed in their vehicle, they would think

twice before committing impru-dent acts. They therefore look to the possibility that someday pe-destrians would carry a similar but smaller device on their belts to be able to completely clarify any ac-cident that they could suffer.

“We designed and present-ed the proposal, and now we are working to get it accepted”, con-cluded the physicist from the Uni-versidad Nacional.

The device for automobiles cost 650,000 pesos using parts acquired at electronics stores. If it is mass-produced, taking into account the Colombian automotive fleet, it would cost 200,000 pesos (some US$ 100).

The green-colored Automotive Digital Witness transmits the records of movement of the automobile to a computer, where its behavior can be observed through graphic animation.

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Electronic waste,a mine for precious materials

Agencia de Noticias UN

Junked computers, cell phones or TVs could be a gold, silver or copper mine, according to UN stu-dents, through a chemical process called hydrolysis.

Although there are companies devoted to the extraction of pre-cious materials on an industrial scale, seven Mining College stu-dents have come up with a novel model. Unlike more traditional procedures, this one uses hydroly-sis to extract these elements from disposed computer electronic boards.

The method consists of sepa-rating magnetic particles and poly-mers through a chemical process, while searching for elements such as gold, silver or copper. These are obtained by lixiviating or extract-ing them from liquid components such as sulphuric acid.

Carlos Mario Suárez, a Me-chanical Engineering student, ex-plains that the procedure is known as hydrolysis where “liquids like sulphuric acid and cyanide extract metals, without leaving residues which neither affect the environ-ment nor consume a lot of energy”. It is not performed from smelting as this could harm the environment.

Tomasa del Carmen Pavón, an Industrial Engineer states that

the interest to do the project is due to the fact that in “Colom-bia electronic waste management is something new; we know that these components have toxic and chemical residues that may be harmful to people”.

It’s been estimated that the country produces more than nine thousand tons a year of electronic computer waste. The Gestión de Residuos de Aparatos Eléctricos y Electrónicos (RAEE) in Colombia projects 0.5 kg per person for 2013. Therefore, students of the UN have devised this optimization strategy for materials which are generally disposed of, as a recycling mindset hasn’t yet developed in Colombia.

According to the tests real-ized by the students, for each 100 grams of electronic boards up to 0.2 grams of gold, 0.1 of silver, 20 of copper, 2 of zinc and 7 of alumi-num can be extracted. Addition-ally, this method may be applied to electronic boards of other elec-tronic appliances such as washing machines, TV’s, cell phones and laptops.

This innovative method was proposed during the Academic Open House put on by the Mining College. The creators of this in-novation are confident that in the future this strategy can be imple-mented on a full scale.

This innovative new method hopes to extract precious metals from all types of junked electronics.

Creating biodegradablepolystyrene from mushroom waste

Agencia de Noticias UN

A group of students from Universidad Nacional in Medellín is utilizing the waste from aban-doned edible mushroom heaps and turning it into biodegradable polystyrene for commercial use.

Researchers have discovered that waste utilized in commercial mushroom farming, such as saw-dust, grass, plantain leaves, coffee waste, amongst others are com-pacted after being mixed with my-celium, the reproductive colonies of fungi. Furthermore it has an assembly quality that enables the creation of an element similar to polystyrene.

The process consists of col-lecting the waste or units left over after mushroom harvesting and then building “a standard block providing a uniform size (1 to 2 kilos); this is performed using a manual hydraulic press in order to minimize energy expense, emis-sions and water consumption”, ac-cording to Laura Soto, a student of Industrial Engineering in the Mining College.

After the material is produced, another machine is used to form the packing material used for glasses, candles, wine bottles and other similar products. The pro-cess is completed with a baking and evaporation procedure, which helps to eliminate the moisture and finalize the production of the polystyrene.

To manufacture the “artifi-cial” polystyrene, byproducts from

oyster, ganoderma and shiitake mushrooms are removed in order to avoid contaminating people. UN students get these materials from mushroom growers of An-tioquia, that generally don’t make an adequate use of agricultural byproducts.

This student initiative is en-vironmentally friendly, as besides recycling mushroom waste mate-rials, it can have a lifetime of be-tween 6 and 12 months after its processing, without any environ-mental complications. After the product cycle is completed, it can be dumped in a natural location and it will naturally decompose without affecting the environ-ment.

Laura Soto claims this model is only used in the United States and that in Colombia, work is done with biodegradable plastic based on flower crop wastes. The stu-dent says this is a low cost strategy and bio-sustainable, as produc-tion profitability is 0,7% on invest-ment.

The technological proposal, named “Icoplan”, has been well ac-cepted by the Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje- SENA. This entity has supported the idea of the six fu-ture engineers from the Medellín campus.Example of mushroom waste after conversion to “Icoplan”.

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“Papa criolla” will now be canned and naturally preserved

Agencia de Noticias UNWork performed by UN, in

conjunction with potato growers has come up with a genetic im-provement of the potato so that it can be canned and naturally pre-served, while still maintaining its primary characteristics.

Speaking with this news agen-cy, Luis Ernesto Rodríguez, the academic secretary of the Faculty of Agronomy of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, explained that this project was multidisci-plinary and had two distinct goals: a genetic improvement of the po-tato, and the industrial processing headed by Professor Aníbal Her-rera, Director of the Instituto de

Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos (ICTA) of UN.

This genetic exercise extends all the way to industrial produc-tion. It has been performed com-pletely at ICTA and has several plans of action, one of them be-ing the making of canned or glass pickled potato (papa criolla*). “The potatoes are cooked and bottled in a salt and vinegar solution. The benefit is that they have between 3 and 4 years of shelf life and still preserve their flavor, odor and tex-ture characteristics. Furthermore, they can be exported to remote markets such as China and the rest of the Far East”, he adds.

“Starches are another planned product line for this interdisciplin-

ary project with this resistant veg-etable. We are also going to market mashed papa criolla, that unlike white mashed potatoes, will have organoleptic elements as well as better taste and texture properties, in addition to high zinc and beta–carotene contents”, he says.

The third proposed line are frozen foods. According to the re-searcher, “potatoes are pre-cooked and then quick–frozen with a ther-mal shock system. This type of freezing method maintains most of the color and taste features that make papa criolla so special, as well as its flour–like texture”.

Colombia is the first producer and exporter of papa criolla in the world. Annually, between 8,000 and 10,000 hectares of this potato are planted, generating a harvest of more than 1,000 tons. Although this amount may seem low, papa criolla went from being poor man’s clothes to being a tuxedo, in other words, from a popular Colombian grill setting (fritanguería) to inter-national gourmet kitchen. Exports of papa criolla has found its own market niche and even more so now that free trade agreements are knocking on our doors, revealed Professor Rodríguez.

Most important of all was the cooperation between the lab and the field, as we had the assistance of the Nariño potato producing peasants (Nariño being the pilot Colombian province for the tests) and the producers union known

as Fedepapa. In addition, we also had the support of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Horticulture and Fruit Association of Colombia (Asohofrucol, for its Spanish acro-nym).

The genetic process

The Professor indicated that the Genetic Improvement Pro-gram of the Faculty of Agronomy began in 2008, improving the va-riety of the papa criolla by means of scientific work. “It all started with the idea of achieving a more robust product which would be resistant to the diseases that af-fect potato crops, such as ‘potato blight’ (Phytophthora infestans) and the ‘yellowing vein’ virus, a disease linked to climate change and global warming”.

“As the production area tem-perature grows, so will the popula-tion of the white fly that transmits the disease. Almost all of the pota-to production areas (not only papa criolla, but all varieties) are already infected. First, we gathered dis-ease ridden plants and introduced virus-clean white flies to feed on the leaves. Later, the infected flies were introduced to the genetically modified Colombian papa criolla plants. Afterwards we analyzed the data to determine which modified plants had genetic resistance to the disease”, he concluded.

*Andean yellow potato/creole potato

Canned and preserved potatoes, a UN project with inter-institutional association and support.

Machine would dry yucca leaves for nutritional purposes

Agencia de Noticias UN

A thermodynamic design, de-veloped by Mining College research-ers, dehydrates yucca leaves for ani-mal or human consumption.

Víctor Hugo Borda, a research-er of the Applied Thermodynamic and Alternative Energy Group (TA-YEA, for its Spanish acronym) of UN, developed a thermo-photo-voltaic device, in other words, a device that will allow the exchange of heat and electric energy inside a drying chamber for the extrac-tion of moisture contained within yucca leaves.

Why yucca? As explained by a member of TAYEA, the raw protein content in the yucca leaf is above 20%. Nevertheless, it also has sub-stances such as hydrocyanic acid, a toxic compound that may be eliminated in the technological process proposed by the UN re-searchers.

The research concluded that there are several ways to dry prod-ucts, such as coffee, but the impor-tance of this proposed method is that “nobody uses thermodynamic

models for drying and these pro-vide a guide as to how to engineer the machine and how to perform the drying procedure in order to not lose the physical chemical properties or degrade the proteins in the material”, stated Víctor Hu-

go Borda. Another great feature of this

machine is that renewable and so-lar energy is used in order to enable areas without electricity to use this kind of alternative procedure.

The machine has a thermo–

solar system, composed of several Fresnel lenses, focusing solar en-ergy towards a thermal plate with photovoltaic panels. The focused heat is used to increase the air temperature in the drying cham-ber, where the yucca leaves are deposited.

Preliminary drying tests have been performed in laboratory op-erating units with 3 kilos of leaves brought from the Centro Inter-nacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in Palmira. This center has the specific material and special varieties in their crops for the tests performed with UN hybrid photo–voltaic equipment which is used for drying other materials.

Although the research only utilizes the thermodynamic model in order to analyze the behavior of the material in an industrial set-ting, countries in Africa and China have been known to test this nutri-tional strategy using raw materials such as the yucca leaf.

This strategy could be used in the Colombian Department of La Guajira or the Mutatá region in the Department of Antioquia.

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Erosion Alert at Colombian Beaches

Giovanni Clavijo Figueroa,Unimedios

While the country tries to re-cover from one of its most extreme series of floods in recent years due to the winter rainy season, some of the coastal zones of Colombia are threatened by climate variabil-ity in this region of the continent, according to a study carried out by the research group on Ocean-ography and Coastal Engineering (Oceánicos) at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, the Re-search Center for Environmental Management and Development (Centro de Investigación para el Manejo Ambiental y el Desarrollo – Cimad) and the Universidad de Cantabria (Spain).

The experts point to the need to take action in areas affected by erosion in Bocagrande, Cartagena, to protect the tourism industry, and to recover Playa Palmeras on the island of Gorgona, to conserve a unique species of turtle found nowhere else in the world, the Gol-fina (Lepidochelys olivacea).

The objective of the Oceáni-cos group is to analyze the natural dynamics of the Colombian coast-al zones (which have not been widely researched until now), gen-erate knowledge and provide solu-tions for their problems. And at the same time, to call the national gov-ernment's attention to the need to organize the beaches into natural ecosystems that are constantly af-fected by changes.

Monitoring the beach

Bocagrande has a vital tour-ism sector, but it has been affected by climate processes such as ris-ing tides (mares de leva) –which are increasingly intense–, tail ends of hurricanes and coastal ero-sion, among other phenomena. Over the last 20 years they have changed the natural dynamic of the sea and waves, making them very unstable.

To understand the problem in this context, it is important to note that this is a matter of coastal ero-sion: the beaches have a certain width (area) for bathers next to the sea, which starts to erode due to big waves and to cover up part of the sandy sediment. The continu-ity of this process generates a loss of beach area so that the waves end up striking the cliffs, buildings and roads. In Cartagena this pro-cess is endangering the sustain-ability of its infrastructure and the well–being of its population.

At the same time, the rising tides (mar de leva) are a phenom-enon that affects the Colombian Caribbean and comprises all of the extreme events that generate flooding on the coast. For exam-

ple, the sea level may rise due to winds and pressure fronts (me-teorological tides). In addition, the waves that reach the beaches can be intensified by cold fronts and/or hurricanes, which make the lev-el of flooding on the coast higher than normal and overwhelm the embankments of the roads, sea-fronts and buildings.

In Bocagrande there are hotels and homes near the beach that are in danger of being flooded, accord-ing to professor and researcher Andrés Osorio, from the Oceánicos group at the Mining Faculty of the Universidad Nacional in Medellín. “To counteract the risk, the gov-ernment must implement a plan to organize the coasts along with a permanent monitoring program, as well as coastal infrastructure in certain cases, and in others strate-gies for relocating the population that lives in the most vulnerable zones”.

To measure the erosion, the

Universidad Nacional has de-veloped a system that is unique in Latin America to monitor the beaches in real-time. “Using digital cameras, we constantly take pho-tographs which we send over the Internet to an operational center where the erosion of the beaches is analyzed and identified along with the way in which sediments accumulate in certain stretches. This also enables us to measure the currents and quantify the mag-nitude of the waves”, says the UN researcher.

50 meters less of beach

The monitoring carried out by the researchers a year and a half ago at Bocagrande made it possible for them to see how the beach has lost 50 meters, due to the extreme climatological fluc-tuations and severe tidal events that occurred during the hurricane

season between January and De-cember of 2010.

Osorio warns that “the rising sea level and climate variability associated with the El Niño and La Niña phenomena are a reality that the country has just gone through, and what occurred on the rivers, although it has been more critical, is also happening on the coasts, which are at great risk and threat-ened; it is just that we have not perceived this”.

Osorio says that tourism, which is one of the main loco-motives for Cartagena’s economy, could be significantly reduced because of these threats. “If the beach is eroded, travelers will not have a place to soak up the sun. In response to such destruction, they will surely avoid returning”.

However, their study proposes short, medium and long-term so-lutions, beginning with an under-standing of the coastal dynamic. “If we monitor the beaches, we

The rising tides and erosion have caused the water to go beyond the coastal strip in Bocagrande (Cartagena). The images show how from January to December of 2010 the beach lost 50 meters.

Ecology

Over the last year, Bocagrande, in Cartagena, has lost 50 meters of its coastline due to problems stemming from erosion and rising tides (mares de leva). Palmeras, in the Gorgona National Natural Park, is going through a similar situation. The infrastructure, tour-ism and a unique species of turtle found only there are seriously threatened. Experts point to the need to take action in the af-fected zones and to recover the coasts.

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Between 2009 and 2010, live Golfina turtle births ranged between 78% and 86%. In 2011, they suffered a drastic reduction to 34%.

will have average data and reliable information to enable us to esti-mate the time of year in which, for example, a hurricane could come through along with its possible impact on the coasts. This would make it possible to take preven-tive measures”, concludes Andrés Osorio.

The project, financed by the Spanish International Develop-ment Agency (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional pa-ra el Desarrollo - Aecid), has made it possible to address this research problem using state–of–the–art technology.

The Golfina is losing its nest

Playa Palmeras, in the Gor-gona National Natural Park, has an area that is approximately 1200 meters long and some 20 meters wide on average at low tide condi-tions. It is therefore a really short and small beach where the sea turtles of the Lepidochelys olivacea species, commonly known as the Golfina, come from the Gulf of Mexico to lay their eggs.

For more than 40 years, the is-land was a maximum-security pris-on, and numerous coconut palm trees were planted on its beach, thus giving rise to its name. These plants grew without any control, occupying ever more space along the sandy edge and colonizing the places available for the turtles to build their nests. Currently, the space available for them to natu-rally lay their eggs is minimal.

The impact on their nests has been huge because it means they are exposed to the sea, and when the water level rises above what is normal, the nests get washed by the waves, as observed by Di-ego Amorocho, PhD and executive director of the Cimad. “Between August and December of 2010 we recorded around 28 nests, and in the year–to–date between 80% and 90% have been lost”.

The situation is increasingly critical for this species, which is in danger of extinction, even though Palmeras is one of the few beaches that does not have direct anthro-pogenic impacts, in other words, there is no pressure on the turtles and their eggs from a human pop-ulation.

During the 2010 reproductive season, the researchers relocated the nests on a kind of platform to facilitate better incubation, at-tempting to isolate them from the impact of the tides and the ac-tion of the waves. This, however, proved insufficient. “The success-ful hatching rate was only 34%, compared to previous years when it ranged between 78% and 86%. In other words, 86 baby turtles would emerge from the nest”, according to the director of the Cimad, who has closely followed the behavior of these animals.

Nesting process

Of the seven species of sea turtles that exist in the world, the Golfina is the smallest, measur-ing between 60 and 70 centime-ters and weighing around 45 kilos. They arrive on the Pacific coast of Colombia between July and No-vember to lay their eggs in a 60 cm deep nest that the female digs. There she deposits an average of 100 eggs, which take between 45 and 50 days to complete their in-cubation period. When the young emerge, they go to the edge of

the beach and then begin to walk to the sea; 30 or 40 years later, if they are lucky enough to survive to adulthood, the females return to lay their eggs on the same beach where they were born.

For Amorocho, “this place has a very dynamic oceanographic and climatological process, and what is happening can affect the sandy border available for the turtles to nest. The worst thing is that the growth and colonization by the coconut palms towards the sea is taking away this species’ space for egg laying”.

That is the finding of the Oceánicos group from the UN that he leads, which last year began a project to evaluate the impact on the Golfina of the palms and beach erosion and accretion processes. This knowledge will enable them to propose alternatives for conser-vation of this species.

With the approval of the Na-tional Parks Unit, an attempt will be made to selectively modify the area where the vegetable species are planted. The idea is to enlarge the space available for the turtles’ normal reproduction towards the land in order to protect the exis-tence of this species on the Co-lombian Pacific coast, which has a crucial role in the ecosystem.

“The sea turtles are indispens-able for maintaining the balance of the marine ecosystems and play an important role as elements for the flow of nutrients between the land and maritime environments. The baby turtles have an ecologi-cal function on land because they serve as food for other species that prey upon them, such as crabs, marine birds and small mammals. In this way, the stability of the trophic chain in the beach ecosys-tem is maintained”, asserts Diego Amorocho.

In addition to the Oceánicos group from the UN and the Fun-dación Cimad, the National Parks Unit also takes part in the Playa Palmeras research project, with support from the Fund for En-vironmental Action and Children (Fondo para la Acción Ambiental y la Niñez) as well Conservación Internacional.

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Lepidochelys olivacea is the world's smallest sea turtle and lays its eggs at Playa Palmeras on Gorgona Island.

Ecology

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Found in the Department of Nariño, near the Ecuadorian border, captivating because of its bright colors, but above all because of its enor-mous tongue, which is twice as long as its body, the world's longest until now.

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A New Bee Species with an Unusually Long Tongue

Elizabeth Vera Martínez,Unimedios

Scientists estimate that there are around 20,000 species of bees in the world, and approximately 5,000 are found in the Neotropic, in other words, in Latin Ameri-ca, according to Carlos Sarmiento Monroy, an entomologist at the Institute for Natural Sciences of the Universidad Nacional (National University).

The complete inventories car-ried out by the Bee Research Labo-ratory of the National University (Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Abejas de la UN –Labun), led by Professor Guiomar Nates, contain information on the five families of these insects present in Colom-bia (Colletidae, Andrenidae, Halic-tidae, Megachilidae and Apidae), around 60% of the genuses and nearly 25% of the species.

Euglossa natesi n. sp. is one of the orchid bees, so named because of its pollinating action and special relationship with these flowers. Ac-cording to Rudolfo Ospina, profes-sor at the Biology Department of the UN and who first described

this new variety, “the males are at-tracted by certain species and not only look for honey and pollen but also aromatic substances”.

With long tongues

All of the bees of the genus Euglossa, which in Germany are known as Jewel Bees because of their bright blue, green, brass and gold colors, have very long tongues. This organ can be even longer than their bodies, but even so the tongue of the Euglossa natesi, named in honor of Professor Guiomar Nates for her contribution to the study of bees, is unusually large.

“This insect is different, be-cause it has the longest tongue found until now, which is more than twice the length of its body”, says Professor Ospina. He added that this characteristic enables it to gain access to sources of nectar that other bees cannot reach while at the same time pollinating other plants besides orchids.

Euglossa natesi looks for ole-aginous substances that it can use to attract a mate. It impregnates its feet with aromatic oils that it

stores in its rear tibias, and using a kind of spray in its middle feet, deploys fragrances that it uses to compete and seduce the females. Every male has its own combina-tion of aromas.

The orchid bees are abundant in the rainforests of the lower altitudes of the Neotropical region, “although the possibility that some species also live in dry and open habitats cannot be ruled out”, says Ospina.

There is still disagreement among scientists regarding the subgenus E. natesi, because on the one hand its morphology is similar to that of Glossurella, such as the absence of hoods on the sternum, while on the other hand it resem-bles Glossura, in the form of the posterior tibia, the length of the tongue, the size of the body and the tuft of hair that the males have at the tip of their genitals. This contradiction makes them unique among the members of these two subgenuses.

Endemic

This new bee was found in 2005 in the Río Ñambi Private Nat-

ural Reserve in the Department of Nariño, in the municipality of Bar-bacoas, by student Víctor Solarte, of the Labun, along with Alejandro Parra and Santiago Ramírez, who are carrying out their postdoctoral studies abroad. To trap them in the forest, they used bait that imitated the aromas of the orchids.

The species has a limited dis-tribution and is endemic to the bio-geographical region of the Chocó, “which demonstrates the potential biodiversity of this region”, says the professor.

The foothills of Nariño where this new species lives is one of the worlds rainiest places, and due to its highly sloped terrain and its vegetation, the bee communities frequently move between relatively close by areas.

This “exchange” of species among neighboring ecosystems is known as “beta diversity or differ-entiation of the diversity between areas”, and complements the con-cept of alpha diversity, which is based simply on the number of species and their local abundance. In this regard, the foothills of the Pacific and particularly the Ñambi

Species

Its tongue at rest is more than twi-ce the length of its body.

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Scientific classification of the new species Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Subfamily Tribe Genus SpeciesAnimal Arthropods Insects Hymenopterans Apidae Apinae Euglossini Euglossini Natesi

region demonstrate a high level of beta diversity compared to other regions, “as shown by the results obtained with the orchid bee com-munity”, according to the expert.

He adds that these insects tend to exploit two types of flowers: those that are available through-out the year and, depending on the season, those from plants with defined flowering periods. For ex-ample, some species flower during one month a year, whereas oth-ers flower during as many as 10 months.

This strategy of exploiting re-sources, along with the mobility of the bee communities along the attitudinal gradient (progressive transformation in the vegetation, soil and fauna of a slope) “shows that the forests of the biogeo-graphical Chocó, far from being homogenous, are systems that ef-fectively respond to environmental variations”, says Professor Ospina. “Therefore, they must be under-stood in their variability in order to implement effective measures for protection or recovery of one of the planet's most diverse areas.”

The Labun, recognized in the scientific world for its bee collec-tion, has the privilege of conserv-ing the holotype, in other words, the only example that serves as a point of reference for the descrip-tion and comparison of new spe-cies. However, some examples of this species (paratypes) have been sent to other collections.

This male Euglossa natesi n. sp., found in the Department of Nariño, has a total length of 16.88 mm.

Threatened Bird is SavedThe pava caucana, an endemic bird of Colombia classified as being in danger of extinction, is recovering its survival pos-sibilities in the Yotoco Natural Reserve (in the Department of Valle del Cauca). The good condition of this forest has made it possible to conserve 100 members of this species.

Jeinst Campo Rivera,Unimedios

Not much is known about the elusive Penelope perspicax, commonly known as the pava caucana or pava de monte. This galliform bird, which belongs to the Cracidae family, found in the geographical valley of the Cauca River, is on the list of endangered species, according to the Interna-tional Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), partly due to loss and fragmentation of its habitat as well as hunting.

The pava’s average size is 76 cm; its feathers are a grayish dun color with a subtle light gray edge that enables it to quickly camou-flage itself in the forest, making it more difficult for it to be seen.

Researchers from the Universi-dad Nacional de Colombia in Palmi-ra (National University of Colombia) and the Wildlife Conservation Soci-ety (WCS) are tracking it through a meticulous monitoring program in the 559 hectares of the Yotoco Na-tional Forestry Reserve (owned by the UN), where one of the last popu-lations, consisting of approximately 100 individuals, is conserved.

Seed dispersal potential

Experts committed to conser-vation of the pava caucana have carried out studies and monitoring to identify its role in the ecosystem and determine if the population is increasing or decreasing over time.

A study undertaken in 2006 by biologist Gustavo Kattan for the Fundación Ecoandina and the Instituto Humboldt, in the Otún Quimbaya Fauna and Flora sanc-

tuary in the Department of Risara-lda (where the greatest number of these birds are found), showed that they eat 91 species of plants with large quantities of seeds that they disperse intact through their fecal material.

“This shows that the pava can be an effective disseminator in transporting and depositing seeds through the forest, because thanks to its flexibility in the use of dif-ferent habitats, including second-ary forests and tree plantations, it

helps to regenerate them”, says the researcher.

This potential functionality pava caucana in the ecosystem led a group of students from the UN (National University) in Palmira, coordinated by researchers from the WCS and with support from the Fondo Mohamed Bin Zayed, to walk through the rainforest of the Yotoco Reserve for a year to monitor the status of these bird populations.

“Because it is a bird that is unique to Colombia and is found in very few places, we need to constantly watch over its popula-tions to determine if they have increased or decreased, and to identify if they are in good condi-tion”, affirms Catalina Gutiérrez, a scientist with the WCS.

Example of conservation

In 2004 researchers from the Universidad del Valle found that in order to locate a group of pavas caucanas they had to walk through 5.3 km of dense forest to find an average of 1.4 individuals. In con-trast, the researchers from the UN in Palmira, sampling as many as 92 km, have discovered that this year in order to find a group of those birds they needed to walk approxi-mately 2.3 km, a lower indicator in terms of distance.

According to zootechnician Carlos Jaramillo, director of the re-serve, this increase in the frequen-cy of sightings shows that the pava caucana has not been extinguished in the Valle del Cauca and that the Yotoco Reserve is arduously work-ing to acquire knowledge about it and for its conservation, as it is cataloged as being in imminent danger of extinction.

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First Mapof Diseases that Affect

Decorative Fish in Colombia

Bacterial infections are afflicting and killing the most popular decora-tive fish in the country, according to an epidemiological study that ex-amined 4,000 of these animals and more than 100 species found in the departments of Vichada, Guainía, Putumayo, Amazonas and Meta and in export warehouses in Bogotá.

Giovanni Clavijo Figueroa,Unimedios

The use of fish for decora-

tive purposes dates as far back as ancient Babylonia −around the fifth century B.C.−, and currently in certain cultures such as in Asia, these aquatic animals are a sign of socioeconomic status.

In South America, extracting fish from their habitats is a highly profitable activity, which leads to a dilemma: on the one hand, it is one of the few legal employ-ment options in many riverside and jungle regions of Colombia, while on the other hand it causes an ecological impact that has yet to be adequately measured.

In the Colombian case, the rivers from which decorative fish species are taken are mostly found in the Orinoco and Amazon ba-sins. Their exportation generates revenues of around US$ 8 million yearly. According to UN Comtrade 2010 data, Colombia is one of Lat-in America's leading countries in this trade (holding first place in the value of exports and second place in the number of individuals traded).

However, crowding and exces-sive handling, along with deterio-rated water used to maintain these animals makes them vulnerable to attacks by diverse diseases, par-ticularly those caused by bacteria, which lead to premature deaths.

Links of diseases

The project began from the premise of ignorance of the pre-cise causes and factors leading to the deaths of these freshwater spe-cies in Colombia. “No systematic work had been carried out accord-ing to regions and species that would give us that information. We suspected that they were being improperly handled throughout the chain of extraction, with grave repercussions on their health and on the environment” according to professor Carlos Iregui, leader of the Veterinary Pathobiology Group at the Universidad Nacional and a researcher into infectious diseases among fish and mammals.

Colombia has not specialized in the raising of these species but rather on their extraction, says Giovanni Penagos, a veterinar-ian from the UN. “This activity is neither viable nor sustainable over the long term, so our research seeks to create health bases and to determine the factors that influ-

ence the pathologies that affect them, so as to contribute towards their sustainable production”.

The study followed up on each link in the fish commercialization chain, taking water samples to measure quality parameters, and fish tissue samples to determine the disease and cause of death of the individuals, according to vet-erinarian Paola Barato.

Demands of the chain

The process consists first of all of the fishermen. According to Barato, “it is not a mass labor, but rather there is an art of fishing for each species, and in many zones those who capture them are indig-enous people”.

Subsequently, the fishermen store the fish in cement basins, aquariums and earthenware tanks. They are in constant contact with the exporter and those responsible for sending the final product to the

purchasers, who are almost always international ones.

The most sought after and costly decorative species in Co-lombia are the ‘arawana azul’, which is found only in the Depart-ment of Vichada, the manta rays that mostly come from the rivers of Orinoquia, and other species such as the ‘cucha real rayada’ and ‘arawana plateada’.

In order to regulate fishing in the country, the Colombian Ag-ricultural and Livestock Raising Institute (Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario – ICA) has estab-lished annual fishing and export quotas for each species as well as prohibited periods in each region to avoid overexploitation.

Diseases of freshwater species

The UN researchers, led by microbiologist Judith Figueroa, ex-amined around 4,000 decorative fish belonging to more than 100

species from the departments of Vichada, Guainía, Putumayo, Am-azonas and Meta and from export warehouses in Bogotá.

After clinical, histopathologi-cal, stereological and molecular biological analysis of the individu-als, it was found that the main cause of mortality and disease are bacterial infections, mainly those caused by Aeromonas hydrophi-la. These bacteria affect a large number of highly sought after fish such as the ‘cuchas’, ‘cardenales’, ‘escalares’, ‘sapuaras’ and ‘estriga-tas’, among others. “The infections are associated with overcrowding, excessive handling of the fish and sudden alterations of water qual-ity, mainly levels of oxygen, tem-perature and ammonium”, said the veterinarian from the UN.

Diseases were also identified that caused serious problems in particular species, such as bran-chial parasitisms stemming from Piscinoodinium in ‘cuchillos’, gas-trointestinal coccidiosis in ‘estriga-tas’ and skin infections compatible with flavobacteriosis in ‘monedas’. In this regard, Penagos affirms that “it involves alterations that tend to strike particular families or species and need to be handled differently from the moment of capture”.

In a number of species, infec-tions were also found due to my-cobacteria (tuberculosis). In addi-tion to the difficulty in controlling those diseases, the bacteria can cause skin infections among hu-mans, which is why special han-dling is required at the storage sites.

The study creates a basis for improving the quality of health of aquarium fish exported from Co-lombia, and makes it possible to affirm that the country currently does not have diseases that lead to restrictions or health vetoes from the World Trade Organization. A book with the results will be pub-lished, under the title Mapa epi-demiológico de las enfermedades de los peces ornamentales en Co-lombia (Epidemiological Map of Diseases of Decorative Fish in Co-lombia) along with two booklets on public health handling.

The research was financed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Ru-ral Development, in partnership with the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, the Universidad de los Llanos, JCF Caribefish and Coop-esca.

Cucha real rayada

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Hermann Sáenz,Unimedios

In 2005, a farmer in Villa de Leyva, who lived on a hillside in La Carolina, found what, at first glance, seemed to be two com-mon ordinary rocks. His curios-ity made him doubt this, however, and so despite their considerable weight, he took them to the Co-lombian Geobiology Foundation (Fundación Colombiana de Geo-biología) in a rural area of the municipality, where experts con-firmed his suspicions: those two objects found in the open air were actually fossils.

But there is nothing unusual about discovering prehistoric re-mains in Villa de Leyva, particu-larly when they come from marine reptiles, because numerous such findings have been recorded in that municipality. However, these nearly round remains were dif-ferent because they proved to be femoral heads from a dinosaur.

The event became the first ap-pearance of signs of a dinosaur in the region, and the third such dis-covery in Colombia.

Six years later, research con-firms that the fossils are indeed from a land animal, and that its morphological characteristics cor-respond to those of a dinosaur. “The fossilized bones found in previous years in Villa de Leyva allow us to make comparisons. The femur from a marine animal is smaller, flattened and with a rounder volume. Bones from this recently–studied finding are dif-ferent and may correspond to a sauropod”, according to María Páramo, professor of paleontol-ogy at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and at the Foundation.

Although species are defined by such characteristics as the cra-nium and vertebrae, it is difficult to conclude with precision the species to which these remains be-long. Nonetheless, professor Pára-mo alludes to a particular char-acteristic of the sauropods: “They have a kind of lateral protuberance on the femur that could help us to approximate the identity of this individual. The size of this thigh-bone shows that the animal could have a length between 12 and 18 meters”.

The pieces were found on the surface on top of rocks that are ap-proximately 125,000,000 years old. Based on this data, on the form of preservation and on the geological characteristics of the region, it ap-pears that the sauropod lived dur-ing the Cretaceous era between 125 and 110 million years ago.

The geologist explains that the fossils came to be there through a process of natural mechanical transport. After the muscles and organs decompose, the bones are dragged along by water currents, nearby waves, rising tides or rivers and thus fossilize in a place other than where the animal had actu-ally died.

On the beaches of Villa de Leyva

During part of the Cretaceous era (between 145 and 65 million meters ago), half of Colombia’s ter-ritory was covered by the ocean, which is why marine species from that period are relatively easy to find there: plesiosaurs, ichthyo-saurs and marine turtles dating from between 130 and 125 million years ago.

In Villa de Leyva, a number of

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geologists have associated the dis-covery of so many marine reptiles with its past proximity to the coast, while others have cited the rocks that were deposited in deeper sites away from the shores. “The fact that these dinosaur remains have been found here associated with those sediments is an additional indicator that the coast could not have been far away, because these animals were supremely continen-tal”, adds Páramo.

Another important aspect in the research is that the piec-es found in this northwestern corner of the South American continent are of great scientif-ic interest because they were discovered in an intermediate point between the large quantity of dinosaurs found in southern Argentina and Chile and those of North America and Europe. Thus, the few fossils that have been reported are of strategic importance in clarifying the re-lationship between the creatures from the two hemispheres.

Dinosaurs from the coast and from

the Department of Tolima

While María Páramo and stu-dent David García continue to put together the jigsaw puzzle in search of further details on the di-nosaur, it is known that in Colom-bia remains have been found from two other land–based giants.

The first was discovered dur-ing excavations carried out by the Tropical Oil Company in 1945. Ac-cording to the book entitled Pa-leontological notes, by Langston and Durham, vertebrae from the middle part of the thorax belong-ing to a sauropod dinosaur was found in the municipality of La Paz, Magdalena.

The piece is at the Paleontol-ogy Museum of the University of California at Berkeley, and what is unusual is that, for a sauropod, the bone is of modest size: the centrum (center of the vertebrae in the form of a drum) is 180 mm

long, 165 mm high and 154 mm wide. This specimen is impor-tant because it had hitherto been found more to the north of South America.

The remains of the second di-nosaur were found at Ortega, Toli-ma, in 1949. They consist of three isolated teeth from theropods, ac-cording to research carried out by Spanish geologist Martín Ezcurra.

The continental sediments from the Cretaceous epoch as well as a bit before during the previous Jurassic epoch make it difficult to find additional dinosaurs in Co-lombia, because the fossils do not easily rise to the surface. “They are not found exposed to the surface but rather at depths, which is why there are not many such solid ma-terials available for study”, accord-ing to Professor Páramo.

Compared to the paleontol-ogy being carried out in Argentina or Chile, Colombia does not yet have much to contribute. “The ad-vantage however is that we can learn from them”, she concludes.

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For the first time, the remains of a dinosaur have been found in Villa de Leyva. In this municipality in Boyacá, known for its marine species fossils, scientists from the Universidad Nacional identified a sauropod ap-proximately 125,000,000 years old. The finding of this land animal refutes the hypothesis that this region was far from the seacoast 145 million years ago.

María Páramo has been studying this femoral head for six years to determine the dinosaur species to which it belongs.

Dinosaur Discovered in Boyacá

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The Mortiño, a promising fruitfor the country's health and economy

Gimena Ruiz Pérez,Unimedios

The mortiño, or Andean blue-berry (arándano), scientifically known as the Vaccinium meridi-onale Swartz, has been found to contain pigments known as antho-cyanins, which act as antioxidants (substances that protect cells) in organisms.

That is why researchers at the Food Science Laboratory at the Universidad Nacional de Colom-bia (National University of Colom-bia) in Medellín, in Association with experts from Argentina, have focused on this fruit and are study-ing its chemical and biochemi-cal characterization, antioxidant properties and agribusiness po-tential, with a view towards pro-moting its production and con-sumption.

Professor Benjamín Rojano, the coordinator of the laboratory, reports that this curious fruit is found in the northern Andes, in certain zones of Venezuela and Ec-uador and in the departments of Santander, Boyacá, Cundinama-rca, Nariño, Cauca and Antioquia in Colombia.

Although the mortiño grows wild and the first adaptations of the plant in vitro are just begin-ning to be made, Colombia has a great potential to produce it. Therefore, and taking into con-sideration that berries (the family to which the mortiño belongs) are sought-after at the international level, above all in Europe and the United States, Colombia over the long term could become a large-scale exporter of the fruit.

One of the laboratory stud-ies seeks to establish the condi-tions for greater production of an-tioxidants in different states of the plant, and to create a productive chain. “We are monitoring differ-

ent zones of the Departments of Antioquia, Boyacá and Santand-er to find the terrains where the best fruits that can better conserve their nutraceutical characteristics (natural substances with thera-peutic action) can be produced”, says Professor Rojano.

By analyzing different clones, the researchers have found dif-ferences in the expression of cer-tain secondary metabolites (anti-oxinanines) and identified that the mortiños from the municipalities of El Retiro and Santa Rosa de Osos, and from the Township of Santa Elena, in Antioquia, have the greatest benefits.

With respect to climate change and its effects on flowering and fruiting, Clara Medina, PhD in Agricultural Sciences from the UN and a researcher at Corpoica, through her research study entitled Populational and Ecophysiological Variability of the Mortiño, a Spe-cies with Productive and Agro–ex-port Potential in the High–Andean Tropic (Variabilidad poblacional y ecofisiológica del mortiño, especie con potencial productivo y agroex-portador en el trópico altoandino), observed the behavior of the fruit in its natural habitat and under different light intensities.

“The main findings show that during times of constant rain, pro-ductivity decreases, whereas in shade the plant has a better re-sponse. Meanwhile, its growth can be controlled through pruning”,

affirms Medina.Using a certification project

for the species, it was found that in the Department of Antioquia the fruit survived in damp zones, whereas in Boyacá and Cundi-namarca it is found in cold dry zones.

According to this expert in ag-ricultural sciences, “planting seeds of this species has made it pos-sible for us to determine variables, for example that the entire growth process of the plant can take as long as four years”.

Added value

Yasmín Lopera, a master’s stu-dent in Food Science and Technol-ogy at the UN in Medellín, evaluat-ed the antioxidant activity and car-dio–protective effect of this fruit, but in wines. Her work was carried out in association with professors at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata (Argentina) (National Uni-versity of La Plata, Argentina), and was based on the fact that con-sumption of this beverage in that country has increased by 55% over the last five years, while epide-miological studies have found that some wines act as antioxidants. She wanted to prove this herself.

Her evaluation consisted in provoking a short ischemia (heart attack) in isolated rat hearts, simu-lating the same conditions as in the human heart. The objective was to observe whether supply-

ing mortiño wine would produce some type of recovery of myocar-dial function. “In effect, the bever-age helps to recover the rodents’ hearts following a short ischemia process”, she affirms.

Lopera now has a standard-ized beverage under conditions and parameters suitable for fer-mentation. She says that it is feasi-ble to produce a quality wine that would be attractive and appetizing to consumers.

What is this unexplored fruit like?

The arándano plant can be from 1.5 to 7 meters high. It grows wild in altitudes between 2200 and 3400 meters above sea level. Its fruit is round, approximately 1.2 cm in diameter, green when grow-ing, dark red (with a black or violet appearance) when mature and has a tart flavor.

The productive life of the plant can be as long as eight decades, and Colombia is the only country where it produces two harvests per year, in late June and late De-cember.

During its cultivation, the mortiño is subjected to a domes-tication process, in other words, it is transplanted to a terrain that has been prepared with better solar lighting conditions, good slopes and acid soils. After transplanting, it can take 3 to 4 years to reach an optimum level of production.

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A fruit with properties that help to prevent cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, arthritis, Alzheimer and Parkinson’s is set to become an important export product. Mortiño, as it is popularly known, is being intensively studied while at the same time used to produce jams, sauces and even wines.

Agriculture

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Isis Beleño,Unimedios

Oil production in Colombia has reached record levels. The country is producing around 927,000 barrels per day, the high-est figure since 1999, when 780,000 barrels per day were produced. And expectations are even higher: the Ministry of Mines and Ener-gy estimates that production will soon exceed 1 million, and for 2014 will have reached 1,150,000. An oil bonanza.

International crude prices have also been favorable. As never be-fore, the price of a barrel has hit re-cord highs and is currently around US$93. Price and production are the elements that many have re-ferred to as an oil “bonanza”.

Since 2007 there has been a significant acceleration in national production, which has gone from 531,000 barrels per day in that year to 785,000 in 2010. This wildly op-timistic panorama however is not complete. The experts warn that the country's reserves are being exhausted and if no new fields are discovered within 10 years, crude will have to be imported.

Germán Corredor, director of the Colombian Energy Observa-tory (Observatorio Colombiano de Energía), points out that in the country's oil history only four or five large fields have ever been found, such as Caño Limón and Cusiana. “In the last 20 years we have not heard of a single large-scale discovery. Fortunately small fields have been found, which have kept the reserves stable, but there has been no significant increase in them, although production has been greatly expanded”.

Reserves: until when?

As of December 2010, domes-tic oil reserves had reached 2.058

billion barrels, and according to official projections, self–sufficien-cy will be maintained until 2020. Without a significant increase, growing production and improved technology for extraction in the mature fields, in a few years the country will be unable to supply itself.

In this context, is it possible to speak of an oil bonanza? For how long will the country be self–sufficient in fuels?

Alejandro Martínez, president of the Colombian Petroleum As-sociation (Asociación Colombiana del Petróleo – ACP), in an inter-view with the UN Periódico in late 2010, explained the reasons for the favorable oil situation. “What has happened is that there has been an increase in the level of recovery in small fields, which had previously been discovered, based on large–scale investments in the use of state–of–the–art technology. This has been due to several factors: oil policy, increased investments in old fields and a substantial rise in the price of oil, which tradition-ally had been between 17 and 18 dollars”.

In this industry, the multina-tional companies are quite opti-mistic. Private investment has grown ostensibly and according to ACP estimates, around 3.6 billion barrels of oil could be found.

“3.6 billion barrels are ex-pected to be incorporated dur-ing this decade. This implies the drilling of 90 exploratory wells each year and more than 4 bil-lion dollars of annual foreign in-vestment over the next decade; these levels, along with the fig-ures on exploitation and new reserves that starting in 2012 would mean a daily production of more than one million barrels per day for 10 years, are excel-lent news for the country”, ac-cording to Martínez.

To find these resources, Eco-petrol –whose production ac-counts for 61% of the country's total– has begun intense explor-atory efforts. The company is lead-ing projects in an area of around 17 million hectares, compared to 2002 when only 9 million had been explored.

For the multinationals, the trend is the same: to explore. In Colombia, the private sector has a 50% share in investments in projects aimed at finding oil. The challenge is to discover new fields that would make it possible to maintain the growing trend in production.

Prudence regarding the figures

Carlos Rodado Noriega, Min-ister of Mines and Energy, express-es moderate optimism and prefers to avoid words such as “boom” or “bonanza”. For him, the surge in hydrocarbons is evident; this in turn has been reflected in in-creased revenues in the sector. “We must be aware that, when projections are made about prices and quantities, we need to include uncertainty factors. We have to be a bit prudent”.

A large part of this favorable situation stems from the produc-tion of heavy crude, which until a few years ago was little appreci-ated. Heavy crude is different from light crude because its yield in gasoline is lower; it is denser and more viscous, which increases the costs of extraction, transport and refining.

The Rubiales and Castilla fields, in the Llanos Orientales (Eastern Plains), have become one of the country’s most important heavy crude reserves. Over the last five years their production has risen considerably, and firms such as Pacific Rubiales Company, with

a presence in the Rubiales field, report a production of approxi-mately 200,000 barrels per day.

Why has heavy crude become so important? Professor Sergio Lopera, from the Mining Faculty at the Universidad Nacional (Na-tional University) in Medellín, ex-plains that “the price of a barrel of oil in the markets make the extraction of this type of crude very attractive. Extracting Castilla crude costs 7 or 8 dollars per bar-rel, which in the context of prices of 9 dollars per barrel is not prof-itable, but when prices rise as they have in recent years, Castilla crude can easily be sold for more than 50 dollars”.

Without large-scale new find-ings and with exploration projects currently under way at top speed, the most immediate challenge is to develop technology to reduce uncertainty during the exploration phase.

“Colombia is a country with oil but it is not an oil country, and under that premise we must work to find reserves in very complex structures. Geologically, we could say that in 70% of the country there is great potential to find hydro-carbons”, affirms Édgar Rodríguez, professor of Petroleum Geology at the Universidad Nacional de Co-lombia.

Academics and economists point out the importance of de-veloping new talents, investing in knowledge and leveraging large–scale infrastructure proj-ects. Science and technology are keywords in transforming a raw materials exporting country into a nation with a strengthened pet-rochemicals industry that would be able to compete in interna-tional markets. Hopefully the fa-vorable situation in the field of hydrocarbons will make it pos-sible to see its benefits even in scarcity!

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The country hopes to incorporate 3.6 billion new barrels during this decade. This implies drilling some 90 exploratory wells each year as well as more than US $4 billion in foreign investment.

Mining industry

Record production and good international prices are the ingredients of the so-called oil boom that has accounted for 40% of Colombia's exports. However, large discoveries of crude have yet to be confirmed and the es-timated 2,058,000 barrels of reserves are being exhausted.

Oil: a Bonanza without CrudeOil: a Bonanza without Crude

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Cocoa:From Chocolate to Fuel

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Biogas and syngas can be made using cocoa wastes, an under-used product in Colombia that ends up being a significant envi-ronmental contaminant.

* Colombian industry only exploits the fruit of the cocoa, equivalent to just 30% of the product, discarding the rest for natural decomposition.

Johanna Ruiz Bolaños,Unimedios

Cocoa is thought of and used as a fruit with gastronomic for cosmetic purposes, but the Clean Development and Energy Man-agement Mechanisms Research Group at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia (National University of Colombia) decided to use it as a potential element for gas produc-tion.

And they were successful. Be-hind this “dream” was their direc-tor, Professor Fabio Sierra, who along with his team and after many months of research was able to create clean fuels derived from this fruit.

According to Sierra, when the industry works with cocoa for its traditional uses (production of chocolates or cosmetics, among others), they only exploit the fruit, which is equivalent to 30% of the product. The rest is thrown away. “After peeling the seed, the waste is left to naturally decompose”, he says.

The problem is that in this process, lixiviates (liquids with organic contaminants) are pro-duced, which leak into the soil and end up not only infecting it but also affecting the water due to their high concentrations of am-moniac nitrogen.

This waste also releases meth-ane gas, which is naturally pro-duced through the decomposition of organic substances in oxygen–

What types of fuels exist?

A fuel is a compound that, when it comes into contact with oxygen, produces heat. The ele-ments that make this happen are those that contain carbon and hydrogen. For example:

Petroleum, whose molecu-lar weight is such that at normal

temperature and environmental or atmospheric conditions it is found in liquid form;

Carbon, a solid mineral whose structure is due to its high composition of carbons;

And gases, such as natural gas, which have very light and small particles.

“They are called fossil fuels because they have been found

in nature for millions of years. Something similar occurs with biomass, which can be animal or vegetable (for example cocoa wastes). This composition also has carbon and hydrogen chains, two elements which, added to oxygen, constitute potential ma-terials for energy production”, af-firms Sierra.

Biomasses such as cocoa

mix together a large number of chains, of larger or smaller size, which produce surprising results in terms of obtaining gas.

Colombia generates an ex-cess of agricultural wastes, and optimizing their use could strengthen the country as a gas producer through environmen-tally–friendly processes.

poor environments and is much more damaging as an agent re-sponsible for global warming than even carbon dioxide. In fact, its potential is 62 times greater than CO2 in generating that effect.

Stopping the contamination

The researchers’ main idea was to avoid such a harmful pro-cess. They therefore took the waste, dried it and placed it in ovens specially built at the mechanical workshops of the University, with the aim of warming the material to release the gas.

The procedure produced two

types of fuels: syngas, obtained from carbon–rich substances, and biogas, the product of the different biodegradation reactions of the organic material, through the ac-tion of microorganisms and other factors in the absence of air.

Each has a practical function applicable to daily needs: syngas is mainly used as an intermediary in creating synthetic natural gas (SNG) and to produce ammonia or methanol.

It is also used as an interme-diate product to make synthetic petroleum for use as fuel or lubri-cant and to convert methanol into gasoline.

It is made by subjecting a

compound of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, ethane and methane to a temperature of 800ºC until it has decomposed.

Biogas is used to produce electrical energy using gas genera-tor plants or turbines, as well as in stoves, dryers, ovens, boilers or other combustion systems.

To generate this type of in-flammable substance, low–tem-perature ovens are used, which oscillate between 25ºC and 70ºC. The gas is made up of carbon diox-ide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4) and other gases in smaller quantities, which means that it is produced with a different caloric potential.

The benefits

These substances are renew-able, because they are naturally and continuously produced, as long as human beings contribute to this effect.

They are ecologically support-ive because the atmospheric car-bon dioxide emissions produced during the combustion process are the same ones that the plant ab-sorbed during its growth through photosynthesis.

They are more economical in comparison with other fuels, and the creation of biomass can be in-creased without affecting the envi-ronment. For example, compared to the production of petroleum derivatives, there is around a 40% savings.

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Giovanni Clavijo,Unimedios

Bovine viral diarrhea is an in-fectious disease that occurs during pregnancy and causes problems such as miscarriages or simply preventing pregnancy by causing the cows to go back into heat, thus decreasing the reproduction rate.

Its impact in the cattle–ranch-ing sector can be seen in low meat and milk production rates. “It is es-timated that reproductive diseases such as this virus (which is highly prevalent) cause annual losses of 44 billion pesos in this country”, according to professor Jairo Jaime, coordinator of the research group in Microbiology and Epidemiology of the Veterinary and Zootechnics faculty at the Universidad Nacio-nal de Colombia (National Univer-sity of Colombia).

The disease reached Colom-bia in 1975, with a batch of calves imported from the Netherlands, whose clinical manifestations of the illness were subsequently con-firmed by that country's govern-ment. In the 1990s, the research group at the UN, lead by profes-sors Víctor Vera and Gloria Ramír-ez, for the first time determined the presence of antibodies against the virus in the blood streams of certain bovines.

There are three genotypes of bovine viral diarrhea and each one has variants called strains, which may or may not be cytopathic (meaning that they involve drastic alterations in the molecules). They are categorized as such due to their ability to damage or destroy cells in vitro, and the severity of the dis-ease depends on the type of strain involved. The genotype classified as type I is the most widespread in Colombia and the one that causes the most reproductive problems. Genotypes II and III have less prevalence and have not yet been detected in this country.

The agent that causes viral bovine diarrhea is an RNA (ribo-nucleic acid) virus with a great ca-pacity to transform itself in nature. It has been classified within the family of Flaviviridae viruses (gen-erally transmitted by mosquitoes), which includes other animal vi-ruses such as classical swine fever or hog cholera.

Types of vaccines

In Colombia, most vaccines used for animal health are im-ported. Because they are not made from isolated native strains, their effectiveness is uncertain. “We do not know if they protect the ani-mals totally or partially”, says a professor at the UN.

Traditionally they have been classified under two types: dead viruses and live viruses. The vet-erinarian affirms that the dead vi-ruses do not multiply within the host, provide poor immunity and need to be applied more than once, which is why they are not optimum for use in production species.

The live virus vaccines, also known as attenuated, generate good immunity with just one dose, but are also problematic: “if the attenuation of the virus (reduc-tion of its virulence) has not been stable, it could find a complimen-tary virus and reverse its patho-genic capacity to the point where it could cause the illness”, says the coordinator of the research group at the UN.

The adenovirus

Beginning in 2007, the veteri-narians were able to isolate the bovine diarrhea virus to study it in detail. “We analyzed its genome

and isolated a gene from the pro-tein called E

2, which is responsible for the immunogenic response. We work on two versions of that pro-tein and have inserted them into a type V human adenovirus (the adenoviruses are families of viruses that affect animals as well as hu-mans). Subsequently, we evaluate its capacity for expression in cel-lular cultures (test tubes) and pu-rify the virus with better activity, to then produce them on a large scale and test them on live animals (in mice)”, according to Diana Susana Vargas, who developed this pro-posal for her master's thesis, under the direction of professor Jaime.

According to the researchers, the result was a recombinant virus, in other words, created from two different genetic materials. When used as a vaccine for bovines, it leads to a situation in which, while the viral diarrhea protein is ex-pressed, the animals’ immune sys-tem produces antibodies that pro-tect it from the pathogenic virus responsible for the disease.

From the test tubes, the ad-enovirus will be tested for its effec-tiveness in mice, using experimen-tal models that will make it pos-sible to also analyze the vaccine from the point of view of toxicity, protective doses and immunity, both of a cellular type as well as in the production of antibodies.

In this way, the Microbiology and Epidemiology group adapts technologies to conditions in the Colombian environment and en-ters into advanced research fields. According to Professor Jaime, “it involves a practical contribution to prevent a disease that has a great impact in the livestock sector”.

Currently, this genetic therapy is used to treat cancer in humans and is progressively being imple-mented to develop vaccines. “It is possible that in the near fu-ture traditional pharmacologi-cal treatments would be replaced by corrections at the genetic or molecular level such as this one”, concludes the researcher at the National University.+

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One animal virus and another human virus are combined to create a vaccine against bovine viral diarrhea. It has already been success-fully tested in cellular cultures and will now be tested on live ani-mals. The results are promising for the country's livestock sector.

The Universidad Nacional created the virus and it is hoped that the vaccine against bovine viral diarrhea will be successful.

Virus Created in the Laboratory Attacks Diarrhea in Cattle

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A Technology for Saving Energy

in Ethanol ProductionÁngela María Betancurt Jaramillo,

Unimedios

Sugarcane, molasses, corn, wheat, rye and wood are some of the raw materials used to make ethanol, a chemical compound al-so known as ethyl alcohol, present in diverse fermented beverages, particularly wine and beer, and with wide–ranging applications in the chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries.

As a biofuel, ethanol is quite competitive with oil and has made it possible to decrease dependence on that hydrocarbon. One of its ad-vantages is that it is derived from vegetable sources, which reduces its impact on the environment.

Ethanol is obtained through the fermentation of raw materi-als (crop products), as follows: the solution of sugars and nutrients from the crop products nourishes a type of yeast, which transforms the mixture into ethanol. This mix-ture, which is the product of the fermentation, goes through a pro-cess of separation in distillation columns to obtain concentrated ethanol, followed by a dehydra-tion phase to take out any remain-ing water, which produces ethanol suitable for fuel.

The difficulties

Although the conventional system has been able to satisfy current ethanol demand in Co-lombia –estimated at 1.5 million li-ters per day for mixture with gaso-line–, its manufacture requires the consumption of huge amounts of energy and water while generating vinasse, which is a byproduct of distillation that is highly contami-nating for the environment.

“In this country, ethanol is seen as a short and long-term so-lution for fuels, which is why its industrial production has been encouraged. However, new tech-nologies are needed to reduce energy consumption and produc-tion costs”, according to Mario An-drés Noriega Valencia, from the Research Group on the Applica-tion of New Technologies (Grupo de Investigación en Aplicación de Nuevas Tecnologías - Giant) at the Universidad Nacional de Colom-bia in Manizales.

The proposal

In search of a solution to these problems, the Giant group designed a fermentation process using mem-brane technology (tubular filters), that makes it possible to capture and selectively remove the ethanol while retaining the flow of untrans-formed sugars, water, salts and or-ganic material.

To reach their goal, the mem-bers of the Giant group made mem-branes that remove five times more ethanol than the commercially available ones, thereby decreasing the investment of capital in the pro-cess.

Researcher Miguel Ángel Gómez García explains that “eco-nomic studies show that one of the problems facing industrial imple-mentation of membrane technol-ogy in this country is the cost of the filters. The ones that we make lo-cally are more economical and have a removal velocity and selectivity regarding the ethanol that makes them attractive for this type of pro-cess”.

In this way, the new system for obtaining ethanol begins with a concentrated sugar solution that,

thanks to the presence of the yeast, is transformed into ethanol, which is then simultaneously removed by the membranes along with a water fraction.

The mixture that has been re-moved is obtained with a 30% con-centration of ethanol during the fermentation stage, whereas in the conventional process this concen-tration is just 7%. There is therefore a 35% savings in energy consump-tion during the purification pro-cess.

This occurs because the mem-branes, in contrast to other distilla-tion processes, make it possible to achieve high energy efficiencies that considerably reduce consumption.

“The amount of membrane that must be used in this new fer-

mentation system is approximately 1/5 as much as in the conventional system, thus reducing operation-al and capital costs. For example, to produce 100,000 liters per day requires approximately 35,000 m2 of the commercial membranes, whereas using those developed at the UN, only 7,000 m2 are needed” affirms the professor and director of the project at the UN in Maniza-les, Javier Fontalvo Alzate.

In addition to being a continu-ous fermentation process (with no time lapses in its manufacture), it provides greater control over the manufacture of the alcohol. The scale of the size of the fermenta-tion equipment is smaller, so that it is easier to transport. The process makes it possible to produce four

Gasoline comes from fossils

extracted from the earth which,

when burned, create atmospheric

emissions and generate pollution.

Ethanol comes from crops whose emissions are absorbed and reused by the soil,

generating less environmental

impact.

times more ethanol with less energy, which is reflected in 2.5 times more alcohol. Also, because less water is removed during distillation, there is a corresponding decrease in the volume of vinasse, another envi-ronmentally favorable aspect.

The filters have a useful life of approximately 4 years, and their wear does not imply changing them but rather making adjustments to the process.

While the savings in produc-tion costs are significant, both be-cause of the characteristics of the membranes as well as the savings in energy consumption and low en-vironmental impact of the process, the cost of implementation for a company interested in the system is also attractive.

The new system reduces water consumption and vinasse production, chemicals that have an impact on the environment during ethanol fermentation.

With the membranes created at the UN, greater energy efficiency is ob-tained than with conventional processes.

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Innovation

A new system will make it possible to manufacture ethanol using 35% less energy than is currently the case. In addition to reducing environmental impact, this technology doubles productivity in industrial biofuels processes.

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A System to Reduce

Soot PollutionThe diesel engine, used throughout the world because it is economical and consumes less fuel, involves incomplete combustion that generates soot, which is one of the most influential contaminants in global warming. Engineers have invented a system that reduces its atmospheric emissions.

Ángela M. Betancurt Jaramillo,Unimedios

Incinerators, industries, heat-ing systems and vehicles are some of the sources of pollution that constantly emit gases into the at-mosphere such as carbon monox-ide, sulfur dioxide or lead, which are substances that affect people's health as well as the environment.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 2 million people die each year due to air pollution, above all in the large cities, which causes heart disease, asthma and lung cancer.

The effects of soot

Soot is a combination of very small particles composed of im-pure black-colored carbon, which are generated by burning wood, coal and mainly diesel engines used in public transport buses, trains, ships and even construc-tion equipment.

Precisely because of its micro-scopic size, soot has the ability to be easily introduced into organ-isms, and its atmospheric concen-tration contributes towards global warming.

The problem of pollution caused by diesel engines stems from incomplete combustion due to insufficient oxygen to enable the fuel to completely burn, pro-ducing soot or coal dust.

Once the particles are creat-ed through this process, the soot, which is mainly made up of car-bon, has two destinations: part of it is released into the atmosphere through exhaust gases while the rest remains inside the engine, causing internal damage.

An optimum reduction

To contribute towards reducing the coal dust produced by those en-gines, implemented in this country since 1983, the Chemical, Catalytic and Biotechnological Processes re-search group at the National Uni-versity (Universidad Nacional) in Manizales, and the MCMA group at the Universidad de Alicante (Spain) are working on a project aimed at degrading the compound using chemical elements.

The first step taken by the chemists at both institutions was to select the (solid) catalysts to facilitate degradation of the soot. These elements are important because they help to make the chemical reactions more rapid and selective, as they have the ability to affect only the compounds of interest, and their use can be pro-longed for a number of cycles for the same operation.

In this case, the chosen solids are birnessite or pyrolusite type manganese oxides – the most im-portant within the manganese–, which are characterized by their low environmental impact be-cause they are analogous to min-erals found in natural deposits in various regions of the country.

These oxides are inexpensive, as opposed to titanium or palla-dium, which are usually used, and have greater structural versatility. Also, their properties can be exten-sively modified as needed.

“The increase in contaminat-ing emissions from diverse sourc-es makes it necessary to develop new and more efficient, economi-cal and environmentally friendly materials. Manganese oxides ful-fill these requirements while also making it possible to generate

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Innovation

Although use of the diesel engine is economical, its incomplete combustion produces soot, which is a toxin that is emitted directly into the environment.

changes in their states of oxidation, chemical composition, structure, surface and morphology, which significantly affect the metallic ox-ide making it easy to work with”, according to Óscar Hernán Giraldo Osorio, a professor at the National University in Manizales.

Calcination, washing and recalcination

The manganese oxides that are to be adapted in the exhaust pipes of the engine are exposed during a first stage to a three–step method consisting of calcination, wash-ing and recalcination. The process lasts for a total of 48 hours and begins by heating the potassium permanganate to 400ºC; it is then removed to wash away the impuri-ties formed during this stage and reintroduced into the oven, this time at a temperature of 60ºC, to be finally recalcinated at 600ºC.

Giraldo Osorio explains that “this process of synthesis was de-termined based on previous stud-ies. However, it produced better results for modulating the proper-ties for its specific application as a catalyst for burning soot”.

The oxides are adhered to a supporting structure created using a material called alumina, which facilitates impregnation and ap-plication of the product in the au-tomotive filter, through which the exhaust gases pass into the atmo-sphere.

In contact

After being impregnated into the filter, the oxides begin their work: to retain the soot and begin its process of degradation, made pos-sible by the temperature of the solid when it comes into contact with the contaminant, and which is different from that of the vehicle itself.

“Without the presence of the catalyst, the coal dust begins to burn at 600ºC, which is a tempera-ture that is difficult to achieve, un-like what happens when the solid is present, because the reaction accelerates, thus lowering the tem-perature by approximately 200ºC according to the UN researcher.

This makes it possible for the material that contains the car-bon particles, so damaging to the environment and humans, to be transformed into carbon dioxide, a gas that does not cause respiratory problems.

The research is now in its third phase of pilot tests, and the results until now lead to the conclusion that it will considerably reduce coal dust production, as Colom-bian regulations limit opacity in vehicular emissions, depending on the model and year, to between 50% and 35%.

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Ana María Escobar Jiménez,Unimedios

Making an inventory of the birds in an ecosystem is no easy task; generally, it is done through visual inspection in the field that involves arduous workdays of trav-el and observation and also re-quires auditory training.

Sergio Tobón Ocampo, presi-dent of the National Network of Bird Observers of Colombia, says that the best hours of the day for observation and study are dawn and dusk. Specialized long–range binoculars are needed along with lenses able to capture the smallest details of the birds.

In countries such as Puerto Rico, where conservation and pro-tection of birds is regulated by the Wildlife Law of 1976, a computer program is being implemented to facilitate the recognition of species.

Inspired by the Automated Remote Biodiversity Monitoring Network (Arbimon), a network for monitoring of biodiversity, the Signal Processing and Recognition Group (Grupo de Procesamiento y Reconocimiento de Señales) at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia in Manizales developed an acous-tical characterization study to pro-duce software that is adapted to local conditions.

“Based on Arbimon –which was created at the Universidad de Puerto Rico–, and in collaboration with professionals in the fields of computer science, electronics, bi-ology and ecology, we wanted to

implement new automatic recog-nition and signal processing tech-niques as representations of dis-similarities, which was the method used in this case”, according to research coordinator Mauricio Orozco Alzate.

Digital identification

The system operates through birdsong characterization. Tradi-tional techniques analyze various acoustic signal measurements or particularities of the sounds –such as wave frequency and duration, among others–, whereas the UN study classifies the signals using methods based on dissimilarities.

This is a recent procedure in the theory of automatic or pat-tern recognition, which consists in directly comparing two elements without measuring their particular properties.

It is similar to the way human beings reason, when for example, they distinguish a particular per-son through general characteris-tics such as the face or voice; in other words, based on a complete pattern that we already have in mind, without stopping to deter-mine if their skin is white or dark, without discriminating the color of their eyes or hair, or if the timbre of their voice is high or low.

“The methodology works be-cause the program is trained to recognize the birdsongs from a da-tabase so that it is able to predict what animal it is. Very good perfor-mance is obtained, but enlarging

the database of sounds is the key to increasing the precision”, accord-ing to José Francisco Ruiz Muñoz, who is developing the technique as his master's thesis in industrial automation – engineering.

Application of this method is the starting point for consolida-tion of a larger scale process in automatic monitoring of diverse specimens.

According to the engineer, the procedure would be adapted to a natural environment by placing microphones in strategic sites; the sounds captured are sent over the Internet to a computer that has previously been fed the systemized songs, which then makes the iden-tification; in this way, the research-ers do not need to travel and tem-porary coverage is achieved over a larger space, in that the recording and analysis is permanent, with the added advantage that it can be carried out in a number of places simultaneously.

Effectiveness

The tests were performed us-ing 538 birdsongs, corresponding to 11 species from the Río Blanco Reserve in Manizales. The research-ers then processed information, extracted the portions of the audio track containing the required seg-ments, marked the samples with the label corresponding to the bird to which the sound pertained, and inserted this information into the system.

The material analyzed on the

UN computers resulted in 97.87% certainty in the species identified. “This figure shows the good per-formance of the process, because it only erred with two species whose sounds are very similar”, says Ruiz Muñoz.

Applications of this process include studying volcanic seismic signals, although this is not the core function but rather another way of proving its performance. Professor Orozco Alzate has been doing this since 2006 in collabora-tion with the Volcanological and Seismological Observatory (Obser-vatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológi-co) of Manizales.

José Francisco Ruiz’s masters project can be implemented in this field because the nature of acoustic and seismic signals is similar: both waves are elastic with the differ-ence that audio signals are propa-gated through air while vibrations are propagated through the earth.

In this manner, their experi-ments contribute towards the ob-jective of the primary research, aimed at improving the identifi-cation of seismic signals and the delivery of already classified data to geologists, according to its ty-pology.

In Colombia, where there are an estimated 2,000 species of birds –a huge resource in terms of bio-diversity–, this new technology would have a number of uses, rang-ing from classification of species in determined ecosystems to the identification of new specimens as yet unknown in our territory.

Innovation

New Technique to Identify Birdsongs

The coffee-growing region in Colombia is home to nearly 10% of the world's birds, a wealth that has yet to be explored. Engi-neers from the UN in Manizales have come up with a procedure to identify species found in a particular area by their songs, facilitating classification and recognition.

Diagram of the automatic recognition system

Bird

Sensor

Preprocessing

Representation

Identified bird

Classification

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Traditional methods for monitoring birds

Biochart

Fognetworks

Censuses from fixed

radius points

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