Umar & the Early Conquests

Islamic History: the First 150 Years

© 2006 Abdur Rahman

Session Plan

1. The Caliphate of Umar

2. The Conquest of Syria

3. The Conquest of Iraq

4. Aftermath

Section I: The Caliphate of Umar

Umar• Umar ibn al-Khattab, to give him his full

name, a member of the `Adi clan of Quraysh• Umar a physically strong and imposing man• Renowned for his temper and strong sense

of justice• His family were strong adherents of Meccan

paganism• His father Khattab was a persecutor of Zayd

ibn Naufal, one of the hanifs• Until his conversion to Islam, Umar a strong

follower of the old ways

Umar• Umar converted during the mid-Meccan

period of Muhammad’s preaching• Emigrated to Medina (and is thus a Muhajir)• Took part in the battles of Badr, Uhud,

Khandaq and others• One of Muhammad’s closest companions• Also a close associate of Abu Bakr• We have already seen his role in the Saqifah

incident• Abu Bakr appoints Umar his successor in

13AH

Umar’s Government• Umar’s stamped his personality on virtually every

aspect of government• As such, in many ways, Umar represents the

Muslim ideal of an industrious and just ruler• Although some aspects of this reputation may well

be legendary, it is fair to say that Umar was keenly interested in just and fair administration

• In this section, we will look at Umar’s administration a little more closely

• This will help us gain insight into Umar himself as well as into the running of the early Islamic state

Umar’s Government• Umar’s administration marked by consultation• The concept of Sabiqa (‘Precedence’)• Muslim community graded according to the earliness of

conversion1. Early Meccan converts (muhajiroon)2. The Ansar3. Participants at Badr4. Participants at Uhud5. Participants at Khandaq6. Those who took the ‘Pledge of Good Pleasure’ (Bay`ah

al-Ridwan) at Hudaybiyya with the Prophet7. Those who converted after the conquest of Mecca• This was also used to assign payments during the

conquests (known as the diwan)

Umar’s Government• Institution of the hijri dating system• Understanding of his role

‘I have no greater right on your money [i.e. public funds] than the guardian of an orphan has on the orphan’s property. If I am wealthy, I shall not take any of it. If I am needy, I shall take for my maintenance according to usage. You people – you have many rights on me which you should demand of me. One of those rights is that I should not collect revenues and spoils of war unlawfully; the second is that the revenues and spoils of war should not be spent unlawfully; another is that I should increase your stipends and protect the frontiers, and that I should cast you into unnecessary perils’ (Abu Yusuf, 117, quoted in Numani, 2004, 79)

• Strict enforcement of Islamic criminal law (hudud)• Said to have had his son, Abu Shahma, flogged for drinking

in public, as was Qadama ibn Maz’un (his brother-in-law)• Abdullah b. Amr b. al-`As (son of the conqueror of Egypt)

said to have beaten a Copt (Egyptian Christian), Umar had the Copt beat Abdullah in public, in front of his father

Section II: The Conquest of Syria

Byzantine-Persian Wars• During Muhammad’s time, Byzantium and Sassanid Persia

were in the midst of a devastating war• Persian occupation of Syria and Palestine• This is alluded to in Surat al-Rum (1-3) of the Quran:

‘…The Romans [Byzantines] have been vanquished in the nearest part of the land; but after being vanquished, they shall vanquish, in a few years…’

• Fall of Jerusalem, removal of the True Cross• Syria occupied for approximately 15 years• In other words, almost an entire generation• Heraclius, governor of Africa, overthrows Byzantine ruler and

becomes emperor• Roman re-conquest• Persian ruler overthrown and Sassanid state thrown into civil

war• An expensive and exhausting war

Syria• Please see maps contained in the Reading Pack• Syrian geography makes it open to both the Mediterranean

Sea and to the Deserts of Arabia• Historically, many different cultural, linguistic and religious

influences in Syria • ‘Syria’ known to the Arabs as Bilad al-Sham• Al-Sham includes modern Syria, Israel and Lebanon (we

will use the term in this sense)• Syrian history long• Strong Hellenistic (Greek) influence • An important part of the Roman empire for some 600 years

by Muhammad’s time• Greek speaking urban elite, Aramaic speaking countryside• By this time, ‘Syriac’ (a form of Aramaic) had become an

important liturgical language for eastern Christians

Syria• Syrian desert largely Arab speaking Bedouin by this time• Palmyra• A number of different religions present• Large Jewish communities• Samaritans• ‘Pagans’, i.e. the Moon god Sin in Harran• Syria largely Christian• Monophysite Creed• Opposed to Byzantine state ‘orthodoxy’• Dispute related to nature of Christ• Persian occupation• Syrian population seems to have leaned away from

Byzantium• More in common with Arabs?

The Conquest of Syria• A detailed account of the invasion of Syria is beyond our

scope here• Also, the sources are difficult to reconcile on a number of

key points• As such, we will focus on the key events• Those interested in a more detailed discussion should refer

to F. M. Donner’s The Early Islamic Conquests• The initial phase seems to have been mainly concerned to

assert Medinan authority in the Syrian desert• Punitive expeditions also seem to have been undertaken

against the Ghassanid allies of Rome• Under Abu Bakr, raiding seems to have been the main

focus• Khalid b. Sa’id seemingly charged to bring Arab tribes of the

region under control

Conquest of Syria• Byzantine allies begin to gather, along with regular troops• Khalid b. al-Walid ordered to join Syrian army from Iraq• Khalid’s Desert March (see map)• With his arrival, Muslim attention seems to have turned

towards the cities of Syria• The first proper clash between Muslim and Byzantine

forces seems to have taken place near Gaza in 634/12AH

• Battle of Ajnadayn (July 634CE/27th/28th Jumada I 13AH)• Fiercely fought, but seemingly a resounding victory for

the Muslim armies• A Roman commander killed: al-Qubuqlar or Cubicularius

(‘Chamberlain’)• Battle of Fihl: a further defeat for Syrians, who then

regroup in the Damascus region• Byzantine reinforcements

The Battle of Yarmuk• The crucial encounter in the battle for Syria• Related in all the main sources• See the passage of al-Baladhuri provided• Fantastic numbers: 200,000 Byzantines against 24,000

Muslims• Both sides realised the serious of the battle• Baladhuri reports that the ‘Greeks’ chained themselves

together (though this may be a double)• Syrian population said to have supported Muslim forces• Sources report that a number of women fought, such as

Hind, wife of Abu Sufyan• After the defeat, Heraclius reportedly said: "Peace unto

thee, O Syria, and what an excellent country this is for the enemy!“

• Most probably apocryphal

Conquest of Syria• Damascus and other key cities occupied• Jerusalem holds out until 16/17AH (637 – 8CE)• Traditional account holds that the city refused to

surrender unless the Caliph himself came in person• Umar said to have arrived on a camel with a single

servant in rough clothes• Tradition holds that he visited the shrines of

Jerusalem, but refused to pray in any of the churches for fear it be turned into a mosque

• See handout entitled ‘Pact of `Umar’

Conquest of Syria

• It is important to remember that the full picture is more complex than this

• Moreover, there is major disagreement between modern historians of the stages of conquest

A Brief Pause

• Turn to the person next to you and spend a couple of minutes summarising the lecture thus far.

• Questions?

Section III: The Conquest of Iraq

Iraq• A land of contrasts• Low-lying alluvial basin• Ancient southern Iraq marshland• Foothills of Zagros mountains of Iran in the East• Water scarce outside of river areas• Social, religious and linguistic complexity• Most of the population seem to have been Aramaic

speaking• Largely Christian in terms of faith• Mainly Nestorian, though with some Jacobite communities

in the North• Along the desert fringes, large numbers of Arab tribes lived• Some of these tribes were nomadic, some were settled• Al-Hira: former capital of Lakhmid kings (clients of Persia)

Iraq• Iraq the birthplace of writing• Sumer & Babylon• Achaemenid Persia & the Seleucid empire• Parthian kingdom• By the 7th century, Iraq had been part of the Persian

Sassanid empire for some 400 years• In other words, there was a large and influential Persian

community in Iraq• The former capital cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon situated

in central Iraq• Persian landlord: dihqan• Zoroastrianism mainly in cities and official contexts• Iraq the birthplace of Manichaeism• Large and influential Jewish community in Babylon• The Babylonian Talmud produced there

The Conquest of Iraq• In contrast to Syria, Iraq does not seem to have

been an initial target• Initial operations seem to have been limited to Arab

tribes living on the fringes of Mesopotamia• Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha’s raids• Upon his accession, Umar sends Abu `Ubayd al-

Thaqafi with reinforcements• Abu `Ubayd an important figure and in day two we

will come across his son al-Mukhtar• Muslim forces defeated at the ‘Battle of the Bridge’• Umar convinced of the need to send a major force• This force subsequently commanded by Sa’d ibn

Abi Waqqas, a major Companion of Muhammad

The Battle of al-Qadisiya• A major battle and victory for the Muslim forces opened

up Iraq• Our sources put the Muslim army at somewhere between

6,000 and 12,000 men• Persian regular army said to be 60,000 strong• A hard fought affair, spread over several days• Raids and excursions into southern Persia (Fars) and

northern Mesopotamia (Jazira) • Persian forces attempt to regroup• Yazdigird III, the Persian king (Shahanshah) orders

conscription• Battle of Nihawand: ‘The Victory of Victories’• Persian forces badly defeated• Yazdigird flees to Turkish Khagan, dies soon afterwards• Persian empire conquered completely

Section IV: Aftermath

Aftermath• The conquests brought radical change to the emerging

Islamic state• Firstly, it brought in large amounts of wealth in the form of

booty• Secondly, it meant that the Muslims came into possession of

large estates in both Syria, Iraq and Iran• Thirdly, resulted in an increased number of slaves• These created social tensions, which came to the fore

during the caliphate of Uthman• Umar generally allowed the conquering tribes to settle in

relevant areas• These tribes thus migrated to these areas• Led to population shifts• Soldiers (Muqatila) registered on the state payroll (the

Diwan)• Umar used the concept of Sabiqa to decide rates of stipend• Appointed Mu`awiya ibn Abi Sufyan to governorship of Syria

Aftermath• Garrison cities (misr, pl. amsar)• Establishment of Kufa and Basra, two

important cities• These tribes thus migrated to these areas• Led to population shifts• Soldiers (Muqatila) registered on the state

payroll (the Diwan)• Umar used the concept of Sabiqa to decide

rates of stipend• Appointed Mu`awiya ibn Abi Sufyan to

governorship of Syria

The Death of Umar• Umar assassinated by a Persian prisoner

of war, Firoz, in 23AH• Apparently after Umar had judged against

him in a dispute regarding pay• Stabbed in the mosque during prayer• Firoz then said to have killed himself• Umar calls a number of senior

Companions together and arranges a committee to elect his successor

• Buried next to Muhammad in Medina

The Shura Committee• Chosen in advance by Umar• Abdur Rahman ibn Awf (one of the ‘10 promised

paradise’)• Uthman ibn Affan (twice a son-in-law of Muhammad

and member of Qurayshi aristocracy)• Ali ibn Abi Talib• Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas• Al-Zubayr ibn Awwam (an early companion and the

Prophet’s cousin)• Talha ibn Ubayallah (an early companion)• We will look more closely at this committee and its

deliberations in Day 2