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FarmMechanicsbyFredD.CrawshawandE.W.Lehmannwasfirstpublished1922.FarmEnginesandHowtoRunThembyJamesH.Stephensonwasfirstpublishedin1903.FarmConveniencesandHowtoMakeThembyByronD.Halstedwasfirstpublishedin1884.

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CONTENTS

FARMMECHANICSBYFREDD.CRAWSHAWANDE.W.LEHMANN

FARMENGINESANDHOWTORUNTHEMBYJAMESH.STEPHENSON

FARMCONVENIENCESANDHOWTOMAKETHEMBYBYROND.HALSTED

FARMMECHANICSbyFredD.CrawshawandE.W.Lehmann

PREFACE__________

THISbookhasbeenpreparedtomeet the increasingneedfora textbookonthe mechanical processes commonly taught in agricultural high schools andcolleges,andinindustrialschools.Manyteachersofvocationalagriculturewhofind itdifficult toorganizesuitableprojects for theirstudentswill findthat theexercisesinthistexthavebeenworkedouttomeettheirneeds.Thebookshouldalsobewidelyusefulasareferenceandinstructionbookonthefarm.

The types of work covered, while primarily representing the commonbranches of mechanical activity required under rural conditions, are, in mostcases,applicabletotherequirementsoftheindustryuponwhicheachtypehasabearing.

Each part of the book deals exclusively and comprehensively with oneparticular typeofwork, aswoodwork, cementwork, forging, etc.; a factwhichshouldcontributetoitsusefulness,bothasatextandasareferencebook.Thrufurther divisions into chapters and numbered topics, a greater possibility oflocating,atanytime,thevariousdetailsanddescriptionsisoffered.

The treatment throughout the book is thoroughly practical. Emphasis isplacedupontheproperuseoftoolsandmaterialsintheirapplicationtoprojects.Theprojectsareselectedfromthestandpointofthepracticalapplicationtotheneedsofthestudent.Thegradationofprojectswithineachofthepartshasbeenkeptinmind.Theplanhasbeentotreateachtopicinsuchdetailthattheteacherwhohasavarietyofmechanicalworkgoingoninhisclassesatonetimemaybelargelyrelievedoftheburdenofclassinstruction,andcandevotehisenergiestotheneedsoftheindividualpupil.Workingdrawingsandspecificationsformanyof the projects have been given. Each of these projects is analyzed into itssequential operations with numerous references to the previous projects forspecificdetails.Manysupplementaryprojectsareprovided.

Theauthorsareindebtedtotheirmanyfriendswhohavegivenfreelyoftheirmaterialandadvice.Theywishparticularly toacknowledge theuseofmaterialfurnishedbytheUniversityofIllinois,theUniversityofMissouri,theIowaStateCollege,thePortlandCementAssociation,andofcutsfurnishedbyseveraltradejournalsandtakenfromstatebulletins.

FREDD.CRAWSHAW.E.W.LEHMANN.

CONTENTS

PARTIWOODWORKING

CHAPTERI. TREESANDLUMBER

CHAPTERII. WOODWORKINGTOOLS

CHAPTERIII. SAWSANDSAWING

CHAPTERIV. PLANESANDPLANING

CHAPTERV. ESTIMATINGMATERIALS;CONSTRUCTINGANASSEMBLYPROBLEM

CHAPTERVI. CHISELING;MAKINGCOMMONFRAMINGJOINTS

CHAPTERVII. USEOFMODELINGORFORMINGTOOLS;SHAPINGIRREGULARFORMS

CHAPTERVIII. SUPPLEMENTARYPROJECTS

CHAPTERIX. WOOD-FINISHINGANDPAINTING

CHAPTERX. GLAZINGANDSCREENING

PARTIICEMENTANDCONCRETE

CHAPTERXI. HISTORYOFCEMENT

CHAPTERXII. PROPERTIESANDUSESOFCEMENT

CHAPTERXIII. PROPORTIONSANDMIXTURES;HANDLINGOFCONCRETE

CHAPTERXIV. FORMSFORCONCRETE;CURINGCONCRETE

CHAPTERXV. REINFORCINGCONCRETE;CEMENTWORKINGTOOLS

CHAPTERXVI. PROJECTSINCONCRETECONSTRUCTION

CHAPTERXVII. SUPPLEMENTARYCONCRETEPROJECTS

PARTIIIBLACKSMITHING

CHAPTERXVIII. MANUFACTUREOFIRONANDSTEEL

CHAPTERXIX. EQUIPMENTFORBLACKSMITHING;FUNDAMENTALPROCESSES

CHAPTERXX. PROJECTSINBLACKSMITHING

CHAPTERXXI. SUPPLEMENTARYPROJECTSINBLACKSMITHING

PARTIVSHEET-METALWORK

CHAPTERXXII. TOOLSANDSUPPLIES;FUNDAMENTALPROCESSES

CHAPTERXXIII. PROJECTSINSHEET-METALWORK

CHAPTERXXIV. SUPPLEMENTARYPROJECTSINSHEET-METALWORK

PARTVFARMMACHINERYREPAIRANDADJUSTMENT

CHAPTERXXV. FARMMACHINERYASANECONOMICFACTOR

CHAPTERXXVI. TOOLSANDMATERIALSFORMACHINERYREPAIR

CHAPTERXXVII. HOWTOSTUDYFARMMACHINERY

CHAPTERXXVIII. PROJECTSINFARMMACHINERYOPERATION

CHAPTERXXIX. PROJECTSINFARMMACHINERYREPAIR

PARTVIBELTSANDBELTING

CHAPTERXXX. KINDSOFBELTSANDBELTLACES

CHAPTERXXXI. PROJECTSINLACINGBELTS

PARTVIIFARMHOMELIGHTINGANDSANITARYEQUIPMENT

CHAPTERXXXII. FARMLIGHTINGANDFARMHOUSEHEATING

CHAPTERXXXIII. FARMWATERSUPPLYANDSEWAGEDISPOSAL

CHAPTERXXXIV. DRAINAGEANDPIPEFITTING

CHAPTERXXXV. SUPPLEMENTARYPLUMBINGPROJECTS

PARTVIIIROPEANDHARNESSWORKONTHEFARM

CHAPTERXXXVI. CONSTRUCTIONANDUSESOFROPE

CHAPTERXXXVII. WHIPPINGANDMAKINGENDKNOTS;ENDSPLICES

CHAPTERXXXVIII. TYINGKNOTSANDHITCHES

CHAPTERXXXIX. PROJECTSINROPEWORK

CHAPTERXL. HARNESSREPAIR

INDEX

PARTIWOODWORKING

CHAPTERI

TREESANDLUMBER

1.Logging.Thestudentisfamiliarwithwoodintwoforms.Oneis logsandthe other is lumber. It is not only desirable as information that you know thecommontrees,butitisnecessaryforpracticalpurposesthatyouknowdifferentkindsofwoodwhenyouseetheminboards.

Timber is first “spotted”bymenwhogo thru the forest tomarkwith anaxthose treeswhichare tobecut. It is then felled (choppedor saweddown)andtrimmedbyhavingalllimbscutoff.Thebody,ortrunk,ofthetreeandthelimbswhich are large enough to be sawed into boards are cut to board lengths oftwelve,fourteen,orsixteenfeet,etc.,forminglogs.Theselogsarerolled,hauledor skidded into a clearing to be piled up,measured and later transported to asaw-mill.

Whileinlargepilesintheclearing,whichisanopenspaceinthewoodswherethe logs are said to be “banked,” they are scaled. This is measuring andestimatingthenumberofboardfeetineachlog.Eachendofthelogismeasuredandmarkedwiththeowner’snumber.

Thebankinggroundisfrequentlynearariverandonalevelabovethatofthewater in the river, so that the logs can easily be rolled down into the stream,wheretheyareallowedtodrifttosomepointdownstream,tobecollectedinabog,orset-back,nearamill,andthentobesortedandlaterrunintothemillandsawedintolumber.Incaseitisnotpossibletotransportlogsinthenaturalway,asjustdescribed,theymustbehauledbyteamortraintothemill.

Thisdescription isverybriefand isdesignedmerely togive theoutstandingfacts in theprocessof felling treesandconveying themcutup to themill.ThereaderisreferredtoNoyes’HandworkinWood,publishedbyTheManualArtsPress, Peoria, Illinois, for an adequate description of this process and for abibliographyonlogging.

2.Milling.Thelogsareconveyedfromthemillpondoryardintothemillbymeansof an endless chainand the “jack ladder”which is an inclinedplatformrunningfromthemill intothewaterof themillyard.Theendlesschainwhichrunsoverthisinclinedplatformisfittedwithstudswhichengagewiththelogsastheyaredirectedtowardthejackladderbymenwithlongspikedpoles.Thelogsarecarriedendtoendintothemillandthereareinspectedforstoneswhichmay

belodgedinthebark.Aflipper,controlledbysteam,throwseachlogtothesidewhen the operator of themachine throws a lever. The log now rolls down aninclinedplane toastopmadeofheavy ironwhich is locatedat theedgeof thesawtable.Whentheoperatorof thesawwantsa log,hereleases thestop.Thisoperation permits one log to roll onto the saw table, where it is dogged, orclamped,tothetable.

Thesawtablemovesbackwardandforward.Witheachpassageofthetable,alargecircular,orband,sawcutsoffaboard.Whentwoorthreeboardshavebeenremovedfromtheside,thelogisturnedcompletelyoverandasimilaroperationisperformedontheoppositeside.

By easily-controlledmachinery, the log is revolved or moved into differentpositions tobe sawed intoboards. It is sent fromthe saw to theedgerand thecross-cut, or butting, saw on “live” rollerswhich revolve on a horizontal tableandtransmittheboardsatarateof200to250feetperminutefromoneplacetoanother. Finally, the boards, now known as lumber, are transferred to a shed,wheretheyaresortedastosize,qualityandcut,andthenagaintransferredoutofdoorstobepiledforair-seasoninguntilsoldforconstructionpurposes.

FIG.1.Methodsofsawinglumber.A,slash-sawing;B,quarter-sawing.

FIG.2.Endoflog,showingannualringsandmedullaryrays.

Boardsareusually slash-sawed, the termused forparallel sawing(A,Fig.1).However, they are also rift-sawedorquarter-sawed,whichmeans that the sawcutisradial,asshowninB,Fig.1.Theadvantageoftheradially-sawedboardisthattheedgesratherthanthesidesofthefiberofthewoodformthesurfaceoftheboardandtherebymakeamoreevengrainandonewhichwearsbetter.

3. Tree Growth. When a tree is sawed down, the sawed end will showconcentricrings(Fig.2).Thosenearthecenteraremorecompactthantheonesneartheoutside.Thecenterportioniscalledheartwood:theouterportion,sapwood,becauseitconductsthesapwhichgivesvitalitytothetree.

Eachring,ifobservedclosely,willbefoundtobemadeupoftwolayers—onedenserthantheother.Thesearecalledannualringsbecauseonepairofringsisformedeachyear.Thedenseportionof thering is theresultofwintergrowth,andtheporouspartisthatformedinthespringandsummerwhenthegrowthismostrapid.

Upon closer inspection, it will be observed that these rings are crossed byradiallinesrunningfromthecentertothebark.Thesearecalledmedullaryrays.Inasense,theyhelptobindtheringstogether.Whencutataslant,astheymaybe in radial-or quarter-sawing, these rays, which are very solid, will appear aslightspotsinthegrainofthewoodshownonthesurfaceofaboard.Thebeautyofquarter-sawedwoodwhenpolishedmakescertainkindsofitverydesirableforinterior finish and furniture construction. One of the woods which has thisparticular feature emphasized is oak.Other grain irregularities, such as wanesandgnarls,makeattractivewoodsurfaces.Curlybirchandbird’s-eyemapleareconspicuousexamples.

4.Seasoning.Oneofthemostimportantpartsofthepreparationofwoodforconstructionuseisitsseasoningordrying.Aproperly-seasonedboardislighterthan one not seasoned. It is stronger and is not subject to change of volumewhich causes checking andwarping.Of the severalmethods of seasoning, thebest is natural-air-drying, which takes from two to six years. In this process,boards are piled up with broad surfaces horizontal and separated one fromanotherbythinstripsofwoodknownassticks.Theboardsinaparticularlayerare placed so that edges will not touch; hence, air is permitted to circulatethroughoutthepileandcomeincontactwithallsurfaces.Thepilesaresetupafoot or more from the ground, one end being a few inches higher than theoppositeone.Theyarecoveredwithboards toprotect thedrying lumber fromrainandsun.

In order to produce lumber quickly for construction use, it is artificiallyseasonedorkiln-dried.Thisreducesthemoistureofthewoodtoperhapsfivepercent,whereas,inthenaturalprocess,tenpercentistheapproximateminimum.However, kiln-dried lumber will more quickly re-absorb moisture. As mostlumbernowadaysisseasonedbysomeartificialmeans,itisadvisabletopileitinshopsas forair-seasoning. Incase there is a tendency towarp, it is sometimes

advisabletoclampaboardtoaflatsurface,concavesurfacedown,orclamptwoboardstogetherwiththeconcavesurfacesfacingeachother.

Wheneveraboardisdressed,itiswelltoplanebothbroadsurfaces,especiallyin thecaseofair-dried lumber, inorder toopen thepores,as Itwere,onbothsides and thus make the exposure conditions uniform throughout. If theordinary means of overcoming warping are not sufficient, it is sometimespossible to straighten a board by heating the convex side and, possibly, at thesametimemoistening theconcaveside.Theheatingcanbedoneby laying theboardontopofafurnace.

5. Measurements and Calculations. Lumber is measured by the so-calledboardfoot,whichisonefootsquareandoneinchthick.

Therearetwosatisfactorymethodsofcalculatingthenumberofboardfeetinaboardoranumberofboards:

Rule1.Multiplythicknessininchesbywidthininchesbylengthinfeet,anddivideby12.Example: boardfeet.

Rule 2.Multiply the thickness in inches by width in feet by length in feet.Example: boardfeet.

The possibility of cancellation in the second method makes it shorter and,consequently,preferable.

Whenpurchasinglumber,givethedimensionsintheorderofthickness,widthandlength,as:8pieces5”x9”x12’.

Inquantities,lumbershouldbeorderedasfollows:Example 1. 1000’ Norway pine dressed two sides to 7/8”, 9” and up. This

makestheminimumwidth9”.Example2,1000’WhitePineS4S7/8”x5”x12”.Thismeansallboardsareto

besurfacedonallfoursurfacesandthedimensionsaretobeuniform,viz.;7/8”thickby5”wideby12’long.

6.Trees.Treesaredividedintotwogeneralclassesknownasthebroadleaf,orhardwoods,andtheneedleleaf,orsoftwoods. Ineachof theseclasses, therearemany varieties which are of great value in some one or more forms ofconstructionwork.Those listedbelowareonlya fewofparticular significance,eitherbecauseoftheirgeneraluse,orbecauseoftheirprevalenceinagriculturalorindustrialcommunities:

BROADLEAFORHARDWOODS

NEEDLELEAFORSOFTWOODS

Thetreesabovelistedare“exogenous,”whichmeansthattheygrowfromthe

inside out. There are a few treeswhich are “endogenous,” or inward-growing.Thesearethepalm,yuccaandbamboo,allofwhichgrowinsoutherncountries,principallyinthetropicalregion.Theyhavelittlevalueinthiscountryexceptfornoveltyfurnitureand,whenshreddedintocane,forchairseats,etc.

CHAPTERIIWOODWORKINGTOOLS

7.Classification. Practically allwoodworking tools are listed belowunder aclassificationbasedonuse(Figs.3,4,5,6and7).Theparticularuseofeachtoolisexplained in the instructionsgivenfor theseveralprojects. It isbelievedthatonewilllearnbesthowtouseatoolbyactuallyusingitinmakingsomethingofmaterialvalue.

FIG.3.a,jointerplane;b,jackplane;c,blockplane;d,smoothplane;e,handdrill;f,automaticdrill.

DividingTools:

Planes(jack,smooth,block,jointer,rabbet,moulding,tongueandgroove,router),Chisels(firmer,paring,framing,mortise),Saws(rip,crosscut,back,turning,compass,dovetail),Knife,Ax,Wedge,Draw-knife,Spoke-shave.

Spoke-shave.

FIG.4.a,rip-saw;b,crosscut-saw;c,try-square;d,jig-saw;e,bevelsquare;f,hammer;g,augerbit;h,drillbit;i,braceandbit.

BoringTools:

Bits(auger,center,Forstner,expansive),Drills(single-anddouble-cut),Gimlet,Brad-awl,Reamer,Countersink.

FIG.5.a,gouge(insideground);b,gouge(outsideground);c,draw-knife;d,spoke-shave;e,spoke-shave;f,turning-saw;g,compass;h,woodrasp;i,hatchet.

ChoppingTools:Ax,Hatchet,Adz.

ScrapingTools:

Scraper,Rasp,Files(single-cut,blunt,flat,bastard,double-cut,taper,half-round).

PoundingTools:

Hammers(claw,upholsterer’s,riveting,veneering),Mallet,Nailset.

FIG.6.a,carpenter’ssquare;b,mallet;c,mortisegage;d,markinggage;e,nailset;f,tangchisel;g,socketchisel.

HoldingTools:

Bench,Vise,Saw-horse,Bench-hook,Handscrew,Carpenter’sclamps,Pliers(end-cutting,side-cutting),Pinchers(nippers),Bit-brace.

MeasuringandMarkingTools:

Carpenter’ssquare,Rule(two-foot,steelorscale),Try-square,Bevelsquare;Markinggage,Compass.

FIG.7.Woodworkingbenchwiththetoolrack.

SharpeningTools:

Grindstone,Grinder,Slipstone,Oilstone,Saw-filingmachine.

CleaningTools:Broom,Brush,Buffer.

CHAPTERIIISAWSANDSAWING

SuggestedProjects:a)Gardenmarker(Fig.8).b)Flowertrellis(Fig.9).c)Windowstick(Fig.10).d)Buggyaxlerest(Fig.11).e)Peckcrate(Figs.12,13,14).

FIG.8.Gardenmarker.

FIG.9.Flowertrellis.

FIG.10.Windowstick.

8. SawsUsed. The tools emphasized in this group are the crosscut-saw andrip-saw.Auxiliarytoolsarethehammer,braceandbit,bevelsquare,try-squareandmarkinggage.

While there are many saws which constitute a complete equipment, asindicatedintheclassificationofwoodworkingtools(Sec.7),therearethreeonlywhichareusedgenerally—thecrosscut-,rip-andback-saws.

9.Ripsaws.Theformationoftheteethonarip-sawisshowninFig.15.Thissaw cutswith the grain and, consequently, cuts off the ends of thewood fiber(Fig.16).Theteeth,filedsquarelyacrossthesaw-blade,formaseriesofchisels.Alternateteetharesettoonesideoftheblade,oneseriesbeingsetonewayandthealternateseries theotherway(Fig.15).Thesaw-blade is thusmadethickeronthetoothedgeofthebladethanelsewhere,permittingthesawtopassthruthewoodwithoutbindingwhileitmakesitscut,or“kerf.”

FIG.11.Buggyaxlerest.

FIG.12.Peckcrate.

FIG.13.Endofpeckcrate.

FIG.14.Bottomofpeckcrate.

Theback-sawisacombinationoftheripandcrosscutintoothformation,andisusedforcuttingeitherwithoracrossthegrain,particularlywherefinesawingisrequired,asinthemakingofjoints.

FIG.15.Shapeofripsawteeth.

FIG.16.Positionofripsawinaction.

10.Crosscut-saws.Theteethofacrosscut-sawarefiledonboththefrontandbackedgesatananglewiththesurfaceofthesaw-blade(Fig.17).Thissawcutsacrossthegrain,anddoesitsworkasitmakesitsforwardstroke.Thesawis“set”bypushingallteethoutwardfromthesideswhicharefiled.Thisresults,asinthecase of the rip-saw, in forming two series of teeth, those of one series being

pushed toward one side of the blade, and those of the other in the oppositedirection(Fig.17).

FIG.17.Shapeofcrosscut-sawteeth.

WorkingInstructionsforFlowerTrellis.

Stock:1piece,1”x5″x32”.Soft,straight-grainedwood.(Drawing,Fig.9.)11.Ripsawing.Thechieftoolexerciseinthisprojectisripsawing.Itismoredifficulttomakeaseriesofparallelrip-sawcutsthantomakeanindividualone.Inthisproject,thecutsmustbemadewithgreatcare,thatonefanstripmaynotbeweakenedmorethananother.Theguidelinesmustbefollowedaccurately.

Thereisapossibleelementofdifficultyinsawingeachedgeofthetrellisstockto a taper. The sawmust run at an anglewith the grain. The piece should beplacedinthevisewiththeendthatgoesinthegroundatthetop,andthetaperline tobe followedby thesawmustbe inaverticalposition(Fig.18).Thesawshouldrunjustoutsidethelineinthewastestock.

FIG.18.Correctpositionwhenusingrip-saw

12.SquaringandMeasuring forLength. Select thebest surface (1) and thebestedge(2),asinFig.19.Withthetry-squarebladeononeface,calledthefaceside,anditsbeamononeedge,calledthejointedge,squarealineacrosstheface

sidenearoneend(Fig.19).With thebeamof the try-squareon the face side and thebladeon the joint

edge, run the try-squarewith the left hand toward the endof the line squaredacrossthefacesideuntilthebladetouchesthebladeoftheknifeheldintherighthand,thepointoftheknife-bladebeingontheendofthissquaredline.Withthetry-squareinthisposition,squarealineacrossthejointedge(Fig.20).

Measuretheboardforlengthfromthesquaredlineonthefacesideandmarka point with the end of the knife-blade (Fig. 21). Using the try-square as justdescribedandholdingtheendoftheknife-bladeinthispoint,bringthesquareuptotheknife,squarea lineacrossthefaceside,andthen,asonthefirstend,acrossthejointedge.Theboardisnowmarkedforlength(Fig.22).

FIG.19.Positionoftry-squarewhensquaringfaceside.

FIG.20.Positionoftry-squarewhensquaringedge.

FIG.21.Markingforlength.

FIG.22.Boardmarkedforlength.

13.Gaging forWidth.Gage two lineson the face side—one3-1/2”and theother4”fromthejointedge.

Setthemarkinggagesothatthewidthoftheboardisindicatedbythedistancefromthemarkertothestop(Fig.23).Thisdistanceshouldbemeasuredwitharulerbeforeusingthegage(Fig.24).Inspectthemarkerbeforesettingthegageto

seethatitprotrudesfromthebeamofthegageabout1/32”andthatitisfiledtoaknifeedgeparalleltothesurfaceofthestop(Fig.25).

FIG.23.Settingthemarkinggage.

FIG.24.Testinggagewithrule.

Holdthegageonthefacesideofthewoodwiththeheadagainstthejointedge(Fig.26),andrunthegagefromtheendofthewoodnearestyoutothefarend,which, in the case of a long piece,may be rested on the bench (Fig. 27). TherelativepositionofthegageandthewoodisshowninFig.28.

FIG.25.Correctshapeofpointofmarkinggage.

FIG.26.Positionofgagewhenmarkingonwideboards.

Donotroll thegageas it ispushedoverthesurfaceof thewood,asthiswillmakethemarkerruntoodeeplyintothewood.

Theboardisnowmarkedforwidth(3-1/2”),withanothermarktoguidetherip-sawinitsfirstcut,andtoprovidea1/2”stripalongtheedgeoftheboardtobeusedinfasteningthefanstripsontheendofthetrellis(Fig.29).

14.MarkingFanStrips.Layoffsixpointsonthefanendof theboard,1/2”apart.Do this by laying the graduated edge of the ruler across the end of theboardon the faceside,with theendof theruleragainst the jointedgeand the

graduatededgeonthesquaredknifeline,andmakingapointwithasharppencilateach1/2”graduationmarkontheruler(Fig.30).

FIG.27.Correctmethodofholdinggageandstock.

FIG.28.Thecorrectangleforpositionofgage.

Withastraightedge,connecteachoneofthesepointswiththecenterpointofthe 3-1/2” strip on the other endof the board.Theoutside lines onlyneedbedrawnthefulllength.

FIG.29.Theboardaftergagelineshavebeendrawn.

FIG.30.Measuringforfanstrips.

Allothersshouldbedrawnadistanceequaltothedepthofthesawcutsforthefan strips (Fig. 31). The bottom of these cuts should be located by a squaredpencillineacrossthefacesideoftheboard,asshouldthepositionofthecenterlineofeachoftheboltholes(Fig.32).

15.BoringHoles.Placetheboardedgeupinthevise.Witha5/16”auger-bit

inthebit-brace,standsquarelybeforetheboard,placedhorizontallyedgewiseinbenchvise,withspurofbitoncenterforoneoftheholestobeboredforboltsandwithbitinaverticalposition(Fig.33).Thispositionmaybetestedbytheuseofthetry-square(Fig.34).Withlefthandonknobandrighthandgraspingthehandle, turn the handle clockwise until about one-half of the hole is bored.Repeat this operation in boring the secondhole.Reverse the board in the viseand bore the second half of each hole. Great care must be taken to make allboringsstraighttosecureholeswithoutshouldersnearthecenter.

FIG.31.Layingoutrip-sawcuts.

FIG.32.Theboardmarkedforboltholes.

16.SawingEnds.Thesawworksatanangletothesurfaceoftheboard(Fig.35).Thestrokesaretakenthelengthofthesawwithoutexertingmorepressurethantoguidethesaw.Thesquaredlineonthefacesideshouldbetouchedbythesaw as it goes across the surface (Fig. 35). The squared line on the joint edgeshouldbe touchedby the sawas it finishes its cut thru theboard. In a similarmannersawtothesquaredlinesontheotherendoftheboard.

When sawing, place the board on the top of wooden horse with its endprojectingovertheendofthehorseandwithfacesideupandjointedgetowardoperator(Fig.36.)Holdthestockwithleftkneeandlefthand,allowingthumbofleft hand to guide the sawwhen beginning the cut. The first stroke should beupward.Very littlepressure isused indownwardstrokes,andnone inupwardstrokes.

17.RippingOffOne-half-Inch Strip. Place the boardwith longdimensionverticalinthevise.Havethegagelines3-1/2”and4”fromthejointedgebeyondthe endof thebench (Fig. 37). Stand squarely in frontof theboardwith righthandgrasping thehandleof the rip-saw (Fig. 18), allowing the index finger torestonthesideofthehandle.Grasptheupperleft-handcorneroftheboardwiththethumbandthefirsttwofingersofthelefthand,standinabracingposition,andplacethesawontheupperendoftheboardinapositiontodrawittowardyou. Pull the saw slightly downwardwithout pressure and guide it against the

thumb of the left hand.Make the stroke approximately the length of the sawblade.Inasimilarmannerpushthesawfromyou,slightlyupward.Continuethisbackward and forward motion, gradually bringing the saw to a horizontalposition,ornearlyatrightangleswiththesurfaceoftheboard.Thesawshouldalways be cutting so that the angle formed between the cutting edge and theboardontheoperator’sside is less than90degrees. In thismannersawontheoutsideoftheverticalgagelinesontheleft(Fig.37)insawingtothe3-1/2”and4”gagelines.

FIG.33.Correctmethodofusingaugerbit.

FIG.35.Positionofcrosscut-sawwhencutting.

FIG.34.Testingforsquarenesswhenboring.

FIG.36.Correctpositionofoperatorusingacrosscut-saw.

FIG.37.Stockputinviseforripsawing.

FIG.38.Ripsawingatanangleoverthegrain.

18.RippingTaperedEdges.Placetheboardverticallyinthevisewithfanenddownward andmarked surface toward the front.One of the lines indicating atapered edge of the trellismust be vertical (Fig. 38). Saw to this line inwastestock, leavingasufficientamountofstocktoplanefinishededgeontheboard.Reset the board in the vise so that the second line making a tapered edge isvertical.Sawtothislineastothefirstone.

19.RippingforFanStrip.Placetheboardverticallyintheviseandcarefullysawoneachline,markingthedividinglinebetweentwofanstripssothatone-halfof thekerf is takenoneach sideof the line.Theendof eachof thesecutsmustbesquarewiththesurfaceoftheboard,andmustbeexactlyonthepencillinewhichlimitsthesecuts.

All sawingon theboard isnowcompleted.Plane the two taperededgesandthebackoftheboard.

FIG.39.Nailingthetrellis.

To secure a definite thickness, the board may be gaged for thickness onfinishedtaperededgesbeforethebackoftheboardisplaned.

Insert a stove bolt in each of the holes bored, and fasten in positionwith awasherunderboththeheadoftheboltandthenut.

Planethestripwhichwasfirstsawedfromtheedgeoftheboard.Sawoff12-1/2”ofit,beingcertainthateachendissquare.Withtry-squareandsharppencil,mark a center cross-line on one edge of the strip. This line locates the centerposition for the end of themiddle fan strip. Similarly on this supporting striplocate the centerposition for eachof theother fan strips.With this line at thecenterofthemiddlefanstripandwithtrellisinnaturalpositioninthevise,nailthestriptothismiddlefanstripatthecenterofitsendwithtwo1”brads,eachabout3/16”fromtheoutersurfaceofthetrellis(Fig.39).

Carefullybendeachoftheoutsidefanstripstoitsproperposition,andfastenitwith twobrads as in the caseof themiddle fan strip. In likemanner, fasteneachoftheotherstrips.Thisworkmustbedonewithgreatcaretoavoidsplittingeitherthesupportingoranyoneofthefanstrips.Awiseprecautionagainstsuchanaccidentistoboreholeswithabrad-awlforeachofthenailholes.SupplementaryInstructions.

20.TheBuggyAxleRestand theMeasuringCrate require theuseof toolsnotdescribedininstructionsfortheflowertrellis.

FIG.40.Bevelsquareusedwithaprotractor.

FIG.41.Bevelsquareusedingeometricconstruction.

21.TheBevelSquare,which isused to layoff the anglesof the endsof thebracesinthebuggyaxlerest,isshowninFig.4.Ithasanadjustableblade.Itmaybe set by placing it upon a protractor, as shown in Fig. 40, or for the morecommon angles, it may be set on the edge of a board with a geometricalconstructionmadenear thisedgewithcompassandstraight-edge,as shown inFig.41.Theangleof45degreesiseasilysecuredbyplacingtheedgeofthebevel-squareblade thru two equal graduationson the sidesof a carpenter square, asshowninFig.42.Abevelangleshouldbelaidoffwithabevel-square,muchasarightangleiswithatry-square.

FIG.42.Settingbevelsquaretoanangleof45°.

FIG.43.Layingoutwithbevelsquare.

Eachendofthebraceinthebuggyaxlerestshouldbecompletelydefinedbymakingbevel-squarelinesonedgesandtry-squarelinesonbroadsurfaces(Fig.43).

22.Nailing.Thenailingexerciseistheprincipaloneintheconstructionofthemeasuringcrate, aside from theuseof the try-squareandcrosscut-saw,as it isassumedthatlathorstripsdressedtodimensionswillbeusedasstock.

Thehammershouldbegraspedintherighthandneartheendofthehandleand swung freely from the elbow in a vertical plane with but slight wrist andshouldermovement.Thethumbandfingerofthelefthandshouldholdthenail(Fig.44).

FIG.44.Properuseofhammer.

Whereagoodmanyoperationsarerepeated,itisoftenwelltouseaform,orjig, to secure uniform results and to avoid waste of time in unnecessarypreliminariesinmakingeachindividualoperation.

FIG.45.Jigfornailing.

Fig. 45 shows jig which might be used in locating and driving nails whenfasteningcratestripsoncorners.Theholesaresufficientlylargesothatwhenthejigisplacedovertheendofacratestripinpositiontonail,andthenailisdriventhruthejighole,thejigmaybeliftedoff,theheadofthenailbeingsmallerthantheholeinthejig.

CHAPTERIVPLANESANDPLANING

SuggestedProjects:a)Scouringboardforkitchen(Fig.46),b)Bread-cuttingboard(Fig.47).c)Bulletinboardtohangonwall(Fig.48).d)Billboardforfilingmeatandgrocerybills(Fig.49).e)Swingboard(Fig.50).f)Ropewind(Fig.51).

FIG.46.Scouringboard

Thetoolchieflyemphasizedinthisgroupofprojectsistheplane.Othertoolsneeded are the try-square, ruler, marking gage, crosscut-saw, rip-saw and, forsomeoftheprojects,thehammerorbitandbit-brace.

23. The Plane. There are four principal planes used in awoodworker’s kit.They are the jointer, jack, smooth and block. It is not necessary to have all oftheseinordertodosatisfactorywork.Thejackplane(Fig.52)showstheplaneanditsparts.

FIG.47.Bread-cuttingboard.

FIG.48.Bulletinboard.

FIG.49.Billboard.

24.CareofthePlane.Theplane-ironmustbekeptsharp.Grinditwhenitisverydullornicked;otherwise,whetitonanoilstone.Fig.53givesthepositionoftheplane-irononagrindstoneasheldbytheoperator.Fig.54showsthepositionoftheplane-ironontheoilstoneasheldbytheoperator.

FIG.50.Swingboard.

FIG.51.Ropewind.

25.Grinding thePlane-Iron.Togrind theplane-iron,hold it steadyandatsuch an angle that the proper bevel will be secured. Move it back and forthsidewaystoaccountforanyunevennessinthestone,butdonotraiseorlowerit.

26.WhettingthePlane-Iron.Towhettheplane-iron,holditsothatthebevelformed by the grindstone will be in contact with the oilstone. Use a circularmotion in whetting (Fig. 54). Finally, raise the hands, slightly continuing thismotion.Thiswill tend tocreateawhettedbevelmadeslightlyatananglewiththegroundbevel(Fig.55).Theplane-ironshouldbeheld inthispositionforafewmomentsonly,whenitmaybereversed,laidflatonthetopofthestoneandgivenafewcircularstrokes(Fig.56).

FIG.52.Partsofjackplane:

1ADoubleplane-iron.1Singleplane-iron.2Plane-ironcap.3Capscrew.4Levercap.5Levercapscrew6Frog,complete.7“Y”adjustinglever.8Adjustingnut.9Lateraladj.lever.10Frogscrew.11Planehandle.12Planeknob.13Handlebolt&nut.14Knobbolt&nut.15Planehandlescrew.16Planebottom.46Frogadj.screw.

FIG.53.Positionofplane-irononthegrindstone.

FIG.54.Positionofplane-ironontheoilstone.

FIG.55.Differenceinanglesforgrindingandforwhetting.

FIG.56.Whettingthefacesideofplane-iron.

FIG.57.Shapeofcuttingedgeforgeneraluse.

FIG.58.Shapeofcuttingedgeforjackplane.

Theironsforallplanesexceptthejackshouldbegroundatrightangleswiththeedge,withthecornersrounded(Fig.57).

The plane-iron for the jack plane, if used principally as a roughing plane,should be ground rounding on the edge as in Fig. 58.When used as the onlyplaneinakit,itshouldbegroundveryslightlyrounding,ifatall.Theangleforgrinding,exceptwhenaplaneisusedexclusivelyforveryhardwood,shouldbeapproximately 20 degrees. The whetted bevel should make approximately 5degreeswiththegroundbevel(Fig.55).

FIG.59.Correctwayofholdingtheplane.

27.CareofPlane.Inordertoprotecttheedgeoftheplane-iron,laytheplaneonitssidewhennotinuse.Fig.7showstheplaneandothertoolsinpositiononacarpenter’sbench,whichisaverysatisfactorykindtouseonthefarm.

28.UseofthePlane.Touseaplane,theoperatorstandsinfrontofthebenchin a bracing position, the left foot in front of the right and the body turnedslightlytowardthebench.

Note that the handle of the plane is grasped with the right hand, with thefingersandthumbwrappedaboutthehandle.Thepalmofthelefthandisplaced

ontheknoboftheplane(Fig.59).

FIG.60.Planingawideboard.

Theplane isplacedupon theboardso that itsbottom is incontactwith thesurface tobeplaned.The left handpresses theplanedownward, and the righthand pushes it forward. When the plane bottom is fully in contact with thewood,bothhandsexertanequalpressure.Astheplaneprojectsovertheendoftheboardincompletingitsstroke,therighthandexertsthepressureandthelefthandmerelyservestoholdandguidetheplane.

Itiscustomaryinplaningasurfacetobegintheplaningattheedgenearesttheoperator,andtofinishattheoppositeedge.However,iftheboardiswarpedortwisted,shavingsmustfirstbetakenfromthehighsurfacestoestablishaflatandtruesurface.Thenthefinishingshavingsshouldbetakenassuggested.WorkingInstructionsforSwingBoard:

Stock:1piece,1”X6”X16”.29. Face Side. Place the board flat upon the top of the benchwith one end

against the bench stop (Fig. 60). With the plane set to take a light shaving,proceedtosurfacethestock,asexplainedinSec.28.Theplanedsurfaceshouldbetestedwiththebladeofatry-squareorotherstraight-edge,placedinseveralpositions.When testing, place the bladeof the try-square across the surface atdifferent points. The amount of light shown between the board and the try-squarebladewillindicatethelowplacesinthesurface.Continueplaningeitherbytakingregularshavingsacrosstheboardorbyplaninghighplacesonlyuntilthe straight-edge test shows approximately the same amount of light for allpositionsofthetry-square.Markthissurface1.

30.JointEdge.Placetheboardinthevisewithoneedgeup.Planethisedgeuntilittestsstraightlengthwisebythestraight-edgetest,andstraightandatrightangleswiththefacesurfacebyusingthetry-square,asshowninFig.61.Thetry-squareshouldbeplacedontheedgeatseveralpoints,alwayshavingthebeamofthe square against the face side. When edge tests are satisfactory, mark theplanededge2.

FIG.61.Testingedgewithtry-square.

31.SecondEdge.Setthemarkinggageandgageforwidthoftheboard,usingthemethoddescribedinSec.13.

Planethesecondedgeoftheboardasyoudidthejointedge.Testfrequentlywiththetry-square,andkeeptheamountofwoodtobeplanedoffthesameinthickness the entire length of the board. Remember, when the gage line isreached,planingmust stop and the edgemustbe straight and squarewith thefaceside.

32. Second Surface. From the face side, gage the thickness of the board onboth planed edges. Plane the second surface as you planed the first, testingfrequently for straight-ness inwidthand length so that the surfacewillbe truewhenthegagelinesarereached.

33.FirstEnd.Placetheboardvertically inthevise.First fromoneedgeandthentheother,neverallowingtheplanetotakeashavingcompletelyacrosstheend,planetheupperendoftheboardsquarewiththefacesideandthejointedge(Fig.62).

34.SecondEnd.Measuretheboardforlength,andsquareacrossthefacesideandjointedgewithknifeandtry-square.(SeeSec.12forinstructionsonsawingandsquaring.)Planethesecondendaccordingtothedirectionsforplaningthefirstend.

FIG.62.Planingtheend.

Note: The face side, joint edge and first end are surfaces from which all

measurementsmustbetakeninsecuringthedimensionsofaboardorinmakingsurfacemeasurements.

FIG.63.Layoutforboring.

FIG.64.Linesforrip-sawing.

35.BoringHolesforRope.Withmarkinggage,makeashort,lightcenterlineonfacesideofboardfromeachendthruapoint3’fromeachend(Fig.63).Bytheuseofthetry-squareandknife,crosseachofthesecenterlineswithashortknifelineatrightanglestothejointedge(Fig.64).

With3/4”auger-bit andbrace,bore the twoholes for the rope, as shown inFig.65.Apieceofboardmustbeplacedonthebackoftheswingboard,oppositetheauger-bit,topreventsplinteringthefibersofthewoodintheswingboard,or,thestockmustbereversedintheviseassoonasthespurprotrudesonthebacksideoftheswingboardsothattheholemaybefinishedfromtheoppositeside.

FIG.65.Boringonbroadsideofstock

FIG.66.Positionofboardforrip-sawing.

36.SawingEndNotches.Oneach end,measure1” in eachdirectionof thecenterlines,squareacrosstheendsatthesepointsandonthefacesidejointheend of each of these lines with the corresponding side of the hole, to formtangents(Fig.66).

FIG.67.Sandpapering.

Place theboard in thevise so thatoneof these lines is inaverticalposition(Fig.66).

Aspreviouslyinstructed,sawtothislineinwastestockwitharip-saw.Sandpaperusedoverablockandrunlengthwiseofthegrainmaybeusedto

smoothsurfacesoftheswingboardandroundedgesslightly(Fig.67).

SupplementaryInstructions:The“WorkingInstructions”fortheswingboardincludespracticallyallthose

necessary for anyoneof the suggestedprojects in this group.However, in thebulletin board and bill board, the following suggestions should be made: Incutting off the corners on each of these projects, you should work from thecenterlineshowninFig.68.Bymeasuringoneachsideofthisline,onewillbesure tomake theendsymmetrical.The linesdrawntoshowwhere thecornersaretobecutshouldbedrawnonthefacesideandfromeachendofthesealineshouldbesquaredacrossthejointedgeorendofboard(Fig.68).

FIG.68.Layoutforcornercuts.

FIG.69.Useofhanddrill.

Tosaweachoftheselines,putboardinvisesothatlineisinverticalposition.To insert bill-board stake at any particular point on the front of the board,

drillorboreaholeslightlysmallerthanaten-pennyfinishingnailthrutheboardfromthefrontside,assuggested(Fig.69).Ifahanddrillisnotavailable,usebitandbrace(Fig.4).

FIG.70.Clothespinwhichmaybeusedwithbulletinboard.

Fromthebacksideoftheboard,drivethrutheholeaten-pennyfinishingnailandsettheheadunderthesurfaceoftheboardbytheuseofanailsetorsecondnail.

Thebulletinboardmaybeequippedeitherwithaspringclip,asshowninFig.48,orwithclothespin(Fig.70).

CHAPTERVESTIMATINGMATERIALS;CONSTRUCTINGANASSEMBLY

PROBLEM

SuggestedProjects:a)Washbench(Fig.71).b)Chickencoop(Fig.72).c)Feedbinorwood-box(Fig.73).d)Shippingcrate(Fig.74).e)Flowerbox(Fig.75).

FIG.71.Washbench.

FIG.72.Chickencoop.

FIG.73.Feedbinorwoodbox.

FIG.74.Shippingcrate.

Thisgroupofprojectsdoesnotrequiretheuseoftoolsnotalreadydescribed.It represents, however, a type of project slightly different from any of thoseincluded in former groups.Theprojects in this group are larger and generallyincludemoredistinctpartsrequiringtheuseofmoreandlargerstock.Inasense,they represent a typeofworkwhich is neither carpentry on theonehandnorbenchwoodworkontheother;theycombinetheelementsofboth.

FIG.75.Flowerbox.

37.CalculationsofStock.InSec.5,rulesaregivenforfindingthenumberofboardfeetinoneormoreboards.Itisessentialthatweknowhowtoapplythisrule,bothtoestimatethecostofaprojectandactuallytodeterminetheamountofmaterial thathasgone into it. It isequally important to forma judgmentofwhatstocktoselectbeforeaprojectischosen.Forexample,smallpiecesofwoodmaysometimesbeusedupforthesmallerpartsofaproject,whileboardsfromwhichpiecesfortheprojectmaybecutcanbeselectedcarefullywithaviewtowastingaslittlematerialaspossible.

Thinkcarefullyofthemeansofgettingoutstock,bothtosavematerialandtosavetime.Beassystematicaboutyourworkaspossible.Whenatoolissetforaparticulardimensionoruse,doallthatyoucanwithit,notonlyononeboard,butonallwhichare tohavesimilarworkdoneuponthem.Planaheadso thatyouknowexactlywhatyoushoulddonext,andhowyouwillproceedfromsteptostep.Thinkthruaproblembeforeyoubeginconstruction.Ifyouneedtomakechanges,youcandosobetter,havingoncethoughtoutonesolution.Wheneverpossible,makeacompleteworkingdrawingoftheprojectwithdimensionsandnotes.

WorkingInstructionsforChickenCoop:Instructionsaregivenbelowformakingthechickencoop.Usestripsofwood,

iftheycanbefound,fortheslatsinthefront,andselectboardsfortheroofandbackasnearlyaspossible thedesiredwidth.For suchaprojectas this,useoldmaterial if available rather than new.Old fence boards are satisfactory for theback.

38.RoofBoards.Securelumberfreefromknotswhichwillcuteconomicallytomaketheroofboards.Example:Twoboards,each9”wide,orone12”andtheother 6” wide, the latter a fence board, possibly. Test the ends of boards forsquareness. Use a carpenter’s square for this, and in case an end needs to besawedsquare,followtheusualmethodofsquaringandsawing,substitutingthecarpenter’s square for the try-square. If twoboardsareused, find thecenter inlengthofeachone.Squareacrossthruthecenterpointsandsawonlines.Placeone12”andone6”board,orthetwo9”boardsedgetoedgewithendsflush.Naila2”or3’strip1/2”fromoneendofthepairofboards(Fig.76),andanother3’stripflushwiththeoppositeend(Fig.77).

FIG.76.Firstcrosscleatinplace.

FIG.77.Secondcrosscleatinplace.

Placetheremainingtwoboardstogetherinasimilarmannerandfastenatoneendonlywithastripplaced1/2”fromtheend.

Nailtheunfastenedendofonepairtotheendoftheotherpairwhichhasthestripattachedflushwiththeend(Fig.78).Thisjointformstheridgeoftheroofof thecoop.Thecleatshouldbeontheunderside,andnailsshouldenter itaswellastheendsoftheboardstowhichitisfastenedwhenthetwopairsofboardsarenailedtogetherattheridge.

FIG.78.Roofsectionsnailedtogether.

FIG.79.Attachingsideslats.

39.FasteningFrontStrips.Placetheroofedgewiseonthegroundandfastenthe lower ends togetherwith a4”or6” stripof siding to form the lower frontboardofthecoop(Fig.79).Theloweredgeofthisboardshouldbehighenoughtopermitthecooptosetoffthegroundatleast1-1/2”.Apanofwatercanthenbeplacedunderitandbeheldbyitwhenthecoopisinuse.Beforefasteningthelower frontboard inplace, set abevel-square to45degrees.Markand saw theendsoftheboardtocomeflushwiththeoutsidesurfacesoftheroofboards.Amiter boxmay be used to saw the ends of this board and other boards to befastenedonthefrontandback(Fig.80).Stockforremainingcleatsmaybesawedbyusingthemethodoflayingoutandsawing,asshowninFig.81.

FIG.80.Miterbox.

Inasimilarmanner,mark,sawandnailtheremainingfrontstripswhichmaybe lathsornarrow strips ofwood.A spaceof from1” to 1-1/2” shouldbe leftbetweenadjacentstrips,allofwhichshouldbeparallel.ThespacecaneasilybedeterminedbytheuseofagagemadeasshowninFig.82.

FIG.81.Methodoflayingoutstrips.

FIG.82.Gageforspacingslats.

40. Fastening Back Boards. Turn the coop over, cut and fasten the backboards,beginningatthebottom.Alternateboardsshouldbereversedinordertosavelumberbytakingadvantageoftheendcutmadeat45degrees(Fig.81).

41.Trimming.Placethecooponthefloorinitsnaturalposition.Ifitdoesnotsetsquarelyonallbottomedges,planethosewhicharetoolowuntilallsurfacesreston the floor. In case the endsof the frontorbackboardsprojectover thesurfaceoftheroofboards,theyshouldbeplanedflushwiththeseboards.

42.CheckingEstimate.Measure carefully all stockused, anddetermine thenumberofboard feetof lumber in theproject.Compare this amountwith theoriginalestimate.Ifthisandtheplanningatthebeginningofaprojectarebothdone whenever a project is constructed, you will gain in efficiency inmakingcloseestimatesandinplanningtosavebothmaterialandtime.

CHAPTERVICHISELING;MAKINGCOMMONFRAMINGJOINTS

SuggestedProjects:a)Milkstool(Fig.83).b)Combinationmilkstoolandpailrest(Fig.84).c)Harnessrack(Fig.85).d)Harnessclamp(Fig.86).e)Seedtester(Fig.87).f)Sawhorse(Fig.88).

FIG.83.Milkstool.

FIG.84.Combinationmilkstoolandpailrest.

FIG.85.Harnessrack.

FIG.86.Harnessclamp.

FIG.87.Seedtester.

FIG.88.Sawhorse.

43. Tools. The tools emphasized in this group are the different kinds of

chisels. (See Classification, page 29.) Auxiliary tools described are the doublegage,mallet,andnailset.

FIG.89.Socketchisel.

FIG.90.Tangchisel.

44.PreliminaryInstruction.Forcarpentrywork,aheavychisel is required,one inwhich thehandle fits intoa socket in the chiselblade, called the socketchisel(Fig.89).Forordinaryuse,however,eventhoughthehandleofthechiselwillbestruckwithamalletoccasionally,butlightly,achiselwithaspikeontheendofit(a“tang”)whichfitsintothehandleisused(Fig.90).

FIG.91.Paringwithchisel.

Theworkachiseldoesisdividedintotwoclasses,dependingupontherelationof thedirectionofcuttingandthegrainof thewoodcut.Whenthechiselcutswiththegrain(Fig.91),itissaidtopareoffashaving,andtheprocessiscalledparing.Whenachiselcutsacrossthegrain,whetherabruptlyoratasharpanglewith thewood fiber, it is said tobecuttingcrosswise,and theprocess is calledcross-chiseling(Fig.92).Incaseonecutsacrossthegraininaverticalposition,theprocessiscalledverticalchiseling.Itisincrossorverticalchiselingthatthemalletismuchusedtoforcethechiselacrossthegrain.Suchworkisillustratedbythecuttingofjointssuchasthetenonandmortisejoint,inwhichthemortiseischiseledout.

A chisel is ground and whetted in the manner described for sharpening aplane-iron(Sec.26).

WorkingInstructionsforSeedTester:Stock:Four1”x3-1/2”x6”hardpineS2S.

Four1”x6-1/4”x6”matchedflooringS2S.Six-penny(6d)nailsand1-1/2”brads.

45.PurposeofSeedTester.Thefollowinginstructionsarefortheseedtester,orgerminatingbox,whichisusedtotestthefertilityofseeds.Asthesoilmustbemoist for thispurpose, theboxmustbemadestrong towithstand theeffectofthemoisture,whichhasa tendency toopenup jointsandchange the shapeofboardsbywarpingorwinding.

Itisforthisreasonthatthecornersoftheboxaremadewithalockjoint,andthatthetonguesofthejointaregluedandnailedtogether(Figs.87and93).

FIG.92.Chiselingacrossthegrain.

Theuppersurfaceofthesoilisblockedoffintosquaresthateachonemaybeusedforanindividualseedoragroupofseeds.Thesesquaresaredeterminedbyacordstrungbetweentheoppositesidesofthebox(Fig.87).

46.RoughCutting.Ifnecessary,ripthepiecesforthesidesoftheboxfromaboard, and square and saw each to the required length. Plane each board towidth(3-1/2”)andthickness(3/4”).

FIG.93.Cornerjointforseedtester.

FIG.94.Firststepinlayingoutjoint.

47. LayingOut. On the face side of each board, which should become theinside surface of a side of the box, square a knife line 1” from each end, or adistance equal to the thicknessof the stock.Continue this as a finepencil linearoundthepiece.

FIG.95.Secondstep.

FIG.96.Wastewoodmarkedforremoval.

Fromthejointedge,whichshouldbecometheupperedgeofasideofthebox,gageconsecutivelyontheendandonbothsurfacesofeachendofeachboardaline3/4” from the joint edge to form the firstdovetail line (Fig. 94).Reset thegageto1-3/8”(3/4”5/8”),andinasimilarmannergagetheseconddovetaillineoneachendofeachpiece(Fig.95).Continuethisprocessofgaging,adding3/4”and5/8”alternatelyuntilallcutsareindicated.Ontheendofeachboard,markwithapencilthepartsofthejointtoberemoved(Fig.96).

48.Sawing.Sawwiththerip-sawtoeachlineinthestocktoberemoved.Sawwithacrosscut-sawtotheshoulders,thosecornerstoberemoved(Fig.97).

49.ChiselingJoints.Layeachboardflatonawoodensurfaceandchiseloutremainingpartsof joint tobe removed.The chisel shouldbeheld at an angle,andthefirstcutshouldbemadenear,butnotontheshoulderline(Fig.98).Thelast cut should be made by holding the edge of the chisel on this line,perpendicular with the surface of the board, the depth of the cut being aboutone-halfthethicknessoftheboard(Fig.99).Reversetheboard,againplacetheedgeof the chisel on the line, andgently tap the chiselwithmallet, orpush itwithrighthandthrutomeettheoppositecutalreadyformed.Thismustbedone

withgreatcarenottounder-cutthejointtoanyappreciableextent.

FIG.97.Sawingthejoints.

FIG.98.Chiselingdovetails.

The sides of the tongues formed by the rip-saw cuts should not be touchedwithachiselunlessthesawhasnotcuttothegagelines.Inthiscase,thechiselshouldbeusedtopareoffthissuperfluousstock(Fig.91).

50.FasteningCorners.Drivea1-1/2”bradthrueachprojectingpieceofthejoint, as shown in Fig. 100.Before driving thenails in the corners, cover eachslidingsurfaceofeachjointwithcoldorhotglue.

FIG.99.Finishingthechiselcut.

51.NailingBottom.Thebottomboardsmaybenailedontotheloweredgesof the sides of the boxwith six-penny common nails (Fig. 101). Each bottomboardshouldbesquaredandsawedtolengthbeforeitisnailedinplace.

Amoresatisfactoryboxinappearanceandinstrength,butonemoredifficulttomake,wouldhavethebottomsetinsideofthesidesoftheboxandnailedfromthe outside. Such a bottomwould be completely fitted and set in place at onetime(Fig.102).

FIG.100.Positionofnailsinjoints.

52.MarkingEdges.Withpencilandruler,divide the lengthof the insideofeach side of the box into equal spaces—1”, 1-1/2” or 2”—depending upon thedistancethestringsonthetopoftheboxaretobeseparated.

FIG.101.Methodofattachingthebottom.

FIG.102.Thebottomfittedinsideofsidepieces.

Square a light pencil line across the upper edge of each board at the pointslocated,andplaceatthecenterofeachoftheselinesa1-1/2”brad(Fig.103).Thebradshouldbedrivenintothewoodtoallowtheheadtoproject1/4”abovethesurfaceofthewood.Continuetheprocessuntilallbradsaredriveninplace.

FIG.103.Locationofnailsforstringing.

Stringthecordcontinuouslybackandforthbetweentheoppositesidesofthebox, thecordrunningbetweenonepairof sides tobeat rightangleswith thatstrungbetweenthesidesoftheotherpair.

53.Supplementary Instructions. In the instructions for the seed tester, twooperationsinwhichthechiselisaprincipaltoolarenotfullydescribed,viz.—(a)paring a broad surface and (b) cutting amortise. Examples of the former arefoundinthebodyofthesawhorse,whereare-cessforthelegisformed,orintheuprightoftheharnessclamp,wheresupportingsurfacesforthebarrelstavesareformed;whilethelatterisusedinworkingoutandcuttingamortiseandtenonforthejointinthemilkingstool.

FIG.104.Makingthejointsforsawhorse.

FIG.105.Methodofchiselingjoints.

FIG.106.Layoutofjointformilkingstool.

54.SpecialOperations.Aftertherecessforthesawhorselegislaidoutinthebodyofthesawhorse,andtheshouldersarecutwithacrosscut-saw(Fig.104),thewastestockmustberemoved.Fig.105showshowthechiselisusedintakingparingcuts.Thewaste stockbeingremoved, the surface is finally testedwithatry-square blade used as a straight-edge to determine when the surface isperfectlytrue.

To layoff thetenononthetopof theuprightpiece inthemilkingstool, thetry-squareandsingle-ordouble-markinggageshouldbeusedandlinesdrawn,asindicatedinFig.106.

Parallel lines can bemade at one timewith the double gage (Fig. 107). Thecross-hatchedpartofFig.106representstheendofthetenon.Sawtolinesawithcrosscut-sawinwastestock.Sawtolinesbinwastestockwithrip-saw.

Fig.108showsthejointforthemilkingstoolwiththerectanglerepresentingthemortisemadeupoflinesmarkedb,correspondingtosimilarly-letteredlinesontopofupright.Thelonglinesofthisrectangularholeshouldbemadeonbothtopandbottomofboardwiththemarkinggage, theshort lineswithknifeandtry-square.Theextensionoftheshortlinesmarkedbabouttheedgeoftheboardsuggestshowthetry-squarewillbeusedtosecurelinesontheundersideoftheboardcorrespondingtothoseonthetopside.

FIG.107.Gagingjointformilkingstool.

FIG.108.Thejointcompleted.

FIG.109.Boringoutthemortise.

ThemortiseshouldbeboredoutbytheprocessillustratedinFig.109,theendsofthemortisechiseledasdescribedinSec.49,andthesidesofthemortiseparedoutasdescribedinSec.44.

CHAPTERVIIUSEOFMODELINGORFORMINGTOOLS;SHAPING

IRREGULARFORMS

SuggestedProjects:a)Hammerhandle(Fig.110).b)Hatchethandle(Fig.111).c)Neckyoke(Fig.112).d)Singletree(Fig.113).e)Shouldercarrier(Fig.114).

FIG.110.Hammerhandle.

FIG.111.Hatchethandle.

FIG.112.Neckyoke.

FIG.113.Singletree.

FIG.114.Shouldercarrier.

55.ModelingTools.Undertheclassificationoftools(Sec.7),arelistedthoseincommonuse.Amongthese,butnotunderasingleheading,arethosewhichareusedprincipallyforfashioningirregularsurfaces.Insuchagrouparefoundthespoke-shave, thedraw-knifeandsimilar tools; thehatchet,axandadz,andalsosuchmiscellaneoustoolsastheturning-saw,woodraspandgage(Fig.5).

Perhaps innoplacewherewoodworkinghand tools are in commonuse arethe modeling tools more generally used than on the farm, with the possibleexceptionofthecoopershop.Thecuttingedgeofanyoneofthesetools,excepttheturning-sawandfile,is,informanduse,bothachiselandaknife,yetnoneofthemareusedeitherasthechiselorknife.

Boththedraw-knifeandthespoke-shave(Fig.5)arechiselswithahandleateitherendofthecuttingedge.Inthecaseofthespoke-shave,thethicknessoftheshaving is controlled by a gage in an opening in the shoe or bed-plate of thespoke-shave.There is also similarity in construction between this tool and theplane.

On the other hand, the hatchet, ax and adz are chisels, but controlleddifferently from either the chisel or the spoke-shave and draw-knife. Thedescriptive matter under heading, “Working Instructions.” in the followingpages,suggeststheuseofeachofthesetools,andshouldbestudiedcarefullyinconnectionwiththeillustrations.

The instructions given are for making the hatchet handle. This projectincludes theprincipalmodeling exercises for themajorityof the forming toolshereinlisted.WorkingInstructionsforHatchetHandle:

56.SquaringtheStock—LayingOut.Planestocktooveralldimensions,3/4”x1-1/2”x14”.

Onthefaceside,sketchtheoutlineofthehandle,asshowninFig.115.Taperthefrontendofthehandleto1/2”thicknessontheend,beginningthetaperatapoint4”fromthisend,asshownintheedgeviewofthemechanicaldrawingofthehandle.

57.Using theTurning-saw. Place the stockupright in the vise, one-half itslength being above the vise. Stand in front of the vise in position to saw (Fig.115).

Grasp the turning-saw in hands, as shown in Fig. 115, the teeth pointingtowardtheoperator.Movethesawawayfromyoutostartthesawcut,orkerf;thentowardyouwithoutdownwardpressure,until thesawbladehasbeguntocut.Continuetomovethesawbackwardandforwardtheapproximatelengthof

thesawblade,holdingthe frameverticallyexceptwhennecessary tovary fromthispositioninordernottohavetheframestrikethestock.Graduallyturntherighthandasforwardstrokesaremadetodirectthesawbladeonthecurve.

FIG.115.Correctuseofturningsaw.

Wherepossible, thesawcutshouldbetakenover thegrain.However,unlessthe saw can be removed from stock and started in a new placewithoutmuchdifficulty,itisbesttocompleteasawcutregardlessofrelationofwoodfibertosawcut.Continueworkwith the turning-sawuntil thecompleteoutlineof thehandleissawedout.

58.UseoftheSpoke-shave.Placethestockinvise,asillustratedinFig.116.Standatendofvise,bendingslightlyoverstockwithspoke-shavegraspedfirmly,butnotrigidly,inbothhands.Draworpushitoverthegrain,holdingthebladesquarewith the faceside,butallowingonehandto lead theotherslightly, thattheshavingmaybecutmorereadily.Itmaybeadvisabletoshiftthepositionofthestockinthevisefromtimetotime,thatthetoolmaybeusedwiththeleastdifficulty.

FIG.116.Usingthespoke-shave.

Whenthespoke-shavededgesaresquarewiththefaceside,thecornersshouldbetakenofftoformacross-section,asshowninFig.111andFig.117.Caremustbetakentoremovenomorestockthanmustbetakenofffinallytosecureagood

oval-shapedhandle.Theovalshouldbeanellipse.

FIG.117.Stepsinmodelinghandles.

Afterthefirstcornersareremoved, theprocessofcuttingoffcornersshouldbe continued, as shown in Fig. 117, to secure the closest approximation to anellipticalcross-section.Thefrontendof thehandlemaynowbemodeledto fitthehatchethead.Thismaybedonewiththespoke-shaveortheplane,orpartlybytheuseofeach.

59. Scraping and Sandpapering. Finally, all irregular surfaces should bescrapedwithapieceofglassorasteelscraper,andsandpapered,firstusingthesandpaper on a block andmoving the block slowly around the handle as it ismovedbackandforthlengthwisewiththegrain.Finally,withthesandpaperinthehand,continuetomovethepaperlengthwisetosecurethefinishedsurface.Cross strokeswith the sandpapermaybe taken if followedby strokeswith thegrain.SupplementaryInstructions:

60.TheWoodRasp.Insomecases,itisadvisabletouseawoodrasp(Fig.5)separately or in conjunction with the spoke-shave, scraper and sandpaper inmodelingapieceofwoodtoanirregularformandshape.Ifaspoke-shavehadnot been available for use on the hatchet handle, the same general procedurecouldhavebeenfollowedwiththewoodraspinmodelingtheformforeachofthedifferentshapesdescribed,viz.—rectangularcross-section,eight-sidedcross-section,etc.

Thewood rasp is held like a file. It is pushed forwardwithpressure for thecuttingstroke,and lightlydrawnback incontactwith thewood,or lifted fromthewoodentirelyonthereturnstroke.As it ispushed, it isrolledslightlyand,also,movedlengthwiseonthestock,thusavoidingruttingorgougingthewood.

Thehatchet,axoradzmaybeusedtoremoveaconsiderableportionofstocktosecureroughlythedesiredformorshape.

Oftheprojectslistedinthisgroup,littleornodifficultyshouldbeexperienced

in securing the result indicated by the drawings, if the instructions for thehatchethandlearefollowedasaguide.

61.TheShoulderCarrier.Themostdifficultprojecttoformistheshouldercarrier. This may be modeled from a straight-grained, well-seasoned piece ofcord-wood,orfromaheavyplank.Itisadvisabletocutoutwiththeturning-sawthe shape of the carrier shown in the top view, or the one you would get iflookingdownonthecarrieras it isplacedonone’sshoulders.Next,modeltheuppersurfacewithadraw-knife,spoke-shaveandwoodrasp.Finally,theundersurfaceshouldbemodeledtofitovertheshoulders.Thisworkmaybedonewithanoutsidegroundgouge(Fig.5).Itispushedintothewoodwiththegrain,and,as the right hand is lowered, the stock is removed and the desired shape issecured.Theconvex, concaveandcylindrical surfacesof thecarriermayallbesmoothedfinallywithawoodrasporsandpaper,orboth.

CHAPTERVIIISUPPLEMENTARYPROJECTS

62.SheepRackandFeedBunk(Fig.118).Directions:1)Frameupeachendwith1”x10”boards3’0”long,cleatedtogetheronthe

outside by the two 1” x 4” strips, and on the inside by the 1” x 3” strip uponwhichthetroughflooristorest.Flushwiththeupperedgeofthiscleat,andwitheachoftheoutsideedgesofthebunkend,fastenthe2”x4”cornerpostsorlegs.

FIG.118.Sheeprackandfeedbunk.

2)Fastenthetwobunkendstogetherbynailinginplacethetopandbottombunkrails.

3)Laythefloor,nailingboardstothefloorcleatsonthebunkendsandtothetop of the legs. Fit the middle “V” feed guides and the outside trough edgeboards,nailingendsofthesamefromoutsideofbunkend.

4) From lower edges of feed guides toupper corners of ends of bunk, drawlines to locate guide boards for the 1” x 12” board and rackwhich hold feed.Constructandnailtheseguidesinplace.

5) Cut slats for rack and fasten together at top ends bymeans of a 1” x 3”board,towhichallaresquarelynailed.

6)Nail1”x12”feedboardsinpositiontotheinsideguideboards(A).7)Placefeedrackinposition,supportedbyoutsideguideboards(B).Toe-nail

thebottomofeachrackslattothe“V”feedguideboard,andnailthetopoftheracksecurelytothe1”x12”feedboard,overtheloweredgeofwhichtheyshouldlapby3”.Thisshouldbedoneafterthe1”x6”slidehasbeenplacedinposition.Thisshouldslideintheopeningsbetweenthefeedrackandtheinsideendguideboardswithdifficulty,thatitmaybeheldinanyparticularpositionbyfriction,

oritshouldbefastenedthrugroovesintheendboardsofrackbymeansofwingnutbolts.

FIG.119.Woodworkingbench.

63.DirectionsforWoodworkingBench(Fig.119).1)Constructtheframebyplaningforeachend:

2oakboards(uprights),each1-3/4”x4”x2’6”.1oakboard(lowercrosspiece),1-3/4”x3”x2’5”.1pineboard(uppercrosspiece),1”x11”x2’4”.

2) Lay out and construct themortise and tenon joints to join the front andbackuprightswiththelowercrosspiece.Tenonsmaybefullwidth,viz.,3”wideand3/4”thick.Lengthbetweentenonshoulders,2’1/2”.

3) Assemble each frame by joining the parts; the lower crosspiece to befastenedtotheuprightsbygluingjoints,andclampedforat leasttwelvehours,and theupper connectingpiece to benailed inposition as soon as clamps areappliedtothelowerpartoftheframe.

4) Construct the front of the vise, planing it to dimensions as given in thedrawing.Fastenthelowerguidepieceinwithglueandnailitfromeachedgeoftheviseboard.Thestaggeredholesinguidepieceforvise,inwhichtoinsertpintokeepthelowerportionoftheviseboardtheproperdistancefromthebench,shouldeachbe1/2”indiameter,intworowseachabout1”fromtheedgeoftheguideboard,holestobe2”apartineachrow.

5)Nailfrontandbacksideboards,orrails,ofthebenchontotheendsections.6)Purchasea1-1/4”ironvisescrew.Boretheholesforthisinviseboardand

bench,andcuttheslotfortheviseguideboard.Assemblevise.7)Cuttheopeningforthedrawer2’x8”inupperportionofcenteroffront

board,andfasteninplacetherunnerandguideboardsforthedrawerbynailingorscrewingintotheirendsthrufrontandbackboards.

8) Lay the top boards on. Thesemay be of oak, although dressed pine willsuffice.Jointsbetweenboardsmustbetight.Theyneednotbeglued.

9)Constructdrawer,asshownbydrawerdetailsofjoints,andfitinbenchtoslidefreely.Thebottomofthedrawermaybenailedontocleatsfastenedtothelowerinsidesurfacesofthesidesofdrawer.

64.WorkingDirectionsforDogHouse(Fig.120).1)Cut 2” x 4”’s to proper lengths for either sills or plates, and one-half the

numberofstuds.2)Ripallpiecesof2”x4”into2”x2”strips.3)Construct sill andplate frameswithhorizontalhalf-lapcorner joints, and

connectsillandplateframeswithstudsbynailingthruframesintoendsofstuds.4) Nail on sheathing (fence boards), lapping side boards over ends of end

boards.

FIG.120.Doghouse.

5)Beginningatthebottom,cutandnailonsidingonsidesandends.6)Cutandnailonroofboards (fenceboards), allowing spaceof1”between

boards.7)Shingleroof,beginningateavesandworkingtowardridge,breakingjoints

foreverytwoconsecutivelayersorrowsofshingles.8)Cut,fitandnailridge,facing,corner,base,andtrimboards.65.DirectionsforCornDrier(Fig.121).1)Securepinelumber1”thick,3-1/2”or4”wide,and16’-0”long,dressed.2)Cuteachpiecetoformlengthsforpartsofdrierwithleastpossiblewaste.

Example:10’and6’or6’,6’and4’(2braces).3)Nail,asshownindrawing,nailingtwopiecestogether,surfacetosurfacefor

ends.Toe-nailinbraces.Usesix-pennyandeight-pennycommonnails.

FIG.121.Corndrier.

4)Onendpieces andvertical centerpiece,with two-foot ruleor carpenter’ssquare, lay off points with pencil on front and back for spacing wire. Driveshingle-nail,or1-1/2”bradateachpoint.

FIG.122.Self-feeder.

5)Windwire(1/16”annealediron),takingoneturnabouteachnail.66.MakingtheSelf-Feeder(Fig.122).1) Cut ends to dimension—10” x 3’ 0”—bottom end square and top end

taperedtowardthefronttomakeit2’10”long.2)Cutcenterpartition tooveralldimensionsof endboards.Bevel frontand

backedgesof lower end to fit todeflectorboardon theback, and to the frontboard,towhichtheadjustableslideisattachedonthefront.

3)Nail cleat 2” wide on inside surfaces of end boards at the bottom, uponwhichfloorwillrest;also1”x3”cleattoholdslide,asmarkedinfrontviewofdrawing.

4)Nail toedgesof endandcenterpartitionboards ship-lap to formverticalportionoffrontoffeederandallofbackoffeeder.

FIG.123.Eggtester.

5) Lay floor of ship-lap on inside bottom cleats fastened on end boards offeeder.Cutdeflectorboardandtoe-nailintoposition.

6)Cutslanting12”boardoffrontoffeeder,boreholesfor1/2”wing-nutboltsandnail board in position to lower front edge of center partition board.Thruendboardsoffeedernailintoendsofthisslantingfrontboard.

7)Cut adjustable slide board to dimensions, cut slots forwing bolts, attachhandlesandfitboardinposition.

8)Bevelfrontedgeoffloorandattachfrontboardoftray.Nailonendbottomboards.

9)Nailship-laptocleatsfortop.Hingeatrearwithtwo4”leafstraphinges.10)Paintoutsideoffeederwithbrowncreosotepaint.67.MakingtheEggTester(Fig.123).1) Secure stock from one board 8” wide, or frommore than one board of

shorterlength,butthesamewidth,toconstructthecompletebox.2)Cut stock toconvenientplaning lengths, each tocut finally intoa certain

numberofpiecesforthebox.Alittlemustbeallowedinlengthforcrosscuttingandsquaringends.

3)Planestocktodimensions.Sawtoproperlengthsandsquareends.4)Taperfrontedgesofsideboards.5) Set bevel-square for angle of front edge of top board and ends of front

board.Markandtrimtoproperangles.6) Bore 1-1/2” hole and 1-1/4” hole in centers of top and front boards,

respectively.7)Nail box togetherwith six-penny (6d) finishnails in the followingorder:

Back,bottom,frontverticalboard,toptosides;frontslantingboard.68.ConstructingaCowStanchion(Fig.124).1) Select straight-grained hickory, oak or other close-grained, tough wood

from2”or1-1/2”dressedplank.2)Ripstocktowidthorthicknesstosecurestripswhichwilldressto1-1/2”x

2”.

FIG.124.Cowstanchion.

3)Planestripstocorrectwidthandthickness.4)Squareandsawstripstocorrectlengths.5)Bore3/8”holesincenterofendpiecesforchainbolts.6)Bore3/8”holeinupperendpieceforcornerfasteningclamp.(Positionof

holedependsonlengthofclamp.)7)Bevellowerendpieceandonesidepiece,eachononeendto45degreesfor

hingedcorner.8)Fastencornerangleironwith1”flatheadscrewstoinsideofeachendpiece

todrawtightlytosidepiecewhenscrewedtoit.Drillsmallholesforscrews.9) Fasten remaining side of each angle iron to side piece. First place in

position,markforscrewholes,andthendrillforthem.10)Fastenstraphingeinmannersimilartothatusedinfasteningangleirons.11)Drillsmallholesforstaplesforcornerchain.12)Fastenchainandcornerclampboltsbysettingupnutsoverwashersand

burrendsofboltsslightly.69.MakingTomatoTrellis(Fig.125).1)Secureeleven12”stripsofpine,3”or3-1/2”wide.Pineflooringor6”pine

fenceboardsrippedintwowillbesatisfactory.

FIG.125.TomatoTrellis

2)Cutfromeachofthreestripstwopieces5’0”long.3)Twofeetfromoneendofeachofthe5”strips,borea1/4”holeinthemiddle

ofthestock.4)Fastentwoofthestripstogetherwitha1/4”bolt,usingawasherunderthe

headandunderthenut,toformoneendoftherack.Inlikemanner,maketheremainingtwosupports,onefortheoppositeendandoneforthemiddleoftherack.

5) Nail four of the 12’ strips evenly spaced on the 3’ leg of each support,allowing the strips to project 12” on the end of the frame beyond the endsupport, and leaving sufficient space below the strip nearest the hinge for thevines.Placethemiddlesupportcentrallyintheframe.

6)Putstrongscrew-eyesatthetopofeachbarofeachendsupport,inwhichtofastenwireorcordtoholdthetopedgesatafixedpositionwhentheframeisinplace.

70.FeedBunkforCattle(Fig.126).1)Constructeachtrestleorpairoflegsbyfirstcuttingtolengththefourlegs

from4”x4”stockandconnectingeachpairwiththefour2”x4”crossandbracepieces.

FIG.126.Feedbunkforcattle.

First nail in position the two crosspieces on one side of a pair of legs, theninsertandnailsecurelytothispairofcrosspiecesthetwolegframebraces.Nownailon the tworemainingcrosspieces,both to the legsand thebraces.Finally,nailon the6”,2”×4”block lengthwiseof thebunk in thecenterof the lowercrosspieces,allowingittorest1”oneachcrosspiece.

2)Construct the frameof thebox from l-l/2”×10”or 2”×10” stock.Boreholestosecurethesidestotheendpieces.Notethattheendboardsofframerestonfloorboards.

3)Turnboxbottomsideup.Layandnailfloorboardstoendboards,andnail

on2”×4”crosspieces.4)Whilebox is bottom sideup,place leg frames inpositionandboreholes

thrulegsandsiderailsofbox.Insertandfastenbolts.Fitandnailthefourlengthbracesinposition,carefullylocatingcenterpositionforthemonthecrosspieces.Thelowerendsofthesebracesbuttagainstthe6”,2”×4”blocksalreadynailedtothelowerlegframecrosspieces.

5)Placebunkinuprightpositionandinsertandtightenendrods.71.SawBuck(Fig.127).1)Sawlegsofframetolengthsfrom3”×4”stock.

FIG.127.Sawbuck.

2)Locate,layoutandcuthalf-lapjointsforeachendofframe.3)Layoutandcut2”notchesforthicknessandwidthofconnectingbraces.4)Boreholes forcenter rod ineachhalf-lap jointconnectingendsof frame.

Dothiswheneachendofframeishalvedtogether.5)Planeandfitallbracerods.6) Form center rod, using draw-knife and spoke-shave on center portion of

rod,sawtocutshoulderandusechiselandwoodrasptoformendsofrod.7)Nailcrossbracesoneachendframeandtrimendswithplane.8)Placecenterrodinpositionandwedgeendswiththinwoodenwedge.9)Naillengthbracesinplaceandtrimedges.10)Placesawbuckuprightonlevelfloor.Withopendividers,scribelinefor

bottomoflegs;sawtolines.72.ChickenFeeder(Fig.128).1)Cutninepiecesfrom6”fenceboards,each2’6”long.2)Constructeachoftheendsandthepartitionofthefeederbynailingthreeof

thesepiecestogetherwithacleatatthebottomandanotherattheupperedge2’0”fromthebottom.

FIG.128.Chickenfeeder.

3)Layoutuponaverticalcenterlineofeachendboardthusconstructedtheshapeofthefeederendaccordingtodimensions.Sawtoshape.

4)Saw6”fenceboardstolengthsof2’6”forsides.5)Cutoutcornersadistanceof3”ontheloweredgeoftwoofthesideboards

tofitbetweentheendpiecesatthebottomofthefeedbox.Naileachinpositionforlowerboardofeachside.Nailothersideboardsonfrombottomtotop.Dresswithplaneupperedgeoftopsideboardsatroofangletoallowroofboardstofitonsameclosely.

6)Saw,fitandnailonbottom,roofandsideboardsfortray.Use8d.commonnails.

73.GardenMarker(Fig.129).1)Securestockasfollows:

One2”×4”×4’0”.One1”×6”×8’0”.

Short stock for braces and marking pins may be secured from waste fromhandle.

2)Planebedboardtodimensions;bevelfrontedge.3) Locate centers for marker pin holes on top and bottom surfaces of bed

boardbymeansofmarkinggageandtry-square.Angleofpinshouldbeabout15degreestoaverticalline.

FIG.129.Gardenmarker.

4)Bore 1-1/4”holes formarkerpins,working fromeach sideof bedboard.

Withjack-knife,reamoutholesontopsidetoapproximately1-1/2”.5)Shapehandle,nailsecurelyinplace,andbracewithpiecesofstockripped

fromhandleonunderside.6) From waste stock ripped from handle, or better, from pieces of 2” x 4”

rippedto2”squarestrips,whittleoutmarkerpins.Drivepinsinplaceandtoe-nailfromthetop,allowingnailheadstoprojectsufficientlysothatthenailsmayberemovedwithahammer.

74.IndividualHogCot(Fig.130).1) Frame floor by nailing four 2”× 4”’s edgewise across the two 2” × 4”

runners,oneateachend,frontandback,andtheremainingtwoevenlydividingtheremainingspace.

2)Cut rafters, three for each side, each6’ 6” long.Toe-nail bottomendsonrunners,oneateachendandoneinthemiddle.Toe-nailtopsofraftersofeachpairtogether.

3)Fastenrafterstogetheroneachsidebythreestrips(roofstringers)of1”×3”stock.Thesepreferablyshouldbesetin(housed)toupperedgeofrafters.Ifso,housingsshouldbecutbeforeraftersareplacedinposition.

FIG.130.Hogcot.

4) Lay floor of 1”× 6”matched lumber,matching outside floor strips to fitaroundraftersandcomeflushwithoutsideedgesofthem.

5)Erectsupportsorstuds frontandbackunderendrafters to formframingfordoorandwindow.

6)Toe-nailwindowframingsbetweenstuds.7)Coverinendswith1”×6”matchedsiding,restingbottomedgeofbottom

boardsontopofrunners.8)Coverroofwith1”×6”,1”×8”or1”×10”boardsvertically,nailingeachto

eachroof stringer.Covereachcrackwithabatten(2”strip), firstplacingridge

boardsinplace.9) Set window and hinge at top so that it may be opened for purpose of

ventilation. Place framing strips around door and window, if desired, torepresentcasings.

10)Fastenlargeeyeboltineachendofeachrunnertoserveasconnectionindraggingcotfromoneplacetoanother.

75.FeedBunkforSheep(Fig.131).1)Cutall2”×4”stockyviz., fourcornerpostsandtwohorizontalcross-bar

supportsforthefloor,froma16’piece.

FIG.131.Feedbunkforsheep.

2)Secure fiveboards, each1”×4”×10’0”, andcut fromoneof them fourpieces,each2’4”long.

3)Frameeachendofthebunk.4)Connecttheendframesbynailingthetwouppersidestripsinposition.5)Laythefloor.6)Nailinpositionthetwolowersidestripstoformthesidesofthefeedtray.76.PlowDoubletree(Fig.132).1)Select,from2”hickoryorstraight-grainedoak,stockforeachofthethree

partsofthedoubletree.

FIG.132.Plowdoubletree.

2) Saw and plane each piece of stock to rectangular shape and to overalldimensions.

3)Planebackedgesofeachpart to thecorrect taper, firstmaking lineswithstraight-edgeandpencildefiningtheseedges.

4)Boreholesformetalfittings.5) Secure in stock, or forge out the tug hooks and bolts to fasten same to

wooden parts; also the iron straps to fasten the singletree and doubletree

together.6)Attachmetalfittings.77.WagonJack(Figs.133and134).

FIG.133.Wagonjack.

FIG.134.Anothertypeofwagonjack.

1) Secure hickory, strong, straight-grained oak or other tough wood infollowingdimensions:

2pieces7/8”×5”×2’2”S2S,uprights.2pieces7/8”×4”×2’6”S2S,basestrips.1piece7/8”×3”×2’6”S2S,handle.1piece7/8”×4”×5”S2S,blockatbottombetweenuprights.

2) Sawandplane eachpieceof stock to shape anddimensions, as shown inFigs.133and134.

3)Bore seriesof5/8”holes2”apart,beginning12”fromendofhandle, eachwithcenterl/2”fromupperedgeofhandle.

4)Sawnotches, as indicated inFig. 133, saw-cut in eachcasemeetingoutersurfaceofboredhole.

5)Withallpiecesfastenedtogetherinviseorclamp,boreholesfor5/8”boltstofastenuprighttobasestripsandhandle.

6) Bend 3/4” band iron around lifting end of handle; drill and countersinkholesfor1”flatheadscrewsandfastenbandironinplace.

7)Assemble all parts of the jack, except the iron rod, to hold the handle inparticularpositions.Theboltsusedshouldbefastenedeachwithawasherundertheheadandunderthenut.

FIG.135.Farmsled.

8) Measure with a cord the distance from one hole into which the handleholding iron is tobe slipped to theoppositeone, thru the firstnotch fromthestandardonthehandle.Indoingthis,lowertheliftingendofthehandletothelowestdesiredposition.Makeallowancefortheendsofthehandleholdingrod,whichwillslipintotheholesinthestandard.Addtheamountofthisallowancetothelengthofthecord;thetotallengthwillbethatofthehandleholdingrod.

9)Cuta5/8”roundwrought-ironrodtothelengthofthecordascalculated.Bendtherodtothedesiredshapebyheatingportionatbend,andworkingoverendofpeenofblacksmithanvil.Coolandspringrodintoposition.

78.HeavyFarmSled(Fig.135).1)Cutallstock(rough)tooveralllengths.2)Layout,sawandcutall jointsonsimilarpieces.Example:Twohorizontal

partsofrunners;twofrontpartsofrunners;twocross-beams,etc.3)Frame together the twoparts of each runner, drivingdowel inwith glue,

andtoe-nailingrunnerpartstogetherfromtopandbottom.4)Putcross-beamsinplace,drivingdowel inplace inglueandspikingfrom

undersideofrunner.5)Naillongboardsofrunnerframes(bedboards)inpositiononeachcross-

beamandontopofrunner.6)Placecorneruprights inplace,nailing fromboth sidesofbedboardsand

runners.

FIG.136.Fence-postmold.

7)Nail inpositionallcross-boards—frontandrearof sled, insidecornersofbedboardsanduprights,topofuprights.

Note:Lettereachsetofboards,anduseletterinoperationsteps.79.FencePostMold(Fig.136).1) Lay floor on 2” × 4” cleats, as shown in cross-sectional side view.Upper

surfaceofflooringmaterialshouldbesurfaced,andjointsbetweenboardsmadeclose,butnotabsolutelytightiflumberisverydry.

2)Prepareendsbyplaningoneboard4-3/4”wideand2’9”long,andtheother6”wideand3’5-3/4”long,outof3/4”stock.Onthefirstboardflushwithupperedge, fasten a series of 3-1/2” x 3-1/2” blocks, leaving 13/16” between them.Begintofixtheseblocksatthecenteroftheboardwherea13/16”spaceistobeleft for themiddle partition. On the second board, fasten 5” × 5” blocks in asimilarway.

3) Prepare seven partition boards dressed on all surfaces, 3/4” thick, 3-1/2”wideatoneend,5”wideattheotherend,and7’2”long.Theendsmustbesquarewiththecenterlineofthepartitionboard.

4)Placethetwoendboardsandthepartitionboardsinplaceonthefloorandnailintopositionthe2-1/2”x5”blocksnotedonthetopviewofdrawing,

5)Nail inpositionendblocksoneachendboardthruwhich3/8”rodspass.Theseshouldtouch,butnotbend,theoutsidepartitionboards.Locatepositionof holes for rods to come in center of space on end boards outside of the lastpartitionboard.Locatepositionofhingesonsmallendboard.

6)Removeendboards,boreholes for rod, fastenonhingesandreplaceendboards,insertingsiderodsandfasteninghingestofloor(seeendview).

7)Removepartitionboards,preparebeveledstrips(sectionA),fastenthemtothefloor,andreplacetheboards.

8)Coverinsidesurfacesforeachindividualmouldwithlinseedoil.

CHAPTERIXWOOD-FINISHINGANDPAINTING

80.PurposeofWood-Finishing.Withfewexceptions,allwoodwork,whetherexposedtotheweatherorusedundercover,isgivensomesortofsurfacefinish.Theobjectofwood-finishingistwofold,viz.:

First, to preserve the wood. All wood is porous and, consequently, absorbsmoisture. With the change of temperature and amount of humidity in theatmosphere,thequantityofmoisturetakenupbywoodwillvary.Thechangeinthemoisturecontentofwoodcausesachangeinitsshape,knownaswarp(thewordusedforbuckling)andwind(thewordusedfortwisting).

The absorption ofmoisture by wood is accompanied by swelling. As wooddries,itshrinks,thuscausingchecksandcracks.

Second, to decorate the wood. Decorationmay be natural or artificial. Anysubstancesuchasoilorwaxwhich,whenappliedtothesurfaceofwood,bringsoutitsnaturalmarkingsandcolorings,isregardedasanaturaldecorativeagent.Any substance such as colored stain or paint,which covers the grain ofwoodwhenappliedtoit,maybemadeadecorativeagent,butisconsideredartificial,asitchangesthenaturalappearance.

81.Method of Preservation. Both the natural and artificial wood-finishingagentsservetosealtheporesofthewood.Allstainshaveatendencytoenterthewood fibre and to close the pores, but not to fill the cells or larger holes andopenings.Paint, on theotherhand, covers the entire surfaceof thewoodand,consequently, fills all openings—both pores and cells, aswell as such artificialopenings as cracks and checks. Itmust be evident, therefore, that for exposedwoodwork, paint is the most satisfactory physical preservative covering.However,besidesthefactthatitobliteratesthematerialappearanceofthewood,it has the possible disadvantage of checking and peeling. On the other hand,when a stain has some inherent preserving quality, chemical or otherwise, itresultsinbothprotectingthewoodandpreservingitsnaturalbeauty.

82.ClassificationofWoodFinishes.A.Non-coveringagentsmaybedividedasfollows:

1.Oil.2.Wax.

3.Stain

a.Water.b.Oil.c.Chemical.d.Creosote.

B.Coveringagentsmaybedividedasfollows:

1.Shellac

a.White.b.Orange.

2.Varnish

3.Filler.4.Paint.

83.OilStainisusedonworkwhichdoesnotrequireahighfinish,butwhich,to present the full effect of the natural grain, needs a light coat of finishingmaterial.Rawlinseedoilisgenerallyusedforthispurpose.Thatitmaypenetrateto the greatest extent, the oil shouldbe appliedwhenhot.A soft cloth, cottonwaste or a brushmay be used.When the oil has evaporated, or has set in thewood, a brisk rubbingwill secure a dull polish,which, however,will not longcontinueexceptbyrepeatedrubbing,whichmaybedoneoninsideworkintheprocessofdusting.

Oak,whenusedoutside,asforgardenfurniture,isprotectedsomewhatfromtheweatherwhengivencoatsofhotlinseedoiltwoorthreetimesannually.

84.Wax.Thismaybesecuredincansas“preparedwax.”Itisfrequentlyusedtogiveanaturalfinishoflowgloss.Thismaterialisasubstituteforoilandservesnotsomuchasapreservativebymeansofpenetrationasbyvirtueofitsfillingupopenings.When rubbedwith a soft cloth, it gives a velvet-likepolish.Waxhardens with time and, therefore, makes a very satisfactory wood finish,especiallyifnewcoatsareaddedfromtimetotimeandifthewaxedsurfacesarerubbedoccasionally.

85.WaterStainsarethesimplestofallliquidfinishestoapply.Theyaresoldbothinpowderandliquidform.Awaterstainisappliedwithabrushand,before

dry,isrubbedwithaclothorwithwaste.Ifcareistakeninmixingandapplying,there is little difficulty in securing a uniform color.Waxor one of the classBfinishesmaybeusedafterthestainhasdried.

Before applying a water stain, the wood should be thoroughly scraped andsandpapered,andthen“wetdown”withwater.Waterraisesthegrainaswouldthe water stain if applied first. When the wood surface has dried after theapplicationofthewater,itshouldbethoroughlysanded.Theapplicationofthewater stainwill raise the grain slightly, but not sufficiently to require sanding,which,ofcourse,wouldinjuretheappearanceofthestainedwood.

86.OilStains;ChemicalStains.These are applied in themannerdescribedforwater stains, except that the previouswashing is omitted.An oil stainwillstrike into the wood more freely than will a water stain, and, consequently,because of the variation in the porosity of the average piece of wood, andespecially of different pieces of wood assembled in one unit, difficulty issometimes experienced in getting a uniform color. It may be necessary onparticularlyporouswoodstodiluteanoilstain,ortoapplyathinnercoatthanwouldbeusedonalessporouspartorpieceofwood.WaxoroneoftheclassBfinishes may be used after an oil stain has dried and the surface oil hasevaporatedthoroughly.

Chemicalstains,whichnowconstitutethelargestpartofthosetobesecuredin the open market, are prepared to overcome the disadvantages of poorpenetrating qualities of water stains and the uneven penetration of oil stains.Theyprovequitesatisfactoryingivingauniformandwell-setcoloronwoodoffairlyuniformquality.TheymaybecoveredeitherwithwaxorthefinishesunderclassB.

87. Coal-tar Creosote Oil. The preservation of wood on the farm cannotalwaysbemost satisfactorily accomplishedby theuseofwood finishes alreadydescribed.Woodenfenceposts,bridgeandtrestlesupports,pilesorpostsusedtosupportroofsforgrainandhaystacks,timbersusedinsilos,woodenshinglesforroofs, etc., are neither stained nor painted as a rule; they are frequently leftunprotected.Moisture,airandtemperaturearenaturalweatherelementswhichpermit the development of fungus growths which cause rot and decay. Allwoodenstructuresexposedtotheweathershould,therefore,beprotected.

Toxic mineral salts or coal-tar creosote oil is used to protect outsidewoodworkwhichitisnotdesirabletodecorateasthecommonstainsandpaintsdo. Coal-tar creosote oil eradicates fungus organisms or suspends theirdestructive growth. It is insoluble and, therefore, is impervious to moisture.

Presentpracticalresultsoftreatingwoodwithithavejustifieditsuse.The two generalmethods of treatment are known as the pressure processes

and the non-pressure processes. The former are used extensively by largecorporations,andthelatterbysmallconsumers,inwhichclassthefarmerwouldbe placed. Of the non-pressure processes, there are two, viz., the open-tanksystemandthebrushmethod.

88.TheBrushMethod is theonewhich the conditionsof the average farmmakeentirelypossible.Itconsistsofpaintingrefinedcoal-tarcreosoteoil,heatedtoapproximately150degreesF.,onthewoodinthesamemannerasisdonewithpaint,orpouringtheheatedcreosoteoverthelumber,catchingthedrippingsinpansorbasins,orapplyingtheheatedcreosotewithamopinsteadofabrush.Itiscurrentopinionthatinordertomakeeffectivetheuseofcoal-tarcreosoteoil,itmustbeappliedunderpressure;nevertheless, thefactremainsthatthebrushmethodofsurfacetreatmentresultsinamostsurprisingincreaseinthelifeofthematerial treated, and in a most satisfactory reduction in the annual cost ofmaintenanceofstructure.

Two or three coats of coal-tar creosote oil are necessary, and all surfacesexposed or in contact with moisture-collecting materials, such as concrete,shouldbecovered.Particularattentionisdirectedtothecoveringofsurfacesofjoints,suchasthesidesofmortisesandtenons,etc.

89. The Open-Tank Process, while not feasible under ordinary farmconditions, is here briefly described, that it may be used where conditionspermit. It consists of alternate hot-and-cold treatments of wood with refinedcoal-tar creosote oil by immersion and continuous soaking in open tankswithoutartificialpressure,requiringnomechanicalapparatusotherthantanks,hoist(insomecases),andmeansofheatingtheoil.

Theprocedureisasfollows:Seasonthelumbersufficientlytoexpelanyexcessof moisture. When cut for sizes, construction, etc.—that is, when completelyframed—immerse lumber in a bath of coal-tar creosote oil maintained at atemperatureof from150 to 210degreesF. for aperioddetermined as follows:For close-grainedwood (naturally resistant to impregnation), one hour in thehotandonehourinthecold,orcooling,bathforeachinchofthelargestcross-section. For speciesmore susceptible to treatment, one-quarter of an hour foreach inch of the largest cross-section, and milled lumber from ten to thirtyminutesineachbath;or,ifthestockisintheformofboards,animmersionofafewminutes issufficient.Frequently,heavy-milledstock isnotsubjectedto thecold-bath treatment, but allowed to remain in the hot bath after the source of

heat is removed and while the oil cools. On the other hand, boards are notsubjectedeventoa“cooling”bathassuggestedbytheuseofthewordimmersionabove.

A project in creosoting may be selected from the buildings or structuresalready erected or to be erected. In some cases, the possibility of creosoting issuggestedintheinstructiongivenforwoodworkingprojects.

90.Shellacisagumpreparationpreparedfromthesecretionofthelacbug.Itis procurable in the market in dry flakes, and is dissolved in alcohol. Theconsistencyforsatisfactoryuseshouldbethatofthinsyrup.Itisappliedwithabrush, which should be of good quality. Shellac evaporates rapidly; hence,unusual precaution is necessary in applying it to avoid streaking the surface.Long, single strokeswith awell-filled brushwill produce the best results. Thebrushshouldnotmakeasecondstrokeoverthesamesurfaceuntilthefirstcoatofmaterialisdry.

A dry shellacked surface may be sandpapered and again shellacked. Byrepeatedcoatsandcarefulsandings,averysmoothandhighly-polishedsurfacemaybesecuredwhichcanbe improvedbya final lightrubbingwithapieceoffeltorburlapwrappedoverapieceofcorkorwood,andfirstdippedinashallowdishofrubbingoil,andthenintopumicestone.

91.Varnishactsverysimilarlytoshellac.Itisthecustomaryfinishingmaterialforhighly-polishedwoodwork.Itisappliedandtreatedthesameasshellac,butdriesmuchslower.

92.Wood-Fillerisusedtofilltheporesofthegrainofwood.Whenshellacorvarnishisused,bothasafillerandasafinish,manycoatsarerequiredbeforethegrainisfilledandafinishingsurfaceisbuiltup.Wood-filleris,therefore,usedtofillholesandlevelupthesurfaceforthefinishingmaterial,which,ordinarily,isvarnish.

Wood-fillerissilexmixedwithlinseedoil,japanandturpentine.Itshouldbethinnedwith turpentine or benzine to the consistency of paste and applied bymeans of a brush.When it begins to “gray,” a sign of its drying, it should berubbed across the grainwith a handful of excelsior, shavings or waste. Beforeapplyingshellac,varnishorotherfinishingmaterial,thefillershoulddryatleastforty-eighthours.Coloredfillersarecommontoproduceparticularcoloreffects.The white filler may be mixed with dry pigment colors to secure the colordesired.Incasewoodisbothstainedandfilled,thestainshouldbeusedfirst.

93.Paint ismade fromwhite lead and linseedoil. Itmaybe secured in themarketpreparedreadyforuseafterbeingthoroughlystirred.Itmaybemadeby

mixingwhiteleadandlinseedoilwithacoloringmaterial.Thesurfaceofwoodto be coveredwith paint should be clean and smooth. Paint is appliedwith abrushwiththegrainofthewood.Thebrushshouldberunbackandforthoverthesamesurfaceseveraltimestoworkthepaintintothegrainofthewood.Twoorthreecoatsareusuallynecessarytocoverthesurfaceproperly.Eachcoatmaybe sanded carefully when dry before the succeeding coat is applied. Unless apainthasconsiderabledrierinit,orisacheapsubstituteforwhiteleadandoil,itneedsatleastthreeorfourdaystodrybeforeitcanbesmoothedwithsandpaper,orasecondcoatofpaintcanbeapplied.

The projects in wood-finishing and painting should be worked inapproximately theorder given in the “ClassificationofWoodFinishes” inSec.82.Theprojectsmaybethosegivenintheseveralgroupsunder“Woodworking.”Upon the completion of a woodworking project, the proper finish may beapplied,orallwoodworkingprojectsmayfirstbecompletedandthenfinished.Inthiscase,therewillbeanadvantageinconcentratingattentionuponthework,bothofusingwoodworkingtoolsandofapplyingwood-finishingmaterials.

Paintisregardedaseasiertoapplythanshellacorvarnish;hence,theprojectinpaintingmaywellprecedethatinshellackingorvarnishing.

Alwayskeepa“full”brushoffinishingmaterial;thatis,havethelowerhalfofthebristlesfullofthefinishingmaterial,butdonotallowtheupperpartofthebrush tobecovered.Asoneremoves thebrush fromthematerial, it shouldbedrawnupwardagainsttheedgeofthereceptacleoneachside,thatnottoomuchmaterialmaybeleftinthebrush,andalsothattheupperpartofthebristlesshallbefreefrommaterialandthebrushkeptclean.

Brusheswhennotinuseshouldbekepthanginginthematerialinwhichtheyare used so that the ends of the bristles will be clear of the bottom of thereceptacle.Receptacles shouldbe covered toprevent accumulationofdust anddirt.Anywide-neckedbottleorfruitjarmaybeusedasareceptacleforbrushes,thestopperbeingmadeofwood.

Theprojectsgiveninthewoodworkingsectionofthisbooksuggestthefinishwhicheachmaybegiven.Itissuggestedthatthefinishingoftheseprojectsintheorder presented be regarded as the desirablewood-finishing projects to securethenecessaryknowledgeandpracticeinthissubject.

CHAPTERXGLAZINGANDSCREENING

94. Definition. Glazing consists of cutting and setting glass in frames. Thechiefuseofthisartisincutting,tackingandputtyingpanesofglassinwindowsash,hot-bedframes,etc.

95.Precautions.Windowglassmaybe secured in single-ordouble-strengththicknesses.Double-strength glass is thicker and stronger than single-strength.Glassalso ismanufactured inavarietyofqualities.Thatknownas common isusedforordinarypurposes.Whateverthestrengthorquality,sheetglassshouldbehandledwithcare,both topreventbreaking it and toprovideagainstbeingcutbyit.Itshouldbegraspedbythumbandfingersofbothhands,eachtakingholdofoneofoppositeedges.Whenworkinguponapaneofglass,itshouldbelaidflatonaplainwoodsurface,suchasthetopofabenchortable.

96. Cutting Glass. Clean off a flat wooden surface and lay the glass on it,preferablybysliding theglassuponthesurfacerather thanplacing ituponthesurface fromabove. Ifan irregularpieceofglass is tobeused,placeastraight-edge,preferablyofwood,buttheedgeofacarpenter’ssquaremaybeused,nearone edge and run a glass cutter across the glass and against the edge of thestraight-edgewithonefirmstroke,usingmoderatepressure.Iftheglasscutterissharpandthesingleoperationisdonecarefully,acutwillappearatallpointsontheglasswherethecutterhasrun.Slidetheglassintoapositionsothatthewastestockprojectsovertheedgeofthewoodensurface,tableorbenchtop,onwhichitisplaced,andsothatthelinecutintheglassisdirectlyabovethisedge.Withthelefthandplacedflatonthesurfaceoftheglasswhichisonthetable,andwiththethumbandfingersoftherighthandgraspingtheedgeoftheglassprojectingovertheedgeofthetable,gentlypressdownwardwiththerighthand.

Theglassshouldcrackormakeacleanbreakonthelinemadewiththeglasscutter,thusgivingoneedgeofthepieceofglassdesired.

Placeonelegofcarpenter’ssquareagainstthisedgeandtheotherinapositionto secure an adjacent edge of the piece of glass being prepared. Repeat theoperationofcuttingandbreakingoffthewaste.

Inasimilarmanner,securetheoppositeedges.First,measurecarefullyforthedesiredwidthorlengthattwopointsneareachendofanedgealreadyformed,

andmark in eachmeasurement by a short line—1/4” is sufficient—madewiththeglass cutter.Connect thesepointsby the edgeof thebladeof a carpenter’ssquareorwoodenstraight-edgeagainstwhichtheglasscutterisrunasbefore.

97.SettingaPaneofGlass in aNewFrame. Place thepaneof glass in theframe and very gently fasten it in position with three-cornered pieces of tin(glazier’spoints)usedbyglaziers,whichmaybesecuredwhenpurchasingputty.Layatriangularpieceoftinflatontheglassasitrestsintheframeonabenchortabletop.Withafingerorthumb,pressonecornerofthistinintotheframenearacornerofthepaneofglass.Withtheendoftheputty-knifebladerestingonthepaneofglassastheknifeisheldintherighthand,orwithasquare-edgedchisel,verycarefullydrivethepointabout3/16”intothewoodbylettingtheedgeoftheputty-knifeorchiselbladegentlystrikethepointthreeorfourtimes.

Likewise, insertotherpoints, locating themsoas tohaveonecomenear thecorner of the frame on each edge of the pane, and others placed tomake thedistancebetweenconsecutivetinsabout8”or10”.Incaseofasmallpane,atleastonepointshouldbeplacednearthemiddleofeachedgeofthepane.

If a pane is being set in a vertical frame, as in awindow sash in awindowframe,caremustbetakentohold it firmly inpositionwiththe lefthandwhilethe righthand isused todrive thepoints into the frame.Caremust alwaysbetaken tohave thepanewell seated; that is, firmly resting against the frameonwhichtheflatsurfaceofthepanerests.

98.Applying thePutty. In order to seal the pane in the frame,making thejoint waterproof, putty is pressed into the corner between the pane and theframe.Puttyasitcomesfromthestockreceptacle,mayneedtobemixedwithalittleboiledlinseedoiltosoftenit.Theoilshouldbemixedthoroughlywiththeputty.Unlesstheputtyisquitedry,theoilneednotbeaddedtoit,askneadingitinthehandswillmakeitsoft.

Inapplyingputty,oneshouldpracticethefollowingmethod:(1)Afterhavingbeatenandkneadedtheputtytoanevenconsistency,cutoffasmallamountandformitroughlyintotheshapeofaball.(2)Putthisputtyintothepalmofthelefthandandholdtheputtyknifeintheright.Settheframetobeputtiedonaneaselor on some similar device so that the glass slants away from the operator. (3)Now,with the left handpreceding the right hand, andwith the putty knife inpositionagainsttheglass,feedtheputtywiththethumbandthefirsttwofingersofthelefthandfromitspositioninthepalmofthehandandunderthecorneroftheputtyknife.Movebothhandsslowlyfromrighttoleft,feedingenoughputtyundertheknifetofill thetriangularopeningformedbetweentheknifeandthe

woodandtheglass. (4)Whenonecompletestroke ismade,gobackandfill inanyimperfectspaces,andalsocleanoffanysurplusputtywhichmaybeleft.Alittlepracticeisnecessarybeforeaperfectjobismadewiththefirststroke.Careshouldbetakennottoallowtheputtytogetsmearedontheglassmorethanisnecessary. The putty should not be high enough to show above the wood onoppositesideoftheglass.

Ifabrokenpaneofglass isbeingreplacedor theopening inanold frame isbeing filled, caremust be taken to clean thoroughly the corner intowhich thepane fits of all dirt, especially old putty. Use broken panes of glass as far aspossibleinre-glazingwindows.

Theprojectsinglazingshouldconsistbothofreplacinganoldpaneorpanesofglass,andsettingtheglass inanewframe.After theputty is thoroughlydryandhard,itshouldbepaintedwiththeframeinwhichitisset.

99. Screening. Every farmhome should be screened as a protection againstthe house fly, rightly called the typhoid fly. Screens for doors andwindows ofstandard sizes can be bought in stock frommost lumber dealers. One who ishandywithtoolscaneasilyconstructscreens.

Duringthewintermonths,thescreensshouldberemovedfromthewindowsand doors and stored away in a dry place. During spare time, they should becleanedandpainted.Paintespeciallyprepared for thispurpose isobtainableatmostpaintstores.Paintingthescreenskeepsthemfromrustingandwillincreasetheirlifemanyyears.

PARTIICEMENTANDCONCRETE

CHAPTERXI

HISTORYOFCEMENT

100. Preliminary. The fact that concrete is now being used so universally,bothonthefarmandinthecity,makesitdesirable,ifnotnecessary,thateveryoneshouldstudyitspossibilitiesandlearnatleastthefirstprinciplesofcorrectconcrete construction. There are too many poor jobs of concrete work, thefailureofwhich is due to lackof knowledgeon thepart of themandoing thework. Concrete, when properly made, has too many good qualities to becondemnedmerelybecauseoflackofinformationandjudgmentonthepartofthemanwhousesit.

Themainreasonsconcreteisbeingusedtosuchagreatextentare:a)Itispermanent.b)Itismorenearlyfireproofthananyotherbuildingmaterial.c)Itisrat-proof.d)Itisattractive.e)Itissanitary.f)Withtheaidofsteel,itcanbeusedformostanypurposeinbuilding.g) It can be used with success by the average farmer with less special

trainingthanisrequiredwithotheravailablematerials.h)Itiseconomical.

101.PrehistoricUsesofConcrete.Althoughwenowfindconcretebeingusedinnearlyalltypesofconstructionwork,itisonlyofrecentyearsthatthecementindustryhasbeendeveloped.Someformofcementwasusedthousandsofyearsago.TheruinsofBabylonandNinevehshowtracesofit,asdoesthePantheonofRome.ItissaidthattheprehistoricpeopleofAmerica—theAztecsandToltecs—used a cement mortar that has been so durable that the mortar joints areprojecting where the adjacent stones have been worn away by the weatheringactionduringtheages.

There is little evidence of the use of cement during the intervening periodfrom three or four thousand years ago up to the beginning of the nineteenthcentury.During thisperiod, theartofmakingcement seems tohavebeen lostand the builders of theMiddle Ages had to resort to the use of lime and siltmortars,whichwerenotverydurable,asevidencedbytheruinsofthisage.

102.Re-discoveryofCement.There-discoveryofthemethodofmanufacture

ofhydrauliccement,acementthatwillsetorhardenunderwater,wasmadebyJohn Smeaton, an English engineer, in 1756. He discovered that limestonecontaining clay, when burned and then ground until very fine, produced amaterial which would not only set under water, but also resist the action ofwater.Thiswecallnaturalcement.ThemanufactureofthisnaturalcementonacommercialbasisiscreditedtoJosephParker,whoestablishedafactoryin1796and called his product Roman Cement. Other factories were established inEuropeaboutthesametime.

103. Natural Cement in America. In 1818, Canvass White established afactory at Fayetteville, New York, for manufacturing natural cement on acommercial basis.Other plants sprang up along the canals inNewYork state;alsoinOhio,andaplantwasestablishednearLouisville,Kentucky.Theoutputforanumberofyearswasvery small—about25,000barrelsperyear.After theCivilWar,duringthereconstructionperiod,animpetuswasgiventothecementindustry, and theproductionofnatural cement reached itsmaximum in1899,when 10,000,000 barrelswere produced. Since then, the production of cementfrom natural stone as found in the quarries has been on the decline. At thepresent time practically all cement used in America is artificial cement, orPortlandcement.

104.PortlandCement.Theprocessofmakingartificialcement,orPortlandcement,wasdiscoveredbyJosephAspdin,anEnglishman,in1829.ThecementwasgivenitsnamebecauseitresemblesthePortlandrocksnearLeeds,England.IntheUnitedStates itwas firstmanufactured in1870atCopley,Pennsylvania.Its use has increased so rapidly that now the output amounts to about100,000,000barrelsperyear.Portlandcementmanufacturingplantscannowbefound throughout the country. Wherever there is an abundance of suitablelimestoneandshale,orclay,andasupplyoffuelandlabor,acementplantcanbesuccessfullyoperated.Portlandcementisdifferentfromnaturalcement,inthatthe materials of which it is made are carefully proportioned and artificiallymixed.Theessential componentsofPortlandcementare silica, aluminumandlime,withsmallquantitiesofothermaterials.Thesilicaandaluminumareintheclay. Thematerial is first ground, thenmixed in proportion of three parts oflimestonetooneofclay;itisthenburnedtoaclinkerandre-groundtoproperfineness.WhilethereareagreatmanybrandsofPortlandcementonthemarket,thecompositionispracticallyconstantandthebuyercanfeelsafeinbuyinganyrecognizedbrand.

CHAPTERXIIPROPERTIESANDUSESOFCEMENT

105.Properties.Theproperties of cementwithwhich everybuilder ismostconcerned are those of strength andpermanence.The requirements ordinarilymentioned are proper fineness, proper setting qualities, purity, strength intension,andsoundness.Acementthatisfresh,freefromlumps,properlypackedandstored,isnearlyalwaysfirst-class.

106.Mortar.Mortarisamixtureof(1)cementorhydratedlime,orboth,(2)sand,and(3)water.It isaplasticmass, thewatercontentbeingvariedwith itsuse.Limemortarsare littleusedatpresentbecause theysetslowly,willnotsetunderwater,arenotverystrong,andwilldeteriorate,duetoweatheringaction.Asmallamountoflime,10to20percent,isusuallyaddedtocementmortartomakeitworkwellwithatrowelandtomakeitmoreadhesive.

107.DefinitionofConcrete.Concreteisoftendefinedasanartificialstone.Itismadebymixingcementwithsandandgravel,orbrokenstone,andwater;or,inotherwords, it is amixtureof (1) cement, (2) a fine aggregate, (3) a coarseaggregate, and (4)water. The addition ofwater causes the cement to undergochemical changes forming new compounds that develop the property ofcrystallizingintoasolidmass.Thestrengthanddurabilityofplainconcrete(thatis, concrete without reinforcing) varies with: a) The quality and amount ofcementused.

b)Thekind,sizeandstrengthofaggregate.c)Correctnessofproportioning.d)Methodandthoroughnessofmixing.e)Theamountofwater.f)Methodandcareofplacing.g)Methodofcuring.h)Age.

108. Aggregates. As ordinarily employed, the term aggregates includes notonly gravel or stone—the coarse material used—but also the sand, or finematerial,whichisusedwiththecementtoformeithermortarorconcrete.FineaggregateisdefinedasanysuitablematerialthatwillpassaNo.4sieveorscreen(having four meshes to the linear inch), and includes sand, stone screenings,

crushed slag, etc. By coarse aggregate is meant any suitable material, such ascrushedstoneorgravel,thatisretainedonaNo.4sieve.Themaximumsizeofcoarseaggregatedependsontheclassofstructureforwhichtheconcreteistobeused.

FIG.137.Gravelbank.

The fact that the aggregatesmay seem to be of good quality and yet provetotallyunsuitable (Fig. 137), shows that studyandcareful tests arenecessary ifthebestresultsaretobeobtained.Theideathatthestrengthofconcretedependsentirelyuponthecement,andthatonlyasuperficialexaminationofaggregatesisnecessary,isaltogethertooprevalent.Themanwhorecognizesthequalityofhisaggregates, who grades them properly, sees that they are washed if necessary,thenmixestheminproportionsdeterminedbythoroughtesting,studyoractualexperience,istheonewhowillmakethebestconcrete.

In the selection and use of sand,more precaution is necessary than for thecoarseraggregate,duetothephysicalconditionofsandandawidervariationinproperties. A knowledge of these properties and of themethod of analysis todetermine the suitabilityof sand foruse inmortarandconcrete,mayeasilybeappliedtoananalysisofthecoarseaggregate.

109.PresenceofRottenorSoftPebblesintheGravel.Inmanycases,gravelfromtheoldglaciershasbeenused,whichhavebeensobadlyweatheredthatthepebblescanbecrushedbetweenthefingers.Inothercases,smalllumpsofshaleor sandstone aremistaken for gravel.These lumps arenot strong at best, and,

under the action of water, especially alternate wetting and drying, they go topieces.Nopebbleswhichcanbescratchedwithathumbnail,orcrushedinthefingers,aresuitableforconcrete.Ifthereareonlyafewofthemingravelwhichisotherwisegood,theywillnotseriouslyweakentheconcrete,butitisagooddealbetter not to use them at all, since a hard concrete cannot bemade from softmaterials.

110.PresenceofDirtintheAggregate.Mostgravelsandsandscontainsomeclay,butclayinamountsuptothreepercentbyweightisnotespeciallyharmful.More than three per cent is harmful.Where gravels contain organicmatter ofanykind, theconcretemade fromthem isvery likely togo topieces, and theyshouldnotbeusedunlessthedirtcanbewashedout.Claymayalsoberemovedbywashing.Totestforamountofdirt,shakeupfourinchesofsandorgravelinaquartfruitjar,three-fourthsfullofwater,forfourorfiveminutes.Thenletitstandthreehours.Ifthereismorethanl/2”ofdirtontopofthematerial,itistoodirtytousewithoutwashing.

111.VegetableMatterinSand.Acoatingofvegetablematteronsandgrainsappearsnotonlytopreventthecementfromadhering,buttoaffectitchemically.Frequently,aquantityofvegetablemattersosmallthatitcannotbedetectedbythe eye, and only slightly disclosed in chemical tests,may prevent themortarfromreachinganyappreciablestrength,Concretemadewithsuchsandusuallyhardens so slowly that the results are questionable and its use is prohibited.Other impurities, such as acids, alkalis or oils in the sand or mixing water,usuallymaketrouble.

Where limestone is used in an aggregate, it is well to see that the pile oflimestoneisthoroughlywetdownbeforeusing.Thisisfortwopurposes—(1)toremove the coating of dustwhichwould otherwise prevent the formation of abond between the cement and the stone, and (2) to allow the stone to absorbwaterbeforethemixingprocess.Limestonewillabsorbagreatdealofmoisture,and,ifmixeddry,itisliabletotakeuppartofthewaterneededintheprocessofsettingorcrystallizing.

CHAPTERXIIIPROPORTIONSANDMIXTURES;HANDLINGOFCONCRETE

112.Proportions.Thetheoryofproperproportionsistousejustenoughsandtofill theairspacesorvoids inthecoarseaggregate,andenoughcementtofillthe air spaces in the sand, and also to coat each particle and thus serve as abinder.Thesmallcontractorinactualpracticerarelyattemptstocarrythisout;infact,heseldomaccuratelymeasuresthematerialsthatgointothejob.Heusesalittlecement,somesandandgravel,and,underaverageconditions,maygetfairresults. It is no wonder, however, that we find sidewalks going to pieces,foundationsofbuildingscrackinganddisintegratingwhen thework isdone insuchahaphazardfashion.

Tomakeaconcretethatisstrongaswellaseconomical,itisessentialthatthematerialsbewellgradedfromthelargertothesmaller-sizedparticlessothatthevoidsaroundtheparticlesarereducedtoaminimum.Theabsoluteeliminationof voids is an ideal conditionwhichwe should strive to obtain.However, thedensest concrete is not always the strongest. In some cases, a rather porousmixturewithasmallamountoffineaggregateisstrongerthananotherpieceofconcrete with a great deal of fine aggregate and a small amount of coarsematerial,althoughthelattermixturewouldbethedenserofthetwo.

113.RequirementsofGoodConcrete.Theproperproportionstouse,underpracticalconditions,willdependon theuse towhich theconcrete is tobeput.The three properties which are most often required are: (1) Strength, as inbridges,buildings,etc.;(2)resistancetowear,asinconcretesidewalksandroads;(3)water-tightness, as inwater tanks, silos,etc.Thepracticalmixtures thatareordinarilyusedfordifferentkindsofconcreteworkareasfollows:

114.StandardMixtures.Richmixtureof1partcement,1-1/2partssand,and3partsbrokenstone,orgravel,commonlycalleda1:1-1/2:3mixture,isusedforcolumnsof reinforcedconcretebuildings, for thinwater-tightwallswhereverydense,strongconcreteisrequired,andunderallsimilarconditions.

Agood,standardmixtureof1partcement,2partssand,and4partsbrokenstone,commonlycalled1:2:4mixture,isusedforreinforcedconcreteworkofallkinds,forwatertanks,thinwalls,etc.

Mediummixtureof1partcement,2-1/2partssand,and5partsbrokenstone,

commonlycalled1:2-1/2:5mixture,isusedforallplainconcrete,thatis,concretewithoutreinforcing—forfoundations,walls,floors,etc.Whenthewallsaretobewater-tight,a1:2:4mixtureshouldbeusedinstead.

Leanmixture of 1 part cement, 3 parts of sand, and 6 parts broken stone,commonlycalled1:3:6mixture, isusedforveryheavymassconcretewheretheloadsarewhollycompressive.Still leanermixturesaresometimesusedforveryheavyfoundationsandabutments,butarenotrecommendedforgeneraluse.

115.CommonErrors in ProportioningConcrete. A rather common errorthat is made by the inexperienced concrete worker is to assume that whenmixingonecubic footofcement, twocubic feetofsand,andfourcubic feetofgravel,hewillsecuresevencubicfeetofconcrete.This isanentirelyerroneousidea, as the sand would simply fill the voids in the coarse material, and thecementwouldfillthevoidsinthesandandcoattheparticlesofsandandgravelorstone.Sincetheamountofcementandsandusedismorethanenoughtofillthe voids in the gravel, the resulting concrete will be slightly more than fourcubic feet, about 4.25under average conditions.The same error is oftenmadewhen unscreened, bank-run materials are used. In attempting to secure theequivalentof a1:2:4mixture, the contractorwilluseonepartof cement to sixpartsofbank-runmaterial,when,inreality,heshoulduseonlyabout4-1/4cubicfeetofbank-runmaterialtoonecubicfootofcementtogettheequivalentofa1:2:4 mixture. This is assuming that the bank-run material is of the correctproportionofonepartoffineaggregatetotwopartsofcoarseaggregate,whichshouldbeaccuratelydeterminedbytesting.Theonlysafemethodofusingbank-runmaterialsistoscreenthembeforeusing.Thenwhenthematerialsareused,theproportionscanbedefinitelysecured.

116. Determining Quantities for a Job. In determining the quantities ofmaterialforajob,onemustrememberthatthevolumeofconcreteisonlyalittlegreaterthanthevolumeofcoarseaggregate;infact,thisisoftentakenasabasisforestimateofmaterialsneeded.Forexample,supposeitisrequiredtomake54cubicfeetofconcreteofa1:2:4mixture.Itisassumedthat54cubicfeetofcoarseaggregate,27cubicfeetofsand,and13-1/2cubicfeet,or13-1/2sacksofcementarerequired.Anotherrulewhichmaybeusedforallstandardproportionsistotakethesumoftheproportionsanddivideintothenumber11;thequotientwillbethenumberofbarrelsofcementrequiredtomakeonecubicyardofconcreteoftheparticularproportion.Forexample, barrelsofcement,or6-2/7sacks(4sackstoabarrel)foronecubicyardofconcrete.Since54cubicfeet,or2cubicyards,ofconcreteisrequiredintheabovejob,itwilltake2x6-2/7,or

12-4/7sacksofcement,25-1/7cubicfeetofsand,and50-2/7cubicfeetofcoarseaggregate.Forasmalljob,thefirstmethodmaybeused,butwiththelargerjob,thelattermethod,whichismoreaccurate,shouldbeadopted.

117.RequirementsofGoodMixing.The requirementsofgoodmixingare:(1)Thateveryparticleofsandandstoneiscoatedwithcementpaste,(2)thatthesandandstoneareevenlydistributedthroughthemass,and(3)thatthewholemixtureisofauniformconsistency.Apoorly-mixedconcretemaybeknownbyitslackofuniformityincolorandtheseparationoffineandcoarsematerial.Itisjust as important to havematerials thoroughly and carefullymixed as to havethem properly proportioned. It is considered so important by well-informedconcrete contractors, that they require thematerials to bemixed for adefiniteperiod of time, if mixed bymachinemethod, or turned a definite number oftimesifmixedbyhand.Uptoacertainlimit,ithasbeenfoundthatthestrengthoftheconcreteisdirectlyproportionaltothelengthoftimeithasbeenkeptinthemixer.(Inthespecificationsfortheconstructionofsomeconcretework,thetimeofmixingisdefinitelystated.)

118. Hand-Mixing. A water-tight platform is the first requirement forsuccessfulhand-mixing.Inmixingbyhand,thereisalwaysatendencytomixinsmallunits,whichissometimesamistakenidea.Itisusuallybesttomixatleastenough so that one sack of cement or one cubic foot can be taken as a unitbecause,ifthesackisemptiedandonlyapartofasackistaken,thecementwillfluffupandformmorethanonecubicfoot.

119.ProcedureinHand-Mixing.Intheactualprocessofmixing,itisusuallybesttospreadthesandonthemixingboard,andontopofthisspreadthesackofcement(Fig.138);thentwomenusingsquare-pointedshovelsturnthissandandcementover several timesuntil the streaksof coloraremerged intoauniformshadethroughouttheentiremass.Thecoarseaggregateisthenadded(Fig.138-a), and during the first turning,water is added bymeans of a hose or from abucket(Fig.139).Caremustbeobservedtopreventwashingthecementoutofthemass.Itisbesttoturnthematerialsseveraltimes(Fig.139-a),addingasmallamount of water each time until it reaches the proper consistency. The onlyobjectiontothehandmethodofmixingisthatagreatdealoflaborisinvolved,and this, in some cases, reduces thequalityof the concretebecauseof the factthat the materials are not mixed as thoroughly as when mixed in a mixingmachine.

FIG.138.Spreadingcementonsand.

FIG.138-a.Measuringcoarseaggregate.

FIG.139.Addingwatertomixture.

FIG.139-a.Turningthemixture.

FIG.140.Batchmixer.

120.Machine-Mixing. There are two types of machine mixers in use—thebatchmixer (Figs.140and140-a)and thecontinuousmixer.The latter type isnotas satisfactoryas thebatchmixerand is seldomusedexceptonsmall jobs.Betterresultscanbeobtainedwiththebatchmixer,becauseadefinitequantityofmaterialsisaddedandthoroughlymixedbeforeanyconcreteisdischargedfromthemixer.Byallowingthematerialstoremaininthemixerforadefiniteperiodoftime,theyaremorecompletelymixed,andallpartsareofuniformproportion.Inthecontinuousmixer,thedrymaterialsarefedautomaticallyfromahopperintoamixingtroughwherewater isaddedandwheretheentiremass ismixedand carried along by blades to the discharge end, where the concrete isdischargedcontinuously

FIG.140-a.Anotherbatchmixer.

121.ConsistencyofMixtures.Theamountofwaterusedinmakingconcretewill depend on the use for which the concrete is intended. There are threeconsistencies ordinarily referred to in discussing concrete. They are generallycalled the “dry,” “quaky” and “wet”mixtures. The drymixture is of about theconsistencyofdampearthandisusedwheretheconcreteistampedintoplace.The quakymixture is so named because it is wet enough to quakewhen it istamped.Itisusedinmoldedproductsrequiringreinforcing,suchasfenceposts,beams,columns,etc.Itisalsousedinsidewalks,floorsandfoundations.Thewetmixture contains enough water to permit its flowing from the shovel orconveyorsfromelevatorstovariouspointsintheconstructionoflargebuildings.There is a tendencyon thepartof somecontractors tomake themixtureverywetsoastomakeitflowmoreeasily.Thiswillcausetheseparationofthecoarsematerialsfromthefinerandreducethequalityoftheconcrete.Onemainpointto remember in connection with the proper consistency is that the materialsmustnotbetoodrynortoowet;eitherconditionwillcausetheseparationofthecoarsematerialfromthemortar.

122.PlacingofConcrete.No time should elapsebetween the “mixing” andthe“placing.”One’sjudgmentmustbeusedinplacing;themethodadoptedwilldependon theparticular job.The essential feature inplacing is toprevent theseparationofthestonefromthemortar.

123.ThreeMethodsofPlacingConcrete.1)Adrymixtureof concrete isplacedby thorough tampingorbypressure.

Thedensityandthefinalstrengthofadrymixturewilldependontheextentoftamping.Thismethodofplacingconcrete isused inmakingconcreteproductsthatarenotreinforced,suchasblocks,bricksandjardinieres.Thematerialmustbe carefully tamped as the mold is being filled, either by hand or by powermachines.

2)Aquakymixturecanbeplacedbyagitationorslighttamping.Thismethod

isusedinmakingreinforcedproducts,suchasposts,largetileandtanks;alsoforslabwork,suchasfloorsandsidewalks.Someformsaredesignedsotheycanbevibratedtosettletheconcreteintoplace.

3)Awetmixture issimplydeposited intoplace,andrequiresnotamping.Aspadeorboardshouldbeusedforworkinglargestonesbackfromtheformsandleveling the surface so that no large stones are left uncovered (Fig. 141). Thismixtureandmethodofplacingisusedinnearlyallreinforcedstructureswherethereinforcingisputinplacebeforetheconcreteispoured.Forlargestructures,specialapparatusisusedforelevatingthematerial.

FIG.141.Workingstonesawayfromsurface.

124. Handling Concrete. There are three common ways of conveying themixture:

a)Itmaybeshoveledofftheboarddirectlyintothework.b) It may be shoveled into wheelbarrows and wheeled to position and

dumped.c)Itmaybeelevatedbybucketsandhoistingapparatus.

Wheretheconcreteismixedbyhand,itisusuallytransportedbywheelbarrow(Fig.142).Formachine-mixedconcretewhere thework isof somemagnitude,some flexible method of handling it is best, usually a tower with elevatingequipment.Derricksandbucketelevatorsarealsoused.Theoneobjectiontotheuseoftowerandchutesisthetendency,inordertosecureeasyflow,tousetoomuchwater,causingaseparationofthefineandcoarseaggregate.

FIG.142.Movingconcretewithwheelbarrow.

CHAPTERXIVFORMSFORCONCRETE;CURINGCONCRETE

125.Necessity of Forms. The plasticity of concrete, and the readinesswithwhichthematerialcanbeadaptedtoallshapesandsizesofconstruction,whichare twoof thechiefmeritsof thematerial,makenecessary theuseof forms inconnectionwithit.

126. Importance of Form Construction. The design and construction offormsisoneofthemostseriousproblemsofconcretework.Asarule,onsmallwork,theexpenseoftheformsisfromone-fourthtoone-halfofthetotalcostoftheworkinplace.Manypeopledonotappreciatethisfactandneglecttheformswith theresult that the finishedwork isofpoorquality,orelse the formshavecosttoomuch.Theshape,dimensionsandfinishoftheworkalldependontheforms,anditisnotpossibletodogoodconcreteworkwithoutgoodforms.

127. Earth Forms. In foundation walls, where care has been observed inexcavationand theearth standsupproperly, it canbeused.Earthcanbeusedalsoinmakingwell tops,etc.,wheretheworkcanbefashionedout intheclay.The earthmust bewet down thoroughly to keep it from absorbing toomuchmoisturefromtheconcrete.Acombinationofwoodandclaycanbeused.Moldsofwetsandareusedinornamentalwork.Frequently,coloredsandsareusedforthispurpose,providingboththefinishedsurfaceandcolortotheconcrete.

128. Cast, Wrought or Galvanized Iron Forms. These are used where asmooth surface isdesiredwithout further treatment after removalof forms. Inconstructionwork,wherethesametypeofformisusedagreatnumberoftimes,it is economy to have amaterial which will not go to pieces, warp, swell andcrack,eventhoughthefirstcostmaybehigher.Steelforms,ifstronglybuilt,willmeettheseconditions.Formsmadeofironaremoreeasilycleaned,andcanbeusedagreatnumberoftimes.Rustyironisnotgoodforforms;theconcretewillstick badly. There are steel forms on themarket for concrete posts (Fig. 143),watertanks,silos,etc.

FIG.143.Commercialpostmold.

129.Wood Forms.Wood forms aremost common, and are usedmost forconcrete work on the farm. The chief reason for this is that lumber can beobtainedeasily in smallquantities, and there isalwaysacertainamountofoldlumberaroundeveryfarm.

130.RequirementsofaGoodForm.a)Onethatcanbeusedanumberoftimes.b)Onethatisstrongsoitwillnotbulgeorcrack.c)Onethatistightandfreefromleaks.d)Onethatistrueandproperlyaligned.e)Onethatismadeofgoodmaterialsuitedtoitsuse.

Softwoodsarebetterthanhardbecausethey(a)arecheaper,(b)donotcracksobadly,(c)areaneasiermaterial towork.Spruceandyellowpinemakegoodforms; theboardsusedshouldbesoundandfreefromknotholes.Partlygreenlumberisbetterthaneithergreenorkiln-dried,becauseitwillswelljustenoughtomake tight joints without buckling. Dressed lumber has several advantagesoverundressed:(a)Itmakestruerwork,(b)tighterjoints,(c)smoothersurfaces,(d)formsareeasierremoved,and(e)formsareeasiercleaned.

131.UseofOldLumberforForms.Whereoldlumberistobeused,itshouldbesortedandlistedsothatnewlumbercanbeorderedofpropersizesthatwillwork in best.Caremust be observed in the use of old lumber to see that it isstrong enough to support the load put on it by the concrete. A great deal ofexpensecanbeavoidedbytakingadvantageofoldlumber.

132.SharpCorners inForms. Sharpcorners shouldbeavoidedasmuchaspossible inconcretework.It isbest tobevel thecornersbysettingstrips intheforms, especially on inside angles. This gives both greater strength and betterfinishtothework.

133.RemovingForms;CareofForms.Forms shouldnotbe removeduntiltheconcreteisthoroughlyset.Thetimeofsettingvarieswiththewetnessofthemixture,andwiththeweather.Concretesetsmuchfasterinwarm,dryweatherthanincoldordampweather.Onfoundationwallsorsimilarwork,wherethe

concreteisusedindirectcompression,theformsmayberemovedinafewdays.Underfloorsorbeams,whicharesubjectedtobending,theformsshouldbelefttwoweeksorlonger.

CareofForms:Formsforconcreteposts,etc.,shouldbeoiledwithaheavyoilbeforetheyare

used.Assoonastheyareremoved,theyshouldbethoroughlycleanedwithastiffwire brush.Oilingmetal forms ormolds after using is better practice than towait, as a coat of oil prevents rust. In removing wooden forms, caremust beobservedtoavoidsplittingboards.Allboardsshouldbecleaned,thenailspulled,andboardsstackedtopreventwarping.

CuringConcrete:Propercuringofconcreteisveryessentialtosuccess.Itmustnotbeallowedto

dry out too rapidly. If freshly made and exposed to the intense heat of thesummer’s sun, it must be protected. The drying out not only produces checkcracks,buthindersthesettingactionoftheconcrete,makingitweak.Floorsandwalks that are protected andkeptmoist for somedayswill harden into a verydense and almost dustless material, while those not adequately protected willwearrapidlyandbedusty.

CHAPTERXVREINFORCINGCONCRETE;CEMENT-WORKINGTOOLS

134.ThePrincipleofReinforcing.Plainconcrete is strong incompression,butwillnotresistaverygreatloadwhenintension.Steelisamaterialthathasagreattensilestrength,aswellascompressivestrength,so,bycombiningthetwo,wehavea resultantmaterialwhich is strong inboth tensionandcompression,andcanbeadaptedtomostanyuse.

The design of reinforced concrete structures is quite technical and has noplace in a text of this character. For simple types of construction, such asreinforcing for a silo,water tank, retainingwall, fenceposts andwell tops, thestudentcanrefer to tables inhand-books,orusehisbest judgment,bearing inmindthattheamountofreinforcingwillvaryfrom3/4to1-1/2percentofthecross-sectionofthememberbeingreinforced.

135. Compression and Tension in Beams. A consideration of the basicprinciplesunderlyingsimplereinforcedconcreteconstructionmaybeofinterest.Considerasimplebeamofuniformcross-sectionlikea2”x4”,supportedateachend,withaloadappliedatthecenter(Fig.144).Itwillbefoundthattheupperpartof thebeamwillbe incompression,or tending tocrush together, and thelowerpartwillbetearingapart,orintension.Itwillbenotedthatthereisaplaneperpendicular to the force applied and cutting thebeam inhalfwhere there isneithertensionnorcompression.Thisiscalledtheneutralplaneorneutralaxis.

Now,sincethelowerpartofthebeamisintension,andsinceconcreteisweakintension,itisapparentthattomakethelowerpartofthebeamasstrongastheupper part, wemust imbed somematerial in the beam that is high in tensilestrength. Steel is not only high in tensile strength, but its co-efficient ofexpansionisthesameasthatofconcrete,soastrongbondbetweenthetwocanbemaintained. Itmustbekept inmind that the steelmustbeplaced as far aspossiblefromtheneutralaxistobemosteffective.Itmustnotbeplacedtoonearthe surface of the concrete. It must be kept in mind, further, that in anyreinforcing job, thesteelmustbeplacedwhere itwillbeundera tensile strain.Fig.144showstherelativestrengthofaconcretebeamwithreinforcingplacedinvariouspositions.

FIG.144.Resultsofdifferentplacingofreinforcing.

136.Kinds of Reinforcing. As to the kinds of reinforcing, probably squaretwisted steel rods, or the deformed bars, are best. Round rods are sometimesused, but they should be carefully anchored to give the best results. Someengineersspecifyeitherthetwistedorthedeformedrods,sinceabetterbondissecuredbetween the concrete and the steelwith this typeof reinforcing. Somecontractorsclaimthatasmallamountofrustonthereinforcingisadvantageous.Averysmallamountofrustmaybeofsomevalue in formingabondbetweentheconcreteandthesteel.However,ifthesteelisleftoutsideuntilithasbecomepitted with rust, the resultant piece of work would be weakened, as the bondbetweenthesteelandconcretewouldbeapoorone.

137.UseofScrapIronforReinforcingConcrete.Itisthoughtbysomethatscrapironwillmakegoodreinforcing.Itisseldomtruethatasgoodajobcanbesecured by using scrap iron, old gas pipe, etc., as by using regular reinforcingsteel.Gaspipethatisofvalueaspipeisexpensivereinforcingmaterial.

138. Tools for Concrete Work. Very inexpensive tools are required forconcrete work; in fact, few tools that are not found on the average farm. Forspecialwork,specialtoolswillberequired,whichmaybesecuredfromanygoodhardwaresupplyhouse.ApanelcontainingmanyofsuchspecialtoolsisshowninFig.145.Thetoolscommonlyusedinfarmconcreteworkandsuchaswillbe

neededinthefollowingprojectsareasfollows:

FIG.145.Toolsusedinconcretework.

1,Tamper;2,level;3,finishingtrowel;4,shovel;5,groover;6,edger;7and8,trowels;9,handfloat.a)Forscreeningaggregate—amoulder’sriddleforsmallwork,orascreen,

asshowninFig.138.b)Forwashingaggregate—atroughinwhichdirtyaggregatecanbefreed

fromclay.

FIG.145-a.Mixingconcrete.Measuringboxesandotherequipment.

c)Formixingandplacing—aplatform,asshowninFig.142;shovel,spade,hoe,tamper,strikingboardandwheelbarrow(Figs.142,145and147).

d)Formeasuringingredients—ameasuringbox,asshowninFig.145-a.e)Forfinishing—trowel,edger,groover,handfloat,etc.(Fig.145).f)Water container—a barrel or, for large construction, a water tank, to

whichisattachedahose.Tools for wood construction—carpenter’s square, hammer, saws (rip and

crosscut).Note:Tothesetoolstheremaybeaddedamixer,eitherhandorpower,dependingupontheextentofthe

worktobeundertaken.

CHAPTERXVIPROJECTSINCONCRETECONSTRUCTION

ProjectNo.1

139.StudyofConcreteConstructionandConcreteMaterials(Figs.146and146-a).Requirements:To investigateasmanytypesandclassesofconcreteworkasare

availableandastimewillpermit.Thefollowingaresuggested:Concretetanks—onecircularandonerectangular—sidewalks,feedingfloor,foundationwall,retainingwall,fenceposts,roads,tile,andblock.Theseshouldbestudiedwiththe idea of noting the results obtained by use of poor materials and poorworkmanship, and the use of goodmaterials and carefulworkmanship, andalsotodeterminequantityofmaterialneededforcertainjobs.Makeawrittenreportonresultsobtained.

FIG.146.Defectiveconcretewalk.

ToolsNeeded:Rulefortakingdimensions.PreliminaryInstruction:Carefullyreadtheprecedingparagraphs.Keepinmind

thegeneralprinciplesof concrete construction.Remember the requirementsfor well-made concrete, good aggregate, proper proportions, carefulmixingandplacing,andcorrectreinforcing.

FIG.146-a.Anattractivewalk.

WorkingInstructions:a)Examineat leastoneofeachof thedifferent typesofconcretework listed

underrequirementsandreportonthefollowing:1)Generalconditionofthejob.2)Ifcracksareforming,towhataretheydue?3)Wherecrackshaveformed,noteifthereisaclearfracture,or,ifthe

aggregateispulledoutofthemortar.4)Wasthecoarseaggregateworkedbackfromtheformwhenplaced?5)Wasadry,quakyorawetmixtureused?6)Doesthejobindicatethattheformswerewellmade?7)Iftheformswerenotwellmade,whatwaswrongwiththem?8)Whydopoorfoundationsoftencausecracksinconcretewalls?9)Examinethefoundationandnoteifcarewasobservedinits

preparation.10)Isthefoundationwelldrained?11)Whatistheeffectofpoordrainageunderafoundationwall?Undera

sidewalk?Underaroad?12)Whatprecautionshouldbetakeninconstructinganearth-retaining

wall?13)Ifcrackshaveformed,weretheyduetolackoforinsufficient

reinforcement?14)Whereshouldreinforcingsteelbeplacedinsuchawall?Why?15)Whyshouldawetorquakymixbeusedwheretheconcreteis

reinforced?16)Writeabriefstatementabouteachpieceofwork,givingyouropinion

astowhatshouldbedonetomakeafirst-classjob.b)Examineconcretematerial,notethequality,etc.

1)Examineasackofcement.Seeifitisfreefromlumpsandisfresh.

2)Notethebrandofcementexamined.3)Notetheconditionofthebag.4)Whyisitimportanttotakecareofthebagsandnotallowthemtoget

wet?5)Examineavailablesand.Seeifitisclean,freefromclay,coalorother

organicmatter.6)Testasmallquantityofsandforclaybyputtingabout4”or5”ina

fruitjar,addingwaterandshakinguntilclayisinsolution.Setasideandletclaysettleontopofthesand.Determinethepercentofclaypresent.

7)Whatpercentofclayisallowableinaverageconcretework?8)Examineavailablegravelorbrokenstone.Seeifitisfreefromclay,

organicmatterorsoftparticles.9)Canyouscratchthestonewithyourthumbnail?10)Whatwouldtheeffectbetousesoftstoneinmakingconcrete?11)Isthecoatingoffinedustordinarilyfoundonlime-stonedetrimental

inmakingconcrete?12)Examinesomebank-runsandandgravelasinNos.5and8.13)Whyisitpoorpracticetouseordinarybank-runmaterialformaking

concrete?14)Supposeitisrequiredthatapieceofconcreteworkbemadeofbank-

runmaterialthathas50percentasmuchsandasgravel,andthatitistobeequivalentinstrengthtoa1:2:4mixturewherethesandandgravelaregraded.Howmuchwouldberequiredforeachsackofcement?

c)Problems:Assumea1:2:4mixtureanddetermine theamountofmaterialsneeded;also

cost:1)Tomakeacirculartank6’0”insidediameteratthetopand5’4”

diameteratthebottom,and2’0”deep.Thewallofthetanktobe4”thickatthetopand8”thickatthebottom,thebottomoftanktobe5”thick.

2)TomakearectangulartankwiththesamecapacityasNo.1,tohavesamethickness,wallsandbottom,andtobe4’0”acrossinsideatthetop.

3)Tomakeasidewalk40’long,3’wide,and4”thick.

FIG.147.Makingblock.

4)Tomakesixconcretefenceposts.Assume20centsapostforsteel.140.MoldedConcrete(Figs.147and147-a).

ProjectNo.2

Requirements: To make tile of different sizes, block, flower boxes, and otherpiecesofconcreteworkrequiringadrymixture.

ToolsNeeded:Shovels,bucket,measuringbox,screen,mixingplatform,trowels,andsuitablemolds.

MaterialNeeded:Cement,sandandwater.PreliminaryInstructions:Theprinciplesoutlinedinthediscussiononselectionof

sandmustbekeptinmind.Onlythebestsandshouldbeused.Inthekindofworkoutlinedinthisproject,arelativelydrymixturemustbeused,oneaboutaswet as damp earthwhen plowed;with such amixture themoldsmay beremoved immediately. Good results cannot be obtained if thematerials areeithertoowetortoodry.Theproductwillstandupduetotheadhesivenessoftheconcrete,anditmustbeallowedtosetthoroughlybeforehandling.Carefulmeasurementofmaterialsisanessentialrequirementofallconcretework.

FIG.147-a.Makingflowerbox.

WorkingInstructions:1)Usea1:3mixture;thatis,onepartofcementandthreepartsofsand,forthe

1)Usea1:3mixture;thatis,onepartofcementandthreepartsofsand,forthevariousjobsoutlined.Wherecoarseaggregateisavailable,theblockmaybemadeofa1:2:4mixturewitha1:2face.

2)Aftermeasuringthesand,spreaditoutinathinlayeronawater-tightplatform;thenspreadthecementontopofthesandandmixtogetherdry,continuingtheturninguntilthecolorisuniformandwithoutstreaks.Wateristhenaddedslowlyfromasprinklingcanorbyahose,themixingbeingcontinueduntilallpartsofthemassareofthesamecolorandwetness.

3)Carefullycleanthemoldsandapplyathinfilmofoilafterusing,sotheywillbereadyforthenextjob.Seethattheyareabsolutelycleanbeforeplacinganyconcrete.

4)Tile,block,etc.,aremadebythoroughlytampingorpressingtheconcreteinthemoldstobeused.Anydrymixturemustbethoroughlytampedtomakedenseconcrete.

5)Extremecaremustbeobservedinremovingthemoldstoavoidcrackingtheproductorcausingittogetoutoftrueshape.Tappingthemoldslightlywilloftenpreventfailures.

6)Aftertheproducthassetfortwenty-fourhours,sprinkleitcarefullywithwater,repeatingthisfrequentlyfortendays.Itshouldnotbeusedforonemonthormore.Wheresuchproductsaremadeonacommercialscale,theyareoftencuredinasteamkiln.

7)Writeareportoneachproductmade.Givethegeneralmethodofprocedureandwhy.Carefullydeterminecostofmaterialsineach.

ProjectNo.3

141.SidewalkandFloors(Figs.148and148-a).Requirements: To prepare foundation, construct forms to proper grade and

position,andconstructsidewalkandfloorsofvariouskindsrequiringaquakymixture.

ToolsNeeded:Shovels,buckets,measuringbox,screen,mixingplatform,trowels,edger,grooverandfloat.Woodworkingtoolssuitableforconstructingforms.

FIG.148.Sidewalkconstruction.

MaterialsNeeded:Enoughcement,sandandgravelorbrokenstone,andwatertocomplete the job.Fora1:2:4mixture,1 sackofcement,2cubic feetof sandand 4 cubic feet of gravel should make 4-1/4 cubic feet of concrete, or 13square feet ofwalk or floor 4 inches thick.Material for formsmust also beprovided—2x4’swithsuitablestakesareverysatisfactory.

FIG.148-a.Boysconstructingsidewalk.

PreliminaryInstructions:Thegeneralprinciplesofproperproportioning,mixingandplacingshouldbecarriedoutinconstructingsidewalksthesameasinanyother type of concrete construction. In work of this class, a quakymixture

should be adopted. A walk should not be made by putting down coarsematerial and pouring over it a cement-sand mortar. Because of the closeresemblancebetweenothertypesoffloorconstructions,suchasfeedingfloors,barnyardpavements,basementfloors,garagefloors,etc.,andconcretewalks,onlyadetaileddescriptionoftheconstructionofonetypewillbegiven.Thelocationanddrainageofanywalkorfloormustbeconsidered.

WorkingInstructions:1)Inlayingoutawalk,thefirstconsiderationisitslocationwithreferenceto

buildingsandtheroad.Ifitistobelocatedwithreferencetoacertainbuilding,eitherparalleloratarightangle,itshouldbedefinitelylocatedbycarefulmeasurement.Stakeoutthepositionofthewalkanddrawatightstringsothatthesurfacemaybeproperlyleveledtoauniformgrade.Thissurfaceshouldbethoroughlytampedtopreventanysettlingafterthewalkhasbeenplaced.

Undercertainconditions,where there isa tendency forwater tocollectunderawalk,cindersorgravelmaybeusedasasub-base.Ordinarily, theconcretewillbeplaceddirectlyonthewell-tampedsoil.

2)Maketheformsof2”lumber,either4”or5”wide,dependingonthicknesstowhichwalkwillbemade;4”issatisfactoryformostconditions.Placetheformscarefullytograde,andfillinwithearthandtampanylowplacesbeforeplacinganyconcrete.Properandcarefulalignmentoftheformsisthemostimportantfeaturetoinsureagood-lookingjob.Definitemeasurementsmustbetakentolocatecarefullythepositionoftheforms.Alevelshouldbeusedinordertoseethattheformsareproperlyleveled.To support the forms, drive stakes every 3’ or 4’. It is considered goodpractice to put in alternate sections of the walk, and, after this has set,remove the end form and fill in the sectionnot built. For short pieces ofwalk,however, this isunnecessary. If it isdesired togive thewalka slightslope to one side, this can be done by use of a level and straight-edge,placingoneofthe2x4’slowerthantheother—l/4”to1’isagoodsideslopeforawalk,andwillcauseittoshedthewaterveryquickly.Tomakesuchaslopeonawalktobe4’wide,theforminthedirectionoftheslopewillbeset1”lowerthantheupperone.

3)Foraone-coursewalk,nothingleanerthana1:2:4mixtureshouldbeused;thatis,onepartofcementtotwopartsofsandandfourpartsofbrokenstone.Bothsandandgravel,orbrokenstone,shouldbecleanandfreefromclayorotherforeignmaterial.Ifbank-runmaterialsareused,carefulscreeningtogettheproperproportionsisnecessary.

screeningtogettheproperproportionsisnecessary.4)Aftermeasuringthesandrequiredforonebatch,spreaditoutinathin

layeronawater-tightplatform;thenspreadthecementontopofthesandandmixtogetherdry,continuallyturninguntilthecolorisuniformandmixedtogetherwithoutstreaks.Thecementandsandisthenspreadoutandthecoarsematerialplacedontop.Itisthenagainmixedandwaterisaddeduntilitisofaquakyorjelly-likeconsistency.Suchamixturecanbequicklyspreadaboutintheformsandeasilyleveledwithastrike-boardrestinguponthetopoftheforms.Avoidusingtoodryamixtureforfloorconstruction.

5)Theconcretemaybeshoveleddirectlyfromthemixingboardintotheform,orhandledbymeansofawheelbarrow.

6)Levelthematerialoffandtampitenoughtoforcethecoarsematerialinfromthesurface,andbringenoughcement-sandmortartothesurfacetomakeasmoothfinish.Slighttampingisalsodonetoremoveanyairorwaterbubblesfromthematerial.Aspadeorboardshouldbepushedinalongthesideoftheformsothatallcoarsematerialwillbeworkedbackfromtheedgeofthewalk.

7)Ifthewalkistobe50’ormoreinlength,anexpansionjointshouldbeplacedapproximatelyevery50”.Thisexpansionjointcanbeprovidedbyputtinginaboard1/2”thickatintervalsof50’,whichshouldberemovedaftertheconcretehasproperlyset,andthegroovefilledwithheavyasphaltorTarvia.Toleavetheboardinplaceisworsethannoexpansionjoint.Thispracticeissometimesfollowed.

8)Ifthematerialhasbeenmixedtotherightconsistency,thesurfacecanusuallybegivenitsfinalfinishwithinone-halfhourafterplacing.Thefirstpartofthefinishingshouldbedonewithawoodfloat,merelytoleveloffthesurfaceandmakeasmoothjob.Ifitisdesiredtomakeaverysmoothsurface,continuethefinishingbyusingasteeltrowel.Thetrowelingprocesstendstobringanadditionalamountofcementandfinesandtothesurface,makingitveryslick.Ordinarily,thispracticeisnotdesirable.Theedgesofthewalkmustbefinishedwiththeedgertogivearoundedcorner.Tolinethewalkoffintosections,useastraight-edgeandgroover.Thismustbedonebeforetheconcretehasbeguntosetbecauseitissometimesnecessarytoforcecoarsematerialfartherbelowthesurfacetomakeagoodgroove.Layoffthewalksothatthelengthofthesectionswillbeaboutoneandone-halftimesthewidth;thatis,awalk2’wideshouldbedividedintosections3’long,orawalk3’wideintosections4-1/2’long.

FIG.149.Formfordoublestep

9)Ifthewalkisbuiltwhereitisexposedtoextremedryingfromthesun,itiswelltoprotectituntilithasset.Theprotectionmaybeintheformofmoistsandoratarpaulinofsomesort.Thehotsunanddrywindswilltendtoremovethemoisturefromtheconcreteandpreventitfromhardening.Sprinklethesurfaceforaweekortendays,afterwhichthewalkmaybeputintouse.

142.ConstructingaDoorstep(Figs.149and149-a).Requirements:Topreparefoundation,constructtheformandplacetheconcrete

forastepandplatformatsomedoor,orastepatthecurb,walkordrivewayentrancetothehouse.A1:2:4mixtureshouldbeusedforsuchajob.

ToolsNeeded:SameasinSecs.140and141.MaterialNeeded:Enoughcement,sandorgravelorcrushedstone,andwaterto

completethejob,usinga1:2:4mixture.Asufficientquantityoffenceboardsand2 x 4’s to construct the form.Boards 1-1/2” thick arepreferred to lightones.

FIG.149-a.Doorstepform.

Preliminary Instructions: In constructing each piece of concrete work, therequirementsofgoodconcretemustbeeverkeptbeforeyou.Ina jobofthiskind, the construction of the forms deserves a great deal of attention. If acarriagesteporsmallstepatcurbistobebuilt,itwillrequirelittlefoundation;the ground should be leveled and well tamped. For a doorstep, a sub-baseshouldbeprovided,andifitisalargeone,thecentralportionmaybetampedfullofclaytoserveasafiller;inthiscase,notlessthan6”ofconcreteshouldsurroundthefiller.

WorkingInstructions:1)Followgeneralinstructionsgivenforconcreteconstruction.Carefully

preparetheformforthesteptosecurecorrectdimensionsasplanned—theproperareaofplatform,thecorrectwidthoftreadandthecorrectheightofriser.Itissuggestedthattheriserbe8”highandthetread10”wide;thenstock8”boardscanbeusedasthepartofformforriser.Haveeachpartofformproperlybracedsothereisnodangerofitsbulging.

2)Forasolidstep,a1:2-1/2:5mixtureisadequate.Ifthestepistobemadefromoneleveltoanotherwithoutbacking,andistobereinforced,a1:2:4mixtureshouldbeused;infact,forsmalljobs,suchamixtureisbest.

3)CarefullymixtheconcretetoaquakyconsistencyasoutlinedinSec.141.Placethematerialintheformandtampitlightly,workingthecoarseaggregatebackfromthesurfacetosecureasmoothfinish.

4)Thefinishingcoatofonepartcementtotwopartssandfortheplatformandthetreadsshouldbeplacedimmediatelyafterthesurfaceshavebeenleveledoff.Whereitisnotdesiredtogiveanextremelysmoothfinish,enoughfinematerialcanbeworkedtothesurfacebytroweling,andthiscanbeleveledoff.Therisersandsidesofthestepscanbefinishedonlyaftertheformhasbeenremoved.Forty-eighthoursshouldelapsefortheordinaryjobtoallowforsetting.Tofinishtherisersandsidesofsteps,removeallmarksmadebyformsbytheuseofastiffbrush.Ifcarehasbeenobservedinworkingthecoarsematerialbackfromtheformandnoairpocketshavebeenformed,thismethodoffinishingissufficient.Ifthewallisleftquiteroughonremovaloftheforms,theyshouldbewetdownandacementmortarofthesameproportionsasusedonthetreadsshouldbeappliedwithabrush.Keepthestepmoistenedforaweekortendaysuntilreadyforuse.

FIG.150.Sectionthruhot-bed.

143.Hot-bed, FoundationWall, or a SimilarType ofConstruction (Figs.150,151,152).Requirements:Tobuildaformsuchasneededforthewallsofahot-bedorthe

foundationforasmallbuilding.Determinethequantityofmaterialrequired.Prepareandplace theconcrete, remove the formindue time,and finish thejob.Amixtureofwetconsistencyshouldbeused.

ToolsNeeded:SameasinSecs.140and141.MaterialsNeeded:Enoughcement,sandandgravelorcrushedstonetocomplete

the job,using a 1:2:4mixture, a sufficientquantityofboards, and2x 4’s tomakeandbracetheform,andpiecesofwirewithwhichtofastenittogether.

Preliminary Instructions:Concrete is the bestmaterial available for foundationwallconstruction.Thesuper-structuremaybebuiltofsomeothermaterial,butusuallyconcretewillbeusedforthefoundation.Theparticularlocationofhot-bedorfoundationwallshouldbedefinitelydecidedsotheworkwillnotbe held back at the beginning of work period. To lay out a rectangularfoundation,oneshouldbecarefultohaveallintersectionsofwallsexactly90degrees.Thiscanbeeasilycheckedbythe“3,4,5”method.Thisruleisappliedbymeasuringalongonewalladistancefromthecornerequalto3feet; thenmeasurefromthesamepointalongtheotherwalladistanceof4feet;then,ifthetwolinesformanexactrightangle,thedistancebetweentheendsofthe3-and 4-foot lines will be exactly 5 feet. For convenience and accuracy, anymultipleof3,4and5maybeused.

FIG.151.Foundationwallform.

FIG.152.Wallformaboveground.

WorkingInstructions:1)Carefullyexcavateallsoiltoproperdepth.Ifthesoilisfirm,itmaybeused

astheoutsideformuptothesurface,abovewhichadoubleformwillbenecessary.Forallkindsoffoundationwalls,itisalwaysessentialthatthefootingbewiderthanthewallproper,andthatitbecarrieddeepenoughtobebelowthefrostline.Ifdoubleformsarenecessary,duetothesoilcavingitwillhavetobeexcavatedtoagreaterwidth.

2)Constructtheformwithcare,duplicatingtheinsideandoutsidewalldimensionsasdesired.Seethatcornersaresquare,wallsarewellbraced,vertical,andcarefullyaligned.Ifwallsaretobemorethansixfeethigh,tiewiresshouldbeusedinadditiontothesupportingbraces(Fig.152).Ifthisprecautionisnotfollowed,abulgedwallislikelytobetheresult.Theinnerformonahot-bedorothersmallpieceofconcretework,maybesupportedbybracesontheinside,runningfromonewalltotheoppositeone.

3)Forthinwallsuptosixinches,a1:2:4mixtureshouldbeused.Wallsmorethaneightinchesthickmaybemadeofa1:2-1/2:5mixture.

4)Forajobofthiskind,theconcretemaybemixedtoaslightlywetconsistency.Caremustbeexercisedtoavoidtheseparationofthecoarsematerialfromthefine,whichispossibleinawetmixture.Shoveltheconcreteintoformandforcethecoarseaggregatebackfromthesurfaceofthewallbymeansofaspadeorathinboard.Whenthejobisafairlylargeone,donotmixlessthantheamountproducedwhenasackofcementistakenasaunit.Itisdesirabletocompletethejobwithoutinterruptionafter

itisstarted.Incaseitisnecessarythattheworkbediscontinuedforaperiod,seethatthesurfaceofthedryconcreteiscleanedandthoroughlywetdownbeforefreshconcreteispoured.

5)Toinsureagainstcracksinaconcretewall,afewreinforcingrodsbentatrightanglesandplacedatsucceedingheightsof12to18inchesinthecorners,willbeinvaluable.Reinforcingplacedaroundopeningsisalsorecommended

6)Theformsonawallofmorethansixfeetinheightshouldstayonseveraldays.Theformsonwallsonlytwoorthreefeethighmayberemovedinforty-eighthours.Astofinishingthesurfaceofthewall,followinstructionsgivenunderthisheadinginSec.142.

Note:Whenawoodensuperstructureistobebuiltonaconcretefoundation,itisadvisabletosetsomeboltsintheconcreteatintervalsofeveryfiveorsixfeet,towhichthesillsmaybefastened.

144.ConstructingFencePost(Fig.153).Requirements:Toconstructlinefencepostsandcornerandendpostsrequiring

quakyorwetmixturesandreinforcing.Tools Needed: Shovels, buckets, measuring box, screen, mixing platform,

straight-edge,flattrowelsandsuitableformsormolds,orwoodworkingtoolssuitableforconstructingsame.

MaterialsNeeded: Cement, sand, gravel or broken stone and reinforcing steel.Forlineposts,provide1/4”to3/4”stone;andcornerandendposts,1/4”x1-1/4”stone.

PreliminaryInstructions:Thereisnothingthataddsmoretotheappearanceandusefulnessofafencethanagoodlineofuniformposts,andthereisprobablynothing that adds more to the appearance of a farm lay-out than a good,serviceablefence.Agoodfenceisarealnecessityoneveryfarm.

FIG.153.Cornerpost.

Many of the early concrete posts were failures because they were notproperly made. People tried to make posts without knowing the firstprinciplesof correct construction.Postsweremadeofpoormaterial, leanmixtures,andincorrectlyreinforced.Tomakegood,uniformposts,providewell-madeforms.Therearealotofgoodpatentedformsonthemarket,buthomemadeformsarejustaboutasgood.Averysatisfactoryformforpostsisoutlinedunderwoodworkingprojects,Sec.79andFig.136.

The chief difference between the constructionof line posts, and cornerand end posts is that the corner and end posts are usuallymade right inplace,asshowninFig.153.Theholeisexcavated,theformbuiltoverit,andthe steel tied in place, and the concrete then poured. The method ofconstructinglinepostswillbedefinitelyoutlined.

WorkingInstructions:1)Placeformssotheywillbelevel.Cleanthemwithabrush,andapplyathin

filmofoilbeforeplacingconcrete.2)Forcornerandendposts,a1:2:4mixturemaybeused.Forlineposts,usea

1:2:2-1/2mixture,thestonenottobelargerthan3/4”.Wherematerialsarenotscreened,useonepartofcementtothreepartsofsandandpebblesforlineposts.

3)Mixthematerialstoaquakyconsistencyandfilltheformhalf-fullofmaterial.Tampuntilthematerialisfreeofwaterandairbubbles.

material.Tampuntilthematerialisfreeofwaterandairbubbles.4)Presstwo1/4”twistedsteelrodsintotheconcretesothattheywillbewithin

1/2”ofthecornersofthepost.Thenfilltheformfullofthemixture,tampitlightly,andsmoothoffthesurface.Presstwomorerodsinplaceateachcornerabout1/2”underthesurface;thensmooththesurfacetoproperfinish.

5)Leavethepostsinthemoldsatleastforty-eighthoursundermostconditions.Iftheweatherisextremelydryandhot,theymayberemovedearlier.Totakeoutthepost,turndownthehingedendoftheform,liftthedividingboardsbetweentheposts,thengraspthepostandslideitonthebottomofformbyapullingmotion;afteritisloosened,itmaybeliftedout.Handlethepostswithcarewhengreenastheyareliabletobebroken.

6)Setthepostonendinsandtocure.Sprinkledailyindryweatherforaweek.Donotuseuntilthepostsareonemonthold.

145.ConstructingaCircularStockTank(Figs.154,154-aand155).Requirements: To construct form according to plan, prepare foundation and

constructacircularstocktanktobeprovidedwithinletpipewithfloatcontrolandoutlet.PlumbingworkisoutlinedinSec.351underheadof“Plumbing.”

ToolsNeeded:Sameasinprecedingprojects.MaterialsNeeded:Enoughcement,sandandgravel,orcrushedrock,toconstruct

tankofa1:2:4mixtureaccordingtoplan.Enoughheavyhogwire30”hightoextendaroundtankandlap30”,andenoughtoextendtwiceacrossthebottomandupthesides.Foratank6’insidediameter.itwillrequireaboutfourrodsoffence.

PreliminaryInstructions:Astock tank isaneededpieceofequipmentoneveryfarm.Itshouldbecarefully locatedwithreferenceto lotsforconvenience; infact,itmaybeplacedbetweentwolotsorwherefourlotscorner.Adrainageoutletmustbeprovidedwhichmustbegivenconsiderationwhenthetankislocated.Extremecaremustbeobservedinmixing,placingandreinforcingtoinsureastrongwater-tightconstruction.

FIG.154.Circulartankforms.

WorkingInstructions:1)Likeeveryotherpieceofconcretework,thewatertankmustbeconstructed

onasolidfoundation.Thesoilshouldbefirmlytampedbeforetheformissetinplace.Inthepreparationofthefoundation,theproperplacingoftheoutletandinletpipesmustbegivenconsideration,sincebothshouldbebroughtthruthebottomofthetank.Foralargetank,itiswelltoexcavateandformasub-baseofcindersorgravel.

2)Theformforacirculartankisthemostdifficultpartofthetanktobuild.However,bycarefullystudyingtheplan,oneshouldexperiencelittletrouble.Itwillbenotedonplanthatboththeinsideandoutsideformsaremadeinsixsections.

FIG.154-a.Detailofsillforcircularform.

Thismakes the lengthofeachsectionequal toone-half thediameterofthe tank. If the insidediameterof the tank is tobe6’, theouter lengthofsection for inside form will be 3’, less the thickness of boards used. Theinnerlengthofoutsidesectionwillbeequaltoone-halfthediameteroftankplusthethicknessofwallandthicknessofboardsused.Ifthewallistobe5”thickatthetopandboards1”thickaretobeused,thenthesectionswouldbe3’6”longattheinnerlength.Sincetheoutsidesurfaceofthewallofthetank is vertical, both sills for the outside formwill be cut the same. Theinnersurfaceshouldbegivenaslopeof2”tothefoot,or,foratank2’deep,thebottomsill for the inner formwillbe4’ shorter thanthe topone.Thesillsforthisformarebestcutfroma2”x10”or2”x12”timberwhenajigorbandsawisavailable,makingitpossibletogetboththeinnerandoutersillsfromthesamepiece,asshowninFig.154-a.Aftersillsarecut, theboardsmustbecarefully fittedtomakea tightwall.The boards for the inner section are made 5” shorter than those for theouter section to allow for thickness of floor. After these sections arecompleted, they are assembled in place and can be fastened together bystripsacrossends.

FIG.155.Circulartankcomplete.

3)Forconcreteconstructionsuchasthis,neveruseamixtureleanerthan1:2:4.Forsmalltanks,a1:2:3mixtureisbetter.

4)FollowmethodofmixingandplacingasoutlinedinSecs.141and143,withtheexceptionofthefollowing:Settheouterforminplaceandputinfloorfirst.Spreadabout3”ofconcreteonfloor;thenputtwoorthreestripsofthehogwirefenceacrossthefloorandextenditupthesides.Placebalanceofconcreteforfloorandtampinplace.Putastripofhogwireinplaceforwallreinforcing,laptheends,andwiretoitthestripsthatwereplacedacrossthefloor.Thenplaceinnerforminposition,carefullycenterit,andfasteninplacewithboardsnailedacrossthetop.Pourtherestofconcrete,keepingthereinforcingnearthecenterofwall.Itisdesirabletoprovideaconcreteboxinthecenterofthetanktoprovideprotectionfortheinletpipeandautomaticfloat.Aformforthisboxshouldbeconstructed,setinplaceandtheconcretepouredasthetankisbeingcompleted.Fortheoutletpipe,adrainwitha1-1/2”couplingshouldbesetinalowplaceinthefloor.Ashortpieceofpipescrewedintothecouplingandextendingtoaheightthatitisdesiredthewatershouldstand,willactasanoverflow.

5)Removetheformsfromthetankinaboutforty-eighthours,and,afterwettingitthoroughly,applyacementpainttotheentiresurface.Allowthiscoatingtoset,thenwetdownagain,afterwhichthetankmaybefilledwithwater.Itshouldnotbeputintouseforaweekortendays,asthegreenconcretecaneasilybebrokenbystock.

CHAPTERXVIISUPPLEMENTARYCONCRETEPROJECTS

146.ConstructingGardenorLawnRoller(Figs.156,157).Requirements: To make a garden or lawn roller, as illustrated, complete with

handleforpullingorpushingit.

FIG.156.Gardenroller.

Instructions:1)Securealengthofdraintileofsizedesired.Ifdraintileisnotavailable,

anoldcarbidecanorothercylindricalcanmaybeused.2)Securelengthsofl/2”pipeandfittingsforaxleandhandle.3)Constructaplatformonwhichtomaketheroller.4)Layoutacircleonplatformslightlylargerthantile.5)Boreaholeinplatform,thediameterbeingequaltooutsidediameter

ofpipeforaxle.6)Makecross-frameoftwo1”x4”pieces.7)Centerandboreholeincross-frameashasbeendonewithplatform.

Nailblocksonendsofcrosspiecestoholdinplacewhenassembled.8)Placetileonplatformandcenteraxleinplacewithcross-frame.Nail

blocksonplatformtoholdtileinplace.

FIG.157.Detailsofformsforgardenroller.

9)Axleshouldextendoutofthetileatleasttwoinches.10)Mixconcrete1:2-1/2:4proportiontoaquakyconsistency11)Placeconcreteintilearoundaxle.Leaveinplaceforaweekormore

beforeusing.12)Forhandle,assemblepipeandfittings,asillustratedinplumbing

project.Thismakesaverygoodelementarypipe-fittingexercise.SeeSec.334.

147.AHogTrough(Fig.158).Requirements:Toconstructform,mixandplaceconcrete,andproperlyreinforce

atroughthatwillbesuitableforfeedingslopstohogs.Instructions:

1)Constructformasillustrated.Theinnerpartofformmaybemadeofheavyclayifitisdesiredtomakethebottomoftroughwithacurvedsurface.

2)Providereinforcing.Ifthetroughistobemorethan4′inlength,1/4”rodsshouldbeusedinadditiontothewirenetting.

3)Usea1:2:3proportion,andmixtoawetconsistency.4)Placeconcreteandreinforcing.

FIG.158,Hogtrough.

148.EngineorMachineFoundation(Fig.159).Requirements: The requirements of this job will depend on the particular

machine.Amachinesubject toagreatdealofvibrationshouldhaveaheavyfoundation.Theproper-sizedfoundationcanbestbedeterminedbythemakerof the machine. The structural details would be about the same for allmachines.

Instructions:1)Excavateandpreparefootingforfoundation.2)Constructformaccordingtoplan.3)Provideboltstofastenmachinetobase.4)Provideatemplatetolocateboltsinbase.5)Providepiecesof1”gaspipeforbolts.6)Mixconcreteof1:2-1/2:5proportionstoaquakyconsistency.

FIG.159.Machinefoundation.

7)Placeconcreteinform.8)Whenformispracticallyfull,setpiecesofgaspipewithbolts

approximatelyinplace.

FIG.160.Earthformforcisternorwelltop.

9)Fillforms,finishsurface,andadjustboltsintocorrectpositionbyaidofthetemplate.

10)Wheninitialsethasbeentaken,removetemplateandtroweltoasmoothlevelfinish.

11)Removeformafterseveraldaysandfinishsurface.12)Boltmachineinplace.

149.CisternorShallowWellTop(Fig.160).Requirements:Tomakeacirculartopforawellorcistern.Instructions:

1)Describeacircletheexactsizeoftopdesiredonasmoothlevelplaceontheground.

2)Carefullyexcavateinsideofthecircletoadepthof4”.3)Cutoutacylindricalwoodblockandlocatewherepumppipewillpass

through.4)Providefourboltstofastenpumptotop.5)Cuttwopiecesofhogwireforreinforcingacrosstop,andtwopiecesof

large,smoothwirefortheedge.6)Mixconcreteof1:2:3proportiontoaquakyconsistency.7)Sprinkleformsoitwillnotabsorbwaterfromconcrete.8)Placeconcreteinbottomhalfofform.9)Placereinforcingandsetboltsinplace.10)Fillformwithconcrete.11)Buildupconcretewherepumpistostand.12)Finishsurfacewithslightslopetowardonesidesowaterwilldrain

off.13)Sprinkletopfromdaytoday.Removeattheendofaweekorten

days.150.ManurePitandCistern(Fig.161).

Requirements:Toexcavateformanurepitandcistern,constructform,andplacetheconcreteandreinforcingwhereneeded.

Note:RefertoprojectinSec.143.Instructions:

1)Excavateforbothpitandcistern,andpreparefoundation.2)Constructoutsideformifneeded.3)Constructinsideformforpitinplace.4)Providetilefrompittocistern.5)Arrangereinforcingforcistern.Heavyhogwiremaybeusedinsteadof

rods.6)Constructinnerformforcistern.

FIG.161.Manurepitandcistern.

7)Use1:2:4proportionandmixconcretetoawetconsistency.8)Placeconcreteinwalls.9)Removewallforms.10)Placeconcreteinfloor.11)Constructformforcisterntop,providingplaceforpump,alsofor

manholecover.12)Placeconcretefortopwithreinforcing,andalsoformanholecover.13)Removeformfromcisternthrumanhole.14)Removeformfrommanholetop.

151.FeedingFloor(Fig.162).Requirements: To prepare foundations, construct forms and place concrete for

feedingfloorfortenhogs.Ittakes12to15squarefeetofspaceperhog.Note:RefertoSec.141.

FIG.162.Feedingfloor.

Instructions:1)Preparefoundationbylevelingthespotwhereflooristobebuilt.

Removeallvegetablematterandhavesoilthoroughlytamped.2)Constructformtogradesothatfloorwillbeatleast4”thick.Havea

slopeofl/4”to1’inonedirection.3)Mixconcreteof1:2:4proportiontoawetconsistency.4)Placeconcreteinfloor;completeonesectionatatime.5)Removeforms.6)Excavateforcurbaroundfloor.7)Constructformforcurb.8)Placeconcreteincurb.9)Removecurbform.

152.ConstructingaScalePit(Fig.163).Requirements:Toexcavateforscalepit,constructform,andplacetheconcrete.

Note:RefertoprojectunderSec.143.

FIG.163.Scalepit.

Instructions:1)Excavatepittodimensionstobedeterminedfromsizeofscale.2)Providedrainforcenterofpit.3)Constructoutsideformifneeded.4)Constructinnerformsowallwillbeatleast6”thick.

4)Constructinnerformsowallwillbeatleast6”thick.5)Use1:2:4proportionandmixtoawetconsistency.6)Placeconcreteinwall.7)Provideboltsattopofwalltofastenangleiron.8)Removeformsfromwall.9)Placeconcreteinfloorwithslopetowardcenterdrain.

153.VaultforPrivy(Fig.164).Requirements:Toconstructasanitaryvaultforprivywithpartitionasillustrated

inplan.Asmanysectionscanbemadeasdesired.Thisisadrytypeofvault,dryearthorashesbeingusedtoabsorbliquids.

Instructions:1)Preparefootingforvaultsoitslowerlevelwillbenolowerthanthe

surfaceoftheground.2)Constructforminplace.3)Providepiecesofwireforreinforcingtoinsureagainstshrinkage

cracks.4)Mixconcreteof1:2:3proportiontoawetconsistency.5)Placefloorandwallofvaultasoneunit.6)Removeinnerformaftertwenty-fourtoforty-eighthours,andpaint

upanyholeswith1:2cement-sandmortar.7)Paintinnersurfacewithacementwash.8)Removeouterformafterseveraldays.9)Finishoutersurface.

154.Milk-CoolingTank(Fig.165).Requirements: To excavate, construct form and place concrete and reinforcing

foramilk-coolingtanktobe2’6”wide,20”deep,lengthasneeded,bottom8”lower than floor of milk room. The bottom to be corrugated to allow freecirculationofwaterwithdrainageoutlet.Note:RefertoSec.143.

FIG.164.Planofsanitaryprivy.

Instructions:1)Excavatetoadepthof14”belowfloorlevel.2)Constructoutsideforminplace.3)Constructinnerform,tobeputinplaceafterfloorismade,sowallwill

be4”thick.4)Providereinforcingmaterial,eitherrodsorheavyhogwire.5)Putdraininplacesocouplingwillbeatsurfaceoflowplaceinfloor.6)Asaprotectiontotopofinnerwall,providea4”channelironwith

3/8”by6”anchorboltsthreadedintoit,asillustrated.7)Mixconcreteof1:2:4proportiontoaquakyconsistency.8)Placeconcreteinfloortoadepthof6”withreinforcinginplace.9)Formcorrugationsinbottomoftankslopingtowardoutlet.10)Adjustinnerforminplace,withreinforcingextendingupfromfloor

andentirelyaroundwalloftank.11)Placeconcreteinwallsoftank.12)Firmlyseatthechannelironwithanchorboltsoninnerwall,

hammeringitintoplacewithawoodmaul.13)Removeinnerformattheendoftwenty-fourtoforty-eighthours,

andfinishsurfacewithacementwash.Ifthereareanyholes,usea1:2cement-sandmortartofillthem.

14)Removeoutsideformafterseveraldays,andfinishsurfacewithastiff

brush.

FIG.165.Milk-coolingtank.

155.ARectangularWaterTank(Figs.166,167,167-a).Requirements: To construct form according to plan, prepare foundation and

construct a rectangularwater tank, to beprovidedwith inlet pipewith floatcontrolandoutletpipe.

FIG.166.Outsideformforrectangularwatertank.

FIG.167.Insideformforrectangularwatertank.

Note:ThisprojectisquitesimilartothatdescribedinSec.145,withexceptionofshape.

Instructions:1)Preparefoundation.Setinletandoutletpipesinplace.2)Constructoutsideforminplace38”high(Fig.166).3)Constructinnerformreadyforusesothattankwillbe2-1/2’deep

with6”floor,and5”wallattopand10”wallatthebottom.4)Constructformforfloatbox.5)Mixconcreteandplaceflooroftankwithreinforcing.Use1:2:4

mixture.6)Setinnerforminplace.7)Placeformforfloatbox.8)Putwallreinforcinginplace.Useatleastfourtwisted1/4”rods3’long,

bentatrightangleatcorner,inadditiontohogwire.9)Placebalanceofconcrete.10)Removeformsafterconcreteisthoroughlyset.11)Finishsurfaces.

FIG.167-a.Cross-sectionoffinishedtank.

156.PotatoandFruitStorageCellar(Figs.168,169).

Requirements:Toexcavate,constructforms,andplaceconcreteandreinforcingforstoragecellarasillustrated.Note:RefertoprojectunderSec.145.

Instructions:1)Layout,excavateandpreparefoundationforstoragecellaraccording

toplan.2)Constructendformsinplace.3)Constructinnersideforminplace.Thesillssupportingtopsectionof

innerformtobedividedintothreeparts,thelengthofeachparttobeequaltoone-halfthewidthofcellar.

4)Providewedgesatbottomofformsupporttomaketheformeasilyremoved.

5)Constructoutersideformsowallwillbe10”thickatbottomofarchand6”thickattop.Whenexcavationiscarefullydone,theouterformwillberequiredonlyabovethegroundsurface.Beverycarefulinbracingboththeinnerandouterformstogetbestresults.

6)Mixconcrete1:2:4proportiontoawetconsistency,exceptforthetopofarch,whichshouldbetoaquakyconsistency.

7)Placeconcreteinlowersidewall.8)Placeheavyhogwirefromlowerwallsoverarchtoinsureagainst

shrinkagecracks.9)Placeconcreteoverarch.10)Keepconcretefrombeingexposedtoextremeheatofsunand

moisteneachday.

FIG.168.Fruitstoragecellar.

FIG.169.Insideformoffruitstoragecellar.

11)Removeformsafteraperiodofaboutoneweek.12)Finishjobbysmoothingoffroughplaceswithabrushandby

plasteringwherenecessary.157.HogWallow(Fig.170).

Requirements:To excavate forhogwallow suitable for 20or 30hogsweighing200poundseach.ToconstructformandprovideoverflowdrainandinletpipesimilartodrainandinletfortankdescribedinSec.145.Toreinforcefloorandsidewallsofwallowwithwiremesh.

FIG.170.Hogwallow.

Note:RefertoprojectunderSec.145.

Instructions:1)Excavateandpreparefoundationforwallow.2)Placeinletandoverflowpipes.3)Constructinnerformreadyforuse.4)Constructformforboxtoprotectinletandoverflowpipes.5)Usea1:2:4proportionandmixconcretetoaquakyconsistency.6)Placefloorabout4”thick.7)Putreinforcinginplaceacrossthefloorandextendingupthewall,as

illustratedincross-section.8)Placebalanceofconcreteinfloor.9)Putformsinplace.10)Placeconcreteinwalls.11)Removeformsandfinishjob.

158.DippingVatforHogs(Fig.171).Requirements:Toexcavate fordippingvat, toconstruct the formsaccording to

plan,andtoplacetheconcreteandreinforcing.Note:RefertoprojectunderSec.143.

Instructions:1)Excavatemainpartofvatfirst,whichis8’6”longand2’10”wide.

Witha5”wall,thisgives2’intheclear.2)Excavateslopinginclineforoutlet,thistobe8’longandsamewidthas

bodyoftank.3)Excavatesloping“step-off”incline;thistohave2’dropandbe2’long.4)Constructaninnerformsothatfloorandwallswillbeatleast5”thick.

FIG.171.Dippingvatforhogs.

5)Outsideformshouldbeunnecessaryifcareisobservedinexcavation.6)Constructformforcurbandfloorofdrippingpen.7)Providereinforcingtoinsureagainstcracks.Heavyhogwireis

sufficient.8)Usea1:2:4mixtureandmixtoaquakyconsistency.9)Placeconcreteinfloorfirstwithreinforcinginplace.10)Putininnerforms.11)Placeconcreteinwalls.12)Formtreadsoninclinebeforeconcretesets.13)Placeconcretefloorandcurbindrippingpens.14)Removeforms.15)Coatsurfacewithcementwashtoinsurewater-tightness.

PARTIIIBLACKSMITHING

CHAPTERXVIII

MANUFACTUREOFIRONANDSTEEL

159.Preliminary.There isquiteasgreatneedonthe farmandinthehouseforaknowledgeofmetalworkandfacilitiestocarryitonasforwoodworkandcementwork.Thehouse-ownerandhome-makerismoreindependentifhecando the ordinary things about the home premises which demand the use ofmetalworkingtoolsforthesimplerconstructionsandrepairs.

Under the general headmetalwork,we shall consider, under separate parts,the following special branches of metalwork: Forging, Sheet-metalwork, andFarmMachineryRepairandAdjustment.

Underthesub-headsgivenabove,thefirstwilldealchieflywithsteel,wroughtironorcastiron,whileunderthesecond,tin,zincorlead,orsheetiron,willbethematerialhandled.

160. IronOre. The commercial varieties of iron are pig iron,wrought ironandsteel.Ironisfoundinthegroundinnaturaldepositsas“ore,”whichconsistsof metal imbedded in mineral and extraneous matter of no value. If the orecontains 50 per cent ormore ofmetal, it is called “rich.” It cannot beworkedcommercially with profit if it contains less than 30 per cent of metal. Thevaluable ores are oxides, hydrates or carbonates of iron. Ores appearing assulphidesarepoor,asitisdifficulttoremovethesulphur.However,weatheringore—allowingittostandintheopen—willchangesulphidestosulphates,whicharelargelydissolvedoutbyrain.

Oneoftherichestoresismagnetite,orblackore,which,whenpure,contains72.4per cent ironand27.6per centoxygen,Hematite, or redore,whenpure,contains70percentironand30percentoxygen.

161.PigIronismadebycrushingoretouniformsizeandheatingitinablastfurnaceuntilitcanbedrawnoffatthebottominamoltencondition.Theblastfurnaceisalong,verticalcylindricalshaftwhichisfedfromthetopwithore,fuelor flux. Air under pressure is introduced at the bottom for purposes ofcombustion.Themetalwhenmolten is drawnoff at thebottom,usually twiceduringtwenty-fourhours,andrunintosandmoldsorironchilledmoldstoform“pigs”of cast iron.Cast ironhas4or5per centof impurities suchas carbon,sulphur, phosphorus, manganese and silicon. The amount of carbon presentdetermineswhethertheironisgrayorwhite.Ifthegreaterpartofthecarbonis

free as graphite, the iron is known as gray. If the greater amount of carbonpresent is combined, the iron isknownaswhite.White iron,or ironwith lowcombinedcarbon,issoft.

162.WroughtIronispurecarbonlessironproducedinapastycondition.Itisthe converse of cast iron, as it is fairly tenacious and extremely ductile.Whenheated,itcanbeweldedbetterthananyotherironorsteel.Whenheatedtofullredandquenchedinwater,itwillnotharden.

Wrought ironmay be produced from iron ore in one operation, but this iscostly,astheyieldislow.Commercially,itisproducedbyindirectmethods,bypurificationofpigiron,removingimpuritiesbyoxidation.Thiscanbedoneinanopenhearthorreverberatingfurnace,themethodsbeingknownastheopen-hearthandBessemerprocesses,respectively.

163. The Open-Hearth Process oxidizes the impurities of the pig iron bymeansofaddingironoretoabathofmoltenpigiron.Thefuelis,therefore,incontactwiththemetal,andtheoxygenoftheblastcombinedwiththeimpuritiesare eliminated as oxides. This is a comparatively slow process of refinement,takingfromseventotwelvehourstocomplete.Itsadvantagesareafinequalityof ironproducedanda largeamountofmaterialwhichcanbehandledatonetime.

164.TheBessemerProcessalsoisanoxidizingone,butthemetalandfuelarenot in contact. The oxygen is furnished by means of a large volume ofcompressedairblownthruabathofmoltenpigiron.Theoxygencombineswiththe carbon to evolve as gaseswhile it combineswith other impurities to formslag.Theprocessrequiresbutafewminutes—fromtwelvetotwenty.

165.Steel.Itispracticallyimpossibletodefinesteelaccurately.Itisanalloyofironandcarbon,butasalloysofironandcarbonincludecastiron,thisdefinitionisnotatechnicalone.Ordinarysteelmaybesaidtobeironcontainingfrom0.1to 2.0 per cent of carbon in combined form which has been subjected tocomplete fusion and poured into an ingot or mold for the production offorgeablemetal.Suchametal—steel—hasthecompositionofwroughtiron,butithasbeenproducedinasteel-meltingfurnace.

166.TemperingSteel.Thegreatertheamountofcarboninsteel,theharderitis,butthemoreductile.Theamountofcarboninsteelpracticallydeterminesthepurposeforwhichsteelmaybeused.Steel ishardenedwhenheatedtorednessandquenchedinwateroroil.

Whensteel isheatedandallowedtocool,naturally, itsoftens.It isuponthisfact that tempering,which is theprocess of getting theproper combinationof

hardness and ductibility, is based. As the hot steel cools, surface oxides areformedwhichrangefromfaintyellowthrustraw,fullyellow,brown,purpleandfullbluetodarkblue.Thelightestofthesecolorsindicatesthehighestdegreeofhardness.

MachineandToolRepairsUnderthisheadingisconsideredsuchworkasonemaybecalledupontodoinconstructingtoolsandmachinesmadeofironorsteel,andwhichdoesnotrequiretheheatingofthemetal.Forthemostpart,suchworkwillbedonewithhandtools,ashammer,chisels,files,drills,taps,

dies,rivets,etc.Workwhichrequiresthecarefulshapingorfittingofcoldmetalwillneedtobedoneinamachineshopandisnotconsideredhere.

TookandEquipment

Forgeneraluse about thepremises, a small out-buildingor roomshouldbeequippedwith the following:Onewooden benchmade ofwell-braced 2” x 4”uprightsandstringerscoveredwithplankandfittedwithaspringscrewvise,ormachinist’svise.

Onehandforgeandanvil,withthecommonforgetools.Onegrindstone,hand-or foot-power type, about24” indiameter and3-1/2”

thick.Onebenchhandemerygrinderandoilstone.In the room should be stored: Wooden horses, wooden and metal blocks,

skids, a block and tackle, and, possibly, a chain block, crowbars, pinch bars,rollersandpiecesofironpipe,ropeandropelashingswithendstiedorwound,andjacksoftheadjustabletopandsimpleandheavyerectingtypes.Thebenchtools should consist of a simple equipment, some of which can bemade andothers purchased, such as: Machinist’s hammers with ball, straight and crosspeens,eachweighingfrom1to1-3/4pounds.

Handhack-sawandblades.Centerandprickpunch.Machinist’schisels,principallytheflatorcapechisels.Files, handled, of the rough andmiddle-cut grades principally, and both

single-and double-cut in flat, round, halt-round, square and triangularshapes.Thetotalnumberneednotexceed12.

Drillsinsizesrangingfrom1/16”to3/4”gradedtosixteenths.Onedrillingratchetandonebreastdrill.Avarietyofwrenches,includingagoodpipewrench,monkey,alligatorand

a variety of single-end and solid or closed wrenches such as those

includedinafirst-classautomobiletoolkit.Avarietyofsocketwrencheswillalsobefoundveryhandy.

Twoorthreesizesofoutsideandinsidecalipersanddividers.Onescriber.Onesurfacegage.Onesurfaceplate,about2’square.One2’rule,carpenter’sfolding.One6”andone12”steelscale.One6”screwdriver,one12”screwdriver.Avarietyofmachinescrews,boltsandnuts,washers,rivetsandcotterpins.Onesmallsetoftapsforcuttingmachinethread.Onesmallsetofdiesforcuttingmachinethread.Onepair6”endpliers.Onepair6”sidepliers.One4”spiritlevel.Onecarpenter’slevel.Oneplumbbob.Onegasolineblow-forge.Such supplies as the following should be accessible: Waste, cotton wick,

emery,emerycloth,lardandmachineoil,andcupgrease.Itwillbewelltokeepinstockasmallsupplyofbarstrapandsheetiron.

FIG.172.Arrangementofforgeandtools,showingpositionofblacksmithattheforge.

CHAPTERXIXEQUIPMENTFORBLACKSMITHING;FUNDAMENTAL

PROCESSES

167.Useof theForgeontheFarm.Thevillageblacksmithshophasalwaysbeen a place of both first and last resort in helping to solve the manyconstructionproblemsofacommunity.Likewise,theblacksmith’sforgeonthefarm may be made the means of developing and repairing many tools andmachines. The farmer whowould save both time and expensemay very well,therefore,befamiliarwiththeworkoftheblacksmith.

Itissuggestedthattheforgebeapartoftheequipmentofthefarmshopandoccupy one end of a room, along one side of which may be placed themetalworking bench, thus bringing the vise near the anvil. It is frequentlydesirabletograspahotpieceofmetalinthevisewhenitistakenfromtheforge.

168.TheForgeandAnvil.Theforgewhichwillbeasserviceableasanyonthefarm, isoneof thehand-operatedfan,orbellows, type(Fig.172). Infrontof itshouldbeplacedtheanvilateasy-turningdistancefromtheforge(Fig.172).Itmaybemountedontheendofaheavyhardwoodblockorpieceofthetrunkofatree,oritmaybemounteduponaconcretepillar,towhichitshouldbelagged.Theheightofthefaceoftheanvilfromthefloorshouldbeapproximately30”.Itshouldweighfrom150to200pounds.

169. Blacksmith’s Tools. In addition to the forge and anvil, the followinggeneralequipmentoftoolsshouldbeathand:Oneeach1to3-poundcross-peen,straight-peenandball-peenhammer.

Onesledge,5to10pounds.Onepairofflat-jawedtongsforgeneralwork.Onepairofhollow-bittongsforholdingrodstock.Onepairofanvilorpick-uptongs forholdingshortpiecesofheavywork

whileupsetting.Onebelltongforflatorscrollwork.Oneshort-piecetong.Onehandledtopandbottomswage.Onehandledtopandbottomfuller.Onehandledpunch.

Onehandledflatter.Onehandledhardieorhotchisel.Oneheadingtool.Onehardieforanvil.

Figs.173and174showphotographsofanumberof these tools.Toolsotherthanthoselistedaboveandordinarilyincludedinablacksmithingkit,arelistedundertheheadof“FarmMachinery.”

Ofthese,themostessentialare:

Carpenter’ssquare.Calipers.Dividers.Scriber.Foldingsteelrule.Tiremeasurer.Vise(solidboxblacksmith).Coldchisels,oneonhandleinshapeofhammer.

FIG.173.Forgetools:a,hollow-bittongs;b,flat-jawedtongs;c,pick-uptongs;d,ball-peenhammer;e,handledchisel;f,hardieforanvil;g,chisel.

FIG.174.Forgetools:a,flatter;b,headingtool;c,swages;d,handledpunch;e,fullers.

170.Supplies forForgeWork. It iswell to carry in stock a small supplyofwroughtironandsteelinthefollowingsizes:3/8”rods.

5/8”rods.1/4”x5/8”bars.1/4”x1”bars.

(Note:Alsomaterial forbuggy tires, bolts and rivets.)171.UseofWroughtIron.Wrought iron will be used chiefly. It can be worked either hot or cold.Whenworkedcold, itbecomesdenser,harder,moreelasticandbrittle,butcanbebroughttoitsoriginalconditionbyheatingtoredandcoolingslowly.

Theordinaryprocessesof toolconstructionaredescribed in the instructionsforprojects.Forordinarywork,a“red”heatisgiventhestock.Whenpiecesaretobejoinedtoformonesolidpiecebywelding,however,thestockisbroughttoa“white”heat.

172. The Fire. The blacksmith’s forge is a pan with a grate at the bottomwhichadmitstheairpumpedforthepurposeofcreatingadraft.Thepan,orfirepot, contains the coal. Thismust be bituminous, or soft, coal of the very bestquality.Itisveryimportantthatitbefreefromsulphurandphosphorus.

Tobuild the fire, removeallclinkers, slate, stoneandother foreignmaterial.Pushthecoalandcoketoonesidetoexposethegrate,tuyere,orwindbox.Uponthis,placeafewshavings,somestraworpaper,andcoverwithalittlekindlingasthematchisapplied.

Useaverylightblastatfirst.Asthefireburns,addgreencoal.Whenthefiregetsstrong,surrounditwitharingofgreen,dampenedcoal,excepttowardthefront,whichshouldbekeptopenfortheinsertionoftheirontobeheatedandusedtoholdtheironwhilebeingheated,andforthetools.Theseshouldbekeptinahorizontalposition.Astheworkproceedsandthefireextendsintotheringofgreencoal,itmaybedampenedtoholdthefiretoalimitedarea.Greencoalmaybeaddedat therearandthesides,butthefireshouldnotbedisturbedbypokingit.Asitburnsfromunderneath,cindersshouldberakedouttokeepthefire clear, and the coal should be gently patted down with a small shovel.Continuingthisprocesswillkeepaclean,well-confinedandfreshfire.Fig.175showsacross-sectionthruthefire-pot.

FIG.175.Cross-sectionofforge.

Asironheatsinthefire,thefollowingshadesofcolorwillappear,indicatingtheproperconditionof the iron forcertainclassesofwork:a)Darkbloodred(blockheat).

b)Darkred,lowred(finishingheat).c)Fullred.d)Brightorlightred(scalingheat).e)Yellowheat.f)Lightyellowheat(goodforgingheat).g)Whiteheatorweldingheat(beyondthis,ironwillburn).

173. Welding. Upon continued heating of wrought iron or mild steel, thetemperatureincreases,themetalbecomesincreasinglysoft,and,ifanotherpiece

equallysoftistouchedtothefirst,thetwowillstick;lighttappingwillcompletethe weld. The greater the range of temperature thru which themetal remainspasty, themore easilymay it be welded. The greatest trouble inwelding is inheating themetalproperly.The firemustbecleanandbright;otherwise, smallpiecesofcinder,etc.,willsticktothemetal.Theheatingmustbeslowenoughtogetthemetalheatedthru.Haveall tools inplacebeforetakingapieceofmetalfrom the fire. Hold the tongs onmetal so that pieces can be easily placed inpositionwithoutdifficulty.When“stuck,”firsttapthethinpartsofthepiecestobewelded,asthesecoolfirstandmostrapidly.

Donothaveanoxidizingfireinwelding;thatis,nottoomuchoxygengoingthrufire.

Intheweldingprocess,theoxideformedisreallyaflux.Inwelding,steelwillburnbeforetheoxidebecomeswhitehot;hence,afluxisusedmadeofsandandborax; this is put in at yellow heat and protects the surfaces to be welded,preventing the forming of oxide. The oxidemelts at amuch lower heatwhencombinedwiththeflux.Thisistheprincipalobjectofusingaflux.Salammoniacseemstocleanthesurface,soafluxissometimesmadeofonepartsalammoniacandfourpartsborax.

Thefollowingtypicalweldsshouldbefamiliar:a)Fagotorpile.b)Scarfed.c)Lap(flat).d)Lap(round).e)Ring(roundstock).f)Chain-making.g)Butt.h)Jump.i)Split.j)Angle.k)“T”(roundstock).

CHAPTERXXPROJECTSINBLACKSMITHING

ProblemNo.1:DrawingandBendingofIron.ProjectsSuggestedforthisGroup:

a)Staple(Fig.176).b)Gatehooks(Fig.177).c)Haybook(Fig.178).d)Eyebolt(Fig.179).e)Stovepoker(Fig.180).

174.ToolstoBeUsed.Thetoolsneededtomakeprojectsinthisgroup,asidefrom the forge and anvil, are a blacksmith’shammer (light) and apair of flat-jawedorhollowbittongs.

175. Maintaining the Fire. Every operation at the forge requires themaintenanceofagood fire, theheatingof iron to theproper temperature,andtheproperhandlingof theblacksmith’s tools toaccomplishsatisfactoryresults.Before beginning work on this project, read carefully the instructions onpreparing the fire (Sec. 172).Whilework is progressing, green coal should beaddedfromtimetotime,butalwaysontherimoredgeofthefire,notonthelivefire.Thefireshouldbepreventedfromrunningintothegreencoalfartherthandesired by occasionally drippingwater on the inside edge of the rim of greencoal.Thiscoalshouldbekeptwellpackeddown,thusformingawallaroundthefire to be kept confined to the grate only.As the coal in the fire is consumed,removeclinkersanddrawinfreshcoalfromtherim.

Theoperatormustatalltimeskeephistoolsingoodorderandnearathand.Thehammertobeusedmaywellbelaidinpositionontheanvil(Fig.172)tobegrasped by the right hand immediately when the iron taken from the forgereachestheanvil.Thetongsmaybelaidonthetopoftheforgeattheleftsideofthefire,sothattheymaybehandledbythelefthandinremovingtheironfromthefire.

FIG.176.Staple.

FIG.177.Gatehook.

FIG.178.Hayhook.

FIG.179.Eyebolt,showingstepsinconstruction.

FIG.180.Stovepoker.

FIG.181.Anvilandblock.

WorkingInstructionsfortheGateHook:Stock:Onepieceof1/4”roundwroughtiron10”long.176.BendingIron.Placeoneendoftherodinthetongsheldinthelefthand,

withwhichplacetheoppositeendoftherodinthefrontandatthebaseofthefire inahorizontalposition.Heat thisendof therod for3”toa lightyelloworlemoncolor.

Withdraw the iron with tongs in the left hand and place on anvil with theheated end projecting over the horn 2-1/2”. Fig. 181 shows anvil with partsnamed. Grasp the hammer well toward the end of the handle with the righthand.Raisethehammerabovetheironandstrikeitalightblowjustbeyondthepointwhere.Itisincontactwiththeedgeoftheanvil(Fig.182).ContinuethisprocessuntiltheironassumestheformshowninsolidlinesattherightinFig.183.Thisformshouldbemadewithoutreheatingtheiron.

FIG.182.Methodofbendingiron.

Reheat thesameendof the iron,again to lemoncolor.Graspasbeforewiththetongs,butwiththeironturnedoverinthetongssothatthepartmadeatarightanglewiththerodinthefirstoperationisupward.Placeonthehornoftheanvil,asshowninFig.184,and,bystrikingtheendatananglewiththehammer,shapethisendtoacompletecirclecentrally locatedontheendoftherod.Thedottedlinesattherightendoftherod(Fig.183)showthisfinishedshape.The

hole in the ring should be 1/2” in diameter. It can bemade the right size andcircularbyformingitovertheendofthehorn(Fig.184).

FIG.183.Stepsinmakinggatehook.

177.DrawingIron.Heattheoppositeendoftherodtolemoncolor,andform1”ofittoacone(B,Fig.183).Theconeisformedbyrestingtheheatedendoftherodattheangleoftheconeonthefaceoftheanvilandgraduallyrollingitfromsidetosidewhilethehammerstrikestheironlightlyarepeatednumberofblows.Thisendoftherodistoformthehook.

FIG.184.Makingtheeyeongatehook.

FIG.185.Formingthepointongatehook.

Reheatthehookendoftherodfor3”tolemoncolorandbenditoverthehornoftheanviltoforma2-1/2”right-angleshoulder.Thisoperationisthesameasthefirstonedescribedinformingtheringendofthehook.

Now,graspthetongs,asshowninFig.185,andproceedasinformingtheringofthehooktobendthehookendinthemiddleofthe2-1/2”portionoftheL-

shapedendtoahalf-circle(Fig.177).Bendthepointoftheconeoutwardslightlyovertheendof thehornof theanvil.Laythehookflatonthefaceof theanvilandstraightenwithafewlightblowsofthehammer.

Ifitisdesiredtohavethehooktwistedinthecenter(Fig.177),heatthecentralportionof thehook toa lightyellowcolor,grasp thehookendwith the tongs,placetheringendinthevise,andtwistorturninonedirectionuntilthedesirednumber of twists are formed and until the hook and the ring are in the sameplane.

Eachoftheprojectsinthisgroupismadesonearlythesameasthegatehook,thattheyrequirenospecialinstructions.Thehandlebothforthehayhookandthe stovepoker is formedof twohalf-circles joinedby straightportionsof thehandle.Alittlecareonthepartoftheoperatoraftermakingthegatehookwillenablehimtomakeeitherofthesehandles.Theironmayneedtobeheatedafewmore times, but this will not be serious unless the number of heatings issufficient to weaken it or unless the temperature approaches that for weldingheatandtheironisburnt inconsequence.It isalwaysdesirabletoheat ironasfew times as possible to secure the desired shape and form in order not toweaken themetalorburn it,aswellas to saveasmuch timeaspossible in thework.ProblemNo.2:UpsettingandPunching.ProjectsSuggestedforthisGroup:

a)Open-endwrench(Fig.186).b)Punchedscrewclevis(Fig.187).c)Machinebolt(Fig.188).d)Loghook(Fig.189).

178. Tools Needed for Upsetting and Punching. The same tools as thosenamedforthegroupofprojectsinProblem1willberequiredinthisgroup,andinaddition,theupsettingtoolandpunch.

FIG.186.Open-endwrench.

FIG.187.Punchedscrewclevis.

179. Upsetting and Punching. It is frequently necessary to enlarge someportionofapieceofiron.Thisisdonebyupsetting.Toupsetstock,heatitatthepointtobeenlarged,placeitonendontheanvil,andpounditontheotherendwithahammer.Repeat thisprocess foreach reheatinguntil the stock isof thedesiredsizewhereitistobeupset.

FIG.188.Machinebolt.

FIG.189.Loghook.

At times, to make a hole thru a piece of iron with forge tools, it is onlynecessarytodriveapunchthruitwhenhot.Atothertimes,thestockwillneedtobebentaroundtolapbackonitself,whenitmustbeweldedasdescribedinthenextgroupinthissection,ortheholewillhavetobedrilled.

180.WorkingInstructionsforthePunchedScrewClevis.Onepieceof1/2”wroughtiron12”longwillbeusedforthisproject.

1)Heatoneendoftheironto lightredandbend1-1/4”of it torightangles

withtherodoverthebackedgeoftheanvil(Fig.190).2)Reheatthesameendtolemoncolor,placeonthefaceoftheanvilwithbent

end upwards and upset by pounding on this upturned end with quick, sharpblowsof thehammer.Roughlyshapetoapproximatecircular formbyworkingthecylindricalsurfaceonthesurfaceoftheanvilandoveritscorner.Reheatandcontinue to upset and shape until thickness of flattened end is approximately3/8”.

FIG.190.Upsettingforclevis.

3)Reheattowelding,orwhite,heat,usingextremecarenottoburntheiron.Removethe ironfromtheforgethemoment itbecomeswhite.Place itquicklyonthefaceoftheanvilinformerpositionforupsetting,andstrikequicklywiththe hammer two or three times. Finish flat surfaceswith the flatter (Fig. 191).Turntheirononedgeoverthecorneroftheanvil,andstrikequick,sharpblowsto formcircle. If the iron is atweldingheat and theworkwith thehammer isdonequickly,theironwillweldorbecomeasolidmass.Anyseamswhichmayhave formed in the upsetting process will be obliterated. Fig. 192 shows thefinishedend.Inasimilarmanner,asdescribeduptothispoint,forgetheotherendoftherod.

FIG.191.Aflatter.

FIG.192.Appearanceoffinishedjobofupsetting.

4)Reheateachendseparately toyellowcolor,markcenterwithprick-punch

andpunch 1/4” hole one-halfway thru ironon this prick-punchedmarkwithpunch,showninFig.193.Reversethestock,placetheendoverthehardiehole,anddrivethepunchthrufromtheotherside.Reheatthestock,ifnecessary,anddrivethepunchthrufromeachsidetoenlargetheholeto3/8”(Fig.194).

FIG.193.Handledpunch.

5)Punchaholeintheotherendinasimilarmanner(Fig.195).6)Heatthestockinthecenterforaspaceof3”,andbenditoverthehornof

theanviltotheshapeshowninFig.196.Thecentralportionofthecurvedendoftheclevisshouldbestraight.

7)Bylayingtheclevisonthefaceoftheanvilwiththepunchedendshangingover the edge of the anvil, and striking the two legs of the clevis with lighthammerblows,itmaybestraightened.Thetwopunchedholesmustbeinline.Fig.187showsthefinishedclevis.

FIG.194.Usingthepunch,

FIG.195.Clevisreadytobebentintoshape.

SupplementaryInstructions:181.Open-EndWrench.Heat 4” of one end of 1-1/2” x 7/16” soft steel to

lemon color, and draw it out to shape and dimensions shown at A, Fig. 197.Markthestock1-1/2”fromthepointwheretheforgingofthehandlewasbegun,asshownbythedotted line(A,Fig.197).Cut thestockoffontheanvilhardie

(Fig.198),orwiththehandledhardie(Fig.173),cutting,first,fromonesideand,then, from the other, and, finally, breaking off over the edge of the anvil bystrikingthestocknottobeusedasharpblowwiththehammerjustbeyondtheanviledge.

FIG.196.Completedclevis.

FIG.197.Stepsinmakingwrench.

Heatthestocktolemoncolorandforgetoshape,asshowninB,Fig.197.Thewrenchendshouldberoundedup,keepingstock tooriginal thickness,by firstforminganoctagon,thenasixteen-sidedfigure,and,finally,acircle.Thisworkshould be done over the corner of the anvil and by moving the edge beingformedintodifferentpositionsasthehammerstrikestheiron.Reheatthemetalandpunchahole1/2”outofcentertowardthewrenchendandexpandituntilitis 5/8” indiameter (B,Fig. 197).Cut the endoutwith ahot chisel orhandledhardie to 60 degrees, keeping same centrally located, as shown atC, Fig. 197.Reheat and forge to shape anddimensions, shown in Fig. 186.This should bedonebyholding thewrench edgewiseon the faceof the anvilwith thehandlehelddownward at an angle and striking thewrench end an angleblowon theend of each prong of this end, finally flattening the inside of jaws and theirsurfaceontheheelendoftheanvil.Smoothupwithflatter.

FIG.198.Hardieforanvil.

Thewrenchshouldbehardenedtomakeitserviceable.Heatittolemoncolorandplungeitinwaterforafewmoments.Thiscoolstheoutersurface.Whenthemetal iswithdrawnfromthewater, theheatofthecenterwilldrawouttowardthesurface.Whilestillquitewarm,putinwatertocompletelycool.

FIG.199.Upsettingandshapingbolt.

182.BoltHead.Theconstructionof thesquarebolthead involvesupsetting(Fig. 199). Care must be taken not to upset too far, however. When theapproximatedimensionsgiveninFig.200havebeensecured,heattheupsetendtolemoncolorandplacetheboltthrutheholeintheheadingtool(Fig.200-a)andintothehardieholeintheanvil,asshowninFig.200-b.Proceedtoupsettheheadandtokeepitcircularinformbyoccasionallyremovingitfromtheheadingtool,and,byrollingitinthetongsonthefaceoftheanvil(Fig.199),hammertheheadintoatruecylindricalform.Whenthediameterofthiscylinderisslightlylessthanthedistancebetweencornersofthefinishedhead,reheatthestockontheheadendtolemoncolorandforgethesquarehead(Fig.188).

FIG.200.Theupsettingcompleted.

FIG.200-a.Headingtool.

FIG.200-b.Usingtheheadingtool.

FIG.201.Stepsinmakingloghook.

183.LogHook.Heat2”ofoneendof1/2”x1”wroughtironstock5-1/2”longtoayellowglow;placeoveroutsideedgeofanvilwith1”overhanging,andforgetoshape,showninA,Fig.201.Reheatandforgetoshape,showninB,Fig.201.Reheatandpunchhole,asshowninC,Fig.201.Roundcornersofholeoverhornofanviltoshape,shownatC,Fig.202.

FIG.202.Furtheroperationsinconstructionofloghook.

Heattheotherendandtapertoshapeanddimensions,showninA,Fig.202.Bendthepointslightlyoverhornofanvil.Reheatcenterofstockandformoverhornofanvil,asshownbydottedlinesatB,Fig.202.FinishtodimensionsgiveninFig.189.

FIG.203.Two-pieceweld.

FIG.204.Positionofpieceswhenwelding.

ProblemNo.3:TheProcessofWelding.ProjectsSuggested:

a)Two-pieceweld(Figs.203and204).b)“T”-weld(Fig.205).c)Weldedclevis(Fig.206).d)Wagonwrench(Fig.207).

184. Preparation for Welding. The same tools as those named for theprevious groups, in addition to which the operator should have available thehardieandtwopairsofflat-jawedandtwopairsofhollowbittongs.Someoftheworkinthisgroupshouldbedonebytwopeopleworkingtogetherattheforge;hence, the desirability of two pairs of tongs. The top and bottom swage, theflatterandthetopfullerwillbeneededforsomeprojects.

FIG.205.“T”-weld.

FIG.206.Weldedclevis.

FIG.207.Wagonwrench.

While it is true that the punched screw clevis required a welding heat, theexerciseofweldingonitwascomparativelysimple.Weldingisprobablythemostdifficult forge work. It requires a perfectly clean fire, exactly the propertemperatureofheatedmetal,andbothaccurateandrapidmanipulationoftools.Theendweldisoneofthesimplestofallthewelds.Itshouldbepracticeduntilitcan be made upon first trial, when other welds will be accomplished withcomparativelylittledifficulty.

It is necessary always to have the two pieces of metal to be welded firsthammered into thepropershape.Bothmust thenbegiven theweldingheatatthe same time, takenoutof the fire together, quicklyplacedoneon theother,and then immediately hammered with light, quick blows, while the stock ischanged in position on the anvil to permit the hammer to strike all portionswhichmustbejoined.

Justbeforetakingtheironfromthefire,itiswelltoputsomekindoffluxoneach of the surfaces to be placed together. Sal ammoniac or rosin is generallyused.WorkingInstructionsforTwo-PieceWeld:

Stock: Two pieces of wrought iron or soft steel, each about 5/8” indiameterand4”long.

185.PreparingtheScarfs.Heatoneendofeachpieceofstocktolemoncolorandupsetitto3/4”fromtheend.Thisisdonebysettingthestockonendonthefaceoftheviseandpoundingtheendtobeupset(Fig.208),thenroundingtheenlargedpartofthestockonthefaceoftheanvil(Fig.199).

Reheateachpieceofstock to lemoncolorandscarf theup-setendtoshape,shownatA,Fig.203.Eachscarfshouldbeoneandone-halftimesthediameterofthestock.

186.MakingtheWeld.Placescarfedsurfacesofeachpieceofstockdowninthefireandheat towhiteorweldingheat.Grasponepiecewiththehollow-bittongsinthelefthand,andtheotherwiththeflat-jawedtongsintherighthand.Takebothpiecesfromthefire,quicklyturntheoneheldbytherighthandasitis

movingtowardtheanvil,soastoplaceitquicklyontheanvilunderthescarfofthepieceheldwiththeleft-handtongs,asshowninFig.204.Instantlydroptheright-handtongsandpickupthehammerwhichshouldbe lyingnearathand.Strikequick,sharpblowsontheendstobewelded,atthesametimeturningthepieces with the left-hand tongs. Continue until the two pieces are thoroughlyjoined, thenuntil thediameter is reduced to that of theoriginal stock and thesurfacesofthestockattheweldaresmooth.

FIG.208.Upsettingfortwo-pieceweld.

FIG.209.Onememberofthe“T”-weld.

FIG.210.Thesecondmembershapedforwelding.

Supplementary Instructions: To form and weld the parts of the other projectslistedinthisgroup,afewspecial instructionsareneededbeyondthosegivenforthetwo-pieceweld.187. “T”-Weld. The center of one piece and the end of the othermust be

upset,asshowninFig.209.Fig.210andFig.211showhowthesepiecesmustbeswaged to formthewelded joint.Adifferenceof1/8”between the thicknessofstockandtheupsetportionsofstockwillbesufficienttoformtheweldedjointtothethicknessofstock,asshowninFig.211.

FIG.211.Positionofweldonanvil.

FIG.212.Effectsuponpieceofironfromupsetting.

188.WagonWrench.Thepreliminarystepsofheatingandupsettingthetwopieces of stock for this project are similar to those already described. A littlemoredifficultymaybeexperiencedbecauseofthedimensionsofthestockandthe lengths of the upset portions of same.When the rectangular stock is fullyupset, itmust be laid flat on the face of the anvil and pounded on the uppersurfaceneareachendtoflattenthelowersurface(Fig.212).Thiswillmaketheadditional thicknessof theupsetportionof the stockoffseton the top surface.Heatthispartofthestockandmakeagroove1/4”deepwitha5/8”fuller(Fig.213).

FIG.213.Preparingwagonwrenchforwelding.

TheremainingexercisesinvolvedinmakingthisprojectshouldbeclearbyastudyofFigs.214,215and207.Markthepointswherethebendsaretobemadeontherectangularstockofthewagonwrenchwithprick-punchorhardiebeforeheatingtomakeeitherbendovertheedgeoftheanvil.

FIG.214.Thehandleofthewrenchprepared.

FIG.215.Thepiecesreadyforwelding.

189. Welded Clevis. The drawings for this project show in detail thesucceeding steps in forming one end of the clevis. The offset at C, Fig. 216,shouldbemadeby striking lightblows justover theedgeof theanvilwith thepeenofthehammer1-1/2”fromtheendofthestock.TheformshownatE,Fig.216,ismadeovertheendofthehornoftheanvil,asshownatD,Fig.217.Whenthe ring for the end is nearly completed, the stock should be reversed on thehorn, placedover the end and roundedup carefullywith thehammer, leavingthe joint to be welded in perfect condition. One end of the clevis should beweldedbeforetheotherisformed.Beforetakingtheweldingheat,diptheendtobeweldedinwater,asshowninFig.218,andthen,whentheheatiscompleted,make theweldover the edgeof the anvil, as shown atE, Fig. 216.Reheat anddrivea5/8”punchineacheyefromeachside(Fig.219).Finishoverendofhorn(Fig.220).

FIG.216.Operationsinmakingweldedclevis.

FIG.217.Bendingironforweldedclevis.

FIG.218.Dippingironinwaterpreparatorytowelding.

FIG.219.Punchingtheclevis.

FIG.220.Finishingeyeofclevis.

ProblemNo.4:WeldingandTemperingSteel.SuggestedProjects:

a)Butcher-knife(Fig.221).b)Punches(Fig.222).c)Coldchisel(Fig.223).d)Sharpeningcultivatorshovel(Fig.224).

FIG.221.Butcherknife.

FIG.222.Punches.

190.ForgingSteel.Toolsneededarethoserequiredforordinaryworkattheforge,includingflatterandswage.

Theforgingoftoolswhicharenotofunusualshapedemandsonlytheuseofsimpleexercisesinforging.Thenewexerciseisthatoftempering.

191.WorkingInstructionsforColdChisel.Stock:Onepiece3/4”,six-oreight-sidedtoolsteel,7-1/2”long.

1)Heat1”ofoneendofstocktolemonglowandroundtoconeshape,leaving3/8”flatonendinformofcircle.Keepcircularflatendcenteredonaxisofstock(N,Fig.223).

FIG.223.Coldchisels.

2) Heat 3”of opposite end of stock to lemon glow. Forge to shape anddimensions,asshownatM,Fig.223.Caremustbetakentokeeptaperuniformonbothsidesandtokeepwidthofstockunchanged.

FIG.224.Cultivatorshovel.

3)Reheat chisel end of stock to bright red and smoothwith handhammer,and,ifnecessary,finallywithflatter.

4)Heat entire stock todull red, plunge each end for entire lengthof forgedpart inwater fora fewmoments.Remove stock fromwaterandallowcolor torunto lightblueatextremeend, thenplunge inwater tohardencompletely. Itmaybewelltotempereachendseparately.

5) Grind chisel end of tool to a cutting edge, with ground surfacesmakingangleofabout60degrees.Iftheflattenedsurfacesformingthechiselendandtheconical endare rough,grind themsmooth.Allgrinding shouldbedoneonanemery wheel if available; otherwise, on a grindstone. Keep the tool fromoverheating and, possibly, burning if it is ground on an emerywheel runningdry,byfrequentlyplungingtoolinwater.

FIG.225.Handleforbutcherknife.

192.TheButcher-Knife.Thebutcher-knifeismadefrom1/16”or3/32”toolsteel,forgedthinononeedgetoformcuttingedgeofknife.Thehandleshouldbemadeintwohalves,or,better,inonepiece(Fig.225),tobecutinhalves.Thetwohalvesof thehandle shouldbeheld inplaceonknifebladewhenholesaredrilledthrubothknifebladeandhandle.Soft-steelrivetsplacedineachholecanbe riveted down on each side of the handle over a rivet washer, to fasten theknifebladeandhandlesecurelytogether.Theknifebladeistemperedbyheatingtodull red,plunging inwater,or,better,oil, andalmost instantlywithdrawingand allowing a light blue color to draw to edge. The knifeblade can then begroundforuse.

193. A Cultivator Shovel. This is sharpened by heating, forging andtempering in the generalmanner described for the cold chisel or the butcher-knife.

More difficultymay be experienced, however, in forging to shape. Fig. 226suggeststhepositionofthecultivatorshovelonthefaceoftheanvil.Position,asshownatA,istheonetakenafterfirstheatingwhenpointofshovelisdrawntoasharppointbyquickblowsof thehammer.Position,as shownatB, is theonetaken after a second heatingwhen the side of the shovel is drawn to an edge.Caremustbetakentokeepthesurfaceoftheshovelfreefromhammermarks.

FIG.226.Stepsinsharpeningcultivatorshovel.

CHAPTERXXISUPPLEMENTARYPROJECTSINBLACKSMITHING

194.DirectionsforMakingWagon-BoxStake-Irons(Figs.227and228).1)Secure1/4”strapbandironofproperwidth,oruseassubstituteoldwagon-

wheeltire.

FIG.227.Wagon-boxstake-iron.

FIG.228.Alighterstake-iron.

2)Cuttolengthasperdimensionswithcoldchiseloroveranvilhardie.3)Heatincenterportionandmakeinsidebendsovercornerofanvil4)Heatbetweencenterandend,andmakeeachoutsidebendovercornerof

anvil.5)Prick-punchforcenterofholes,anddrillorpunch,heatingmetalinlatter

case.6)Straightenonsurfaceofanvilwithhammerandflatter.195.MakingaRing(Fig.229).1)Cutcalculatedlengthfrombandorrodiron.

2)Heatoneendtolightredanddrawout,asshowninA,FIG.229.Aringconstructedfromrectangularstock.

FIG.230.Endsofmetalpreparedforwelding.

3)Repeatoperationonsecondend,makingdrawn-outtaperonreverseside.4)Reheatentirerodtolightredandroundoverhorn;bringendstogetheron

faceofanvil(B,Fig.231),readyforweldingheat.

FIG.231.Theringshapedforwelding.

5)Heatendsofringtoweldingtemperature,andweldoverhornofanvil.6)Reheatweldedpart to light red and smoothupoverhorn andon faceof

anvil.196.ConstructingaChain(Fig.232).1)Cuttolinklengths1/4”round,softsteelorwroughtiron.2) Heat and swage ends of link, forming same roughly, as shown in

perspectiveInA,Fig,233,andB,Fig.234.

FIG.232.Chainlinks.

3)Put link into lastonewelded,heatandformcarefullyon faceofanvil (C,Fig.235),readytoweld.

FIG.233.Preparingtheweld.

FIG.234.Linkreadyforwelding.

FIG.235.Linkinsertedinchain.

4)Heattoweldingheat,weldonfaceofanvil,andsmoothoverendofhorn.197.MakingIceTongs(Fig.236).1)Cuttoestimatedlengthtwopieces3/8”x3/4”rectangularrod.2)Heatoneendandformhandle.3)Heatcenterandflatten,andformportionforjoint.4) Heat remaining portion of hook end, form over horn of anvil to semi-

circularshape,andforgeendovercornerofanviltoshapeofblunt-pointedspur.5)Heatflattenedportiontolightredandpunchfor3/8”bolt.

FIG.236.Icetongs.

6)Straightenandsmoothonfaceandhornofanvil.7)Insertboltandburr-endovernut.

FIG.237.Right-angleweld.

FIG.238.Metalpreparedforwelding

198.ARight-AngleWeld(Fig.237).1)Heatbothpieces1-1/2”ononeendtolemoncolor.Upset1/8”thickerthan

restofstock3/4”inlength.2)Scarfbothpieces,usingpeenofhammer(Fig.238).3) Heat both pieces, scarfs down, to welding temperature (white heat). Lay

togetherandweldwithquick,hardblows.4)Finishtoperfectrightangle.Roundinsidecornerandkeepoutsidecorner

square(Fig.237).199.ForgeTongs(Fig.239).1)Heatoneendofstock,18”x3/4”x3/8”,tolemoncolor.

FIG.239.Forgetongs.

FIG.240.Bendingironforforgetongs.

FIG.241.Shapingthejointofforgetongs.

2)Layflatwiseoverroundcornerrightangletoanvil,forgejaw2”long,3/4”wide,andtaperfrom3/8”to5/16”todimensions,asinA,Fig.240.

3)Reheattolemoncolor.Placeonanvilatanangleof45degrees,asinB,Fig.241;finishto7/8”wideby5/16”thick.Placestockedgewiseandusefullers(Fig.242)asshowninFig.243,tosecureshape,asatHandJ,Fig.241.

FIG.242.Topandbottomfullers.

4)Reheattolemoncolor.Placeoveranvil7/8”fromshoulder,jawdown,asinC,Fig.242;strikeatD,forgingshanktoE,Fig.244.

5)Heatotherendofforgingtolemoncolor.Forgeto5/16”roundtoformthehandle;cutto18”overall.

6)Reheat the jawto lemoncolor.Put1/4” fuller lengthwiseon insideof jawandfuller1/8”deep(F,Fig.245).

FIG.243.Usingthefullers.

7) Reheat eye at G, Fig. 245, to lemon color. Punch 5/16” hole for rivet incenterofeye.

8)Repeatoperationsforotherhalf.

FIG.244.Anotherstepinconstructionoftongs.

FIG.245.Punchingforrivet.

9)Heatoneendofpiececutfromhandletolemoncolor.Cutoff1”forrivet.Reheatandinsertrivetandrivetwithhammer(Fig.239).

TongsforspecialusesareshowninFig.246.Bottomandtopswages(Fig.247)maybeusedtofinishhandles,asatA,B,C,andD.Fig.246.

FIG.246.Severaltypesoftongsusedinforgeshop.

200.RepointingCultivatorShovel(Fig.248).1)MarknewstockforlinesAandBundershears(Fig.249).2)Heattobrightred.CutonlinesCwithhotchisel(Fig.249).3)Reheattobrightred;scarfinsideedges(C)todimensionsindrawing.4)Heatoldshoveltobrightred.Straightenshovel.

FIG.247.Topandbottomswages.

5) Reheat shovel, place borax on back side of section to bewelded; leave itthereuntildissolved.

6)Placenewpointonshovel(Fig.250),allowingittoproject1/2”beyondoldpoint.

7)Rakecoke(goodsupply)infirehole,placeshovelonit,addmorecokeontopofshovel, thenspreadashovelfulofwetcoalontopofthis.Heatslowlytoweldingtemperature.

8)Removetoanvilandstrikeseriesofblowsallovernewpoint.9)Reheatothersidetoweldingtemperature.

FIG.248.Cultivatorshovel.

FIG.249.Newpieceofstockforcultivatorshovel.

FIG.250.Correctplacingofnewpoints.

10)Removetoanvilandweldthissideontopoint.11)Reheattolemoncolor,hammeronedgesatB,Fig.250,untilsharp.Grind

offirregularedges.12)Reheattobrightred.Bendshoveloverhorntoshapeasatthebeginning

(Fig.248).13)Drawcolortostrawandplungeinwatertoharden.201.SharpeningPlowshare(Fig.251).1)Placeshareonfloorandmarkaroundoutsidelineswithchalk.2)Heat4”ofshare,startingatA,Fig.251,toabrightred.3)Placeonanvil,asshowninFig.252,andforgetosharpedge.4)Reheat3”or4”atatime,andforgetosharpedgeuntilshareisfinishedfrom

AtoB,Fig.251

FIG.251.Oldplowshare.

FIG.252.Positionofplowshareonanvilwhensharpening.

5)Heatpointtobrightred,placeonanvilandforgetosharppoint.6)Grindoffirregularities.7) Reheat point and set share so it will have correct suction and landside,

whichare1/8”and1/4”,respectively.8)Reheattobrightredandcase-carbonizewithpotash.

FIG.253.Pieceofsteelfornewpoint.

FIG.254.Steelforpointshapedforwelding.

9)Shareshouldfitasnearlyaspossibletooutlineonfloor.202.PointingPlowshare(Figs.253to256).1)Heat3”ofnewstockononeendtolemoncolor.2)Scarfend,asshownatA,Fig.253.3)Heatotherendtolemoncolor.Scarfandsplit,asshownatB,Fig.253.4)Heatcenterofstockto lemoncolor.Bend intoshapeofV,as inFig.254,

havingbottom,orsplit,side1”longerthantopside.5)Heatoldshare(Fig.255)toredheat.6)Placeonanvilandapplyboraxonbothsidesofshare.7)Heatnewpointtoredheat.8)Placenewpointon share, as inFig.256.Reheat toweldingheat.Applya

littleboraxtosharewhileitisheating.

FIG.255.Plowsharetoberepointed.

FIG.256.Thepointinplaceforwelding.

9) Remove to anvil and strike a few blows until point is welded. Reheat toweldingtemperature.Continuetoweldonbothsidesuntilfinished.Cutsurplusstockoffsidesandgrind.

10)Reheat asmuchof share aspossible and set tohave correct suctionandlandside,whichare1/8”and1/4”,respectively.

11)Reheattobrightredandcase-carbonizewithpotash.203.ShorteningBuggyTireWithoutCutting(Fig.257).1)Heatseveralinchesoftire,holdingsameinverticalposition,tolightred.2)Bendheatedportioninwardoverhornofanvil(A).3)With aid of helper, grasp tire either side of bent portion with flat-jawed

tongs over and against rough surface of horse-shoeing rasp (Fig. 258); place

crosswiseoversurfaceofanvil,andhammer.4)RepeatoperationNo.3untilstockisupsetsufficientlytoshortentire.

FIG.257.Shorteningbuggytire.

FIG.258.Detailsofmethodofshorteningtire.

FIG.259.Tire-measuringtool.

5)Measure outside of felly and inside of tire with tire-measuring tool (Fig.259).Tiremeasurementshouldbeabout1/4”lessthanfellymeasurement.

6)Heattiretored,one-halfwayaround.Sliptireoverfelly,andshrinkonbyimmediatelyrunninginwater.Iftireistooshort,itwill“dish”wheeltoomuch.Wheelshouldbedished(outoftrueplane)notmorethan1”.

PARTIVSHEET-METALWORK

CHAPTERXXII

TOOLSANDSUPPLIES;FUNDAMENTALPROCESSES

204.NeedforSheet-MetalworkontheFarm.Therearemanyopportunitiesabout the farm for sheet-metal repairs and construction, especially in tinwork.Kitchenutensils,theequipmentofthedairyandcreamery,farmmachines,waterandsanitarysystems,androofsandguttersonbuildings,allfurnishproblemsinsheet-metalwork.

The chief operation in sheet-metalwork, aside from calculating sizes andcutting themetal, is thatof fastening,whichmaybedivided into threeclasses,viz.,soldering,brazingandriveting.Weldingisnotincluded,asitseldomisusedinworkingsheetmetal,and,besides,itisconsideredundertheheadingofForgeWork.

205.TheProcessofSoldering.Solderingistheprocessofjoiningtwopiecesofmetalbymeansofamorefusiblemetalormetallicalloy.Themetal,oralloy,calledsolder, shouldbeselectedwith the followingconsiderations inmind: (1)Its strength should be as great, or greater, than that of either of the pieces ofmetal it joins; (2) its color should be as nearly as possible that of the joinedmetals,and(3)itsfusingpointshouldbeconsiderablylowerthanthatofeitherofthem.

206.ClassesofSolder.Solder isclassedassoftorhard,dependinguponthedegreeoffusibility,and,tosomeextent,upontheclassofmetalstobejoinedbyit.Softsolder,sometimescalledwhiteortinsolder,ismadeofsoft,readilyfusedmetalsoralloys.Suchmetalsastin,lead-tinandalloysoftin,leadandbismuthareusuallyused.Agoodformulaforthecompositionofsoftsolderis:Lead,207parts; tin,118parts.Toweaken the solder increase thenumberofpartsof tin.Increasingthenumberofpartsofleadwillstrengthenthesolder.Thesoldermaybepreparedinagraphitecrucibleata lowtemperaturebymixingwithanironrodandthenrunningintoironmolds.

207.SolderingFluxesaresubstancesused toremove theoxidewhich formson the surface of a metal. They are melted and run on the metal where thesolderedjointistobeformed.Thefluxesgenerallyusedarepowderedrosinorasolutionofchlorideofzinc,usedaloneorcombinedwithsalammoniac.

A soldering fluid is a liquid flux and may be prepared by mixing 27 partsneutral zinc chloride, 11 parts sal ammoniac, and 62 parts ofwater; or 1 part

sugarofmilk,1partglycerineand8partsofwater.A very common liquid is prepared by dissolving in an earthenware vessel

smallpiecesof scrapzinc incommercialmuriatic acid.Dissolveonepieceat atimetopreventtoorapidgenerationofheat,whichmightbreakthejar.Finallysecure a saturated solution by addingmore zinc thanwill dissolve. For use insoldering, the solution should be diluted with the addition of its own bulk ofwater,mixed and filtered.The additionof a fewdropsof liquid ammoniawillincreasetheactivityoftheflux,whichshouldbekeptinawide-mouthedbottleandappliedtothejointtobesoldered,justbeforethesolderingoperationbegins,bymeansofastickorbrash.Thisfluxmaybeusedonalmostanymetalexceptaluminum,zincorgalvanizediron.

FIG.261.Equipmentforsoldering.

The Soldering Process. Certainmetals require special solders and fluxes. Formostpurposes,however,thesolderandfluxesdescribedareserviceable.

Thebestof toolsandmaterials,however,willnot securegoodresultsunlessused in thehandsof a goodworkman.To solder successfully themetals to bejoinedmustbefittedaccuratelyandcleanedthoroughly,eitherbysomemeansofmechanical cleaning, such as scraping or grinding, or by removal of dirt andgreasewithacid.

Itisdangeroustousethelatter,however,asitmayinjurethemetalsurfaces,besidesitspossibleinjuriouseffectsupontheworkman.

When the metal is clean, apply the flux to all surfaces which will come incontact, join these as planned and run the soldering iron over or against thejoint.

208.TheSoldering-Iron,whichismadeofcopper,mustbe“tinned”toserveasasoldercarrier.Fig.261showstheshapeofasoldering-iron.Theendiskept

filed to formwelldefinededgesandapoint.When thoroughlyclean,heatandrub on solder, thenwipewith a cloth, a piece of felt serving the purpose verywell.

To use the soldering-iron heat it in a clean fire, using a gasoline torch, ablacksmith’sforge,oratinsmith’sgasforge,andplaceitagainstabarofsolder,whenalittlewilladheretothesoldering-iron.

Anothermethodofusing the soldering-iron is toprovide anopen-mouthedbottleof chlorideof zinc fluxing solutionandwhen the iron isheated,dip thepoint of it into the solution to clean it. Thenplace the iron against the bar ofsolder, and if properly heated a little solder will adhere to it. This is thecustomarymethodof tinsmiths.Fig.261showsanopen-mouthedbottleof thefluxing solution, together with a can of cleaning material, a block of salammoniac and a wiping rag. The Bunsen burner shown in this picture isfrequentlyusedtoheatthetinner’sironwhengasisavailable.

FIG.262.Acleanjoint.

FIG.262-a.Ajointwheretoomuchsolderhasbeenused.

Theironisnowrunonthejointandthesolderwhichtheironholdswillfillthejoint,cool,andeffectaunionofthetwopiecesofmetal.Thebarofsolderisusedtoholdthetininposition.Incasealongjointistobemade,theironmayberunslowlyagainstthemetalwiththebarofsolderheldagainsttheiron.Thesolderwillthusmelt,rundownandofftheironandfillthejoint.Caremustbe

takennottofloodthejointbyusingtoomuchsolder.Whileanironmayberunover a joint several times, it is advisable to run it over but once. Superfluoussolderandtheextendeduseofthesoldering-ironaresignsofapoorworkman.When the soldering-iron is runover the jointmany times, the solderwill flowoutonthesurfacesofthemetalnearthejoint,resultingina“smeared”joint.Fig.262 showsa soldered jointonwhichno superfluous solderhasbeenused;Fig.262-ashowsonewhichhasbeensmearedwithtoomuchsolder.

CHAPTERXXIIIPROJECTSINSHEET-METALWORK

ProblemNo.1:MakingaLapJointasUsedonTinRoof.209.StockandToolsforLapJoint.Thestockneededistwostripsofmedium

weight,cleannewtin,eachabout10”longand3”wide.

FIG.263.Toolsforsheet-metalwork:a,cuttingpliers;b,flat-jawpliers;c,straightsnips;d,curvedsnips;e,compass;f,tinner’shammer;g,flatfile;h,coldchisel;i,punch;j,scratchawl.

Alimitednumberofsheet-metalworkingtoolssuitableforordinaryworkonthefarmisnecessary.Theequipmentmayconsistof:

1gasolinesolderingtorch,

1solderingiron,1pairstraightsnips,

1paircurvedsnips,

1tinner’shammer,

1woodenmallet,

1carpenter’ssquare,1paircuttingpliers,1pairdividers,1punch,1scratchawl,1barsolder,

1piecesalammoniac,

1bottlecleaningsolution,andtoolsshowninFig.263.210.WorkingInstructionsforLapJoint.Onone longedgeofonepieceof

tin,scribeamark1/2”fromtheedgewithgageoftinmadeasshowninFig.264.This 1/2” surface will form the joint (Fig. 265). Clean this surface and acorrespondingone,notnecessarilydeterminedbyascribedline,onthesecondpieceof tin, bywiping clean and applying the flux.Place the twopiecesof tintogether flatonaboardso that thesurfaceofonepieceof tin lapsoveronthesurfaceoftheother,theedgeofthefirstcoincidingwiththescribedlineonthesecond.Thetwopiecesof tinnowlap1/2”.Graspashortpieceofwoodaboutthesizeofascrew-driverhandlewithasquareorbeveledend in the lefthand,andwithitpressthetwopiecesoftintogether(Fig.266).Thismayalsobedonebyusing thebarof solder inplaceof the stick.With the righthand, grasp thehandleofthehot,well-tinnedsoldering-iron,wipetheirononaclothorpieceoffeltconvenientlyplacedonthebenchortableonwhichyouareworking,touchthis iron to a piece of solder and immediately run the end of one of the four“flats”oftheirononthejoint(Fig.267)andnearedgeofthelap.Theholding-stickorbarof soldermustbekeptnear thepartof the jointbeing soldered. Itmustbemovedfrompointtopointastheironismovedalongthejoint.Theheatoftheironshouldheatthejointsufficientlytorunthesolderontheironbetweenthelappedsurfacesofthetwopiecesoftin.Astheironmovesfromonepointtoanothertheheatedsurfaceswillcool,formingasolderedjoint.Theironmustbetouchedagainstthesolderfrequentlytorenewthesupplyofsolderontheiron.Whenthejointhasbeenformed,runtheironslowlytheentirelengthofthejoint

withonestroke,tomakeasmoothfinish.

FIG.264.Gageformakingjoints.

FIG.265.Positionofpiecesforlapjoint.

FIG.266.Holdingtwopiecesoftinforsoldering.

FIG.267.Runningsolder.

Thisexerciseshouldberepeated,ifnecessary,untilaperfectjointcanbemadewith a few strokes of the soldering-iron. Problem No. 2: To Patch a TinReceptacle(Figs.268and269).

Stock—Anytinreceptaclewithaholeinit.Tools—ThoseusedforProblemNo.1.

FIG.267-a.Correctpositionofsolderingiron.

211.Preparation forPatching.Perhapsoneof themostgeneralusesof thesoldering-ironinthehomeisforpatchingtinutensils.Suchworkmaybelistedunder two heads, viz., small-hole patching,where an additional piece of tin isunnecessary,andlarge-holepatching,requiringapieceoftintocoverthehole.

FIG.268.Patchingsmallhole.

FIG.269.Patchinglargehole.

Inthefirstcase,theholeisfirstclosedasfaraspossiblebypoundingthetinarounditwithamalletoverasurfaceasnearlytheshapeofthetinsurroundingtheholeaspossible.Thetinisthencleanedbyscrapingifverydirty,orbytheuseofalittlemuriaticacid,whichmaybeputontothesurfaceofthetinwithastifffeather.Thefluxisthenappliedandsolderrunintotheholewiththesoldering-ironusedasinsolderingaseam(A,Fig.268).

If thehole is too large tobeclosedwithsolder,apatchmustbeappliedandsolderedon.B,Fig.268,showsthehole,andFig.269showsitpatched.

212.CompletingthePatch.1)Secureareceptaclewithacrackedseamorasmallholeandwithalargehole

1/2”ormore indiameter.Preparethesmallhole(A,Fig.268) forsoldering,asdescribedinSec.210,andsolder,asdescribedthere.

FIG.270.Shallowwateringpan.

Trimthelargehole(B,Fig.268)withapairoftinner’ssnips(Fig.263),eitherstraightorcurved,dependingupontheshapeoftheholeandthetin,whetherflat

orcurved.Cutapieceoftinfromanoldcanorapieceofsheettintheshapeofthehole,

butenoughlargerthantheholetoprovidefora1/4”or3/8”lapallaroundthehole.Cleanthetinonthereceptacle,andthatofthepatchalso;applythefluxingmaterialandsolder,asdescribedinSec.210.

ProblemNo.3:ToConstructaShallowWateringPanforaChickenCoop(Fig.270).

Other Projects Suggested for this Group: Any low, straight-sided tin dish notrequiringawirededge.

Stock—Tin ofmediumweight cut to size and the same as, or similar to,patternshowninFig.271.

Tools—ThoseusedforProblemNo.1,Sec.209,andawoodenmalletandruler, or carpenter’s square. It will be necessary, also, to have a sharp-edgedpieceofhardwoodora straight-edgedpieceof ironas longoralittlelongerthanthelongestedgeofthepan.

213. Strengthening the Edge. Ordinarily, it is desirable to strengthen theupperedgeofatinreceptaclebyrunningawirearoundthisedgeunderthetinwhichisrolledoverthewire,asinthecaseofatindrinkingcuporafunnel(Fig.278).

FIG.271.Tincuttoshapeforwateringpan.

Thisportionofthereceptaclemaybestrengthened,butnotsowell,byfoldingasmallportionoftheupperedgeoverandpoundingitdownagainstthesurfaceofthetin(Fig.272).

214.LayingOutandCuttingTintoShape.Withcarpenter’ssquare,orwithtry-squareand rule, layout rectangle,10-1/4”x8-l/4”. Insideof this rectangle,scribelineswithscratchawlandstraight-edge(legofcarpenter’ssquare),1-5/8”fromandparalleltooutsideedgesofthisrectangle.Scribelinesinthecornersfor

portiontobecutout.Turnthepieceoftinoverandscribelines1/8”insidetherectangleandparalleltotheoutsideedges.

Withstraight snips,cutout thecorners,as shown in thedrawing(Fig.271):alsocuttothecornersoftheinsiderectangle,formedbythefirstlinesscribed,onthelinesmarkedheavyonthedrawingandlettereda.

FIG.272.Detailsofsolderingwateringpan.

215.Folding.Overtheedgeofthepieceofhardwoodorstraight-edgedpieceofiron,foldwithamalletthe1/8”oftinbetweentheoutsideedgesandthelinesscribed1/8”fromsame.Thesesurfacesmustbefoldedtowardthesurfaceofthetinonwhichthelineswerescribed1/8”fromtheoutsideedges.Fig.272showsthefoldingoperation.Poundthesesurfacesdownuntiltheyareincontactwiththesheetoftintoformthestrengthenededgesofthepan(Fig.270).

Inlikemanner,butintheoppositedirection,foldoverthecornerofthepieceof hardwoodor straight-edgedpiece of iron the 1-5/8” surfaces to form rightangleswiththesheetoftinandtomaketheverticalsurfacesontheedgesofthepan(Figs.271and272).

Carefullyfoldthecornerlaps,letteredb,Fig.272,tocomeincontactwiththelong,or7”,edgeofthepan(Fig.271).

Placeeachcornerofthepanoverasquarecornerofahardpieceofwoodandsquareupandsmoothwiththemallet.

Solder the insideof each cornerof thepanbetween the endand side edges,andalsotheedgeofthecornerlap(a,Fig.272).Applyfluxingmaterialandusesoldering-iron,asdescribedinSec.209.Problem No.4: To Construct a Receptacle Requiring the Assembly of Heavy

PiecesofTinorofGalvanizedIron.ProjectsSuggestedforthisGroup:

a)Wateringtrough(Fig.273).b)Flowerbox(Figs.274,274-a,274-b).c)Drippan(Fig.275,275-a).Stockforwateringtrough:2piecesheavytin,12”x5”;1pieceheavytin,26”x

12”.Note:Galvanizedironmaybesubstituted.Tools—Afullsetofsheet-metalworker’shandtools(Fig.263).216.ConstructingWateringTrough.Markandcuttheendsofthepieceof

metaltoformthetrough,asshowninFig.273.Foldtheendsuponlinesshowndotted in the figure, and then turn the piece ofmetal over, laying it along thecornersofasquare-edgedtimberonthecenterlineshownasthelongdottedlineinthedrawing(Fig.276).Bendthemetaldownoverthetimberuntilthesurfaceson either side of the line are in contact with the surfaces of the timber, thusformingthetrough.

Layoutlinesononesurfaceofeachendpieceofthetrough,toformslitsintowhichthefoldedendsof thetroughpiecemaybe insertedthat itmayhangontheends(Fig.277).

FIG.273.Wateringtrough,

FIG.274.Flowerbox.

FIG.274-a.Detailsofflowerbox.

Lay each end piece of tinwith the lined surface up, flat on a smooth, hardboard.With a sharp cold chisel andhammerormallet, cut along each scribedline.

FIG.274-b.Perspectiveofflowerbox.

Carefullyinserttheendlapsofthetroughintotheslitsintheendpiecesofthetroughfromthesideonwhichthecoldchiselcut,andgentlypoundintoshapewithamalletoverthecornerofaboard.Solderallthesejointsandrunsolderintheintersectionbetweenendpiecesandtroughnearbottomoftrough,wheretheendlapsontroughwerenotcut,tomaketroughwater-tight.

FIG.275.Drippan.

FIG.275-a.Layoutfordrippan.

FIG.276.Layoutforwateringtrough.

FIG.277.Completedtrough.

ProblemNo.5:MakingaCylindricalReceptaclewithHandleandReinforced

Edge.SuggestedProjects:

a)Drinkingcup(Fig.278).b)Smallpail(Fig.279).c)Cylindricalpan(Fig.280).

FIG.278.Drinkingcup.

FIG.279.Smallpail.

FIG.280.Cylindricalpan.

Stock for drinking cup—1 piece circular tin, 3-3/4” diameter; 1 piecerectangulartin,11-l/4”x2-3/4”;1piecerectangulartin,5”x1-1/2”.

Tools—Afullsetofsheet-metalworker’shandtools.217.MethodsofInsertingWire.Thecustomarymethodofstrengtheningthe

upperedgeofatinreceptacleistorolltheedgeofthetinoverapieceofwireinwhat is known as a wiring machine. The wire may be inserted by hand, asdescribedbelow,althoughwithlesslikelihoodofsecuringaperfectjob.

218. ShapingBottom. Pare the end of a round piece of stovewoodwith adraw-knife to a diameter of 3-l/2”. Sandpaper the surface smooth and saw theendoffsquare(Fig.280-a).

Placethestovewoodinavisewiththecylindricalendup.Overthisplacethecircularbottomforthecupsothatthe1/8”surfacetobefoldedprojectsevenly

aroundthepieceofwood(Fig.281).Holdthetinwiththelefthandandgentlypound the edgeof it downaround thepieceofwoodwithamallet. Itmaybenecessarytosniptheedgeofthetininafewplacestopreventitfrombuckling.The bending must be done carefully. When the edge is finally bent over incontactwiththecylindricalsurfaceofthewood,poundthefoldedportionfirmlyagainstthewooduntilitfitslikeacap(Fig.281).Thetinmaynowbepriedoff.

FIG.280-a.Pieceofwoodforshapingiron.

FIG.281.Sheet-metalshapedonwoodform.

FIG.282.Bendingsheet-metaloverpieceofwood.

219.InsertingWireintheEdge.Overaslightly-roundedcornerofapieceofhardwood,poundthe1/4”surfaceforthewiretostrengthentheupperedgeofthe cup (Fig. 282).When this has beendone, place theproper lengthof 1/16”wireintheroundedcornerturnedupwardasthetinliesflatonthebench,fastenthebentedgeoftinoverthewireateachendwithapairofpliers,thencarefullypoundtheremainingportionofthebentedgeoverthewireuntilitliessmoothand hugs the wire the entire length (Fig. 283). Fig. 284 shows the process offoldingawireintheedgeofapieceoftin.

Foldtheend lapsof thepattern inoppositedirectionsto formthe lock jointseam for the cup, as shown in insert, Fig. 279.Roll the entire surfaceover thecylindricalendofthepieceofwoodusedtoformthebottomofthecup,havingthewireontheoutside; lockthe joint,pounddownwiththemalletand,at thesametime,slipthecylindricalsurfacefromthewood.

FIG.283.Insertingwire.

FIG.284.Foldingmetaloverwire.

Soldertheinsideandoutsideofthelockseam,slipthebodyofthecupintothebottom,andsolderaroundthebottomedge.Thecupisnowcompleteexceptforthehandle.

220.Handle forDrinkingCup.Fold the two1/8”outsideedgesof thestripfor the handle (Fig. 285) as in the case of the upper edge of thewatering pan(Problem3).Withthefoldededgesontheinside,formthehandle,asshowninthedrawingfor thedrinkingcup(Fig.278),andsolderbothends to thecup—oneagainstthewireandtheotheragainstthebottomseam—overthelockseamofthecup.First,gentlypoundtheendsfirmlyincontactwiththecupovertheseam.Thismaybedonebyputting thecupover theendofa cylindrical stick,suchasatoolhandle.

FIG.285.Detailsofdrinkingcup.

ProblemNo.6:ToMakeaConicalDish.SuggestedProjects:

a)Funnel(Fig.286).b)Flaringpan(Fig.287).c)Flaringpail(Fig.288).d)Creamdipper(Fig.289).

Stockforthefunnel—1pieceoftin,12”x6”;1pieceoftin,5”x4”.Tools—Afullsetofsheet-metalworker’shandtools.

FIG.286.Funnel.

FIG.287.Flaringpan.

FIG.288.Flaringpail.

FIG.289.Creamdipper.

221.LayingOutConicalShapes.Thepatternforaconeorforafrustumofaconeismadebydescribinganarcofacirclewithacompassorapairofdividers,thedistancebetweenthepointsbeingtheslantheightoftheconeandthelengthoftheoutsidearcbeingcircumferenceofthebaseofthecone.

222.ConstructionofFunnel.Layoutthepatternforeachofthetwopartsofthefunnel(Fig.290),producingthesidelinesoffrontviewtolocatetheapexofeachconepart,inordertosecuretheradiustostriketheproperarcs(Fig.290).Asinthecaseofthecylindricalpartofthecup,inserta1/16”wireinthespacemarked1/4”ontheoutsideofthelargepattern,andfoldinoppositedirectionsthelapsforthelockseamjoints.Carefullyformeachportionofthefunneloveracylindricalpieceofstovewoodtaperedononeendtoacone(Fig.291).Lockandsolderthe joint foreachpart,sliptheupperpart intothe lower, firstspreadingouttheupperopeningofthelowerpartoverthesurfaceofthecone-shapedpiece

ofwood,andsolder the twoparts together.Theearmaybemadeas shown inFig.286,andasmallpieceofwireformedtoslipintoittoformahanger.Theearmaybesolderedonorfastenedwithrivets.

FIG.290.Metalcutforfunnel.

FIG.291.Pieceofwoodforshapingfunnel

CHAPTERXXIVSUPPLEMENTARYPROJECTSINSHEET-METALWORK

223.CylindricalReceptacle(Fig.292).1)Layoutpatternforbottom,leaving1/8”forfold.2)Layoutpatternforbodyofreceptacle,leaving1/8”laponeachendforlock

joint.3)Solderlockjointofbodyofpattern.

FIG.292.Cylindricalreceptacle.

FIG.293.Cubicalboxwithlid.

4) Place bottom in position on body of receptacle and solder in place. (SeeinstructionsforProblemNo.5.)224.CubicalBoxwithLid(Fig.293).

1)Layoutpatternforbodyofbox—arectangle3”wideand12-4/4”long.The1/4”addedtothe12”istoprovidealapwhichshouldbeformedononecorner.

2) Lay out pattern for bottom of box—a square 4-1/4” on a side. The 1/4”addedtothe4”istoprovidetwo1/8”laps—oneoneachsideofthesquare.

3)Solderseamonboxafteritisfoldedintoshapeofsquare.

4)Foldedgesandcornerlapsonbottom,placeinpositiononbox.andsolderinplace,includingcornerlaps.

5)Construct cover for boxby followingdescription formaking the bodyofbox.

225.StovepipeCollar(Fig.294).1) Lay out pattern for cylindrical part of collar, allowing 3/8” for lap to be

riveted.Rivetjoint.

FIG.294.Stovepipecollar.

2)Layoutpatternforflangeofcollar—aring,outsidediameter,6”,andinsidediameter,4”.Scribea4-7/8”circleonthisring.Clipseveralnarrownotchesoninsideofringlimitedbythescribedcircle.

3) Fold notched part of ring into cylindrical part of collar and pound incontactwithsameovercylindricalstock.

4)Solderorrivettwopartsofcollartogether.226.ConductorElbows(Fig.295).1)Layouteachsectionofelbow,asshownatA.Dividetheendview(circle)

intotwelveparts,eachpointtoberegardedastheendofalineonthecylindricalsectiondrawnoppositethepoint.Spacethelengthofthesectionofthepatternintotwelveparts,and layoffon linethrueachpoint the lengthofsameline indrawingA.

FIG.295.Conductorelbow.

2) Form lock seams, as indicated, and allow for flange for joint betweensections.

3)Formeachsectionandsolderseams.Placethepartsofelbowtogetherandsolder.Notethatseamsofsectionsareplacedonoppositesidesofelbow.

227.RoofRidgeFlange(Fig.296).1) Lay out cylindrical pattern (Fig. 297). Determine length of lines, as in

patternforconductor(Fig.295).

FIG.296.Roofridgeflange.

2)Layoutpatternfor flange,notchandpunchholes forrivets,unlesssolderaloneistobeusedtofastenittocylinder.

3) Fit cylinder and flange together, bending flange to proper angle for roof.Rivetorsoldercylinderseamandrivetorsolderflangetocylinder.(Thesejoints

maybebothsolderedandriveted.)FIG.297.Detailsofroofflange.

228.AMeasure(Fig.298).1)Layoutpatternforbottom,asinProblem5.Foldoveredge.2) Lay out pattern for body, as in Problem 6, for upper portion of funnel.

Solderlockseam.3)Layoutpatternforrimofmeasure,regardingitasaconewithapex(a,Fig.

299). (Seepattern,Fig.290.)Note radiidistances lettered similarly inFigs.298and 299. Begin at b (Fig. 299) andmeasure the distance hb six times in eachdirection.Thiswilllocatepointsgandg.Drawlinesagandag,andextendbothtod.Alsoextendabtoc.Tosecurethearcthruc(Fig.299),connectpointscanddanderectperpendiculartothislineatcenterpointetointersectlineacatf.Usefasacenteranddrawarcdcd.Anglesbetweenradiiadandac,acandad,readingfromlefttorightinFig.299,areequal.

FIG.298.Ameasure.

4)MakeshortandnarrowV-cutswithsnips in lapsurfaceon loweredgeofpatternforrim.Bendthislaptofitintotopofbodyofmeasure.Bendendlaps,formrimandsoldertotopofmeasurebodyaftersolderingrimseamatd.

FIG.299.Detailsformeasure.

5)Placebottominpositiononbody,poundfirmlyincontactwithbodyoverendofcylindricalstickandsolderseam.

6)Layouthandle,asinProblem5;formandsolderinpieceoftinhcuttofit.Solderonhandleoverseamofbody.

229.Three-PieceElbow(Fig.300).1) Lay out pattern for each part of elbow, first making full sized bench

drawing. Usemethods given in cases of conductor elbow (Sec. 226) and roofridge flange (Sec. 227).Allow laps for lock lap joint on each section of elbow.Allow3/32”laponeachendofcentralsectionofpipetofitover,andsolderonto,endsections.

FIG.300.Three-pieceelbow.

FIG.301.Roofcapandventilator.

2)Solderlockjointoneachsectionandsoldersectionstogether.230.RoofCapandVentilator(Fig.301).1)Layoutandconstruct8”cylinder,asincaseofroofridgeflange(Sec.227).2)Layoutandconstructconicalcapforventilator,asforfunnel(Problem6).

(Seam should be riveted for ventilator of size given.) 3) Fasten conical andcylindricalpartsofventilatortogetherwithfourstripsof1/2”bandironorheavytin.Endsshouldberiveted.

231.GutterMiter(Fig.302).1)Layoutpatternforeachpartofgutter.Thiswillbearectangle, lengththe

longedgeofthegutterandwidthone-halfthecircumferenceofa2”circle,plus1/2”torolloverheavywireonoutsideedge(A,Fig.302).Cutoneendofpatternsquare and other edge at 45 degrees (C, Fig. 302). Leave lap on square end tofold,andsolderagainstendofgutter.Leavejointlaponendcutat45degrees.

FIG.302.

2)Foldedgeofgutteroverwire.Formgutter(A,Fig.302.3)Solderendofgutterinposition.

PARTVFARMMACHINERYREPAIRANDADJUSTMENT

CHAPTERXXV

FARMMACHINERYASANECONOMICFACTOR

232. FarmMachinery andNational Progress. It is not the purpose of thissectiontofurnishinformationoneachtypeofmachineusedonthefarm,buttopresentafewgeneralstatements,followedbyoutlinedstudiesofafewmachinesandtheiruses,andafewdefiniteproblemsofrepairandadjustment.Foramorecompletediscussion,thereaderisreferredtothelistofbooksandbulletinsgivenbelow.

FarmMachineryandFarmMotors.ByDavidsonandChase.OrangeJuddCo.AgriculturalEngineering.ByDavidson.WebbPublishingCo.EquipmentfortheFarmandFarmstead.ByRamsower.Ginn&Co.FarmMachinery.ByWirt.JohnWiley&Sons.

Bulletins from the U. S. Department of Agriculture and State AgriculturalExperimentStations.

The greatest growth in agricultural development is marked by the use ofmodern machinery. We find the plow substituted for the crooked stick; thebinder, reaper andmower substituted for the cradle and scythe; the threshingmachine substituted for the flail, and steamand gaspower forman andhorsepower. Every country that is backward in the use of these modern farmmachines, is backward also in everyotherphase of its development.ThemoststrikingdifferencebetweentheAmericanfarmerandtheChinesefarmer,ortheAmerican farmer of today and the American farmer of fifty years ago, is adifferencemainlyofequipmentandtheefficientuseofthatequipment.

Theeffectoftheuseofmodernmachineryonourpeopleismanyfold.Ithasreallymadepossibleourhighstageofdevelopment.Infact,thedevelopmentofanycountryismeasuredbyitsabilitytoproduceanadequatefoodsupply.Ithasbeenonlyafewyearsagothatpeopleofthiscountrythoughtthatstarvationwasstaringthemintheface.Thatwasintimesofpeace.Ithasbeenestimatedthatin1800,97percentofthepeopleoftheUnitedStateslivedonfarms,andmanyofthemfeltthebiteofhunger.

Ourfarmpopulationdecreasedslowlyuntil1850from97percent to90percent. This was during a period of a half-century. There was no markeddevelopmentoffarmmachineryduringthisperiod,andourdevelopmentalong

other lineswas equally retarded. Itwas the imaginativeminds of suchmen asJohnDeere,whogaveus the firststeelplowin1837;McCormick,whogaveusthebinder in1834,andPitts,whogaveus the threshingmachine in1837, thatmade a start for modern farm machinery. Few of these machines were builtbefore 1850, but after this period, when factories were established and thenumberofmachinesbuiltbegantoincrease,theproductionoffoodonamuchlarger scale was made possible, and during the next fifty-year period thepopulationdecreased from90per cent to about 40per cent on the farm, or alittleoverone-thirdofthetotalpopulationwasonfarms.

Wecaneasilyimaginetheconditionthatwewouldbeinatthepresenttimeif97 per cent of our peoplewere on the farmswithoutmodern equipment.Wewouldbeoneofthemostbackwardpeopleoftheworld.Wewouldnothaveanyofthethingswhichgotowardmakinglifepleasantandthefarmagoodplaceonwhichtolive.

Theuseofmoreandbetterfarmequipmenthaschangedthementalattitudeofthefarmer,ithasincreasedthewagesofthefarmlaborer,ithasdecreasedthenecessarylaborofwomeninthefieldandhome,ithasincreasedtheproductionpercapitamanyfold,decreasedthecostofproduction,andimprovedthequalityofproductsproduced.

An abundance of food hasmade possible our cities, our industries, the artsandsciences,ourverycivilization.IthasmadeAmericathegreatestnationoftheworld. These things are made possible because one farmer is capable ofproducingenoughfoodforthreefamiliesinsteadofjusthisown.Manyfarmersat the present time are producing even more than this, and doing it with aminimumoflabor.

233.LatestMachineryMostEconomical.(Fig.303.)Agriculturalproductionisquitesimilartofactoryproduction.Wefindinthefactorycertainmachinesforcertain particular operations. For example, whenwe go into a cottonmill, wefindacardingmachineformakingthecottonsuitableforuseonthespindle.Thesamethingistrueonthefarm;wefindcertainequipmentforpreparingthesoil,special types of seeding machinery for planting, and special equipment forharvesting.Thetendencyhasbeentoogreatonthepartofmanyfarmerstotrytogetalongwithoutbuyingthelatestimprovedmachines.Thefarmercannomoreget the best results without the latest modern machines than can themanufacturer.

The difference betweenmodern cotton-mill operations and the hand-powermethodofformerdays isquitecomparabletothemodernfarmerascompared

with the farmer of seventy-five years ago. Production in both cases requiresmachinery,andwithoutmachineryoftherightkindandproperlytakencareof,neitherwill be successful.The effect ofmachinery onproductionper capita isverymarked.Inthosesectionswherepoorequipmentisused,thepeoplesimplyexistandseldomareinapositiontoimprovetheirlivingconditions.

FIG.303.Motorcultivator,two-row.

The following data collected several years ago illustrates the effect ofmachineryontheproductionpercapita:

234.InfluenceofFarmMachineryonIncome.

INFLUENCEOFFARMMACHINERYONINCOME*

State AnnualIncomeofEachWorker

ValueofFarmImplementsforEach

Farm

Florida $119.72 $30.43Alabama 143.98 33.40Iowa 611.11 196.55NorthDakota. 755.62 238.84

Theuseofmachineryandmodernequipmenthasnotonlybroughtaboutagreaterproductionpercapita,buthasalsoinfluencedouragriculturalconditionsalongalmosteveryline.

235. The Problem of Farm Power. The farm power problem is one that isbeinggivenmuchmoreattentionatthepresenttimethaneverbefore.Toshowthetendencytowardmechanicalpower,thecensusof1914showsthatthepowerfrom horses and mules is equal to 14,230,000 H.P., while the power frommechanicalsourcesisequalto9,675,000H.P.Thisvastamountofpowerismorethan that used by all other industries combined. The investment is alsomuchlargerthanthatinvestedinotherformsofpowerintheUnitedStates.

FIG.303-a.Two-rowcultivatorwithteam.

236.WastingPowerandMachineryontheFarm.Someofthegreatestlossesand wastes on the farm are due to the use of inadequate machines, pooroperators,andtolackofcareofthemachinery.Allthreeofthesefactorsshouldhave the serious attention of every farmer at the present time. Everymachineshouldbeadequate for theuse forwhich it is intended. It is veryeasy toget amachinethatistoosmallortoolargetobeefficientforaparticularuse.Agreatmanytractorfailureshavebeenduetoeitherthetractor’sbeingtoolargeortoosmallforaparticularfarmoperation.Touseatractorof20to30H.P.todriveapumprequiringonly2H.P.isamistakeoftenmade.Itisalsoaspooreconomyto operate a single-row corn planter when a two-row planter might be usedequallywell. Inselectingapieceofequipmentofanysort, the followingpointsshouldbekeptinmind:

FIG.304.Checkingupmachineryforrepairs.

1)Itshouldbethemostsatisfactoryfortheparticularworkathand.2)Itshouldbeeasytooperatewithleastdanger.3)Itshouldbeefficient.4)Itshouldbecapableofeasyadjustment.

FIG.304-a.Unprotectedmachinery.

5)Itshouldbedesignedsoallpartsareaccessibleandeasilyreplaced.6)Itshouldbewellbuiltofgoodmaterialtoresistbreakageandwear.7)Itshouldnotcosttoomuch.WastingMachineryThruIgnorance.Thelackofknowledgeonthepartoftheoperatorhasbeenthecauseofmany

failures with modern machines. This is especially true of power machinery.There have probably beenmore tractor failures due to this one thing than allothercausescombined.Manymachinesareboughtandtakenintothefieldandoperateduntil some troubledevelops. It is then found that awearingpartwaswithout lubricant or was not properly adjusted. Every machine should becarefully studiedbefore it isused.An instructionbook shouldbe securedwitheachmachine,anditshouldbestudiedasatext.Withathoroughknowledgeoftheworkingparts of amachine, there is little danger of accident, and thebestresultsareassured.

Thelackofknowledgeofamachineusuallyresultsinlackofcareandlackofadjustment.Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthemanwholeaveshisbinderoutsidetorustanddecaydoesnotappreciateitsfinepoints.Thesameistrueofthetractor.Ifthefarmmachinesweregiventheattentiontheydeserve,theywouldbecaredforasmachinery iscaredfor inthefactoryandasthesewingmachineiscaredforinthehome.

Manymachines are being run that should be undergoing repairs. The farmmachine,asageneralrule,isallowedtogetinarun-downconditionandisnotrepaireduntilabsolutelynecessary,andoftensuchrepairsmustbemadewhenthemachineisinthefieldandwhentheworkshouldbeinprogress.Wecannotexpect thebest results frommachines thathavebeenneglected, thathavebeenleftinthefieldsformonths,or,ifundershelter,arenotexamineduntilthedaybeforetheyaretobeused.Thefarmerwouldbegreatlyshockedtoseeasewingmachine left on theporch for aweek at a timewhere the rain and sunwouldaffectit.Yet,manyfarmersallowthebinderswiththeirdelicatetyingmechanismto stay out in the weather for months. These machines depreciate in value,becomerusty,andareweakened,andthereisalossoftimewhentheyfailtogiveserviceaftertheyaretakenintothefield;also,alossinproduction.

237.ThreeConsiderations—Housing,Repairing,andPainting.Thepropercare of machinery might be classified under three heads—(1) housing, (2)repairing, (3) painting. In the housing of farm equipment, we do not have toprovideanexpensivebuilding.Theimplementsarenotaffectedbycoldweather.Insectionswherethedustisbad,thewallsandroofsofthebuildingsshouldbemadetightenoughtopreventitsentrance.Ithasbeenestimatedthatthevalueofmachineryontheaveragefarmatthepresenttimeisabout$1,000.Forsuchanamount of machinery, the farmer can well spend $400 or $500 for a goodmachinery house. Plans for such a shed can be secured from the U. S.DepartmentofAgricultureornearlyeverystateagriculturalcollege.

In the repairing of farm equipment, the farmer should be systematic. If themachinesareexaminedoncompletingajob,andthereisnottimetorepairthemat that time,eachpart shouldbe labeledso thatpartscanbeordered,andatalater date they can be replaced. The time to repair equipment is not when amachineisneededinthefield,butduringthetimewhenthemachinesareinthemachineryshed.

Inregardtopainting,itiswelltorepaintallwoodenpartsoffarmimplements,asitnotonlyincreasesthelifeoftheimplements,butimprovestheirappearance,andwhereamachineissoldafterithasbeeninuseanumberofyears,thecostofthe additionof paint is repaidmany fold.Quite often,where the farmer looksafter his equipment properly, he will find that discarded machines can berepairedatslightexpenseandbemadetogiveasgoodserviceasanewmachine.There aremany farmerswhodiscard amachine after it has seen threeor fouryears’service,whenitreallyneedsonlyafewslightrepairs.Suchmachinescanoftenbefoundstandinginfencecornersandareusedtosupplybolts,etc.,aboutthefarm.

*FromCircular21,BureauofPlantIndustry,UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture.

CHAPTERXXVITOOLSANDMATERIALSFORMACHINERYREPAIR

238.NecessityforGoodTools.Everymanwhofarmswillfinduseforagoodkitoftools.Infact,suitabletoolswilloftengiveaninspirationtodorepairjobsthatwouldnotbeattemptedwhen inadequate toolsareprovided.Manyof thetoolsdescribed in thesectionsonwoodworkingandmetal-workingareneededformachine repair and adjustment. There are a few not included in either ofthese lists that will be mentioned here. All the tools of this group are usedwithoutaforge.Infact,thegreatmajorityofmachineryrepairjobsonthefarmare “cold jobs” that are made in the field or in the machinery shed. Fig. 305shows a photograph of the toolswhich aremost likely to be useful inmakingtheserepairs.

FIG.305.Principaltoolsneededinimplementrepair:1.Die-stock.

2.Dies.3.Tap.4.Stock.5.Hack-saw.7.Endwrenches.8.Crescentwrench.9.Rule.10.Drillbits.11.Hammers.12.Punches.13.Coldchisel.14.Monkeywrench.15.Crescentwrench.16.Stillsonwrench.

16.Stillsonwrench.17.Trimowrench.18.Tinsnips.19.Pliers.20.Cuttingpliers.21.Screw-driver.23.Flatfiles.24.Roundfile.25.Triangularfile.26.Filehandle.27.Knife.28.Breastdrill.

239.Wrenches.Wrenches for turningnuts and screws aremade in variousshapes and sizes suited for different uses. They are classed as (1)movable-jawwrenchesadjustableforturningdifferent-sizednuts,themonkeywrenchandthecrescent wrench being common examples, and (2) fixed-jaw wrenches (thedistancebetween jawsbeing fixed), the straight-endwrench, theSwrenchandthealligatorwrenchbeingexamples.Thealligatortypecanbeusedondifferent-sizednuts,butisnotassatisfactoryaseitherthefixedoradjustabletype.

Socket wrenches with T-shaped handle are designed for use where the nutcannotbereachedwithanordinarywrench.Socketwrenchescanbesecuredinasetofdifferentsizeswitharatchethandle.

Pipewrenchesaremadeforgrippingpipesorcylindricalrods.In theuseofwrenches,one shouldalwaysbecareful to selectawrench that

will fit theparticularnutsnugly. Ifanadjustablewrenchisused,screwthe jawdownonthenuttightbeforeattemptingtoscrewit.Alwaysremembertoexertforceonthehandletowardtheadjustablejaw.

240. Vise. A bench vise such as described in section on metalwork is wellsuitedformachineryrepair.

241. Hammers. A ball-peen machine hammer and a light-weight rivetinghammerareneededformanyrepairjobs.

242.Chisels.The flatchisel,usually referred toasacoldchisel, isuseful forcuttingrivetsoroldbolts.Otherspecial-shapedchiselsareusefulforcuttingkeywaysandoilgrooves.

243.Files.Thereisanumberoftypesoffilesdesignedfordifferentuses.Filesareusedeitherforsmoothingdownpiecesofworkorforsharpeningtoolssuchassawsandtoolswithcuttingedgeslikehoes.Filescanbesecuredofalldegreesofcoarseness fromthe raspusedby thehorseshoer to thevery smooth-cut fileusedforfinishinghardmetals.Arasp,oneortwoflatfiles,oneortwotriangular,andseveralroundfilesshouldbeprovidedforgeneralrepairwork.

244.Screw-drivers. Several screw-driversofdifferent sizesareneeded.Keep

sidesofpointofthescrew-driverfiledparalleltopreventinjurytoslotinscrew.245.Pliers.Cuttingpliersaswellasholdingpliersareneeded.Donotusea

pairofplierswhereawrenchshouldbeused,orforcuttingextremelyhardwirewhenafilewillgivebestresults.

246.Hack-Saw.Thehack-saw isveryuseful forcuttingpipes,boltsorotherpiecesof softmetal. Itmayalsobeused forcutting slots in screwheadsor forsimilarwork.

247.Drills. Themost common drills are the breast, post and ratchet drills.Thebreastandratchetdrillsarebestsuitedforgeneralrepairworksincetheycanbeusedatanyplacewithouttakingamachineapart.Thebreastdrillisdesignedforsmallholes,whiletheratchetcanbeusedformakingholesofalmostanysize.

248. Stock Taps andDies. Taps and dies are useful for cutting threads onboltsandforthreadingnuts.Pipetapsanddiesarenottobeusedforboltwork.Machinescrewtapscanbeusedfortappingforscrewswhendesired.

249.MaterialsNeeded.Formachineryrepair,itisessentialthattherebekepton hand an assorted lot of machine, carriage and stove bolts with nuts andwashers;anassortedlotofcopperandsoftironrivets;anassortedlotofscrewsofdifferentkindsandsizes;anassortedlotofcotterkeysandpiecesofironrodsofdifferentdiameters;pipeandpiecesofstrapironforgeneraluse.

CHAPTERXXVIIHowTOSTUDYFARMMACHINERY

250.ThreeMethods ofApproach. Three classes of projects can beworkedout tomeet the need of the studentwhen studying farmmachinery. The firstclasscanhardlybe termedprojects,butexercisesor studiesofvarious typesoffarmimplementsandpowermachines.Intakinguptheseexercises,studentswillbeexpectedtoobtainageneralknowledgeofallkindsofmachineryandmakeacarefulstudyofthosemachinesusedonthehomefarms.Theywillbeexpectedto secure booklets describing particular machines under discussion; thesebooklets may be obtained from manufacturers or from local dealers. Themachinesarestudiedontheimplementdealer’sfloor,infarm-machinerysheds,orintheschoolshop.Mostofthisworkwouldbedoneduringthetimeofyearwhentheweatherwillnotallowoutdoorwork.

Thesecondtypeofprojectisthestudyofthemachinewhileoperatingunderactualfarmingconditions,thestudentbeinggivenachancetomakeadjustmentaswellasactuallyoperatingthemachine.Astudyofthecostofdoingthejobiscarried out in this connection. Itmay be preparing the seed bed, planting thegrain, or harvesting. Each step is studied, the work is actually done, the timerequiredforitandthecostnoted.

The third type of project is a study of the care, adjustment and repair ofmachinery.Notonlycanthisproblembestudiedbyvisitingvariousfarmsandstudyingconditions,butactualrepairscanbemade.Manymachinesare left inthe shed without checking up repairs at the end of the season’s work. Suchmachinescanbeinspected,partsorderedandrepairsmade.Gasenginescanbeoverhauled,tractorsgoneoverandputinfirst-classshape.Theinstructionbooksfurnishedbymanufacturersareanexcellentsourceofinformationforthiswork.

Afewgeneralexercisesandprojectssuchassuggestedabovewillfollow,withadditional ones briefly outlined. It is suggested that a machinery laboratorymanual*beavailableforstudentreferenceforadditionalsubject-matter,itbeingimpossibletocoverthesubjectinthissection.

251.TillageMachinery.Requirements:Tomakeacarefulstudyandmakeacompletereportoneachof

thechieftillagemachines,includingawalkingplow,asulky,aganganda

tractorplow;apeg-tooth,spring,anddischarrow;adiscandashovelridingcultivator;andasmoothandacorrugatedroller.

ToolsNeeded:Monkeywrench,screw-driver,ruleandpairofpliers.PreliminaryInstruction:Theimportanceofacarefulstudyofalltypesoffarm

machinesiswelljustifiedbythepartmachineryplaysinfarmproduction.Thelackofknowledgeandlackofcareofmanymachinesonthefarmwiththeresultinglossesshouldbeanexampleforeveryboyinhispreparationforfuturefarmwork.Thestudyoftillagemachineryisjustasimportantasthestudyofthetractorandotherpowermachines,althoughitmaynotbesointeresting.

WorkingInstructions:Afterbeingassignedagroupofmachines,thestudentwillreadcarefullydescriptionintextreferencesassignedbyinstructor.Inaddition,heshouldsecurecatalogsandbookletsdescribingsuchmachines.Next,fromacatalogcutout,withapairofscissors,anillustrationofeachofthemachinesbeingstudied.Pastetheillustrationonablanksheetofpaper.Then,whilegoingoverthemachinebeingstudied,labelalltheprincipalparts.Asareport,withtheillustrationgiveastatementofthefunctionofeachpart,itsconstructionandadjustment.Thesefactsmaybedeterminedfromreferencetext,fromcatalogs,fromdiscussioninclassroom,byexamination,removingpartsandtakingmeasurements,orfromtheinstructorinthelaboratory.252.StudyofSeedingMachinery.

Requirements:Tomakeacarefulstudyofthedifferenttypesofseedingmachinesthattheparticulartypeoffarmingdemands,includingastudyofgraindrills,cornplanters,cottonplanters,broadcastseeders,peaandbeanplantersanddrills.Tomakeatestoftheaccuracyofplantingofthemachinestudiedandcalibrateittoplantadefiniteamount,andmakeareport.

ToolsandMaterialsNeeded:Monkeywrench,screw-driver,rule,pairofpliers,scalesforweighing,seedfortesting,andpaperbagsorothercontainers.

PreliminaryInstruction:Theaccuracyofplantingdeterminestoagreatextentthefinalyieldofthecrop.Soeveryoneshouldknowhowtotestaplanter,drillorotherseedingdevice.Oneshouldnotonlyknowhow,butshouldactuallymakeatestbeforeusingthemachineinthefield.

WorkingInstructions:FollowinstructionsunderexerciseinSec.251,and,inaddition,themachinemaybetestedasoutlinedinSecs.277and279.253.StudyofFertilizerDrills,ManureandStrawSpreaders.

Requirements:Tomakeacarefulstudyofdifferenttypesoffertilizerandlimestonedrills,includingtheagitator,force-feedandend-gatetype.Tostudy

manurespreadersandstrawspreaders;alsostraw-spreadingattachmentsformanurespreaders.

ToolsNeeded:SameasinSec.251.PreliminaryInstruction:Keepingupthefertilityofthesoilisoneofthegreatest

problemsofapermanentagriculture.Theuseoffertilizerdrills,manurespreadersandstraw-spreadersfordistributingmaterialsonthesoilgreatlyfacilitatesthiswork.

WorkingInstruction:FollowinstructioninSec.251.254.StudyofHayingMachinery.

Requirements:Tomakeacarefulstudyofthevariousclassesofhayingmachinery—themower,rakesofdifferenttypes,tedders,loaders,stackers,pressesandotherhavingmachinerysuchasisusedinthecommunity.

ToolsNeeded:SameasinSec.251.PreliminaryInstruction:Thehaycropisoneofthemostvaluableofthe

Americanfarmer.Bymanyitisgivenlittleconsideration;muchhayislostduetolackofcareinhandling.Modernmachineryhasmadeitpossibletohandlethehaycropwithaminimumamountoflabor.

WorkingInstruction:FollowinstructioninSec.251.255.HarvestingMachinery.

Requirements:Tomakeacarefulstudyofgrain-harvestingmachinery,cornbinders,grainbinders,shockingattachments,pushbinders,headers,combinesandsuchharvestingmachineryasisusedintheimmediateneighborhood.

ToolsNeeded:SameasinSec.251.PreliminaryInstruction:Themodernharvestingmachineryonthefarmplaysa

similarpartinproductiontotheautomaticmachinesinthefactory.Theymakepossiblegreaterproductionpercapita,allowingmorepeopletoenterotherlinesofendeavor.Thecostofproductionwheremodernharvestingmachineryisusedisagreatdeallessthanwhereharvestingisdonebyhandmethod.

WorkingInstruction:FollowinstructionasoutlinedunderSec.251.256.StudyofPower-DrivenMachines.

Requirements:Tomakeacarefulstudyofpower-drivenmachinesusedonthefarm,suchasgrainseparators,silagecutters,feedgrinders,cornshellers,limestonegrinders,canemillsandothermachinesinthatsection.

PreliminaryInstruction:Withtheadventofthestationaryengineandthetractoronthefarm,power-drivenmachinesingreaternumberswillbeusedeachyear.Manyfarmersarealreadybuyingsmallthreshingoutfitswhereformerly

thegrainwasthreshedbyalargethreshingoutfit;Suchpracticesmakeforgreaterefficiencyandbetterproducts.Thegraincanbethreshedwheninthebestcondition,andthecorncutforsilagewhenatthepropermaturityifthefarmerhashisownequipment.Acarefulknowledgeofsuchequipmentisnecessaryforitsefficientuse.

WorkingInstruction:SameasinSec.251.257.StudyofGasEngines,TractorsandTrucks.

Requirements:Tobecomethoroughlyfamiliarwithatleastonetypeofgasengines,onetypeoftractorsandonetypeoftrucks.

PreliminaryInstruction:Thereismorepowerusedonthefarmthaninallotherindustriescombined.Thetotalhorsepowerhasbeenestimatedtobemorethan25,000,000.Morethanone-halfofthisismechanicalpower.Althoughthefarmerisoneofthegreatestpowerusers,itisonlywithinrecentyearsthathehaspaidanyattentiontothisphaseofhisfarmproblem.Everyfarmershouldbecomefamiliarwiththeconstructionofaninternal-combustionengine.

WorkingInstruction:FollowInstructionasoutlinedinSec.251.Payespecialattentionwhenstudyingastationaryenginetoitsgeneralconstruction,theignitionsystem,systemofcarburation,methodofcooling,oilingdevices,typeofgovernor,anddetermineforwhattypeofworktheengineisbestsuited.Inadditionfortractorsandtrucks,notehowthepowergoesfromenginetodrivewheels,theclutch,transmission,differentialanddriveshaft-andobservethelevercontrol.Notethewheelconstruction,fendersforprotection,seat,arrangementoffueltanks,etc.

*ValuablesuggestionscanbeobtainedfromFarmMachinerybyWirt,JohnWiley&Sons,NewYork.

CHAPTERXXVIIIPROJECTSINFARMMACHINERYOPERATION

258.ConditionsforCarryingOutProjects.Whilethisseriesofprojectscanbe carried on at the same time with the study of machinery, they are betteradapted forhomeprojectsandcanbecarriedonasoutsideassignmentsunderactualfarmconditionsalongwithproductionprojects,suchasgrowingfiveacresofcorn,anacreofpotatoes,etc.Itisnotessentialthattheparticularprojectsthatare outlined be followed; the chief thing in mind should be to study themachinery that isbeingoperatedon the farmwith the ideaof, first, becomingfamiliar with the generalmethod of doing the job; second, determining if themethodusedis thebestormostefficient,and, third,determininghowmuchitcosts. For those studentswho do not live on farms, thiswork can be done byvisitingafarmwhenaparticularoperationisbeingcarriedon.

FIG.306.Plowingwithhorse-drawnridingplow.

259.PreparationofLandforPlanting.(Figs.306and306-a.)Requirements:Tooperatehorse-drawnand tractor-drawn implements in thepreparationofaseedbed.Tobecomefamiliarwithallthedetailsofoperation,determinecostofpreparing land for planting by the two methods, and compare the resultsobtained.

FIG.306-a.Diskingwithtractorpower.

ToolsandEquipmentNeeded:Implementsandpoweravailablefortheparticularjob.

PreliminaryInstruction:Awell-preparedseedbedisessentialtoagoodcrop,andtheworkdoneattheleastexpensemeansthegreatestincometotheoperator.

WorkingInstructions:1)Eachstudentshouldharnessteamandhitchtoplow;shouldlayoutafield

undersupervisionofinstructororfarmer,andplowatleastoneacreofground,notingtimerequiredtodothejob.Theteamshouldthenbehitchedtoharrow,andfieldharrowed,notingtimerequired.Makealladjustmentnecessarytomaketheplowoperateeffectivelyandwiththeleastdraft.

2)Eachstudentshouldgettractorreadyforfieldwork,makeproperhitchtoplowandcarryoutworkofplowingasoutlinedinpreviousparagraph.Properadjustmentforproperdepthandadjustmenttoavoidsidedraftshouldbemade.Notetimerequiredtoplowandharrowoneacre.

3)Consideringcostanddepreciationofthetwooutfitsandallotherexpenseentailed,calculatecostofdoingtheworkbythetwomethods.Inreport,comparequalityofworkdonebytwooutfits.

260.PlantingCorn. (Fig.307.)Requirements:Tooperateacornplanter.Toselect proper plates for particular corn. Tomake all adjustments necessary tohaveplanterdropandcovereffectively.Determinecostofplantingcornperacre.

EquipmentNeeded:Plantercompleteandteam.PreliminaryInstruction:Carefulgradingandselectionofseedcornisas

importantforgoodresultsasproperseed,preparationandcarefulplanting.WorkingInstruction:

1)Selectproperplatesforplantingandtestthemoutupongoingintothefield.2)Driveinstake,attachcheckwireandunreelitfromthedrumthefirsttrip

acrossthefield.Placestakeatoppositesideoffieldsoitwillbedirectlybehindtheplantertongueafterithasbeenturnedintoposition,anddrawcheckwireuptopropertightnessasdirectedbyinstructor.

3)Placecheckwireintrip,settheopenersinposition,lowermarkerinplaceanddriveacrossthefield.Noteifplanterisdropping.

FIG.307.Plantingcorn.

4)Observeextremecaretomakeastraightrowthefirsttimeacrossthefield.Afterturningintoposition,changestakeanddrawcheckwireuptopropertightness.Followmarkertrackwithtonguedirectlyaboveitforsecondtripacrossfield,andcontinueasoutlinedabove.

261.DrillingGrain. (Fig. 308.)Requirements: To operate a drill in drillinggrain. To set seeding devices for a definite rate of seeding, and drill a definitearea,determiningthecostoftheoperation.ToolsNeeded:Drillandteam.PreliminaryInstruction:Samegeneralinstructionwithreferencetoselectingseed

cornalsoappliestosmallgrain.Ingeneral,itshouldberememberedtoplantacrosstheslopeinsteadofalongtheslope.Thisistocheckerosionandavoidstartingasmallgullybywashingatthewheeltracks.

FIG.308.Drillinggrain.

WorkingInstruction:1)Adjustfeedingdeviceforadefiniterateofseeding.Itisbesttodothisby

testratherthantobeguidedbydial.2)Afterdrillisdriveninposition,lowerthefurrowopenersintoground.3)Driveacrossfield,notingthattheopenersdonotclogandthattheseedis

passingdownintothesoil.4)Onallfollowingtrips,becarefultonotewherethelasttrackwasmadein

orderthatnogroundwillbemissedorgoneovertwice.262. Harvesting Corn for Silage. (Fig. 309.) Requirements: To assist in

harvestingcornandputtingitintothesilo.Tooperateeachmachineforaperiodlongenoughtobecomefamiliarwitheachdetailofthework.Todeterminethecostofeachoperationinharvestingthecornfromthefieldtoputtingitintothesiloassilage.

FIG.309.Cuttingsilage.

EquipmentNeeded:Cornbinder,wagons,silagecutter,teamsandengineforpower.

PreliminaryInstruction:Duetothefactthatcornassilageissohighlypalatableandnutritious,practical,successfuldairymenandcattlefeedershavesilos.Whencornisputintotheformofsilage,practicallynoneofitiswasted.

WorkingInstruction:1)Operatebinderincuttingthecorn.2)Notetherateofcuttingandestimatethenumberofacrescutperhourand

costofcuttingperton.3)Comparecostofcuttingbymachineandcuttingbyhand.4)Haulaloadofcornfromfieldtosilagecutter.5)Determinethecostofhaulingperton.6)Operatesilagecutter.7)Notespecialsafetydevicesoncutter.

FIG.310.Harvestinggrainwithtractorpower.

8)Notetherateofcuttinginloadsandintonsperday.9)Notethetypeofengineusedtodrivecutter.10)Determinethecostofoperatingengine.11)Notethemethodofelevatingthesilageintothesilo.12)Assistinpackingthesilageinthesilo.13)Notethetotalnumberinthecrewonthevarioustypesofwork.14)Determinethetotalcostofgettingthesilageintothesilo.15)Determinethecapacityofthesilo.16)Determinethecostpertoningettingthecornfromthefieldintothesilo

assilage.263. Harvesting Grain. (Fig. 310.) Requirements: To assist in the various

operationsofharvestinggrain,fromcuttingwithabinderandshockerthroughthreshing.Todeterminethecostasfaraspossibleforeachoperation,tobeablefinallytodeterminecostofproducingabushelofwheatorabushelofcorn.EquipmentNeeded:Binder,teamsortractor,wagon,andthreshingoutfit.PreliminaryInstruction:Itisjustasessentialthatthefarmerknowhowmuchit

coststogrowabushelofgrainasthatthemanufacturerknowhowmuchitcoststomill100poundsofflour.Theharvestseasononthefarmisaseasonwhenlaborisindemand.Itisessentialthatthegrainbecutwhenattheproperstageofripenessandthreshedwhenproperlycured.Forthesereasonsitisimportantthatsomestudybemadeoftheprocessesofharvestinggrain.

WorkingInstruction:1)Getbinderreadyforcutting,withasatisfactoryhitchandproperlyadjusted

andlubricated.2)Operatebinderandnotetherateofcutting.3)Learntoshockthegrainproperlysoitwillnotfalldownorblowover.4)Notethenumberofmenrequiredbehindthebinder.5)Determinethecostofcuttingandshockingperacre.6)Later,whengrainisreadyforthreshing,loadgrainonrackandhaulto

threshingoutfit.7)Pitchgrainfromrackontothreshingfeedtable.8)Noteeachoperationthattakesplaceinthethreshingmachine,fromthe

timethegrainbundlesareonthefeedtableuntilthegrainisweighed.9)Determineamountofgrainproducedperacre.10)Makeasummaryofthecostofeachoperationinproducinganacreof

wheat,thetotalcostperacre,andthecostperbushel.264.HarvestingHayCrops.(Fig.311.)Requirements:Toassistinthevarious

operations of harvesting hay from cutting to baling. To determine the cost ofeach operation as accurately as possible, and, finally, to determine cost ofproducingatonofhay.

FIG.311.Usingahayloader.

EquipmentNeeded:Mower,rakes,loaders,balersandpower.

PreliminaryInstruction:Hayisacropthathastobemadewhilethesunshines.Itmustbecutattherighttime,andcuredtotherightdegreebeforeitcanbestacked,storedorbaled.Handlingofthehaydependsmuchontheweather.Theconditionofthecropmustalsobeconsidered.Thepropertimetocutalfalfaandotherhaycropswillbetakenupinthestudyofcrops.

WorkingInstructions:1)Seethatmowerisproperlyoiledandthatthesickleissharp.Asteadyteamisessentialtothebestsuccessinmowing.2)Layoutlandforcutting,sizeandshapedependingonareatobemowed.3)Ifgroundisrough,adjustcutterbarsoitwillnotcutintotheground.4)Locatestumpsorotherobstructionsinthefield.Thisistoavoidaccident.5)Driveatauniformspeed.Itistheslowingdownwhichcausescloggingin

heavygrass.6)Observecareinjudgingwidthofswath;cutafullwidth,butdonotleave

anyuncut.7)Whenaside-deliveryrakeisused,followinsamedirectionaswithmower.8)Ordinarily,rakeafterdewisoffandbeforeleaveshavedriedtoapoint

wheretheyshatter.9)Withadumprake,practicecareindumpingsotherickorwind-rowofhay

willbereasonablystraight.Thismakesloadingeasier.10)Theloaderisbestusedwhenthehayhasbeenrakedwithaside-delivery.

Hooktheloaderonbackofwagonanddrivestraddleoftherick.11)Keeponemanonthewagontodistributehayonload,andanotherto

drive.12)Ifslingsandcarrieraretobeusedinunloading,putonthreeorfourslings

totheload.13)Ifforkandcarrieraretobeused,putononeslingatbottomofloadto

cleanofftherackinunloading.14)Ifhayisbaled,carryouteachoperationinthiswork,feedingthehay,

puttingindividingblock,placingwires,tying,etc.15)Determineasaccuratelyaspossiblecostofharvestinghaybytheton.265. Operating Household Equipment. (Fig. 312.)

FIG.312.Gravitywatersystem,withgasengine.

Requirements:Tooperateeachofthevariousmachinesaboutthehouseholdunderthesupervisionofsomeonethoroughlyfamiliarwiththeiruse.Tomakeareportonvalueofequipmentinthehomefromthestandpointoftime-andlabor-saving.

EquipmentNeeded:Theequipmentforthisprojectcanbefoundinanymodernfarmhouse.Itissimplyamatteroftheinstructororstudentsobtainingpermissiontouseequipmentinthehomeasalaboratory.

PreliminaryInstruction:Somanyfarmhomesarenowbeingequippedwithmodernlighting,heatingandwatersystemsandsewage-disposalplants,thatitisessentialthateveryfarmboy,andgirlaswell,becomeacquaintedwiththeuseofthisequipment.Thebestwaytobecomeacquaintedwithitsuseistouseit.Followinstructionsfurnishedbymanufacturers.

FIG.312-a.Farmlightingplantwithstoragebattery.

WorkingInstruction:1)Lubricateplant,putinfuelandfillradiator.2)Startelectricplant.

2)Startelectricplant.3)Turnlightsoff,andon.4)Stopplant.5)Turnlightsonsotheyusepowerfromstoragebattery.6)Chargestoragebattery,noterateofcharging.7)Stopplant;noteautomaticstoppingdevice.8)Operateacetylenelightplant.9)Removewaterandsludgefromplant.10)Putinachargeofcarbideandfreshwater.11)OperateBlaugasplant.12)DisconnectandreplaceacontainerofBlaugas.13)Operategasolineplant.14)Filltankwithgasoline.15)Crankuppressuremotororpumpairintotank.16)Fireafurnaceandcleanoutallashesandclinkers.17)Noteuseofspecialdevicesforcontrollingdraftandtemperature.18)Startandoperatedifferentwatersystems.19)Notethedifferenceinamountofworkrequiredwhenwateriscarriedin

andwhenitispumpedbymachinery.20)Studywashingequipment.21)Notedifferenceinamountoftimerequiredtodothewashingwhena

powerwashingmachineisusedandwhenascrubboardisused.266.GasTractorOperation.(Fig.313.)Requirements:Tobecomethoroughly

familiarwiththemethodofoperationofasmanytypesoftractorsaspossible.ToolsandMaterialsNeeded:Setoftoolssecuredwithtractor.Fuel,oilandextra

sparkplugs.PreliminaryInstructions:Inoperatingandhandlingatractor,oneshouldbevery

carefultoavoidbreakinganyparts.Alwaysbesure—thengoahead.Donotattempttostartatractorforthefirsttimeunlessunderthedirectionofsomeonewhoknows.Remember,thatthereismoredangerinstartingatractorthaninstartingasmallstationaryengine,onaccountofdangerofpersonalinjuryandofdamagetothetractorandbuildings.Remember,also,thatyouarehandlinganexpensivemachinewhenoperatingatractor.

WorkingInstructions:A.Gettingtractorreadyandstartingit.1)Seethatthetractoriscompletelylubricated.2)Seethattheclutchworksfreely.3)Ifbrakesareprovided,seethattheyarereleased.

3)Ifbrakesareprovided,seethattheyarereleased.4)Studythemanipulationofthevariouscontrollinglevers.

FIG.313.Plowingwithatractor.

5)Seethatthegearsarenotinmesh.6)Seethattheclutchisnotengaged.7)Turnongasoline.8)Openneedlevalveoncarburetor.9)Retardthespark.10)Triptheimpulsestarter,ifany.11)Primethemotorwithgasolineifweatheriscold.12)Crankthemotor.B.Tractoroperation.1)Tostartthetractorforwardorreverse,(a)seethatthepulleywheelisnot

revolving;(b)seethatclutchisnotengaged;(c)shiftgearsslowly—iftheydonotmesh,engagetheclutchslightly,thendisengageit—continuetheprocessuntilgearsmesh;(d)engageclutchandthetractorshouldrun.

2)Tostoptractor,(a)disengageclutch;(b)applybrakeifnecessary;(c)shiftgearstoneutralposition.

3)Taketractoroutsideandpracticestartingandstopping.(a)Runforwarda

fewyardsinlow,thenstop;(b)reverse,runbackwardafewyards,thenstop;(c)runforwardafewyardsinhigh,thenstop;(d)turnthetractoraround,asinplowing,andnotethespacerequiredtoturnitin.

4)Examinethetractorcarefullyandseethatitisinperfectcondition.Cleanoffdustordirt.

5)Drivetractorbackintobuildingundersupervisionofsomeonewhohashadexperience.

C.Ifpossible,makestudyofatractorwhileplowinginthefield,andobtainthefollowinginformation:1)Numberofplowbottoms.

2)Sizeandtypeofplow.3)Lengthoffurrows.4)Widthoffurrows.5)Depthoffurrows.6)Timerequiredtoplowafurrow.7)Timerequiredforturning.8)Kindandconditionofsoil.9)Acresplowedperhour.10)Acresplowedperten-hourday.11)Fuelusedandcostperten-hourday.12)Fuelcostperacre.13)Lubricantusedandcostperten-hourday.14)Lubricantcostperacre.15)Laborcostperten-hourday.16)Laborcostperacre.17)Depreciationcostperacre.18)Interestoninvestmentperacre.19)Repaircostperacre.20)Totalcostperacre.

Assumethefollowingconditionwithreferencetoaone-manoutfit—operatorcost,50centsperhour;10percentdepreciationonoriginalcostofoutfit;interestoninvestmentat6percent;costofrepairs,4percent;allthreechargedto100days’service.

D.Writeareportonthisexercise,givingtheinformationoutlinedunderA,BandCandalso:1)Nameoftractor.

2)Wheremanufactured.3)RatedbrakeH.P.anddrawbarH.P.4)Numberofcylindersinmotor.5)Arrangementofcylinders.

5)Arrangementofcylinders.6)Makeandtypeofcarburetor.7)Makeandtypeofmagneto.8)Systemoflubrication.9)Methodofcooling.10)Describetheclutchandtransmissionsystem.

CHAPTERXXIXPROJECTSINFARMMACHINERYREPAIR

267. The Proper Time for Checking Up Needed Repairs. The repair andadjustmentofmachineryisbestcarriedonduringthewintermonthswhentheweatherisnotsuitableforoutdoorwork.Especiallyisthistrueoftherepairs;thefinaladjustmentmustoftenbedoneafterthemachineistakenintothefield.

It is best to go over amachine carefully when the work is finished for theseason and tag all brokenorwornparts.By sodoing, theworkof putting themachine incondition for fielduse ismucheasier.One isalwaysmore familiarwiththeconditionofthemachinejustafterusingitthannearlyayearlaterwhenit is being taken into the field the first time for the season.When worn andbrokenpartsarenottaggedtheyearbefore,acarefulinspectionisveryessential.Thispartoftheworkshouldbedonesomeweeksbeforetheactualrepairworkistobedoneandalongertimebeforethemachineisneededinthefield.Thiswillgive a chance toorderpartsneeded,whichoften cannotbeobtained from thelocaldealer.Thisworkisbestdoneintheschoolshopwherethereareplentyoftoolsandmaterial.Manystudentscanbringold implements infromthehomefarm for overhauling.Gas engines can be cleaned up, valves ground, and newpistonringsput inplace, thecutterbaron themowercanbestraightenedandthe sickle sharpened, and other jobs can be done, a few ofwhich are outlinedmerely to suggest the possibilities along this line. Such work is of immediatevalue inputting themachinery in repair, and thepractice isofuntoldvalue toeverystudentwholateristofarmforhimself.

Theprojectsinthischapterarearrangedinsixgroupsaccordingtothegeneraltype of machine. Additional minor groups might be added, but these are themachines in which all farmers are interested: First, tillagemachinery; second,plantingmachinery; third, fertilizer distributors; fourth, harvestingmachinery;fifth,belt-drivenmachinery;sixth,stationaryenginesandtractors.Projectsintherepairofonlyoneortwomachinesineachgroupareoutlined.

FIG.314.Walkingplow.

268.RepairandAdjustmentofTillageMachinery.(Fig.314.)Requirements:To repair and adjust ready for field use the chief tillage machines, includingplows,harrows,rollersandcultivators.ToolsNeeded:Itiswelltohaveaccesstoacompletesetofshoptools.Theexact

numberoftoolsrequiredwillbedeterminedbytherepairsneeded.PreliminaryInstruction:Theplowistheprincipalimplementinthepreparation

of the seed bed. Because it is simple, it is often neglected and used veryinefficiently.Plowsnotcaredforarehardtooperate,andapoorjobofworkisthe result. The same principle holds true to a greater or less extentwith allothertillagemachinery.269.RepairingaWalkingPlow. (Fig. 315.) 1) Share—Badly-worncast-iron

sharesmustberenewed;steelsharesmaybesharpened.Providebearingatwingof3/4”for10”bottomto1-1/4”for16”bottom,andverticalsuctionof1/8”andhorizontalsuctionof1/8”to1/4”,asshowninfigure.

FIG.315.Detailshowinghorizontalandverticalsuction.

2)Landside—Ifheelisdetachableandworn,renewentirelandside.3) Moldboard—See that moldboard is well bolted to frog. If badly worn,

renew.4)Bracing—Tightenallboltsandbracerods.5)Handles—Seethathandlesaretightandrigidthroughout.6)Beam—Seethatbeamisboltedtightlytothefrog.Ifasteelbeam,besureit

isnotsprung.7)Jointer—Reneworsharpenthejointer.Bolttightlytobeam.

8)GaugeWheel—Renewbearings ifbadlyworn.Boltstandardrigidly to thebeam.Adjusttoproperheight.

270.WalkingPlowAdjustment.1)Depth of Furrow—Raise or lower clevis hitch vertically. For variable soil

conditions,regulatebychangingwheelgauge.2) Width of Furrow—Change the clevis hitch in a horizontal position.

Positionofbeammaybeadjustedonsomeplows.It isusuallychangedtoaccommodateadifferentnumberofhorses.

3)Handles—Changeheighttosuitoperator.4)Jointer—Setsoitspointisjustabovethepointoftheshare,slightlytothe

landsideoftheshinand1-1/2”to2”deepintothesoil.5)Hitch—Plowrunsbestwhenhitchedtoformastraightlinefromapointon

moldboard 2” from shin thru the hitch at beam clevis to a pointmidwaybetweenthetugringsatharness.Aproperhitchmeanseasyoperationandlessdraftfortheteam.

271.SulkyandGangPlows. (Fig. 316.) 1)WheelBearings—Ifworn,put innew bearings when possible. Clean thoroughly, repack with heavy grease andmakeadjustments.

2)FrameBeamandFrog—Tightenallbolts.Straightenanypartofframethatistwisted.

3) Levers—Tighten all connections, take up lost motion, straighten levers,replacenewsprings.

4)Share—Sharpenorreplacewithnewshare.5)Landside—Renewentirelandsideifbadlyworn.Renewheelwhenprovided.6)RollingCoulter—Cleanbearingsandoil.Tightenstandardrigidlytoframe.272.AdjustingSulkyorGangPlow.1)Depth—Changedepthbyloweringbottomintheframe,2)WidthofCut—Changehitchonframe,changelandingoffurrowwheel.3)Jointer—Adjustasonawalkingplow.

FIG.316.Gangplow.

4) Rolling Coulter—If used with a jointer, set ahead of it. If used withoutjointer,adjusttothepositionofjointerwhenitisusedaloneandaboutone-halfthedepthoffurrow,dependingonthesoil.

5)Wheels—Adjustlandwheeltorunstraighttothefront.Givethefrontandrear furrow wheels a slight lead from the land. Set rear wheel 1” to 2”outsideoflandsideofplow.

6)Hitch—Pointofhitchcanbechangedtotakemoreorlessland;andsotheloadiscarriedbywheels.

273. Repair of Peg-ToothedHarrow. (Fig. 317.) 1) Frames—Straighten allbentpartsandtightenbolts.

2) Teeth—Adjust to uniform depth. Re-sharpenworn teeth, and renew lostones.

3)Levers—Straightenalllevers,renewwornpartsandtightenconnections

FIG.317.Peg-toothedharrow.

4)DraftConnections—Renewifbadlyworn.Straightenifbent.

274.RepairingaDiscHarrow.(Figs.318and318-a.)1)Frame—Seethatallboltsaretightandallbracesarestraightandrigid.

2)Bearings—Cleanoutbearingsbywashingwithkerosene.Replace ifworn,packgreasecupsandseethatgreasegetstobearings.

3)Discs—Sharpendiscsonregularsharpeneroronemery.4)GangBolts—Seethatgangboltsarestraightandthediscsaretightonbolts

sotheywillnotwobble.5)Bumpers—Adjustsotheycarryendthrust.6) Scrapers—Replace if badlyworn. See that they come in contactwithdisc

withoutcausingunduefriction.7)SnubbingBlocks—Adjustsogangsrunlevel.8)Levers—Straightenbentlevers.Replacewornparts.9)DraftConnection—Ifworn,renew.Adjustment—Changeangleofdisctoincreaseordecreaseamountofsuction.

Weightingissometimesresortedtoinhardgroundtoincreasethedepth.

FIG.318.Discharrow.

275.RepairandAdjustmentofPlantingMachinery.Requirements:Torepairandadjustreadyforfielduseplantingmachinerysuch

asusedintheparticularlocality.Acornplanteranddrillareoutlined.Preliminary Instruction: Every plantingmachine should be in first-class repair

whentakenintothefield,toavoidapoorstandduetoitspoorcondition.276.RepairingaGrainDrill.(Fig.319.)1)GrainFeeds—Cleanoutoldgrain

anddirt.Examinegrainfeedcuporflutedcylinder,andgraincells.Renewbadly-wornorbrokenparts.Examinemethodofchangingrateofseeding.

FIG.318-a.Detailsofconstructionofdischarrow.

2)Chains,DriveShaftandGears—Tracepowerfromwheelsthruchains,shaftandgears to feedingdevice. See that there isno lostmotiondue to loose,brokenorwornparts.

3)Openers—Sharpenopenerifdull.Ifdiscopener,examinethebearingsandreplaceifbadlyworn.Seethattheyareproperlylubricated.Adjustspringssoenoughpressureisonopeners.

4)SeedTubes—Testseedtubestoseethattheydonotclogeasily.5)Wheels—Ifwheelsareofwoodandaredriedoutsothatthetireislooseon

therim,theyshouldbesoakedinwateruntilswelledtight.Thepawlsinthehubareanimportantpartofwheelstogivepositivedrive.Seethatthepawlsengageandstarttheseedingdeviceassoonasthewheelsturn.

FIG.319.Graindrill.

6)FrameandLevers—See that all bolts aredrawnup tight and the frame isrigid.Examineleversandseethattheyarestraightandfunctionproperly.

7)Attachments—See that attachments such as surveying device and devicesfor setting rateof seedingare tight.Check their accuracy if theyare tobedependedupon.

8)Miscellaneous—Seethatallcoveringdevices,hitch,braces,etc.,areinplaceandproperlyadjusted.

277. Adjusting a Grain Drill. Calibration—The principal adjustment on agraindrillistheoneforaccuracyofplantingwhentheindicatorissetatdifferentpositions on the scale. The adjustment is accomplished by calibrating themachine.Thedrillmustbecalibrated foreachkindofgrain.Themethod isasfollows:Setthedrillonstandsorsawhorsessothatthewheelscleartheground.Put the grain in thehopper, place the indicator for certain rate of seedingperacre,putpaperbagsundereachof thespouts, throwin theclutchandyouarereadytobegin.Turnthedrivewheelthru100revolutions.Weightheseedcaughtunder each spout. Bymeasuring the circumference of drive wheel in feet andmultiplyingby100,thenumberofturns,thedistancetraveledisfound.Multiplythisby thewidthof seeded strip in feet and thearea isobtained.Knowing theareaandthetotalpoundsofseeddrilled,therateofdrillingiseasilyobtained.Bycomparingtheratefromtestwiththeactualsettingofindicator,theaccuracyofthe machine is determined. By making several tests at different settings ofindicator,theproperadjustmentforacertainrateofplantingcanbeestablished.Unlessadrilliscarefullytested,therateofplantingisnotdefinitelyknown,duetotheinaccuracyoftheindicatingdevice.

278.RepairingCornPlanter. (Fig.320.)1)SeedBoxandPlates—See thatafullsetofplatesisavailableandsuitableforplantingseedathand.Examinethepartsinbottomofseedboxandtheplatestoseethattheyarenotworn.Renewpartsasneeded.

2) Sprockets,Chains,Gears andClutch—Trace the power fromwheels thruaxle,chain,sprockets,driveshaftandclutchtotheplate.Seethatthereisnolostmotionduetoloose,wornorbrokenparts.

3)Openers—See3underDrills.

FIG.320.Cornplanter.

4)Valves—Examinevalvesinfeedshankandseethattheyfunctionproperlywhenthedrivewheelsareturned.

5)FrameandLevers—See6underDrills.6)CheckWire andTrip—See that the checkwire is free fromkinks and in

goodcondition.Seethatthetripworks.7)Miscellaneous—Examinemarker,hitch,etc.,andseethattheyareingood

condition.279.AdjustmentofCornPlanter.1)Depth—Adjustforproperdepthbysettingthetongue;also,bymeansofthe

lever,justinfrontoftheseat.2)Width—Thewidthofrowscanbeadjustedbyshiftingtheboxesandshoes

asaunitontheframe.Shiftthepositionofthewheelsontheaxleandmovethewheelscrapersaccordingly.

3) TheDrop—the drop is changed bymoving the lever to point indicatingtwo,threeorfourgrainsperhill.

4)Drilling—Mostplanterscanbeadjustedtodrillbyopeningthevalvesandholdingthetripback.Aleverisoftenprovidedsothatthechangetodrillingcanbemadefromtheseat.

5)Accuracy—Properplatesshouldbeselectedfortheparticularseedandtheaccuracyofdroptestedbeforetheplanteristakenintothefield.Iftheplatesare of the type where one kernel is selected at a time, try out several bytakingsomekernelsofcornandfittingthemintothespaces.Iftheydonotfit—are too tightor too loose—tryotherplatesuntilone is foundthat fitsfairlywell.Placethisplateinpositioninbox,partiallyfillitwiththecornto

beplanted,placetheplanteronastandorsawhorses,andyouarereadyfortest.Setthelevertopositionofnumberofgrainstobedroppedateachhill.Tripclutchandturndrivewheel;catchthegrainsastheydropoutateachhill and count them. Trip for 100 hills; if lever is set for three grains, itshould test at least 90 per cent accuracy.Out of 100 hills, if there are 60threes,30twos,8onesand2fours,aplateshouldbeselectedwithslightlylarger openings. The correct selection of plate is very important from astandpointofaccuracyinplanting.Thecarefulgradingofseedandproperselectionofplatearebigfactorsinsecuringagoodtest.

280.RepairandAdjustmentofFertilizerDistributers.Requirements: To repair and adjust ready for field use the principal fertilizer

distributers, including manure spreader, straw spreader, fertilizer and limedrills(Fig.321).

PreliminaryInstruction:Themanurespreaderisamachinethatisfoundonmostfarmswherethereisstock.Strawspreaders,fertilizersandlimestonedrillsarebecomingmorecommonthroughoutthecountry.281.RepairingManureSpreader.(Fig.321.)1)BoxandApron—Tightenall

bolts in box so that it is rigid. Examine apron for broken places or damagedchain. Replace broken orworn parts. See that the rollers that carry the apronturneasilyandofferlittleresistance.

2) Frame—Tighten all loose parts on the frame of spreader and renew allbrokenparts.

3)Beater—Seethatbearingsareinfirst-classcondition.Tightenthebarsandseethattheteetharestraightandfirmlyinplace.Replaceallbrokenteeth.

4) Driving Mechanism—Examine carefully the drive chains, gears andsprocketsthattransmitthepowerfromthedrivewheeltothebeaterandtothe apron. Weak parts should be replaced. Adjust chains to propertightness.Seethatallboltsaredrawnuptight.

5)Wheels—Takeoffdrivewheels andexamine thepawls.Examinebearingsonrearaxleandontrucks.

FIG.321.Manurespreader.

6)Miscellaneous—Straightenleversandconnectingrods.Tightenallnutsandputinnewboltswhereneeded.

282. Repairing and Adjusting Straw Spreader. (Fig. 322.) Most strawspreadersareeitheranattachmentforamanurespreaderoranattachmentforawagon.

1)Tightenallchainsbyadjustingidlers,andrenewwornlinks.2)Seethatsprocketsarecenteredonwagonwheel.

FIG.322.Strawspreader.

3)Gooverentirefeeder,tightenboltsandrenewbrokenparts.4)Straightenleversandseethattheyworkeasily.5)Followinstructionsofmanufacturerinmakingadjustment.

283.RepairingaLimeandFertilizerSower.1)Seethatfeedingdeviceisfreefromoldlimeorfertilizerandrust.2)Renewbadly-worngears,sprocketsorchains.3)Seethatadjustingleversworkproperly.4)Examinewheelsandaxles.5)Repairboxorhopperifneeded.6)Renewfeedingdeviceifbadlywornorbroken.284.RepairandAdjustmentofHarvestingMachinery.

Requirements: To repair and adjust a mower, a binder and other harvestingmachinessuchasareusedlocally.Themowerandbinderareoutlined,astheyrepresentthetwomostcommonharvestingmachinesthroughoutthecountry.Thetoolsneededarethesameasinpreviousprojects.

PreliminaryInstructions:Toavoidlossatharvesttime,allequipmentshouldbein a first-class condition.Harvest season is a timewhen delaymaymean agreat loss. So every farmer should realize the importance of having suchequipmentready.Thebesttimetoinspectharvestmachineryisjustattheendof the harvest season rather than the beginning. If the inspection has beenproperlycarriedoutandpartsorderedtotaketheplaceofbrokenandwornones,theworkofrepairwillbeverysimple.285.RepairingaMower.(Fig.323.)Placethemachinewherethereisplenty

ofroomandwhereallsidesareaccessible.WorkingInstructions:

1)AlignCutterBar—Blocktonguetonormalpositionofrunningwithinsideshoe just floating. Test alignment by stretching a string from center ofpitmanbracingthrucenterofknifeheadbracingtooutersideofcutterbar.Ifproperlyaligned, theoutsideendofknifewill leadstringby1” for five-foot bars and 1-3/8” to 1-1/2” for six-foot bars. If not properly aligned,examine machine for special provision for alignment and make properadjustment.

FIG.323.Mower.

2)AligningGuards—Removebladeandsightalongguards,oruseastraight-edgetodetecttheonesthatarehighandtheonesthatarelow.Driveguardsthatareoutofalignmentbackintoplacebyasharpblowwithahammer.

3) Adjusting Cutter-Bar Clips—Examine knife bar to see that it is straight;thenputitinplace.Theknifeshouldhavelittleplay,andtheclipsshouldfitsnugly. Adjust all clips by tapping each with hammer until it begins totighten;thenloosenit,andbeginonthenext.Whenallareadjusted,tightenthem.

4) Putting on New Guards—Bolt new guards in place where old ones aredamaged.Ifthenewguardbringstheledgerplatetoohigh,remedythisbyputtingpiecesoftinbetweentheguardandthebar.

5) Shoes—Examineboth theoutside and inside shoeson cutterbar. If partsarebadlyworn,replacethem.Seethattheyareadjustedforproperheight.

6)KnifeSections—Brokenorbadly-wornknifesectionscanbeeasilyremovedbyplacingtheverticaledgeofbaronananvilorheavypieceofiron,withasquare, straight corner. Strike the back of the section with a hammer,makingitcuttherivetoff.Usesoftsteelrivetsofpropersizeforputtingonnew sections. Test the knife to see that sections center properly. Thesections are properly centered if each is directly under a guardwhen thepitmanisateitherendofitsstroke.Examinetoseeifacenteringdeviceisprovidedonmachine.Whensteelpitmansareused,theyareusuallymadeadjustableforlength.Thismakescenteringeasy.

7) Pitman—Adjust both the knife head andwrist pin bearing to secure theleastamountoflostmotion.

8)Gears—Ifbadlyworn,makeadjustmentso theywillworkproperlywhere

possible.Ifgearsarebadlyworn,replacewithnewones.9) Bearings—Examine all bearings for wear. Free them of all grit, dirt and

vegetablematter.Lubricateallpartswithnewoil.10) Drive Wheels—Take up all end play by adjustable collar or washers.

Examinepawls forwear. Someare reversible,makingpossible longeruse.Renewspringsifweak.

11)Miscellaneous—Tighten all nuts, straighten levers, and see that all bolts,cotterkeys,etc.,areinplace.Replacewornpartswhereneeded.

FIG.324.Grainbinder.

286. Repairing and Adjusting a Binder. (Fig. 324.) Practically all thesuggestionsforthemoweralsoapplytothebinderwiththefollowingadditions:1)Canvases—Seethatallrollersworkeasily,areingoodrepair,andareproperlyaligned.Anythingwrongwith the rollerswill cause troublewith the canvases.Testtheframeofthemachine(eitherbymeansofasquareorbymeasuringthediagonals)toseethatthecanvasesareproperlysquaredtoit.Ifcanvasesarenotsquared,troublewillresult.Replaceallbrokenslatsandstrapsoncanvaseswithnewones.

2)Chains andSprockets—Replacebadly-wornorbroken sprockets. See thattheyarealignedbysightingalongtheface.Adjustchaintightenersotherewillnotbetoomuchplay.

3) Reel—Renew slats if broken. Examine bearings. If they are badly worn,renewthem.Takeupalllostmotioninreellevers.

4)GearsandBearings—Examineallgearsforwear,andifbadlyworn,replacewithnewones.Adjusttomeshwherepossible.Renewbearingswherebadlyworn.

5) Binder Attachment—The binding attachment is the most complicateddeviceon thebinder.Replaceallbrokenorbadly-wornparts.See that the

tyingdeviceistimedtoworkproperlyintyingbundles.Useinstructionsforparticularmachinefurnishedbymanufacturer.

287.Belt-DrivenMachinery.Requirements:Torepairandadjustatleastonebelt-drivenmachine.Itmaybea

threshingmachine as outlined, or another type ofmachine. The feedmills,silagecuttersandcornshelters,allcomeinthisclass.Thetoolsneededarethesameasinpreviousprojects.

PreliminaryInstruction:Aseparatorthathasnotbeencarefullyoverhauledwillcauselossoftimeandwasteofgrain.Thisisajobthatshouldbedonesomeweeksbefore the threshingseason ison, inorder that if there isneedofanyparts, they can be secured and installed without causing a delay. The samegeneralprinciplesasoutlinedforoverhaulingaseparatorapplytootherbelt-drivenmachines. It is always a good idea to study carefully the instructionbooksfurnishedbythemanufacturerbeforebeginningtorepairoradjustanypart of a belt-driven machine. The points suggested here under workinginstructioncanthenbecarriedoutwithamuchgreaterdegreeofintelligence.288.RepairingaGrainSeparator.(Fig.325.)WorkingInstruction:1)Cylinder—Renewallbadly-worn,bentorotherwisedamagedteeth.Tighten

all loose teeth, and see that the cylinder is firmly keyed to the shaft. Ifcylinder bearings are worn, they can be made to fit snugly by removingshims. If thebearingsarebadlyworn, they shouldbe re-babbittedornewbushings put in. (See instructions on babbitting at end of this exercise.)Examine the shafts for rough spots. If necessary, smooth themupwith afine fileandemerycloth.After thecylinder shaft andbearingare in first-class condition, the cylinder should be carefully balanced before thebearingsareadjusted.This isnecessarywhenanumberofnewteethhavebeen added. To balance the cylinder, provide two saw horses or othersuitable stands to support the ends of the cylinder shaft. Level up thesupportsandplaceonthempiecesofsmoothsteel,onwhichthecylinderistorest.Placethecylinderonsupportsandallowittorevolve.Markthetopofcylinderwhereitcametorestandrollitoveragain.Ifitcomestorestinthesamepositionasbefore, itwill indicatethattheoppositesideisheavy.Provisionismadeonsomecylinderstocounterbalancethisbydrivingslugsofleadintotheholesintheendsofcylinder.Wherenoprovisionismade,new teeth canbeput inon theopposite side, orwedges canbedriven inunder the center band.When cylinder is put back in place, adjust to thebearingssothereisnolostmotion.Itshouldmakeasnugfit,butshouldnot

bind.Avoid toomuch endplay.The thicknessofwrappingpaper at eachendofcylinderwillbesufficient.

2)Concaves—Replacebadly-wornconcaveteeth.Becarefultoavoidbreakingtheconcavebars.Adjusttheconcavessotheteetharecenteredasfarasthecylinderteethareconcerned.Iftheconcaveandcylinderteethcomeclosertogetherthanl/8”,crackingofgrainisliabletoresult.Teeththatareoutofline or bent should be brought back into place by the use of a hammer.Inspectthedeviceforraisingandloweringtheconcaves.Ifbadlyworn,putinnewparts.

3)SeparatingGrates—Seethatallboltsaretightandthereisnolossmotion.Straighten all bent rods or bars. See that all parts work without unduefriction.

4)FeedingAttachment—Inspecttheframefor looseness,badly-wornorsplitparts.Tightenallboltsandscrews.Tightenthecarrierchain;seethatslatsor canvas is in good repair. Examine band cutter knife; replace it if it isbrokenorbadlyworn.Seethatallboltsaretightandbearingsareingoodconditiononretarderandshakingfeedbottom.

5)BeatersandApron—Seethatthereisnoplayorlostmotioninthebeater.Ifthe blades are wood, replace those that are split or badly worn. See thatthere are no rough surfaces on the blades. See that apronor check boardworksfreely.

6)Racks—Inspect the racks for broken slats. See that the bearings are tight.Replaceoradjustwornlinksandpitmans.

FIG.325.Sketchofgrainseparator.

A—Cylinder;B—Concaves;C—Wind-stackerhood;D—Beater;E—Checkapron;F—Elevator;G—Checkapron;H—Straw-racks;I—Grainpan;J—Strawchute;K—Returnpan;L—Chaffer;M—Adjustablesieve;N—Shoechaffer;O—Tongue;P—Grate;Q—Fan;R—Grainauger;S—Screendoor;T—Weedscreen;U—Tailingsauger;V—Tailrake;W—Wind-stackerfan;X—Greasecupsforstraw-rackboxes

7)Conveyor—Seethatallpartsaretighttoavoidwastinggrain.Renewmetalifitisbadlyrusted.

8)Screens—Seethatframesareingoodshape.Ifscreensaredamaged,renewthem.Examinetheshoetoseethatthecastingsthatcarrythescreensareingoodconditionandfastenedtotheshoe.Seethatbearingsandpitmansareingoodshape.

9) Fan—Inspect the fanhousing, the bearings and the blades.Replacewornpartswhereneeded.

10) Grain Augers and Elevators—Examine the auger troughs and elevatorhousing,andallbearings.Replacebadly-wornparts.Seethatthechainisingoodcondition;also,thatthechaintightenerisingoodworkingorder.

10)Stacker—Seethatfan,fanhousingandbearingsareinfirst-classshape.11)Seethatalladjustmentsaremadetoinsureefficientoperation.Note:Bushingcanusuallybesecuredtotakecareofbadly-wornbearingson

power-drivenmachines,but insomecases,babbittingmustberesortedto.Thefollowing on babbitting will be of interest under such conditions: 289.BabbittingMachineBearingBoxes.Machinebearingsbecomeloosewithwear.Ifthebearingsaremadeintwopartsintheformofasplitbox,adjustmentsmay

bemadetotightenthebearinguntilitispracticallywornout.Ifthebearingisinonepiece in the formof a solidbox, little, if anything, canbedonewhen it isworntotightenitexcepttorelineorrefillit.Theprocessofrepairingabearingbypouringinnewmetaliscalledbabbitting.

Babbitt is a softmetal consistingof onepart of copper, twoparts antimonyandtwenty-twopartstin,meltedtogether.Someofthecheapergradesofbabbittcontainsomeleadand,sometimes,alittlezinc.

290.BabbittingaSolidBearing.Chipormeltoutallof theoldbabbittandcleanout theretainingholes.Warmthebox toprevent thebabbittcooling toorapidlywhenitispoured.Thismaybedonebyholdingthebearinginthefireorbyplacingahotironagainstit.Cleantheshaftandplaceitinlineinthebearing,firstwrappingone thicknessofwritingpaperabout the shaft just the lengthofthe bearing, and fastening it by winding twine about it in a spiral shape. Thepaperwillpreventtootightabearing,andthespaceoccupiedbythetwinewillformoilgrooves.Closeupthebearingateachendbyplacingaheavycardboardovertheshaftateachendandputtyinguptheholesorfillingthemwithsoftclay.Reservetheoilholetopourinthebabbitt,or, if it istoosmall,driveawoodenplugintoitcleartotheshaftandformafunnel-shapedopeningatoneendofthebearingwithclay.

Heatthebabbittinanironladleuntilitburnsorcharsastick,andgentlypourit,ifnecessary,bymeansofafunnel,thrutheholereservedforthepurpose,firstmakingafewventholesthrutheendprotectionswithawire.Whenthebabbittisset,andbeforeitthoroughlycools,removetheendprotections,theplugthatfillstheoilholeandtheshaft.Wipeouttheholeformedbytheshafttoremovetheburnedtwineandanyforeignmatter,andthebearingwillbereadyforusewhenthebabbittiscold.

291.BabbittingaSplit-BoxBearing.Placetheshaftinthelowerpartoftheboxwhichformsthebearingandblockitinposition.Placelinersontheboxtotouchtheshaftthefulllength,firstcuttingtwoorthreenotchesonthelinernexttotheshaftthruwhichthebabbittcanrunfromtheupperhalfoftheboxtothelower.Boltthetoppartoftheboxinposition,stoptheendsandpourthebabbitt.Whenthebabbittisset,driveacoldchiselbetweentheboxestobreakthebabbittformedinthenotchesoftheliner,beveltheedgesofthebabbittnexttotheshaft,andcutoilgroovesinthebabbittofeachhalfoftheboxwithadiamondpointorroundnosechisel.Thesegroovesshouldcrossontheoilholeandruntotheendsoftheboxtoformcarriersforoil.

A split boxmay alsobebabbittedbypouring thebabbitt on the shaftwhen

placedinthelowerhalfoftheboxonly.Whenthebabbittreachesthelevelofthetopof thehalfbox,place the liners inposition, thentheupperhalfof thebox,andpouritfull.

292.ScrapingaBabbittedBearing.Withthesplitbearing,itisnearlyalwaysnecessarytofitthebearingtotheshaftbyscraping.Thisisdonebycoatingthesurfaceoftheshaftwithlampblackandoil,orPrussianblue,andadjustingitinthebearing;thenrevolvetheshaft.Openthebearingandnoteifitformedagoodcontactwiththeshaft;ifitonlytouchedtheshaftatspots,scrapingisnecessary.Scrape the high places in bearing with regular bearing scrapers or with atriangularfilethathasbeengroundforthispurpose,untilpracticallytheentiresurfaceofbearingisincontactwithshaft.

293.RepairandAdjustmentofaMotor.(Fig.326.)Requirements:Torepairand adjust a gasoline engine, either a simple type or a tractor, truck orautomobileengine.Thetoolsneededarethesameasinpreviousprojects.PreliminaryInstructions:Thegasengineisthemostcommontypeofmechanical

motivepoweronthefarm.Everyboyneedstoknowhowtomakethesimplerepairsandadjustments,becausethegasenginethatisnotingoodadjustmentwillwastefuel,willdeveloponlyafractionofitspower,andwillwastethetimeoftheoperator.Firstbecomethoroughlyfamiliarwiththeenginebeforetryingto repair it. Study it carefully, analyze its troubles before trying to remedythem. In the work of dismantling and putting an engine in shape foroperating, the workman must observe extreme care to avoid breaking ormarringanypartofthemachine.Donotuseplierswhereawrenchshouldbeused,nor a screw-driverwhere a cold chisel is best suited.Be carefulnot totearordestroythepacking.Donotscrewthecouplingonfuellinetootight,asthethreadsareliabletobestripped.Cleanallpartsastheyareremoved.Placesmall parts, as nuts and screws, in a box provided for that purpose.Wheretiming gears are removed, see that they aremarked so theywill bemeshedproperlywhenre-assembled.Secure instructionbookonengineas furnishedbymanufacturer.294.OverhaulinganEngine.Themethodofprocedurewillvaryslightlywith

differentengines,butthefollowingstepswill indicatethegeneralprocedure:1)Disconnectthewiring.

2)Removethemagneto.3)Removetheigniterblockorsparkplug.4)Removethecylinderhead.5)Scrapethecarbonfromthefaceofthecylinderhead.

6)Removethevalvesandfreethemfromallcarbon.7)Notethevalveseatstoseeiftheyarefreefromcarbonandnotpitted.8)Ifvalvesareinpoorcondition,theyshouldbegroundasfollows:(a)Apply

a little coarsevalve-grinding compound to thevalve seat,put thevalve inplaceandgrind itby insertingthepointof thescrew-driver in theslot,oruseavalve-grindingtool,andgrindbyrevolvingbackandforthaboutone-fourthturn,exertingalittlepressure.Liftthevalveoccasionallytoreseatit.Continue theprocessuntil the rough surfaceon thevalve is removed. (b)Applyalittlefinevalve-grindingcompoundtothevalveseatandrepeattheprocessasoutlinedunder(a).Continueprocessofgrindinguntilthevalvesareallseated.(c)Cleanthevalveandvalveseat topreventanycompoundfromenteringthecylinder.

FIG.326.Gasolineengine.

9)Disconnecttheconnectingrodfromthecrankshaft,andremovethepiston

fromcylinder.(a)Cleanallcarbonfromthepiston.(b)Examineallpistonrings;noteifanyarestuckorbroken,(c)Ifnecessarytoputonnewrings,usethreeorfourthinpiecesoftinwithwhichtoslipontherings.Ringsareverybrittleandmustbehandledwithcare.

10)Notethewallofthecylindertoseethatitisnotscored.11) Remove all oiling devices and see that oil or grease passes thru to the

pointslubricated.12)Examinecrank-shaftbearings.13)Removegovernor.Examinethespring.14)Removepushrodsandlever.15)Examinecamshaftandgears.16) Disconnect pipe line from carburetor to fuel tank. See that it is not

clogged.17)Removecarburetorormixingvalveandexaminethefollowingpoints:(a)

Typeofairvalve,ifany;(b)howthegasisdrawntocarburetor;(c)howitiscontrolled at the carburetor; (d) screw out the needle valve and note itscondition.

18)Cleanoutanydirtorothermaterial thatmaybecollectedinthecoolingsystem.

19)Reassembletheengineinthereverseorderinwhichitwasdismantled.20)Adjust the engine by timing the valves and the ignition and setting the

governorforratedspeed.GeneralQuestionstoAnswerinReportonthisExercise:

1)Doestheenginehavehigh-orlow-tensionignition?2)Drawadiagramofthewiring.3)Whyisinsulationprovidedonthewire?4)Isthefixedorthemovableelectrodeinsulatedontheigniterblock?Why?5)Ifasparkplugisused,drawasketchshowingitsconstruction.6)Howfarapartarethesparkplugpoints?7)Why are the points on the sparkplug separated and those on the igniter

blockbroughttogether?8)Whyisitnecessarytocleanthemotorcylinderoccasionally?9)Whygrindthevalves?10)Whatcausescarbontocollectinthecylinder?11)Howisthecarbonbestremoved?12)Whathappensifapistonringisbrokenorstuck?13)Whathappensifthevalvesarenotseatingproperly?

14)Whathappensiftheoillineisstoppedup?15)Whathappensifbearingsaretooloose?16)Whathappenswhenbearingsaretootight?17)Whatareshims?18)Whathappensifthegovernorspringgetsweak?19)Whathappensifthegovernorsticks?20)Whatistheresultifthevalvestemsticks?21)Whatcausesthevalvestoopentoolateortooearly?22) About when should the valves open and close on a small stationary

engine?23)Whathappensifthefuelpipeispartiallyclogged?24)Whatistheeffectwhentheairvalveisclosed?25)Whatistheresultifthecarburetorisnotfastenedtotheintakemanifold

withanair-tightjoint?26)Thefeedtocarburetorsonmosttractorsandautomobilesiscontrolledby

meansofafloat.Whathappensifthefloatbecomessoakedfullofgasoline?Howremedied?

27)Whatistheeffectofusingdirtywaterinthecoolingsystem?

PARTVIBELTSANDBELTING

CHAPTERXXX

KINDSOFBELTSANDBELTLACES

295.MethodsofConnectingMachines.Therearethreecommonmethodsofconnecting machines—(1) by shaft, known as direct-connected; (2) by gearwheels,theoneonthedrivingmachinesbeingknownasthedriverandtheoneonthedrivenmachinebeingknownas the follower,and(3)bybelts, inwhichcase the names of the machines are those given when gears are used asconnectors.

296. Four Kinds of Belts. There are four common forms of belts—chain,canvas, rubber and leather. Chain belts, except for slight wear in link joints,remainconstantinlength;hence,neednotighteningastheygrowold.Theotherthree materials named, however, stretch, and, consequently, belts made fromthem need tightening from time to time to prevent their slipping. The usualmethod of tightening is to cut the belt, remove a piece and fasten the endstogether.

Canvas, rubber and leather belts may be cemented together. However, theresultwithcanvasbelts isnotverysatisfactory.Whenrubbercement isused,arubberbelt,ifnottooold,maybecementedsuccessfully.However,themethodoffasteningtheendsofabeltisapplicableprincipallytoleatherbelts.

297.CementSplice.Themostsatisfactoryspliceisonewhichkeepsthebeltatthejointthesameinshapeandgeneralconditionsasatanyotherpoint.Suchasplice ismadeby squaring the ends (Fig. 327), and then carefully dressing thejoiningsurface,asindicatedinFig.328,makingthethicknessatthesquaredendasthinaspossible—afeatheredge.

FIG.327.Squaringabelt.

A cement splice can easily be made without removing belt from pulleys.Tightenbeltwithabeltclamp(Fig.329),fittingitsquarelyonthebelt.

FIG.328.Taperingforglue-joint.

Thelengthofthespliceshouldbe1”greaterthanthewidthofthebelt,upto12”,whichisregardedasthemaximumlengthforsplicingabelt,nomatterhowwideitis.Whentheclamphaspulledthebelttothedesiredtension,cutoneendtomakethelap1”longerthanthewidthofthebelt.Laytheendofthebeltonaboard,theendofthetwocoinciding,andplanethelapjointwithasharp,smallplaneuntilithastheshapeshowninFig.328.

FIG.329.Beltclampedforgluing.

298.CementingBelt.Thesurfacesmaybejoinedwithanygoodbeltcementprocurable at leather and harness shops. Tack the belt at the joint down to aboard, and then securely clamp it to the board to dry for at least twenty-fourhours (Fig. 330).When the clamps are removed and the tackswithdrawn, thebeltisreadyforservice.Theparticularadvantageofthisspliceisthatitformsacontinuousbeltwithnoextensionstointerferewithsmooth-running.

FIG.330.Aglue-jointinclamps.

A canvas belt is usually laced, although it may be cement-spliced. If so,however,thejointshouldbecut,asshowninFig.331.

299. Laced Joints. These are common for leather belts up to 6” to 10” inwidth.Alacedjointismadebycalculatingthelengthdesiredandcuttingthebeltalittleshortofthislengthtoallowforstretching.

300.TheProcessofLacing.Projects inbelt-lacingmaybeselectedfromthepracticalproblemsofthefarmasbeltsneedtightening.Itwillbewelltoprecedethe first lacingofabelt in serviceby the lacing togetherof twoscrappiecesofbelt. Holes are punched in both ends of the belt. Thru these is drawn a lace,

usuallyastripofuntannedhideknownasrawhide,insomemannertofastenthetwoendssecurelytogetherandtopermitthelacingtopassoverthepulleyswithas little thumping and wearing as possible. Laced joints are usually classed assingle-cross-lacedanddouble-cross-laced,ofwhichtheformeristhemostusedexceptforheavybelts.

FIG.331.Jointoncanvasbelt.

Single-crosslacinggetsitsnamefromthefactthatasinglestrandoflacing,orwhang, joins the holes punched to receive it, and, also, because these strandscrosseachotheronthesideoppositethepulleybutonce,asshowninFig.332.

PatentBeltFastenings.Manypatentedbeltfasteningsareonthemarket.Someofthemareverygood,andmostofthemcanbeappliedinlesstimethanittakestolaceabelt.Thepatternwhichiseasilyappliedandremovedconsistsofaseriesofmetalloopsextendingthrueachendofthebelt,thruwhicharawhidestickispassed(Fig.337).

CHAPTERXXXIPROJECTSINLACINGBELTS

301. Single-Cross Lacing;OneRow ofHoles Punched on Each End. (Fig.332.)ToolsandStock:A6”leatherbeltor(forpractice)twoshortpiecesof6”belting,

56”oflace,beltpunch,squareandknife.Note: A narrower belt can be laced bymodifying the following instructions

accordingly:WorkingInstructions:Squaretheendsofthebelttomakeitslength1”lessthan

thatcalculatedormeasured.Squareapencillineacrosseachendofthebeltl”fromtheendandpunch3/16”holestodimensionsgiveninA,Fig.333.Pointtheendofthelaceandpassitthruhole00(Fig.332)fromtheoutside,leavingl/2”oftheendprotruding.Passthelaceupthruhole0anddownthruhole1,thenacrosstohole2andovertohole3,continuingtopassthelacedownthrutheodd-numberedholes from theoutsideof thebelt andup thru the even-numbered holes. Continue the lacing, passing thru the holes in rotation,finallyreturningtoholeNo.1,whichisalsomarked15and25.Thelacingwillnowbedouble.Caremustbetakentopassthelacingbackto7thefirsttimeitcomes thru 8 in order to get it double at the end. It should be tight andstraight.Inpassingthruaholethesecondtimeorthethird,asincaseofholeNo.1,useanawltoenlargetheholeslightly.AfterpassingtheendofthelacethruholeNo.1,coaxitthruholes0and00,leavingtheendextendingwiththefirst one. Pull these ends thru and levelwith the belt, cut half-way thru thelacingatananglewiththelace.Thisformsanotchineachendofthelacetoholditfromslippingthrutothepulleysideofthebelt.

FIG.332.Single-crosslacing;onerowofholes.

FIG.333.Positionofholesforvariouslaces.

302.Single-CrossLacing;TwoRowsofHolesPunchedonEachEnd.Note: The instructions given below are for a 6” belt. It will be noted by

referringtoFig.334thatthelacingsonthepulleysideofthebeltdonotlaponeonanother.Theholesbeingstaggered,causethelacingstoliesingly,whichisadecidedadvantageinovercomingnoiseinrunning,andwear.

FIG.334.Single-crosslacing;tworowsofholes.

WorkingInstructions:Punchtworowsofholeswithabeltpunchparalleltotheendofthebelt.Thediametershouldbeabouttwo-thirdsthesizeofthelacetobeused.The first row isplacedabout3/4” fromtheendof thebelt,and thesecondrowabout1-1/2”fromtheend.Incasethebeltisold,thesedistancesare increased slightly.Theholesare from3/4” to1”apartwithone-half thisdistanceseparatingtheendholesfromtheedgesofthebelt.Determinetheseoutside distances first and then divide up the intervening space so that thedistances between points will be as nearly as possible 3/4” (B, Fig. 333).

Beginningwiththeendpointsonthefirstrowfromtheendofthebelt,punchaholeateveryotherpoint.Onlyone-halfthenumberofholesmaybeused,asindicated inC,Fig. 333.Thiswillmakea less substantial lacing.To lace thebelt, place a lace thru themiddle holes from the pulley side—holes 1 and 2(Fig.334)—allowingthetwoendsofthelaceextendingonthesideofthebeltoppositethepulleytobeasnearlyaspossiblethesamelength.TheendwhichextendsthruholeNo.2isputthruholeNo.3,thenthruholesNos.4,5,6,7and8,passingthruthefirstrowofholesononepartofthebeltandthruthesecondrowontheotherpart;thentoNo.9,crossingthebeltjoint,andbackthruholesNos.10,11,12,13and14;thenthruholeNo.15,and,finally,thruatiehole,No.16,whentheendshouldbecutoffabout3/8”fromthebelt.Thesecondendofthelacingshouldfollowasimilarcourse,and,uponitsreturn,shouldgothruholeNo.2,and,finally,thruthetiehole,No.30.Notethatonthesideoppositethepulley,thelargecrossesorpliesareovertheshortones.This isdesirabletoreducefrictionandwear.Alwayspull the lacingtaut,butdonotbucklethebelt.

303.Double-Cross Lacing;One or TwoRows ofHoles Punched on EachEnd.Forthisproblem,twolacesratherthanonemustbeused.Itisnotdeemednecessary to give detailed instructions for a double-cross lacing, as theinstructionsgivenforProblem1andProblem2apply,exceptasindicatedbelow.

Double-crosslacingissimilartosingle-crosslacingexceptthattwostrandsoflace are drawn thru each hole and that the holes are spaced twice as far apartacrossthebelt.Itisnecessarythatthetwostrandsbedrawnequallytight.

Thismethodoflacingabeltisquickerthanthesingle-crosslacing,butismorebulkyand,consequently, isnoisierandcausesmorevibration. It isparticularlyadaptabletothecanvasbeltbecauseitdoesnotweakenthematerialasthesingle-cross lace does, since there are only half as many holes. These should bepunctures rather than cut holes, to still further preserve the strength of thematerial.

304.TheWireBeltLacing.Wirelacingisnowgenerallyused.Itisstrong,andthe strands arenot as large as rawhide lacing.Theholes are placednearer theendsofthebeltandnearertogether,also.Theendholesareabout1/4”fromtheedgeof thebelt, and the remainingholes about l/4” apart.The rowofholes isabout5/16”fromtheendofthebelt.

FIG.335.Wirelacing.

A No. 18 soft copper wire may be used for lacing. If it is hard, it can beannealedbyheatingittoredandplunginginwater.

There are now several good makes of patented wire lacing on the market.These are made up from several metals in a proportion which will give amaximumdegreeofservice.Generally,theywillbefoundsuperiortothecopperwire. When using patented wire lacing, care should be taken to follow thedirectionswhicharegivenontheboxinwhichitcomes.Thesizeandlengthoflacingshouldbeselectedaccordingtothewidthofthebelt.

Whenlacing,startatholeNo.1andpullone-halfthewirethru.Then,usingtheendextendingonthepulleyside,laceasindicatedbyNos.1,2,3,4,etc.,inFig.335,returningthruNo.15.Now,usetheotherendwhichisprotrudingontheoutsideofthebeltthruholeNo.2,andpassitthru16,17,18,etc.,returningto25.Theendsarenowinthesameholes,butinoppositedirections.Tofastentheends,makeasmallholewithanail,asshownbyNo.26,andpassbothendsthruthis.Makeanothersmallholeandpullthewirewhichisnowonthepulleyside up on the outside. Cut both ends about l/2” from the surface of the belt.Makesquarehooksontheendsofthewiresandclinchthemthruthebelt inasimilarmannertothatindicatedforthehingelaceinFig.337.

FIG.336.TheAnnanlacing.

Pliersareusedforpullingthewirethruwhenlacing.Itisbettertotakeholdof

thewireattheextremeendsoastoavoidnickingitinordertogetthemaximumdurabilityinthelacing.

305.TheAnnanLacing.Thislacing(namedafterthemanwhodesignedit)isvery satisfactory, and has the advantage of making the belt reversible on thepulleyifnecessary,asthelacingsonbothsidesarethesame.Besides,thelacingsdonotcross;thus,thedisadvantageofadoublethicknessoflaceisavoided.Fig.336showsthestepsinmakingthelacing.

Start the lace as for the single-cross lacing, and continue by following thruholesasnumbered,fasteningthelastendofthebeltathole21.

FIG.337.Hingedbeltlacingwithwirehooks.

306. The Hinge Belt Lacing. Hinge lacing consists of using practically thesame layout of holes as described for the single-cross lacing, but the lace isbroughtbetweentheedgesofthebeltwheretheendscometogetherandthruthenextholefromtheoppositesideofthebelt.Inthismanner,thepliesformasortofahingebetweenthebeltends.Theytendtochafeatthispoint,however,and,consequently, have a short life; therefore, this lacing is no longer popular. Fig.337showsmethodoflacing.

307.Belt-HookJoint.Belthooksareobtainable invarious sizesandshapes.Somearemadetotherequiredshapeandareinsertedintoslitsmadeintheendsofthebelt,whileothersarebenttoshapeandfitted,asshowninFig.338.

FIG.338.Wirebooksusedinlacing.

PARTVIIFARMHOMELIGHTINGANDSANITARYEQUIPMENT

CHAPTERXXXII

FARMLIGHTINGANDFARMHOUSEHEATING

308.Necessity forGoodLight.During the longwinternights, thoseon thefarmwhowouldspendapartoftheeveninginreadingthecurrenteventsoftheday,studyingthevariousfarmproblems,andplanningforthenextyear’swork,feel theneedof amodern lighting system.On farmswhere thereareboysandgirls in school and where they are required to prepare lessons at night, thereshouldbe thebest lightspossible.Shortsightedness in schoolchildren isaverycommon defect, which increaseswith age. It is due principally to poor schoolroomandhomelighting.

A good lighting system improves the sanitary condition in the home andmakesforbetterhealthandhigherefficiency.Thefarmershouldgiveagreatdealof thought and attention to the proper lighting of his buildings. The dairyfarmer,especially, shouldhavehishouseandbarnswell lighted.Awell-lightedbarn and dairymakes possible the production of a higher quality of products,makesworkmore pleasant anddecreases the danger from fires, thus reducingtheinsurancerate.

309.TheCheapestLight.Probablytheold-fashionedflat-wickkerosenelampis the cheapest from the standpoint of cost of fuel. This is not truewhen oneconsiders the cost of operation, however. Again, a consideration of the poorqualityofthelightproducedbythislamp,itseffectontheeyes,itsdanger,andthefactthatnoworkmancandohisbestworkunderpoorlightingconditions,makesthispioneermeansofhome-lightinganexpensiveone.

Thekerosene tubular lamp isan improvementover the flat-wick type in theamount of illumination, especially when it is provided with a mantle whichimprovesthequalityandincreasestheamountoflightproduced.

310.AMoreModernLightingPlant.The farmerwhowould install a trulymodernlightingsysteminhishomehasfourkindsofplantsfromwhichtomakehisselection,namely,theelectric,acetylene,gasolinegasandBlaugasplants.

311. Electric LightingPlants. (Fig. 339.) There are definite advantages thatthe electric light has over other forms of lighting that are recognized by everyone. It is clean, safe, its cost is not prohibitive, and it does not make the airimpure.

Wherethepowerforelectriclightscanbesecuredatareasonablepricefrom

power-distributionlinespassingthefarm,thesituationisideal.Manyfarmersdonotcaretobeburdenedwiththechoreoflookingafteralightingplant.

Untilrecentyears,therewerefewunitplantsonthemarket;thatis,anengineandgeneratorbuilttogether.Mostofthegeneratorswereformerlybelt-drivenbya small engine that could be easily used for some other purpose. There is anumber of unit plants on themarket that are arranged with a belt pulley forpowerpurposes.Somefarmersuseapowerwindmilltodrivethegenerator.

Intheinstallationofasmalllow-voltageelectricplant,besurethatallwireisofamplesize.Themistakeisoftenmadeofusingthesamesizewireasusedinwiring city residences where a higher voltage is used. All wiring should beproperlyinspectedtoseethatitmeetsallinsurancerequirements.TheNationalBoardofFireUnderwritersofChicagowillproviderulesforthiswork.

In operating a small electric plant, pay especial attention to the care of thestoragebatteries.Theupkeepandreplacementcostofthestoragebatteryisthemostexpensiveiteminthecostofoperatinganelectricplant.

FIG.339.Farmelectricplant.

312. Acetylene Lighting Plants.Many farmers purchase the acetylene lightplant because it is cheaper to operate than the electric plant and requires lessattention.Most farmers like the outdoor type of plant best, because it is safe,easily charged, easily cleaned out, and where a 100-pound capacity plant issecured,itdoesnotrequirere-chargingoftenerthanthreeorfourtimesduringtheyear.Anyacetyleneplant that is constructedor located so that thegaswillescapeintoaclosedroomisdangerous.Acetylenegasisalittlemoredangerousthangasoline;bothmustbehandledwithgreatcare.

FIG.339-a.Gasolinegasgenerator.

313.GasolineGasLights.Mostof thegasolineequipmentsareeitherof thesmallportable-lamptypeortheonebywhichthegasispipedthrusmalltubestothe individual lamp. These types of gasoline lamps are objectionable from aninsurance standpoint. Only where the gas is produced outside of the building(Fig.339-a)andpipedinlikeordinarycitygas,isthegasolinesystemreallysafe.The greatest danger of gasoline lights comes from taking gasoline inside thehouse.

Fromastandpointofeconomy,thegasolinegaslampsarereallycheaperthaneitheracetyleneorelectriclamps.

314. Blau Gas Lights. Blau gas is an oil gas that is liquefied under highpressure.Itisfreedfromallpoisonousgasesandispracticallynon-explosive.Itissoldintubessimilartopresto-lite—twentypoundsofgastothetube.ThelightproducedbyBlaugasisquitesatisfactoryandnotprohibitiveinprice.

315.FarmhouseHeating.Awell-heatedhousemakesforcomfortableliving.It has been only during rather recent years that much development has beenmade in farmhouse heating. Many progressive farmers are now installingsystemsof heating thatwillmaintain an even temperature thru-out thehouse,andprovideanabundanceoffreshair.Heatingandventilationgohand-in-hand.

Themodernheatingsystemislocatedinthebasement.Itkeepsthelitteranddirtfromthemainfloors,whicharedifficulttokeepcleanwhenfuelandashesarehandledoverthemincaringforastove.

316.TheHot-AirSystem.Therearetwotypesofhot-airsystemsfoundonthemarket.One is thepipeless furnace,which is essentially a special typeof stovelocatedinthebasementandsurroundedbyajacketwhichcarriestheheattotheroomsabove.Adownshaftisprovidedtokeeptheairincirculation.Thistypeoffurnacecanbeeasilyinstalledinanyhomealreadybuiltthatisprovidedwithabasementorcellar.Theother typeofhot-airplant isprovidedwith largepipesthat carry thehot airdirect to thevarious rooms.Thesepipes, or “leaders,” asthey are sometimes called, must run as direct to the rooms to be heated as

possible, and they should bewrappedwith asbestos to prevent loss of heat. Ahousecanbeheatedmorequicklywithhotairthanwithwaterorsteam,butitwillcooloffmorequicklywhenthefiresdiedown.Duringextremelycold,windyweather,itisdifficultwithahot-airsystemtoheatroomsonthesideofahousefromwhichthewindisblowing.

317. Steam and Hot-Water Systems. The steam-heating system can beinstalledasasingle-pipeora two-pipesystem.Thehot-waterheating isa two-pipesystem.Thetwosystemsarequitesimilarasfarasinstallationisconcerned,andcanbe installedfairlyeasily inahousealreadybuilt.Thehot-watersystemworks on the principle of water being lighter when hot than when cold. Theheatedwaterrisestothevariousradiators,theheatisgivenoffintherooms,andthewateratalowertemperatureflowsbacktotheboiler.Caremustbeobservedininstallingthepipestogetpropercirculation.

Moststeamsystemsareforlow-pressuresteam.Thesteamisgeneratedintheboiler; it rises thru the pipes to the radiators, where it loses its heat, and iscondensedandflowsbacktotheboiler. Intheone-pipesystem,thecondensedsteamflowsbacktotheboilerthruthesamepipethruwhichthelivesteamflowstotheradiator.

Ahousecanbeheatedmuchmorequicklywithsteamthanwithhotwater,butinahot-watersystemthewaterwillholdthetemperaturemoreuniformlyandamoreevenheatismaintained.Thisisthebigadvantageofthehot-watersystemoverallothersystems.

The installationofmost lightingandheatingequipmentshouldbe left toanexperiencedman.Toinstallapipelessfurnace,however,isnotaverygreattask,andcanbedonebyapersonwithlittleexperience.

CHAPTERXXXIIIFARMWATERSUPPLYANDSEWAGEDISPOSAL

318.ImportanceofSanitationontheFarm.Itishightimethateveryfarmergiveseriousthoughttothesanitationproblemsoffarmlife.Wateristhoughttobe cheap and thus little value is put upon it; this is the chief cause of neglect.Many shallow farmwells are contaminated due to poor protection at the top,poorsurfacedrainage,seepageandgeneralneglect.Cisternwaterisoftenmadeunfittodrinkbyimpuritieswashinginfromtheroofduetolackofagoodfilter,ortooneimproperlycaredfor.Itissometimesimpurebecausethecisternisnotproperlybuiltandseepagewatergetsin.

The first consideration for health on the farm should be a pure andwholesomewatersupplyofcapacitytotakecareofalltheneedsoftheplace.Adeepwell isaboutthesafestsourceofwatersupply.Shallowwellsandcisterns,however, can be made safe by proper protection at the top, careful surfacedrainage,andbypreventingtheentranceofseepagewater.Forcisterns,thewatershouldbecollectedonlyaftertheroofhasbeenthoroughlywashedoff.Awell-builtfilter,cleanedoutandrefilledwithfilteringmaterialatregularintervals,willgoalongwaytowardpurifyingsuchwater.

319. Simplest Water System. The simplest system of water supply is anordinarysuction,orforce,pumpattachedtoasinkinthekitchen.Thepipeleadsfromthepumpthruthefloorandintothewellorcistern.Thesourceofwaterforasystemofthiskindmustbenearthehouseandnotverydeep.Forsatisfactoryservice, there should not be more than twenty-five feet between the pumpcylinderandthelowestlevelofthewater.Adrainmustbeprovidedtotakeoffallwastewaterfromthesink.Suchasystemcanbeeasilyinstalled.

320.GravitySystem.Thesimplestgravitysystemisonethathasasmalltanklocatedintheatticandisconnectedbymeansofapipetoaforcepumpinthekitchen. Such a system makes possible the installation of all other plumbingequipment.Fig.340showsasystemwithasixty-gallontankintheattic.Waterispumpedtothetankbymeansofaforcepumpandasmallgasolineengine.Theoverflowfromthestoragetankrunstothestocktankinthelot.Agoodfeatureofthis system is that all of the water for stock is pumped thru the house tank,therebykeepingitalwaysfreshandcool.InFig.340isshownalsotheinstallation

ofcompleteplumbingconnections.Wherethereisahillorslightelevationnearthehouse,atankcanbeplacedontheground.TheconcretetankshowninFig.341isafarmstoragetank.Itislargeenoughtosupplythehouse,hoghouse,hogwallows,barnsandgarage,allofwhichareprovidedwithfaucets.Withthetankplacedonthegroundandprovidedwithagoodfoundation,thereisnodangerofsupportsgivingawayaswithanelevated tankandthedangerof thepipes thatlead to the tank freezing iseliminated.Wherea satisfactorymeansofelevatingthetankisathand, thegravitysystemis themostsatisfactoryforaveragefarmconditions. A tank supported by concrete or masonry walls is a very goodarrangement.Aroomunderneaththetankcanthusbeprovidedtobeusedasamilkhouse.

321.WaterAir-PressureSystem.This system, shown inFig. 342, isusuallycalledthehydro-pneumaticsystem.Initthewaterisstoredinanair-tightsteeltankandisforcedthruthepipestothefixturesbyairpressure.Asthewaterisused,thepressureisgraduallyreduced.Insomesystemsofthistypethereisbothawaterandanairpump.Themostcommontypeisequippedwithonlyawaterpumpwithairintake.Tooperatethesystem,thetankisfilledwithair,thewaterispumpedin,andtheairpressureincreasesasthevolumeoftheairdecreases.Onlyabouttwo-thirdstothree-fourthsofthevolumeofthetankiseffectiveforwater storage.This isoneof theprincipalobjections to this system,because toavoidpumpingsooften,anextremely largetankmustbeprovidedif thewaterrequirements are very large. However, with electric power available, anautomatic control can be provided and a smaller tank be used. Completeequipment for a system of this kind includes an air-tight tank, a force pump,pressuregauges,andotherfittings,andplumbingfixtures.

FIG.340.Gravitywatersystem.

FIG.341.Concretereservoirforwaterstorage.

322.HydraulicRam.Wherethereisalargequantityofwaterwithsufficientfall, a hydraulic ram is the cheapestmeans of providingwater pressure in thehome. The first cost is small, there is practically no upkeep, and it will runcontinuously without any attention. Under ordinary conditions, a ram willelevateaboutone-seventhofthewaterthatflowstoitthruthedrivepipe.Arule

that can be used to determine the approximate amount of water that will bedelivered with a certain flow is: Multiply the number of gallons of flow perminutebythenumberoffeetofverticalfallbetweenthesourceofwaterandtheram.Divide thisby theheight it isdesired toelevate thewater,andreduce theresultbyone-thirdtotakecareoffrictionandlossesinthepipes.Theremainderwillbethequantityofwaterdelivered.Forexample, if theflowis4gallonsperminute,thefallis9feetandthewateristobeelevated24feet,wehavefourtimes9 equals 36; 36 divided by 24 equals 1-1/2; reduce this by 1/3, andwe have 1gallonperminutedelivered,or1,440gallonsper24hours.

FIG.342.Hydro-pneumaticwatersystem.

323.SelectingaSystem.Inselectingawatersystem,manymakethemistakeofinstallingonethatdoesnotfurnishsufficientwater.Itismuchbettertohaveacisternor tankwithgreatercapacity thanactuallyneededthantohaveonetoosmall. The same is true in selecting a pressure tank for the hydro-pneumaticsystem or an air tank for the fresh-water system. The first cost will be a littlegreater,buttheexpensewillbelessintheend.Asabasisforestimate,onemustrememberthatafteramodernwatersystemisinstalled,muchmorewaterwillbeusedthanbefore.Foreachperson,oneshouldestimateatleast25or30gallonsperday; foreachcow,15gallons; forhorses,10gallons,andhogsandsheep,3gallons per day, allowing for an additional supply to care for chickens, forwateringthegarden,washingthecarorbuggy,sprinklingthelawn,etc.

324.TheSepticTank.Nomodernwater systemiscompletewithoutproperdisposalofthewastewaterandsewage.Oftentimesthesewerissimplytilethatleadsdownto the fieldor intoaditchorsmall stream.Thismethodof sewagedisposalisnotsanitary,norisitsafefromastandpointofhealth.Ifalargestreamisathand,intowhichtodischargethesewage,itcanbeusedwithsafety;asmallcreek,however,wouldsoonbecomecontaminated.

The septic tank is ameans of disposal of sewage from the farm home. Theseptic tank alonewill not purify sewage; itwill partially purify it andput it inconditiontobecompletelypurifiedbymeansofafilterorthruasystemoftile.The septic tank illustrated inFig.343 is aone-chambered tank. Its action is asfollows:Intheseptictankthesewageisactedonbybacteria—minuteorganismsthatthriveunderconditionswherethereisneitherairnorlight.Thesolidsinthesewagearebrokendownandputintosolution.Itmustberememberedthatonlyoneorlessthanonepercentofthesewageissolids—therestisallwater.Soonathick leathery scum forms on the surface of the tank; this indicates that it isworkingproperly.Thesolidpartthatisnotdissolvedsettlestothebottomofthetank.Itisnecessarytocleanthisouteveryfewyears.

FIG.343.One-chamberseptictank.

Tocompletelypurifythissewage,itisdischargedontoafilterorintoasystemoftilearrangedtoallowittofilterawayintothesoil.Inthefilterorinthesurfacesoil, there are billions of bacteria that thrive in the presence of air and light.

Thesearecalledthenitrifyingbacteria.Theycompletelypurifythesewage.Thisisnature’smethodofpurification.

325. The Art of Plumbing. Plumbing has been called a sanitary art anddefined as the art of placing in buildings, pipes and other apparatus used forintroducingwatersupplyandforremovingwastes.

The Plumber as a Specialist: In big jobs in large building work, there arespecial plumbers for doing the heavy roughing-in work, putting in the largepipesandthegeneralnetworkofsmallerpipes.Thenthereareotherplumberstodothefinishingwork.

There are certain essentials in handling a house-plumbing job. Theman inchargeshouldbethoroughlycompetenttoseethattheconnectionsareproperlymade.Aplumbingjobthatispoorlyfinishedmaybeasourceofagreatdealofdanger, and should be thoroughly inspected. Simplicity in the laying out ofpipingand fixtureswill tend to eliminateplumbing troubles.Theprinciplesofdrainagemust be ever inmindwhen installing a plumbing system.All supplypipes, as well as drains, must be installed so they have an outlet and with agradualslopetowardthisoutlet.Theremustbenolowpointsorpocketswherewaterwillcollectwhenthesystemisdrained.Suchadefectwouldcausestoppageindrainpipes,andthesupplypipes,whenexposed,wouldfreezeatthesepoints.Mainsoilpipemadeof4”pipeshouldextend5’fromoutsideofthecellarwalltoactasasewerconnectionintothehouseandthrutheroof.Thispipeshouldbestraight fromthecellar to theroof.All fixturesshoulddischarge thruthemainsoilpipe,andshouldbeprovidedwithtrapsthoroughlyventilatedtopreventtheescape of sewer gas into the house. In some plumbing jobs, an additionalventilation pipe is carried from each trap into a main 2” pipe which isindependent of the soil pipe and is also carried thru the roof. This preventsleakageofthesealortrap.

Plumbingmaterialsandfixturesshouldbeofgoodquality, simple indesign,with all joints and connections made air-and water-tight. They should be ofentirelynon-absorbentmaterialAllplumbing shouldbe asnearly accessible aspossible.Removablewoodenpanelsoverthesoilpipeandothermainpipesareworth considering. Fixtures nearmain drain and all bath and kitchen fixturesshouldbeopenwork.Freeaccessofairandlightshouldalsobeobtained.Boxed-in sinks and bath tubs are insanitary because dirt andmoisture are bound tocollectaroundthebase.

326.MaterialsUsedforPlumbing.Forsinks,thesolidporcelainisthemostexpensive.Theironenamelis justaboutasgoodasthesolidporcelainandcan

beobtainedmuchcheaper.Forlaundryequipment,theslate,reinforcedconcreteandenameledironcanbeused.Slatetubsforlaundryareverysatisfactory.Themostsanitaryequipmentsarethosewhichareinonepiecewithallpartsproperlyrounded.ThegeneralequipmentisusuallylistedastoqualityasNo.1,No.2andNo.3.No.1isFig.344.Pipeusuallyguaranteedandisveryexpensive;No.2isverysatisfactory.ItisusuallynotadvisabletobuytheNo.3quality.

FIG.344.Pipevise.

Thepersonwhowoulddothesimpleplumbingjobshereindescribedshouldbecomefamiliarwiththemorecommonplumbingtoolsandtheiruses;also,thevarious pipe fittings required. The following tools are needed for even thesimplestjob:Vise,cutter,die-stockanddies,wrenches,reamerorhalf-roundfile,andrule.

327.PipeVise.Thehingedtypeofvise(Fig.344)withgravitypawl isaboutthebesttosecure.Thereversibletypemaybesecured.Thelattercanbethrownopeneithertotherightortotheleft,withaclutchoneithersidetoengagethepawl.Suchavisehasadistinctadvantagewhencuttingapipewhichhasfittingsthatwillnotpassthrutheframeofanordinaryvise.

328.PipeCutters.Pipecutters(Fig.345)aredividedintotwogeneraltypes—thethree-cutterwheelandtheone-cutterwheeltypes.Theone-cutterwheelcanbesecuredwithsolidbackorwithtworollers;thelattertypeisprobablyinmostgeneraluse.Thethree-cutterwheeltypehastheadvantageofbeingusedinclosequarters.Thistypeofcutterformsaburrontheoutsideofthepipewhichmustberemovedwithafilebeforethethreadscanbecut.Thepipedoesnotneedtobereamedout,however.

FIG.345.Three-wheelpipecutter.

FIG.346.Stockanddie.

329.Die-stocksandDies.Itmustberememberedthatadifferentdieisusedforthreadingapipethanforthreadingabolt.Thepipethreadisataperthread,makingpossibleatightjoint.Thesolidtypeofdieismostcommonlyused(Fig.346).Anumberofdies fordifferent-sizedpipecanbe securedandused in thesamestock.Theadjustabletypeofdieisusedinaspecialstock.Aratchetstockissometimesused.

330.PipeWrenches.TheTrimoandStillsonwrenches are the two typesofwrenches in most common use. At least two sizes of wrenches should beprovided—oneforsmallpipesandfittingsandoneforlargersizes.Forextremelylarge pipe, chain tongs are usually used. (See Fig. 347 for picture of pipewrenches. Fig. 347-a shows many of these tools in a group.)

FIG.347.Pipewrench.

FIG.347-a,Severalcommonplumbingtools.

331.Reamers.Thereamerisusedtoremovetheburrformedontheinsideofpipebycuttingthepipe.Areamerfittedinahandwheelisquitesatisfactory.Aone-halfroundoraroundfilecanbeused.

332. Rule. A folding rule should be provided. For a neat job of pipefitting,carefulmeasuringisnecessary.

333. Pipe Fittings. Pipe fittings are used in joining one pipe to another, tochange direction, to reduce size, and to branch off. Fittings are made ofmalleable,castandwroughtiron;thelatterareusuallygalvanized.Therearealsobrassandnickel fittings forspecialuses.Figs.348and348-agive thenamesoftheprincipalfittingsforsupplyandwastepipes.

FIG.348.Fittingsforsupplypipes:1.Elbow.

2.Tee.3.Union.4.Nipple.5.45°elbow.6.Streetelbow.7.Reducer.8.Valve.9.Faucet.

FIG.348-aFittingsforwastepipes:1.Ventilatingcap.

2.SanitaryT-branch.3.Closedbend.4.Quarterbend.5.TappedT-branch.6.Trapwithhandhole.7.Roofflange.8.Drumtrap.9.90°elbow.10.Tee

CHAPTERXXXIVDRAINAGEANDPIPEFITTING

334. Fitting PipeHandle for LawnRoller. (Fig. 349.) (See concrete project,Sec.146.)

Requirements:Tocut,threadandassemblepipeandfittingtoformahandleofproper dimension for a concrete roller as outlined underConcrete Projects,Sec.146.

FIG.349.Pipehandleforgardenroller.

ToolsandMaterialsNeeded:Pipecutter,vise,die-stockanddie,wrenches,andarule. Pieces of 1/2” pipe, lengths depending on requirements of particularhandle; two1/2” elbows, two1/2” tees,one1/2”union, and two3/4”x1/2”tees.The latter is to serve asbearings for axleof roller.The size specified issufficientlylargewherea1/2”pipeisusedforaxle.

PreliminaryInstruction:335. Measuring Materials for Handle. Extreme care must be observed in

makingmeasurements tohave thehandle fit smoothly.ThedistancesA andB(Fig. 349) will depend on the length and diameter of roller. The distance Ashould be made about 1/2” greater than the length of roller. The distance B

between center of fittings should be about 2” greater than the radius of roller.ThedistanceCshouldbemadealengththatwillmaketherollerconvenienttooperator.Measurements areusually taken from the centerofone fitting to thecenterofthenext.Tomakeaccuratemeasurements,eachfittingshouldbemadetightbeforethenextpieceofpipeiscut.The1/2”unioncanbeeliminatedifoneof the tees inwhich thecrosspipe is threadedhasa right-hand threadand theotheraleft-handthread.WorkingInstructions:

336.ThreadingPipe.Place apieceof 1/2”pipe in thevise. Ifnot threaded,threaditwitharight-handdieasfollows:Notethatproperdieisplacedinstock;placeguidebushinginplace;oilendofpipewithlardoil;placebushingendofdie-stockonpipeandstartdiewithhandsnearcenterofstockbypressinghardon handles and rotating one-fourth turn at a time. After die has taken hold,movehandsouttotheendsofhandleandcontinuerotatingwithlesspressure.After each complete turn, rotate backward slightly to allow chips to drop.Continuethisprocessuntilthreadofsufficientlengthiscut.Itisoftennecessarytoremovedieandtryonfittingtogetthebestresults.Thefittingshouldgoonatleastthreethreadsbyhand.ScrewfittingNo.1onendofpipebymeansofthepipewrench.

337.CuttingPipe.DrawthepipethrutheviseandlayofflengthBwithrule.Placepipecutteronpipeso that thecuttingwheelcomesonthemark.Dropalittlelardoilonpipeandcuttingwheel,screwthehandleinuntilcuttingwheelbeginstocut,thenrotatecutter.Ateachrevolutionofthecutter,feedthecutterwheelinwardbyscrewinginonhandle;continueuntilpipeiscutoff.PlacethepipeBinviseandthreadblankend,afterwhichscrewonfittingNo.2.

ProceedbycuttingandthreadingpipelengthCandscrewingintofittingNo.2andNo.3.Makeupothersideofhandle in thesamemanner; thencut, threadand assemble pipe lengthsD,E andF so that the two sides of handle will beparallel.

After handle is assembled to proper dimension, unscrew union No. 7 andspringhandles apart until fittingsNos. 1 and 4will slip over the ends of axle,afterwhichtightenunion.

FIG.350.Establishingagradefortile.

338.InstallingDrainfromKitchenSinktoSewageDisposalSystem.Requirements: To install drain pipe and tile from kitchen sink to outlet or

disposalsystem.(SeeFigs.350,351,352.)ToolsandMaterialsNeeded:Plumbing tools and tiling spade,hookand scoop,

andacarpenter’s levelarerequired.Obtainone trap, sufficient l-l/4”pipe tocarrywaterfromsinktoapoint5’outsidehouse,suitablefittings,whitelead,50’of4”sewertile,andsufficientfarmdraintiletoreachoutlet.

FIG.351.A,tileproperlylaid;B,tilepoorlylaid.

Preliminary Instruction: The first requirement of every drain is an adequateoutletorpointofdischarge.Thispointmustbelowenoughsothetilecanbegivenamplefalltopreventthesewageorwaterbackingupinthedrain.It isconsideredbestpracticetodischargesewagefromsanitaryfixturesthrusewertiledirecttoseptictankwhilethekitchenwastewaterisusuallytakencareofby ordinary drains. A smooth, uniform grade must be provided for everydrain. In farm drainage work, this is usually established by means of adrainagelevel.

WorkingInstruction:339. Establishing Grade Line for Drain. Determine point of outlet and

establishagradelinebywhichtodigtheditch.Forasmalljobsuchasthis,whenthereisadecidedslopeoftheground,placethegradeparalleltotheslope.Iftheground is practically level, a grade line can be established by means of anordinarycarpenter’slevel.Driveinaseriesofstakesfrom4’to5’longatintervalsof25’;forlongdrains,stakesareplacedevery50’.Byusinglongstakes,aguidelinetodigbycanbeplacedasthegradeisestablished.Ifitisdesiredtohaveafallof1/4”tothefoot,takeastraight1”x2”scantling4’long;tacka1”blockunderoneend,andfastentolowersideoflevelwithblockonlowerside.Tieacordtostakeattheoutletatapointabout3’abovethesurfaceoftheground,stretchthe

cordtothesecondstake,andtestitforgradebyplacingthelevelinpositionsothe block will be down grade (Fig. 350).When the bubble of the instrumentindicates that it is level, it shows that there is a riseof1” to every4’ along thecord.

FIG.352.Sewertilemadetight.

340.DiggingDitchtoGrade.Useagagerodofdefinitelength,anddigditchsoitsbottomwillbeparalleltothecord.Ifitisdesiredtohavethedrain4’deepat theoutlet, thegagerodshouldbe7’ longsincethecordwasplaced3’abovethe surfaceof thegroundat theoutlet. If the soil isheavy and sticky, anopenspade can be used to advantage; use a round-nose spade or a tile scoop forcleaningthebottomofditchtoreceivethetile.

341.LayingtheTile.Lay the tileas theditch iscompleted,beginningat theoutlet.Theordinaryfarmtilecanbelaideitherbyhandorbymeansofthetilehook.Thetilemustbemadetofitcloselytogetherintheditch(A,Fig.351);thisisbestaccomplishedbyrotating the tileuntil it is inplace.Thesewer tile (Fig.352)isprovidedwithbellendorbellmouth,andthejointsaremadetight.Placethetileinplacesothedirectionofflowwillbeintothebellend;placethespigotendofeachtileintothebellendoftheprecedingtileasitislaid.Asmallpieceofoakumortarredropeforcedinbetweenthespigotandthebellwithaflatstickwillmakepossibleasmoothjob.Placecementmortarinthejointafterproperlyadjustingthetile.Theuseofaswab,asindicated,isadvisable.Placetiletoapoint5’outsideofbuilding.Cut, threadand fitpipe todischarge into the sewer thathasbeenlaid.Thedepthtoplacethispipeandslopetogiveitwilldependupontheseweroutlet.

342.InstallingKitchenSinkandPump.Requirements:Toinstallakitchensinkandpumpsothatwatermaybepumped

directly fromawellorcisterntokitchen(Fig.353).The installationofdrainforthissinkisoutlinedunderSecs.338-341.

ToolsandMaterialsNeeded:ThetoolsneededfortheprojectarethesameasinSec.334.Thefollowingmaterialsareneeded:Pump,sink, trapandsufficient1-1/4”pipetoreachfrompumpatsinktocisternorwell,as illustrated(Fig.353).Suchelbowsandcouplingsasneededandacheckvalveforsuctionpipe.

Whiteorredleadformakingjoints.PreliminaryInstruction:

343.MaximumDepthforPumpingWater.Itmustberememberedthattheverticaldistancefromcylinderofpumptolowlevelofwatermustbe25’orlesstogivesatisfaction.Wherethereisalikelihoodofwaterinpipefreezingduringcold weather, the check valve in suction pipe should be omitted to allow thewater to drain back intowell. The only difference in thework in this and thepreceding project, Sec. 334, is that the pipe jointsmust all bemade absolutelytight.

FIG.353.Kitchenpumpandsinkinstallation.

WorkingInstructions:344. LocationofKitchen Sink. Locate sink in the kitchen so that itwill be

convenientandhaveamplelight.Mostsinksarefastenedtoawallbymeansofhangers or brackets which can be easily installed. Adjust height of sink toconvenienceofuser.

Excavate for pipe from cistern to point underneath sink. If a basement isunderhouse,excavatefromcisterntowall.Thepipeshouldbeplacedbelowfrostline. Take measurements from the cistern to the sink, determining the exactlengthofeachpieceofpipeneededandthenecessaryfittings.

345.ConnectingPipeforPump.CutandthreadpipeasoutlinedunderSecs.

336,337.Inmakingthevariousjoints,applyasmallamountofwhiteleadtothefirst three threads in fittingoron thepipe.Beginat thepumpand screweachfittingandpieceofpipeperfectlytightbeforebeginningonthenext.

346.InstallingPlumbinginCountryHome(Fig.354).Requirements: To install rough plumbing, including soil pipe, vent pipes and

variousdrainsforfixturesinwallpartitionwhilehouseisunderconstruction.(SeeFig.354.)

Tools and Materials Needed: Plumbing tools, plumber’s furnace, ladle andcaulking tools. Soil pipe and soil-pipe connections, vent pipes, drains forfixturesandtraps.Leadandoakumforjoints.

PreliminaryInstruction:Everyplumbingsystemshouldbedesignedwithanideaof simplicity in the layout of piping and fixtures. If possible, the bath roomshould be directly above the kitchen, and with the laundry room below, asshowninFig.354.Thiswillmakeitpossibleforonesoilpipetotakecareofthedischargefromfixturesoneachfloor.Fig.354-ashowsasysteminathree-storyhousewithabathroomoneachfloor.Thesoilpipeshouldextendfromapoint5’outsidethewall,whereitconnectswiththesewer,upthruthehouseroof. It should be straight from cellar to roof. Tight joints are an essentialrequirement of every plumbing system. Provide a trap for every fixture; thebestpracticeprovidesa2”ventilationpipewithconnectiontoeachtrap.Thelocation of each fixture should be carefully considered with a view toconveniencefortheuserandtomakeasimple,efficientlayout.

FIG.354.Wasteandventilatingpipe.

FIG.354-a.Wastepipewithoutventilatingpipe.

WorkingInstructions:347.SewerTile.Layasewertilefromsewerconnection,orfromseptictank,

toapoint5’outsideofbuilding.FollowinstructionsasoutlinedunderSecs.338-341.Make connection of soil pipewith sewer, and extend it to a point in thebasementwhereitwillbemostconvenienttofixturesandwhereitwillpassthrupartitiontoroof.

SoilPipe.Thejointsofsoilpipearesimilartojointsofsewertile.Eachsectionofpipeisprovidedwithabellendintowhichisplacedthespigotendofthenextsection.Thejointsmustbeperfectlytight;tomakethemso,oakumandleadareused.Thepipeissetinplace,arollofoakumispackedintothebottomofjoint,after which molten lead is poured into joint caulked with the joint, filling it

completely (Fig. 355). To pour the leadwhere a joint ismade in a horizontalpipe,asortofcollarmustbeprovidedwithopeningatthetop.Iftheoakumisnotcarefullypackedintoplace,theleadwillrunthru.Aftertheleadhascooled,pack it solidly into the joint with a hammer and caulking tool.Well-caulkedjointsareabsolutelytight.

FIG.355.Soilpipejointcaulkedwithoakumandlead.

349. Connecting Fixtures and Vents. Provide suitable Ys and Ts for allfixtures, as illustrated. Connect the vent pipe from a point below the bottomfixtureandextenditup,andconnectbackintothesoilpipeatapointabovethehighestfixture.Giveallhorizontalsoilpipes,whetherfordrainageorventilation,afallofatleast1”tothefoot.Tosupportsoilpipe,providesuitableconcreteorstonefootingatthebottom.Supportallhorizontallineswithsuitablehangerstopreventlinefromgettingoutofplace.

350.ConnectingCast-IronandLeadPipe.Tomakeaconnectionbetweenacast-ironpipe and a leadpipe, first connect the leadpipe to a brass ferrule bymeansof a soldered joint; the ferrule is thencaulked into the cast-ironhuborbellend,asoutlinedabove.

CHAPTERXXXVSUPPLEMENTARYPLUMBINGPROJECTS

351.PipingWatertoStockTank.Requirements:To construct apipe line from sourceofwater atwell or storage

tanktostocktankinbarnyard,asshowninFig.356.

FIG.356.Pipingforstocktank.

ToolsandMaterialsNeeded;Plumbingtools,asinSec.334.Pipeandfittingsdeterminedbyparticularjob.

Instructions:1)Takemeasurementforpipe.2)Cutandthreadpipenotthreaded.3)Excavateforpipeline.4)Connectpipewithfittingsaboveground.5)Placepipeinditch.6)Providecut-offandmeansofdraininglinestopreventfreezing.

FIG.357.Ahot-watertankinstallation.

352. Installing Hot-Water Tank with Kitchen Range Having Hot-WaterBack.

Requirements:To installahot-watertankinkitchenwithproperconnectiontowatersupply,andtohot-waterbackinkitchenrange,asshowninFig.357.

Tools and Materials Needed: Tools as in Sec. 334. Materials dependent onparticular job. Tank, hot-water back, pipe fittings and white lead or pipecement.

Instructions:1)Locatetanksoitisoutofthewayandconvenientforconnectiontomains

andtorange.2)Takemeasurementsforpipe.Cutandthreadpipenotthreaded.3)Tapmainwaterlinewithatee.4)Makeallconnections.Note:Coldwatermustenteratthebottomofthetank,andhotwaterisdrawn

offatthetop.Remember,also,thatthebottomconnectionfromwaterbackmustentertankatthebottom,andthetopconnectionmustenterthetankseveralfeetabovethebottomandatapointabovethebacksothewaterwillriseonbeingheatedandwillhavepropercirculation.

FIG.358.Stockwaterheater.

353.ToMakeaStockWaterHeater.Requirements:Tomakeastockwaterheaterwhensteampressureandasupplyof

waterunderpressureisavailable.(SeeFig.358.)ToolsNeeded:PlumbingtoolsasinSec.334.Onebreastdrilland1/8”bit.

Materials Needed: 3’ of 1-1/2”galvanized pipe, 4-1/2’ of 1/2” galvanized pipe,three 1/2” cut-off valves, two 1/2” elbows, one 1/2” cap, one 1-1/2” to 1/2”bushing,one14/2”x1/2”tee,one1-1/2”to1/2”couplingreducer,one1-1/2”x3”nipple.

Instructions:1)CutandthreadallpipetodimensionIndicatedonplan.2)Drill1/8”holesat8”intervalsonoppositesidesof1/2”pipe.3)Assemble1/2”steampipeinfollowingorder:Screw12”pipeintovalveon

steamline,elbowonto12”pipe,3”nippleintoelbow,1-1/2”x1/2”bushingonto nipple, 33” pipe into opposite side of bushing, screw cap on end of

pipe.4)Assemblewater jacketasfollows:Screwteeon1-1/2”bushing,connect6”

nippleintotee,screwvalveontonipple,connectvalvetowatermain.Screw1-1/2”pipeintotee,onoppositeendscrew1-1/2”x1/2”reducingcoupling,connect 3” nipple, elbow, another 3” nipple and valve to control flow ofwarmwater.

Note:Thetemperatureandflowofwatercanbecontrolledbyregulatingtheflowof steamandcoldwater.Where aboiler isused in connectionwithdairyroom,thisisagoodwaytoheatthewaterforthecows.

354.InstallingaHydraulicRam.Requirements:To install ahydraulic ram for elevatingwater froma lower to a

higherelevationforhouseholdconsumption,asshowninFig.359.ToolsNeeded:PlumbingtoolsasinSec.334.

TilingtoolsasinProjectNo.3,Sec.338.MaterialNeeded: Sufficientdriveanddischargepipeofproper sizeand length,

withnecessaryfittings;thisdependingontheindividualinstallation.Instructions:

1)Locatepositionofram.2)Makemeasurementsandlayoutpositionofdrivepipeanddischargepipe.3)Excavatefordriveanddischargepipes.

FIG.359.Hydraulicram.

4) Proper length and slope of drive pipe depends on particular ram. Secureproperinformationfrommanufacturer.

5)Connectdrivepipefromramtosourceofwater.6)Connectdischargepipefromramtostoragetank.7)Providedrainforwastewateratram.

8)Coverdriveanddischargepipes.9)Protectramfromhighwater.Note:Ahydraulicramispracticalonlywherethereisalargequantityofwater

flowingwithseveralfeetfall.355.InstallingDrainTileatFoundationofHouse(Fig.360).

Requirements: To install a drain tile at foundation of house to intercept anyseepagewaterthatflowsintobasement.

Tools andMaterialsNeeded: Tiling tools as in Sec. 338. Sufficient drain tile toextendalongsideofhouseand tooutlet.Actualamountdependingon localconditions.

FIG.360.Locationoftiletodrainhousefoundation.

Instructions:1)Stakeoutlocationofdrain.2)Establishgradeline.3)Excavatetograde.4)Laytile.5)Checkgrade.6)Back-fill.Note: Drains should be placed a little below the level of basement floor. If

trenchabovetileisfilledwithaporousmateriallikegravel,thetilemoreeffectivein intercepting the water. This tile should be placed in addition to drains fordown-spoutingandforbasementfloor.

356.AdditionalJobsonFarm.a)Installdraintoseptictank.b)Installfarmdrains.c)Installtilefordown-spoutingonbarnyardbuildings.d)Installanautomaticwatererforstock.

e)Re-chargeanacetylenelightplant.f)Putanewpumpinawellorcistern.g)Repairafarmpump.h)Constructandinstallafilter.

PARTVIIIROPEANDHARNESSWORKONTHEFARM

CHAPTERXXXVI

CONSTRUCTIONANDUSEOFROPE

357.TheNeedforRopeWork.Aworkingknowledgeintheuseofropeisofvalue to everyoneon the farm.Rope is used in a greatmanyways, andoftenmuch time may be saved by knowing how to make a simple splice, or tie asatisfactoryknotorhitchforaparticularpurpose.Accidentsareoftenavertedbyknowinghowtotietherightknotfortherightplace.Tobecomeexpertintyingand splicing rope requires a great deal of practice.One can learn this kind ofworkonlybyactuallydoingit.Theworkoutlinedunderthisheadistogivethereaderanideaoftheprincipalknotsandsplicesandtheirapplications.Practicework is grouped into several projects. The student should not expect tomakeprogressinropeworkwithoutcarryingthrutheseprojects.

358.MaterialsofWhichRopeIsMade.Thegreaterpartofropeismadefromeithermanillaorsisalfiber.Manillafiber,aproductofthePhilippineIslands,isobtained from a plant similar to the banana.The sisal fiber, fromwhichmostbindertwineismade,aproductofYucatan,issecuredfromaplantsimilartotheAmericanaloe.Thetwokindsofropeareordinarilyknownashemprope.Thesisal is neither as strong nor as durable as manilla fiber. A distinguishingcharacteristicofthebestqualitymanillafiberisitsglossyappearance.Thepoorerquality of manilla is of a brownish color, and its glossy characteristic is onlyslight. Sisalhas adead, lifeless color.Thedifferencebetween the twomightbecomparedwithenamelpaintandflatpaint.Cottonropeislittleusedatpresent,although,atonetime,itwasusedalmostexclusivelyinsomelocalities.

FIG.361.Partsofrope:A,rope;BandC,strands;D,fibertwistedintoyarn.

359.HowRopeIsMade.Intheactualprocessofmakingarope,thefibersaretwisted right-handed into yarns; several yarns are twisted right-handed into a

strand,andthestrandsaretwistedleft-handedintoarope.360.RopeTerms.

Fiber—materialasobtainedfromplant.Yarn—twistedfiber.Thread—twoormoresmallyarnstwistedtogetherleft-handed.

(Usuallycotton,woolandsilk.)String or Twine—same as thread, but made of a little larger yarns, (Jute and

hempalsoused.)Strand—sameasstring,butwithlargeryarns,formakingrope.Cord—twoormorethreadsorstringstwistedtogether.Rope—twoormorestrandstwistedtogetherright-handed.Hawser—aropeofthreestrands.Shroud-laid—aropeoffourstrands.Cable—threehawserstwistedtogetherleft-handed.Standingpart—longendofropenotused.Bight—isformedwhentheropeisturnedbackonitself,formingtheletterU.End—partusedinleading.Loop—isformedbycrossingthesidesofabight.Lay—totwistthestrandsofaropetogether.Unlay—tountwistthestrandsofarope.Relay—totwiststrandstogetherthathavebecomeuntwisted.Whip—tobindtheendoftheropetopreventraveling.Splice—tojointwoendsofaropebyinterweavingthestrands.Crownsplice—tointerweavethestrandsattheendofarope.Pay—topaint,tarorgreasearopetoresistmoisture.Haul—topullonarope.Taut—drawntightorstrained.

361.CareandTreatmentofRope.Anewropethatiskinkywhenunwoundcanbestbestraightenedoutbydrawingitacrossthefloororoverasod-coveredfield.Ifitisverystiff,itshouldbeimmersedinrawlinseedoil,talloworlard,andboiled. This treatment not only makes the rope more pliable, but serves as alubricant, preventing internalwear.Thewear inside a rope is the result of thefibers slipping back and forth over each other, frequently caused by using apulley that is too small. This wear in a rope can be easily seen by pulling thestrands apart. Often a rope is greatly weakened before the wear is noticed.Externalwear is theresultofdrawingtheropeoverroughsurfaceswhichtearsthe fibers.Thissourceofwearcanbeeasilydetectedandremoved.Where it is

desiredtoprotect theropefromdampness,aswellas topreventexternalwear,theapplicationofanexteriorcoatingsuchastallow,graphite,beeswax,orblackleadandtallow,willlengthenthelifeofarope.Alwayskeepropeinadryplace.Ifitdoesgetwet,stretchtodryit.Donotallowtheendoftheropetounravel.

362.RequirementsofaGoodKnot.Thethreerequirementsofagoodknothavebeenstatedasfollows:(a)Rapiditywithwhichitcanbetied,(b)itsabilitytoholdfastwhenpulledtight,(c)thereadinesswithwhichitcanbeuntied.

363.TheoryofKnotsandSplices.Methodofmakingvarioustypesofknotscan be acquired only by practice. Themethod ofmakingmany good knots isobtained by close observation. There are no very definite rules that one canfollow.Thefollowingprinciplesshouldbekeptinmind:

“Theprincipleofaknotisthatnotwopartswhichmoveinthesamedirection,if the ropewere to slip, should liealongsideofand toucheachother.”* . . . “Aknotorhitchmustbesodevisedthatthetightpartoftheropemustbearonthefreeendinsuchamannerastopinchandholdit,inaknotagainstanothertightpartoftherope,orinahitchagainsttheobjecttowhichtheropeisattached.”†

Thestudentshouldtrytoapplythesetwoprinciplesuntiltheyarethoroughlymastered.

*Wm.Kent,MechanicalEngineers’HandBook.†HowardW.Riley,CornellReadingCourse.

CHAPTERXXXVIIWHIPPINGANDMAKINGENDKNOTS;ENDSPLICES

364.ToolsandMaterialsNeededforRopeWork.ToolsandMaterialsNeeded:Aknifeanda largenailormarlinspike(Fig.362)

whichcanbewhittledoutofapieceofhardwood,aretheonlytoolsneededforthiswork.Afewpiecesof3/8”ropeandsomepiecesofcordwillcompletetheequipments.

FIG.362.Marlinspike.

365. Treatment of Raveled Ropes. In ropes that are raveled, the strandsshould be twisted and carefully relaid to the point where the knot is to beformed.Inunlayingtheendofanewropeinpreparationformakingaknot,caremust be takennot to untwist the strands.Neitherwhippingnor down crownscan be called knots, but they serve the purpose of a knot and can be used toadvantagewhereitisdesirabletohaveaknotontheendofarope.

FIG.363.Whippingendofrope.

366.Whipping.Placethepieceofcordontherope,allowingoneendtohanglooselyovertheendoftheropeabout2”(A,Fig.363).Makealoopbypassingtheother(B)endof thestringalongtheropetomakea looseendofabout2″.Holdtheropeandcordwithlefthand,asshownin2,Fig.363.Grasptheloopofcordwiththerighthandandwrapittightlydowntheropeoveritself,asshowninthirdsketch.Whenwrappedasmuchasdesired,drawuptheloopbypullingontheendsAandB.Thiswillcompletethejobofwhipping.

367.CrownKnot.Thecrownknot(Fig.364)initselfisoflittlevalue,butitisthefirststepinmakingacrownorendsplice.Firstunlayseveralinchesofrope,thenbringstrandNo.1betweenstrandsNos.2and3,formingaloop,asshowninsketch1.PassstrandNo.2acrosstheloop,asshowninsketch2.Passstrand

No. 3 over strandNo. 2 and thru the loop. Pull the strands down tightly andcompletethecrown.

FIG.364.Crownknot.

FIG.365.Wallknot.

368.WallKnot. (Fig.365).Unlayseveral inchesofropeas inpreviouscase.Hold rope with left hand and with right hand bring strand No. 1 around,forming a loop as in 1. StrandNo. 2 is passed aroundNo. 1, as indicated byarrowin1.StrandNo.3ispassedaroundNo.2andupthruloopformedbyNo.1,asindicatedin2and3.Thelooseendsarethendrawnup,asshownin4.

369.WallandCrownKnot(Fig.366).Asthenamewouldimply,theknotisacombination of the two previous knots. The wall knot is made and then thecrownknot,asshownin1and2,Fig,366.

FIG.366.Wallandcrownknot.

370.ManropeKnot. (Fig. 367.)This knot is also a combinationof thewalland crownknot, but ismade just the reverseof thewall and crownknot.Thecrownknotisfirstmadeandthewallknotdrawndownoverit.

FIG.367.Manropeknot.

371.MatthewWalkerKnot(Fig.368).ThisisaverypermanentendknotsItismadebyfirstmakingaloosely-constructedwallknot,thenbypassingAthrutheloopwithB,BthrutheloopwithC,andCthrutheloopwithA,asshownin1,Fig.368.Whendrawnuptight,wehaveknot,asshownin2,Fig.368.

FIG.368.MatthewWalkerknot.

372.EndorCrownSplice(Fig.369).Thisisoneofthebestendfasteningsforleadropes.Itismadebymakingacrownknotandthensplicingbackthelooseends.Alargenailormarlinspikeisbestforweavingthelooseendsback.Eachloosestrandispassedovertheadjacentstrandinadiagonaldirectionandunderthenextone,asshownin1,2and3,Fig.369.

373. Overhand Knot (Fig. 370). The overhand knot is one of the mostcommonandthesimplestofendknots.Itformsapartofmanyotherknotsandhitches. It ismade bymaking a loop in the rope and passing one end thru it.Eitheraright-orleft-handknotmaybemade.

FIG.369.Crownsplice.

FIG.370.Overhandknot.

374.BloodKnot (Fig.371).Thisknot is larger than theoverhandknot,butmade in the sameway, except that the endof the rope ispassed thru the loopseveraltimesbeforeitispulledtight.Asimilarknotismadebytheseamstressbyrollingtheendofthethreadbetweenthefingerandthumb.

FIG.371.Bloodknot.

FIG.372.Figure8knot.

375.Figure8Knot(Fig.372).Thisknotisagoodonetouseontheendsofropes toprevent themfrombeingpulled thruapulleyorahole. It ismadebyformingaloop,thenpassingtheshortendAoftheloopoverthestandingpartoftheropeBatXandbringingitbackthrutheloopatY

FIG.373.Stevedoreknot.

376.StevedoreKnot(Fig.373).Thisknotisthesameasthefigure8knot,butinsteadofone turnaround the standingpartof rope, three turns aremade, asshownin1and2,Fig.373.

CHAPTERXXXVIIITYINGKNOTSANDHITCHES

377.PracticeinTyingKnots.Whiptheendsofeachpieceofrope.Studyeachknot carefully, and make the same knot several times for practice with andwithoutsketch.Besuretheknotiscorrectlytiedbeforeattemptinganewone.

378.BinderKnot.Thisknot(Fig.374)isoneofthesimplestforfasteningtwopiecesofropetogether.Itismadebytakingthetworopeends,placingthemsidebyside,andtyinganoverhandknot.

FIG.374.Binderknot.

379.SquareKnot(Fig.375).Thisisasmoothknotthatiseasilytiedandeasilyuntied. It isusedagreatdeal for tyingpackages;also, for fastening theendsofbindertwinewhenthreadingthebinder.Tomakethisknot,firstmakearight-handoverhandknot,thencrossthestrandandtietheleft-handoverhandknot.Thisknotwillnotholdifthetworopesareofdifferentsizes.

FIG.375.Squareknot.

380.GrannyKnot (Fig.376).Thegrannyknotslipseasilyandis thereforeaverypoorknot.ThedifferencebetweenthegrannyknotandsquareknotcanbeeasilynotedbycomparingFig.375andFig.376.Agreatmanymakethegrannyknotwhenattemptingtomakethesquareknot.

FIG.377.Surgeon’sknot

FIG.376.Grannyknot.

381.Surgeon’sKnot(Fig.377).Thisknotispracticallythesameasthesquareknot,exceptthatwhenmakingtheright-handoverhandknot,theropeistwicewrapped instead of only once. The second part of the knot is completed bymakingaleft-handoverhandasincompletingthesquareknot.

FIG.378.Weaver’sknot.

382.Weaver’sKnot(Fig.378).Thisknotisoneofthebest,duetothefactthatitholdswell,iseasilytiedandeasilyuntied.Totiethisknot,grasptheendsoftheropewithlefthand,asshownin1.WithendAunderB,graspropeatXandpassitaroundendA,formingaloopasin2;completetheknotbypassingendBthruloopasin3.Drawituptight.

383.Carrick’sBend(Fig.379).Thisknotisusedasafancyknotinbraids.Itisalsoaverysatisfactoryknot to fastenropes together. In tyingthisknot, formaloopwiththeendYunderthestandingpartA,asshownin1.PasstheotherendofropeundertheloopX,overthestandingpartA,underendY,againoverA,understandingpartBandoverA,thefinalknotbeingcompletedasin4.Whendrawntight,itwillassumetheshapeofadoublebowline.

FIG.379.Carrick’sbend.

KnotsforFasteningCattle,TyingHayRopes,Etc.:Apointtobeconsideredinuseofropeisthecorrectselectionofknotforright

place; this isespecially truewhereaknot is tobe loosenedoften,orwhere it isdesiredtohaveaknotthatwillslip.

384.BowlineKnot (Fig.380).This isoneof thebestknots for fasteningtheend of a rope as in hitching. There are several kinds, but the overhand isprobablytheeasiestandquickesttomake.Tomaketheknot,formasmallloop(C)in1neartheendoftherope,asin-Fig.380.Holdtheloopwiththelefthand,grasp the end A with the right hand, pass it thru the loopC and around thestandingpartB,andbackthrutheloop,asin2and3.

385.Double-RopeBowlineKnot(Fig.381).Thisknotisquitesimilartotheknotjustdescribed,butisusedwhenmadeinthemiddleofalongropeorattheendwhendoubled.Aloop(X)isformedandpartApassedthruasinpreviouscase.PartA isdrawn thru far enough so that thedouble loopB canbedrawnthruit,asshownin2and3.Thisknotisespeciallyusefulinthrowinghorsesandcattle.

FIG.380.Bowlineknot.

FIG.381.Doubleropebowline.

386.SlipKnot(Fig.382).Theslipknotisaverycommononeandoftenusedwhenadifferenttypeofknotwouldbemuchmoresatisfactory.Totiethisknot,formaloop,graspropeBanddrawitthru,asshownin1and2inFig.382.

FIG.382.Slipknot.

387.MangerKnot (Fig. 383).Thisknot isquite similar to theordinary slipknot,butmuchbetteronaccountofbeingeasiertountie.Totiethisknot,formaloopC,grasp thebightB andpass itaround thestandingpartof theropeandthruloopC;thencompletetheknotbybringingendAaroundthestandingpartandthruB.

FIG.383.Mangerknot.

388.LariatKnot(Fig.384).Asthenamewouldindicate,thisknotisusedinformingalariat.Itistiedbyfirstforminganoverhandknotneartheendoftherope,asatCin1,Fig.384.TheendAisthenpassedaroundthestandingpartBandthruthelooptwice.Theoverhandknotisthendrawntightandtheknotiscomplete.

FIG.384.Lariatknot.

389.Hangman’sNoose(Fig.385).Thisisanotherknotwithasliploop.Itisaknotthatiseasytotieandholdswell.Makeadoubleloop,asin1;thenwindtheend of rope back the number of rounds desired, passing it thru loopY, 2. Bydrawingonthenoose,theknotiscompleted,asin3.

FIG.385.Hangman’sknot.

390.Farmer’sLoop(Fig.386).Ifitisdesiredtotiealoopinthemiddleofaropewhenbothendsare fastened, the farmer’s loop is suitable. It is easily tiedandeasilyuntied.Maketwoturnsinropeandholdit,asin1,Fig.386.PassloopAunder loopBbetweenBandC in2.Nextpass loopCunder loopA,as in3.Now,passBunderloopCandupbetweenAandCin4.Theknotiscompletedbydrawingthestandingparttight.

FIG386.Farmer’sloop.

TemporaryHitches.Note: A hitch should be selected for a particular use. One should be very

carefulinmakingascaffoldhitchwherelifeisindanger.Itmustbekeptinmindthatthehitcheshereoutlinedarefortemporaryuse.

391.HalfHitch(Fig.387).Thehalfhitchisonestepinmakingotherhitchesandknots.Itisuseful,however,whenthestandingpartoftheropeisdrawntightandpinchestheendagainstobjecttied,asinFig.387.

392.TimberHitch(Figs.388and389).Thishitchisonestepinadvanceoverthe half hitch.The end of the rope iswrapped several times instead of simplydrawn under once as in the half hitch. A combination of the timber and half

hitchismuchmoresecure.(SeeFig.389.)FIG.387.Halfhitch.

FIG.388.Timberhitch.

FIG.389.Timberandhalfhitch.

FIG.390.Rollinghitch.

393.RollingHitch(Fig.390).Thishitchisveryeasilyandquicklymade,andis a suitable fastening formost any purpose.Wrap rope three times about theobjecttowhichitistobefastened,thenmaketwohalfhitchesaboutthestandingpart.

394CloveHitch(Fig.391).Thisisoneofthesimplestandyetoneofthemostsecuremethodsoffasteningtentropes,guyropesoranyropewhenthereistobeadirectpullagainstit.Thereareseveralmethodsofmakingtheclovehitch,butprobablythefarmer’smethodisbest.Crossthearms,theleftinfrontoftheright;grasp the rope, as in1,Fig.391; thenbring thehands toposition. shown in2;thencompletethehitchbyturningbothhandstotheright,asin3.

FIG.391.Clovehitch.

395. ScaffoldHitch (Fig. 392).The scaffoldhitch is amodified formof theclovehitch.Makearatherlooseclovehitchandplaceovertheendofscaffold,asin1,Fig.392.Drawtheropestightinoppositedirection,turntheplankoverandfastenshortendtothestandingpartbymeansofabowlineknot,asin3.

FIG.392.Scaffoldhitch.

396.BlackwallHitch(Fig.393).Thishitchcanbeusedonlywhenthepullonrope is continuous andahook isprovided.Makeabight in the ropeandpassaroundthehook;thefreeendisthenpassedthruthehook,andthestandingpartpassedoveritfromtheoppositeside.

397.Sheepshank(Fig.394).Thesheepshankisnotahitchinthesamesenseastheotherhitchesdescribed.Itisusedasameansofshorteningropes.Totiethishitch,aloopisformedthatislargeenoughtoreducetheropetodesiredlength(see1,Fig.394)andheldinthelefthand;ahalfhitchisformedofthestandingpartoftheropeandpassedovereachendoftheloop,asin2.Tomakethishitchpermanent,thestandingpartisdrawnthruthebightateachendoftheloop.

FIG.393.Blackwallhitch.

FIG.394.Sheepshank.

Splices:398.EndorCrownSplice.Thistypeofsplicehasbeendescribedunderhead

ofmeansofpreventingropefromraveling(Fig.369).399.LoopSplice(Fig.395).Thisspliceisusedwhenapermanentloopistobe

constructedatanypointoftheropeotherthantheend.Thesizeandlocationoftheloopisfirstdetermined,thentwostrandsareraisedontheshortendandtheleadropepassedunderthem.Tocompletethesplice,twostrandsinthelongpartoftheropeareraised,asina,1,Fig.395;andtheshortendbispassedthruanddrawnup,asin3.

FIG.395.Loopsplice.

FIG.396.Eyesplice.

400. Eye Splice or Side Splice (Fig. 396). The eye splice is used when it isdesiredtoformaloopattheendofaropeorasasidesplicewhereitisdesiredtofastenoneropetoanotheratanypointotherthantheend.Unlaytheendoftherope for several inches,determine the sizeof loop to form, thenplace the twooutsidestrandstostraddlethemainropeandthecenterstrandtorunalongthetopoftherope,asin1,Fig.396.Now,bymeansofthemarlinspikeorlargenail,raiseoneofthestrandsAandpassthecenterstrandNo.1underit.PassstrandNo.2overAandunderB,andpassstrandNo.3thrufromtheoppositesidesothat it comesoutwhereNo.1enters.Drawall endsup snugandweave in thestrands,asdescribedfortheendsplice.

401.ShortSplice(Fig.397).Theshortspliceisusedforjoiningthetwoendsofropetogetherwhenitisnotdesiredtodrawitthrupulleys.Thisspliceisnotassmoothasthelongsplice,butitisstrongandquiteeasilymade.Tomakethesplice,unlaytheendsofthetworopesforasufficientdistance,dependingonsizeofropeandload—fora3/8”rope,atleast6”.Bringtheendsoftheropetogethersothatthestrandsofonepassalternatelybetweenthoseoftheother,asin1,Fig.397.Takeeachpairofstrandsfromoppositesidesandtiearight-handoverhandknot, draw the knots tightly and pass each strand diagonally to the left, thenweaveitinasinmakingtheendsplice(1,2and3,Fig.397).

FIG.397.Shortsplice.

402.LongSplice(Fig.398).Thistypeofspliceissonearlythesamesizeastheotherpartoftherope,thatitcanbeusedthrupulleyswithouthindrance.Everyuserofropeshouldknowhowtomakethelongsplice.Unlaytheendoftherope,asinmakingashortsplice.Al/4”ropeshouldbeunlaidabout12”,a3/8”rope16”,al/2”rope24”,anda1”rope36”,toobtainbestresults.Lockthestrandsasinthebeginningoftheshortsplice,pairthestrandsfromeachend,asin1,Fig.398, twisting two of the pairs together. As for the remaining pair, unlay onestrandandrelaytheotherstrandinitsplace.ContinueuntilwithinafewinchesoftheendoftherelaidstrandNo.1,asin2.Repeattheprocesswitheitherpairoftheotherstrands.Untwistthelastpair;theropeshouldappear,asin3,witheach strand coming from the left andpassing in front of the strands from theright.Tocompletethesplice,tieeachpairofstrandswitharight-handoverhandknot, as in4.Weave the loose ends into the ropebypassingone endover theadjacent strand and under the next, as in 5. Cut the ends of strands off andpounddowntheunevenendstomakefinishedsplice,asin6.

FIG.398.Longsplice.

CHAPTERXXXIXPROJECTSINROPEWORK

403.MakingaHalter.Preliminary Instructions: There will be 12’ or more of rope needed for this

project.Temporaryhaltersaremuchmoresatisfactoryfor leadingananimalthanisaropeplacedabouttheanimal’sneck.Tomakeatemporaryhalter,itisnecessary to know how to make a few of the various knots and hitchesdescribedinpreviouspagesandreferredtointhisproject.

FIG.399.Temporaryhalter.

HalterNo.1(Fig.399).Toconstructthishalter,firstmakealoopintheendofthe ropeA, tying itwith a simple overhand bowline, as described in Sec. 389.Passtheendofropewithloopaboutanimal’sneckandformasecondloopBinthe standing part of the rope thru which draw loopA and place around theanimal’snose.Theslackisdrawnoutwiththefreeendoftherope,asin2.

Halter No. 2 (Fig. 400). This type of temporary halter is usually called theHackamore.Itisusedforleadingeithercattleorhorses,andismadebypassingoneendof the ropeabout theanimal’sneckand tyingwithabowlineknot.Ahalfhitchisthrowninthestandingpartoftheropeandpassedovertheanimal’snose,asin1,Fig.400;asecondhalfhitchismadebelowthefirstandpassedoverthenose,asin2.Thefirsthalfhitchiswrappedaboutthesecondandpassedovertheanimal’shead,asin3.Tocompletethehalter,thestandingpartoftheropeispassedthrutheloopCbelowthehalfhitch,asindicatedin4.

FIG.400.Temporaryhalter(Hackamore).

404.AnAdjustableHalter(Fig.401).PreliminaryInstructions:Tomakeasatisfactoryadjustablehalter,itisnecessary

tobefamiliarwiththemethodofmakingtheeyesplice, loopspliceandendsplice.Thesizeofropetousewilldependontheuseofhalter.Mosthaltersaremadefrom1/2”to3/4”rope.Thelengthofropeneededis12’.

FIG.401.Adjustablehalter.

WorkingInstructions:1)Makeaneye splice in endof ropeas ata, Fig. 401.This splice shouldbe

onlylargeenoughtoallowthestandingpartofropetopassthruitfreely.

2)Measurefromtheloopoftheeyesplicethedistance(d)thatwillberequiredtoreachnearlyaroundtheanimal’snose.Atthispointmakea loopsplice(b)withloopthesamesizeasthatoftheeyesplice.

3)Passthestandingendoftheropethruloopaandloopb.4)Completehalterbymakingendspliceonendc.405.MakingaNon-AdjustableHalter(Fig.402).Note:TheonlydifferencebetweenthishalterandtheonedescribedinSec.404

isthattheheadpieceandnosepiecearemadeofdefinitelength,dependingontheheaddimensionsoftheparticularanimalforwhichthehalterismade.

1)Determinethenecessarylengthofheadpieceandnosepiecebymeasuringanimal’shead.

2)Makeloopsplice(b,Fig.402),leavingclongenoughtoformnosepiece.3)Sidespliceendofcintostandingpartofropeata,makingheadpiecedof

suitablesize.4)Threadendcthruloopb.5)Makeendspliceeinendofstandingpartofropetocompletethehalter.

FIG.402.Non-adjustablehalter.

406.TheTripRope(Fig.403).MaterialsNeeded:Thirtyfeetof1/2”rope, three2”rings,andtwoheavystraps

withbucklestogoaroundankles.PreliminaryInstructions:Inhandlingyounghorses,itissometimesveryessential

to have some means of tripping them when the horse does not obey thecommandoftheTrainer.Kneepadsshouldbeprovidedwhenthetripropeisused.

FIG.403.Triprope.

WorkingInstructions:1)Placeanklestrapsonfrontankleswitharingoneachstrap.2)Placesurcinglewithringatbottomaroundhorsejustbackofshoulders,or

tie around the body at this point a piece of rope, using a single bowlineknot.

FIG.404.Throwingrope.

3)Takelongropeprovided,passthruringonanklestrapofnearfoot,upthruringatbottomofsurcingle,anddowntootherankleringwhere it is tied.Thetripisthenreadytousebypullingonstandingpartoflongrope.

407.ThrowingorCastingRope(Fig.404).MaterialsNeeded:Thirtyfeetofl/2”ropeandstraps.PreliminaryInstructions:Inhandlinghorses,itissometimesnecessarytothrow

theanimalforthepurposeofanoperationorotherwise.Toavoidchafingorburning the animal with a rope, straps should be provided for those placeswherearopewouldrub.

WorkingInstructions:1)Tieadoubleropebowlineknot,asdescribedinSec.385,inmiddleofrope

toserveascrupper.2)Adjustcrupperinplace,runtowithersandtieasquareknot(Sec.379).

FIG.405.Castingrope.

3) Pass rope about body at withers just back of front legs; tie with anothersquare knot, forming a surcingle and crupper properly adjusted to theanimal.Provideringorgirth,asshowninFig.404.

4)Runthe freeendof therope fromtopof surcingle thru thering inhalterbackthruringongirth.Theropeisthenreadyforuse.

5)InsteadofropeunderNo.3,aregularcrupperandsurcinglemaybeused.6)Touse rope, lift the front footof theanimalon the sideopposite thaton

whichtheropeispassedandpullonthefreeendoftherope.408.RopeforCastingCattle(Fig.405).

MaterialNeeded:Thirty-fivefeetof1”rope.PreliminaryInstructions:Theinstructionforthrowingahorseshouldbekeptin

mindinthrowingacoworsteer.Caremustbeobservedtoavoidhurtingtheanimal.Oneneedbeacquaintedonlywiththebowlineknotandthesimplesthalfhitchestoadjustaropeforthrowingcattle.

WorkingInstructions:1)Placeoneendaroundtheanimal’sneckandtieropewithabowlineknot(a,

Fig.405).2)Passtheropeabouttheanimal’sbodyjustbackoftheforelegs,forminga

halfhitchatwithers,asshownatb,Fig.405.3)Passtheropeaboutthebody(c)atthehips,forminganotherhalfhitch.4)Ifacowistobethrown,theropeshouldbeplacedjustinfrontoftheudder.5)To throw theanimal,pull to rear and toward sideuponwhich it is tobe

thrown.

CHAPTERXLHARNESSREPAIR

409. The Importance of Good Harness. Nothing adds more to theappearance of a well-groomed horse than a neat, clean and properly-fittingharness.Agood setofharnessnotonly adds to the appearanceof a team,butmakes the teammore efficient in its operation.A first-class teamsterwill takeprideinkeepinghisteamproperlyfitted.Suchnegligenceasallowingtheharnesstobeboundupwithpiecesofbalingwireandwithbindertwineisinexcusable.Often the hame straps are allowed to loosen, the breeching to hang too low,resultinginsoreshouldersandchafedsidesandback.

Thefarmercannotaffordtoneglectthecareandupkeepofhisharness.Infact,eachfarmershouldbeprovidedwithasimpleharnessrepairoutfitandkeeponhandafewsuppliesforaddingastrapbysewingorrivetingwhereoneisworn.

Thelifeofaharnesscanbegreatlyincreasedbysystematiccare.Thepracticeof oiling the harness at least once a year should not be overlooked. Take theharnessapartandwashitthoroughlyinwarm,softwaterandsoap;allowittimeto dry; then apply a coat of good quality harness oil. Allow the oil to soak inbefore it is rubbed off. Before the harness is reassembled, each part should begoneovercarefullyandneededrepairsmade.Thisworkcaneasilybedoneonthefarmonrainydays.

410. The Harness Room. A conveniently-located harness room is of greatvalue in caring for the harness. It is very objectionable to store the harness inmoststablesduetotheeffectofthemoistureandtheammoniafromthemanure.Whenthestableiskeptthoroughlycleanedandiswellventilated,harnesscanbekeptwithlittledamageandaretherebymuchmoreconvenientlylocatedforuse.

411.HarnessOil.Becarefulnottouseamineraloilfortheharnessorleatherbelts.Mineraloilswillcausetheleathertodryoutandcrack.Buyonlystandardbrandsfoundonthemarket.Agoodoilcanbemadebymeltingthreepoundsoftallowwithoutlettingitboil,andgentlyaddingonepoundofneat’s-footoil.Stircontinuouslyuntilcoldsothatitwillbeperfectlymixed.Colorbyaddingalittlelampblack.

412.Repair Leather. Leather for repairing can be bought from any harnessshop.Itisbesttobuyafairlylargepiece,asitcanbesecuredmuchmorecheaply

thatway.Somemenbuyahalfhide,and,thereby,securesomeofboththebestquality leather fromthebackof thehideand thepoorer, cheaperbelly leather.Thelattercanbeusedwherethereislittlestrain.

413.EquipmentforHarnessWork.Aclampisneededforholdingthework.Thiscaneasilybemadeathome.Somemenpreferavisetoaclamp.Acommontypeofclampisillustratedanddescribedunderwoodwork.(Fig.86.)Inadditiontotheclamp,therepairoutfitshouldconsistofthefollowing:Onedozensewingneedles, different sizes; a sharpknife, half dozen awls, ball of shoe thread, twoawlhandles,onerevolvingpunch,onesmallriveterwithrivets.Theentirerepairoutfit can be purchased for less than $2. Instead of shoe thread and wax, thepreparedthreadcanbesecured.Anadvantageoftheshoethreadandwaxisthatitcanbepreparedtomeettherequirementofthespecialjob.

414.SplicingWornHarnessStrap.Requirements:Tomakea satisfactory splice thatwillbe smoothandnot chafe,

andifusedthruaring,willnotcatchorbind.Itmustalsobestrongenoughtoresisttheforceappliedtoit.

MaterialsNeeded:Suitableleatherstripforrepair,thread,wax.ToolsNeeded:Clamp(suchasshowninFig.86),oneselectedawl, twoselected

needles,onesharpknife.415.PreparingStrapforSewing.Preparethewornstrapforsplicebycutting

awaythewornpart.Thintheendsdownwithasharpknifetoagradualtaperforabout3″. If thestrap isone thatcanbeshortened, it is thenready forsplicing;otherwise, an insertwill have to be prepared and a double splicemade. Smallwire tacks areuseful inholding the straps togetherwhile the stitching isbeingdone.Preparethreadforsewingbywaxingit.Todothis,thethreadmustfirstbebrokenwitharaggedend.Pullthethreadoutofthecenteroftheball,holditontheknee,androllittotakeoutthetwist.Whenthetwistisout,givethestringapullanditshouldbreakwithlongraggedends.Givetheendatwistaroundthefirstfingerofthelefthandanddrawitthrutherighthand.Whenabout6’havebeendrawnout,throwthecenteroverahookinthewallandpulluntiltheendsareaboutevenandeachabout3’ long.Keepthestringtightwiththelefthand,andwith the right hand rub it on the knee as before andbreak it.Repeat thisuntiltherequirednumberofstrandshavebeensecured,dependingontheworktobedone.Maketheendsofthestrandsslightlyuneveninlengthtoprovidealongtaperingpointforthreadingtheneedle.Waxthefreeendsbeforetwisting.Twist the thread carefully and wax it thoroughly. Put the two needles on thethreadreadyforsewing.

FIG.406.Sewingbuckleorstrap.

416.SewingtheSplice.Putthespliceintheclamp,usingextremecaretokeepedgesperfectlyeven.Markoffholesadefinitedistanceapart.Makeholewiththeawl,insertneedleanddrawthethreadhalfwaythru,leavingoneneedleoneachside.Makeanotherholewiththeawl,inserttheneedlethruanddrawthethreadthrua fewinches; thenputtheotherneedle thruthesamehole fromtheothersideandpullboththreadsuptight,beingcareful toavoidknots.Continuethisprocessalongbothsidesandacrosstheendsofthesplice.Todoagoodjob,keepthestitchesstraightandofuniformlength.Tocompletethejob,drawtheendsofthethreadoutbetweenthespliceandtie.

417. Sewing Buckle andRing onHarness Strap. Suitable buckle, ring andstrap for thework intendedare the requiredmaterials for this job.Theproperselectionofstrapandbuckle for theparticular job isveryessential.Thebuckleshouldbeslightlywiderthanthestraptoinsureeaseinbucklingandtoreducetheamountofwearonthestrap.Thestrapshouldbepreparedforsewingasinprecedingexercise.Fig.406illustratesthisoperation.

418. Instructions for Sewing Buckle. If strap is wider than buckle, trim itdownuntilitisaverylittlenarrowerthanthebuckle.Doubleendofstrapbackthru buckle at least 2” for a 1” strap; cut a slot for the tongue of buckle longenoughtomovethetonguethru180degrees.Nextshavetheinnersurfaceoftheendofthestraptoabevelededgetomakeasmoothjointwhenitissewed.Cutanarrowstrapofleathertopassaroundthestrapasshown(Fig.406),toholdtheoppositeendofthestrapwhenbuckled.Putbuckleinplace,foldstrapback,andclamptightlyinsewingclamp.Proceedtosew,asinprecedingproblem.Rivetingandsewingcanoftenbeemployedtogetheronsuchwork.

FIG.407.Singleharness,breastcollartype.

419.OverhaulingaSetofHarness(Figs.407and408).PreliminaryInstructions:Soapandwater,oil,harnessdressingandmetalpolish

mustbeprovidedforthiswork.Harness inpoorrepairmeansa lossof timeduringthebusyseason.Inspectandrepairallharnessbeforethespringseasonworkbegins.Thebesttimetodothisiswhentheweatherisbadandoutsideworkcannotbedonetoadvantage.Tokeeptheharnessinbestcondition,theyshouldbegoneoveratleasttwiceeachyear.

FIG.408.Doubleharness.

WorkingInstructions:Firsttaketheharnessapartsothateachstrap,buckleandringcanbecarefullyinspected.Carefullycleanwithalittlewarmsoftwater.Ifthe harness is very dirty, soak for a fewminutes inwarmwater; then scrubwithabrush,usingsoapfreely;wipeandhanguptodry.Whendried,applyoil, prepared as outlined in Sec. 411, or a special harness oil.Make severalapplicationsandrubtheoilintotheleathertogetthebestresults.Togivetheharness a good, glossy, black finish, it is necessary to apply some good

standardharness dressing as recommendedby theharness-maker.Ordinaryblackshoepolishmaybeused,butwouldprobablybealittlemoreexpensivethanthematerialpreparedforthepurpose.Afterapplication,rubvigorouslywithapolishingclothtogetthebestresults.Tocleanthemetalmountings,usesomeformofmetalpolishorcleansingcompound,likeOldDutchCleanserorBon Ami. Careful polishing is a big factor in giving the harness a goodappearance. Lastly, put harness back together, making all necessary repairs,adding new straps, buckles or rings where needed, following instructionsoutlinedinSecs.415–418.420. Adjusting Harness to Horse. Every one who handles a team should

realizetheimportanceofawell-fittedharness.Apoorly-fittedharnessnotonlyhindersthehorseinworking,butisliabletomakeabalkeroutofagoodworker,and,inaddition,isliabletodamagethehorsebycausingasoremouth,shouldersorback.Well-fittedharnessinsuresmoreworkdoneduringthebusyseason.

421.TheBridle.Thefittingofthebridlewilldependontheindividualanimal.Adjustthecheckpiecessothatthebitwillnothangtoolowinthemouthorsohigh that itwill raise thecornersof themouth, therebycausingsoreness.Eachpart of the bridle should fit snugly, but not so tight as to cause pinching.Theblindsshouldfitsnuglyuptothehead.Donotadjustthethroatlatchtootight.

422.TheCollar.Payespecialattentiontothecollar,asitmustbeartheload.Test the fittingsof thecollarbypressing itbackagainst theshoulderwhen thehorse is holding its head inworking position. The collar should have an evencontactagainstallpartsoftheshoulderandhaveamplespaceat thewindpipefortheplaceofone’shand.Collarsoftenneedtobereadjustedaftertheanimalhasbeenworkedawhileinthespring,duetoitslosingflesh.Adjustbreastcollartoaheightwhereitwillneitherhindermovementnorinterferewithbreathing.

423.Hames.Afterthecollarisadjusted,adjustthehamesatthetoptofitthecollarandthenbuckleortieastightlyaspossibleatthebottom.

424.OtherAdjustments.Allotherpartsoftheharnessshouldbeadjustedtomake themfit snugly,neither too tightnor too loose.Adjust thebreeching theproperheight.Fitthesaddletothebackatthelowplacejustbackofthewithers.Adjustthecrupperstrap,backstraps,hipstraps,holdingbackstrapsandtracestoproperlengthintheordermentioned.

Note:Avoidaccidentsinhitchingtheteamtoimplementorvehiclebytakingdownthelinesandadjustingthemfirst.

INDEX

A

Adjustingbinder,312–313cornplanter,303–304fertilizerdistributors,306gasengine,320graindrills,301–303grainseparator,314–317mower,309plows,295,297–298

Adjustmenttimeformachinery,294–295Acetylenelighting,339–340Aggregates,110–111Agitation,122Agricultural,engineering,258production,260Air-pressurewatersystem,344,347Aligned,152Artificialcement,107Aspdin,Joseph,107Asphalt,146Attachment,binder,313Attraction,105Automobile,engine,319Axle,161,162

B

Babbitting,317–318solidbearing,318splitbearing,318–319

Backsaw,useof,29Bags,cement,137Bank-rungravel,116,138Barnyardpavement,144Batchmixer,120,121Beam,296,297Bearing

babbitting,319scraping,319

Beater,315Belt,clampingandgluing,326

Belt-drivenmachinery,313–314Belts,kinds,325Bevelsquare,setting,38–39Binder,258,275,285,312

canvases,318reel,313repairandadjustment,312–313

Blacksmith’sfire,the,192–193Blacksmith’stools,188–191Blaugas,289,341Boardfeet,calculationfor,53Boxjoint,61Brace,151,152Brakes,291Bumpers,discharrow,299

CCalibration

cornplanter,305graindrill,303

Carbon,cleaningcylinder,322Careofmachinery,262–266Carriagestep,148Cellar

fruitstorage,175–176potato,175–176

Cementartificial,107natural,107Portland,107–108properties,109requirements,109Roman,107

Channeliron,171Chemicalstains,94Checkwire,281,304Chisels,270

useofwoodworking,60Cistern

contamination,343filter,343

Clay,testfor,112,138Cleaningform,127,128Clevis,297Compression,129–131Coal-tar,creosoteoil,94–95Concaves,315

Concrete,105definitionof,109plain,109requirementsof,114–115strengthof,111

Consistency,121–122Construction,105Continuousmixer,120,121Conveying,123Cornbinder,283Corn,harvestingforsilage,283–284Cornplanter,303–306Cornplanting,280–281Cornshelter,313Coulter,297,298Creosoteoil,treatment

ofwood,brushmethod,95–96open-tankmethod,96–97

Curb,168Curing,128,141Cutter-bar,mower,309–310Cutter,pipe,353–354Cuttingpipe,359Cuttingsilage,283–284Cylinder,322

DDeere,John,259Definitions,concrete,105Depreciationofmachines,265Derricks,124Die-stockanddies,pipe,354Dippingvat,178–180Discardedmachines,266Discharrow,299–300Disposalofsewage,349Drain,160,161,171

diggingto,361establishing,360–361gradelinefor,360–361outlet,359

Drainage,additionaljobs,374fittings,357–358

Draintile,atfoundationofhouse,373–374installingforkitchensink,359–360

Drillingcorn,305

Drillinggrain,282–283Drills,270Doorstep,147–150Drymixture,121,122,139

EEarthforms,125Economical,106Edger,132,133,146Effectsofmachines,259–261Electriclighting

plant,289,338–339belt-driven,338unit,338windmill,339

Elevating,123Engine,gas,320

questions,323–324Equipment,259,260

home,292Errors,115–116Expansion,130Expansionjoint,146

FFeedingfloor,144Feedmills,313Fertilizerdrill,275,306,309Fittings,pipe,356Files,270Fire,blacksmith’s,maintaining,195–197Fireproof,105Float,132,133Floor,feeding,167–168Flutedcylinder,301Fluxesforsoldering,231–232Forms,125–128Foundation,machine,163–165

floor,167–168walls,150–153

Frostline,152Fruitstorage,175–176Furnace,290

G

Garagefloor,144Gasengines,276–277

overhauling,320–323questionson,323–324

Gaslighting,289Gauge,wheel—plow,296Glass,cutting,100–101

settinginframe,101–102Graded,114Gradingcorn,280Grainbinder,312Graindrill,282–283

repairing,301–303Grainseparator,314–317

repairing,314–317Gravel,110,111Gravitywater

system,344,345installationof,344

Groover,132,133,147Grindingvalves,322

H

Hack-saw,270Halter,makingrope,398–399Hammers,270Harness,405–412

adjustment,411,412bridle,411collar,412hames,412leather,406oil,406overhauling,410–411repair,405,410room,405–406

Harnessstrap,sewingbuckle,408–409splicing,407

Harnesswork,equipmentfor,406Harrows,298–300Harvestinggrain,285–286Harvestingmachinery,309Hay,harvesting,286–288

Hayingmachinery,275Heater,stockwater,371–372Heatinghouse,341

hotwater,342pipelessfurnace,341steam,342warmair,341

Heel,plow,296,297Historic,106Hoisting,124Hogwallow,165Hot-bed,150–153Hot-watertank,370–371Housingmachinery,266–267Hydrauliccurrent,106Hydraulicram,347,349Hydro-pneumaticwater

system,344,348automaticcontrolof,347operationof,347

IImpulsestarter,292Ironandsteel,manufactureof,181Iron

bendingsame,197–199drawingsame,199–201pigandwrought,182–183upsetting,201–202

JJointer,296,297Joint,expansion,146Jointsinbeltlacing,327

KKitchensink,362,363–364

height,363installing,362location,363–364

L

Lacingabelt,327–328Lamp,keroseneflatwick,338

kerosenetubular,338portablegasoline,340

Landside,plow,296Lapjointinsoldering,235Lighting,acetylene,339–340

Blaugas,341cheapest,338farm,337gasoline,340electric,338–339modern,338necessityforgood,337

Lightplant,289Limestone,112–113,138Limesower,309Logging,9–10Lubrication,293

M

Machine,mixing,120–121requirementsof,120–121

Machinery,careof,263farm,258–260inspection,294

Manholecover,167Manurespreader,275,306–308Marker,cornplanter,281Markinggage,gagingforwidthuseof,31–32Marlinspike,379Materials

formachinerepair,271ropecotton,376manillafiber,375,376sisalfiber,375

McCormick,259Measurement,133Measuringandcalculatinglumber,14Mechanicalpower,262Milling,10–12Miterbox,useof,56Mixer,continuous,120,121

batch,120,121

Mixing,117–121Mixtures,115,121–122Modelingtools,woodworking,68Moldboard,296Moldedconcrete,139–141Molds,125,126Mortar,109Mortisejoint,61

layingout,62Motors,farm,258

repairandadjustmentof,319–320Mower,287,309,310,312

repairandadjustmentof,309–312Mowinghay,286

NNailing,useofhammer,39Naturalcurrent,106–107Neutralaxis,129

OOilingform,128,141Oilstains,92–93,94One-coursewalk,145Operatinghouseholdequipment,288–290Operationofmachinery,278Operationoftractor,292–293Overflow,160

PPaint,98–99Paintingmachinery,266–267Parker,Joseph,107Patchinginsoldering,238–239Pebbles,soft,111–112Permanent,105Pig-iron,182Pipe,cast-ironandlead,368Pipe,cutter,353–354

cutting,359fittings,356reamer,355

soil,367threading,358vise,353

Pipe,wrenches,355Pit,manure,166–167

scale,168–169Pitman,310,311Pitts,259Placingconcrete,122Plane-iron,grindingandwhetting,42–44Planesandplaning,40Planingupaboard,rulefor,44–46Plantingcorn,280–281Plantingmachinery,300Plasticity,125Plates,cornplanter,280Platform,147,149Pliers,270Plow

repairandadjustment,297,300sulky,297walking,295

Plumber,asaspecialist,351Plumbing,351–352

essentials,351materialsandfixtures,352,353tools,353,355

Plumbing,countryhouseinstallingin,364–367requirementsof,364

Portlandcement,107–108Postmold,126Posts,139,153–156Potatostorage,175–176Power,262,276Power-drivenmachinery,276Powermachinery,264Preparationofseedbed,280Preservingwood,91–92Privyvault,169,170Propertiesofcement,109Proportions,114,115–116Protection,147Pumping,maximumdepthsuctionpump,362–363Puttyandputtying,102–103

Q

Quakymixture,121,141,143Qualitiesofcement,105Quantities,116–117,138

RRatproof,105Reamer,pipe,355Reinforcing,129,131,153,155Removingforms,127–128,141Repairs,checkingup,294–295Requirementsofcement,109Reservoir,waterstorage,346Retainingwall,135Riddle,133Rings,piston,322

replacing,322Rip-saw,useof,28,30Risers,149Roller,lawn,161–162Romancement,107Rope

careandtreatment,377–378construction,375howmade,375–376materials,375–376raveledtreatment,379terms,376–377use,375whipping,379–380

Ropeendknotsbloodknot,382–383crownknot,380crownsplice,381–382figure8,383MatthewWalker,381manrope,381overhand,384stevedore,383wallandcrown,381wallknot,380–381

Ropehitchesblackwallhitch,392–393clovehitch,391–392halfhitch,390rollinghitch,391scaffoldhitch,392sheepshank,393

timberhitch,391Ropeknots,requirementsofgood,378Ropesplices

endorcrown,381–382,393eye,394–395long,395–397loop,394short,395side,394–395

Ropetyingbinderknot,384bowline,386–387Carrick’sbend,386doublebowline,386farmer’sloop,390grannyknot,385lariat,389mangerknot,388practice,384slipknot,388squareknot,384surgeon’sknot,385weaver’sknot,385

Ropework,375adjustablehalter,400castingrope,402–403makinghalter,398–399materialsneeded,379non-adjustablehalter,400–401toolsneeded,379triprope,401–402

SSandpaperingwood,70–71Sanitary,105Sanitation,343Saws,woodworking,classificationanduseof,27–29Scarfingforweld,210Scrapiron,131Scrapers,discharrow,299Scrapingbearing,319Scrapingwood,70–71Screening,makingscreens,103–104Screwdriver,270Seasoningwood,12–13Seed-bedpreparation,280Seedingmachinery,274

Separator,313–317Septictank,349–351Sewage,disposal,349

purificationof,351Shares,plow,296Sheet-metal,useofonform,230Shellac,97Shock,grain,285Shovel,132,133Sidedraft,280Sidewalk,139,141–147Silage,283–284Silagecutter,276,283–284Silo,283,284Sink,kitchen,363–364Smeaton,John,106Snubbers,discharrow,300Softpebbles,111–112Soilpipe,makingjoints,367Solder,classes,230–231Soldering,equipmentprocess,232Specialbeltlacing,333–335Splices,rope,378

theoryof,378Spokeshave,useof,70Spreader,manurestraw,275Squaringwithtry-square,30Steel,106

open-hearthandBessemerprocess,183tempering,183–184

Step,147–150Stock,tapanddies,271Storagebattery,289,339Strawspreader,275,308

repairandadjustmentof,308Studyingfarmmachinery,272Sub-base,148,158Suction,plow,296

disc,300Sulkyplow,297

TTamper,132,133Tamping,122,139Tank

circular,138,156–160milkcooling,169,171–172

rectangular,139,173–174Tankinstallation

hotwater,370–371stocktank,369–370

Tarpaulin,147Tarvia,146Tapanddies,271Tension,129–131Template,164,165Testforclay,112,138Threadingpipe,358–359Thresher,259,285Threshingmachinery,313Tile

laying,361–362poorlylaid,360

Tile,properlylaid,360sewer,351,362,367

Tillage,machinery,272–274,295–296Tools

concrete,131–134formachineryrepair,268pipe,353–355woodworking,theirclassification,22–26

Top,cisternwall,165Tractor,290,319

management,293operation,292–293problem,293study,276–277

Treads,149,150Trees,growth,12

theirclassification,14Trough,121,162–163Troweling,146,149Trowels,132,133Truck,319Turningsaw,useof,69

VValves,grinding,322Varnish,97Vat,178–180Vault,privy,169,170Vegetablematter,112–113Vise,269

pipe,353

Voids,114

WWalkingplow,297Wall,foundation,150–153Wallow,hog,165Washingmachine,290Water,estimatedamountused,349Waterstains,93–94Watersupply,343Watersystem,

air-pressure,344,347gravity,288,344,345selecting,349simplest,343–344

Waxforwood-finishing,93Weldingiron,193–194,209–210Wellcontamination,343Wetmixture,121,122Wheelbarrows,124White,Canvass,107

FARMENGINESANDHOWTORUNTHEM

byJamesH.Stephenson

PREFACE__________

Thisbookmakesnopretensionstooriginality.Ithastakenthebestfromeverysource.Theauthorbelievesthematterhasbeenarrangedinamoresimpleandeffectivemanner,andthatmoreinformationhasbeencrowdedintothesepagesthanwillbefoundwithinthepagesofanysimilarbook.

Theprofessionalengineer, inwritingabookforyoungengineers, is likelytoforgetthatthenoviceisunfamiliarwithmanytermswhicharelikedailybreadtohim.Thepresentwritershavetriedtoavoidthatpitfall,andtodefineeachtermas it naturally needs definition. Moreover, the description of parts and thedefinitions of terms have preceded any suggestions on operation, the authorsbelieving that the young engineer should become thoroughly familiarwith hisengineanditsmannerofworking,beforeheistoldwhatisbesttodoandnottodo.Ifheisforcedontoofastheislikelytogetmixed.Thetestquestionsattheend of Chapter III. will show how perfectly the preceding pages have beenmastered, and the student is not ready to go on till he can answer all thesequestionsreadily.

The system of questions and answers has its uses and its limitations. Theauthorshavetriedtousethatsystemwhereitwoulddomostgood,andemploythe straight narrative discussion method where questions could not help andwould only interrupt the progress of thought. Little technicalmatter has beenintroduced,andthatonlyforpracticalpurposes.Theauthorshavehadtractionengines inmind for themostpart,but thedirectionswillapplyequallywell toanykindofsteamengine.

The thanks of the publishers are due to the various traction engine andthreshingmachinemanufacturersforcutsandinformation,andespeciallytotheThreshermen’sReviewforideascontainedinits“FarmEngineEconomy,”totheJ.I.CaseThreshingMachineCo.fortheuseofcopyrightedmatterintheir“TheScienceofSuccessfulThreshing,”andtothemanageroftheColumbusMachineCo.forvaluablepersonalinformationfurnishedtheauthorsongasolineenginesand how to run them. The proof has been read and corrected by Mr. T. R.Butman,knowninChicagofor25yearsasoneoftheleadingexpertsonenginesandboilers,especiallyboilers.

CONTENTS

CHAPTERI. BUYINGANENGINE

CHAPTERII. BOILERS

CHAPTERIII. THESIMPLEENGINE

CHAPTERIV. HOWTOMANAGEATRACTIONENGINEBOILER

CHAPTERV. HOWTOMANAGEATRACTIONENGINE

CHAPTERVI. HANDLINGATRACTIONENGINEONTHEROAD

CHAPTERVII. POINTSFORTHEYOUNGENGINEER

CHAPTERVIII. POINTSFORTHEYOUNGENGINEER(CONT.)CHAPTERIX. POINTSFORTHEYOUNGENGINEER(CONT.)CHAPTERX. ECONOMYINRUNNINGAFARMENGINE

CHAPTERXI. ECONOMYINRUNNINGAFARMENGINE(CONT.)CHAPTERXII. DIFFERENTTYPESOFENGINES

CHAPTERXIII. GASANDGASOLINEENGINES

CHAPTERXIV. HOWTORUNATHRESHINGMACHINE

CHAPTERXV. QUESTIONSASKEDBYENGINEERSWHENAPPLYINGFORALICENSE

CHAPTERXVI. DIFFERENTMAKESOFTRACTIONENGINES

INDEX

CHAPTERI

BUYINGANENGINE

Thereareagreatmanymakesofgoodenginesonthemarketto-day,andthecompetitionissokeenthatnoenginemakercanaffordtoturnoutaverypoorengine.Thisisespeciallytrueoftractionengines.Thedifferentstylesandtypesallhavetheiradvantages,andaregoodintheirway.Forallthat,onegoodenginemaybe valueless for you, and there aremanyways inwhich youmaymake agreat mistake in purchasing an engine. The following points will help you tochoosewisely:

1.Considerwhatyouwantanenginefor.Ifitisastationaryengine,considertheworktobedone,thespaceit istooccupy,andwhatconvenienceswillsaveyourtime.Remember,TIMEISMONEY,andthatmeansthatSPACEISALSOMONEY. Choose the kind of engine that will be most convenient for thepositioninwhichyouwishtoplaceitandthepurposeorpurposesforwhichyouwishtouseit.Ifbuyingatractionengine,consideralsotheroadsandanengine’spullingqualities.

2.Ifyouarebuyingatractionengineforthreshing,thefirstthingtoconsiderisFUEL.Whichwillbecheapestforyou,wood,coalorstraw?Iseconomyoffuelmuchofanobjectwithyou—onethatwill justifyyouingreatercareandmorescientificstudyofyourengine?Otherthingsbeingequal,thedirectflue,firebox,locomotiveboilerandsimpleenginewillbethebest,sincetheyaretheeasiesttooperate. They are not the most economical under favorable conditions, but areturn flue boiler and a compound engine will cost you far more than thepossiblesavingoffuelunlessyoumanagetheminascientificway.Indeed,ifnotrightlymanagedtheywillwastemorefuelthanthedirectfluelocomotiveboilerandthesimpleengine.

3.Donot try to economizeon the sizeof yourboiler, andat the same timenevergettoolargeanengine.Ifa6-horsepowerboilerwilljustdoyourwork,an8-horse powerwill do it better andmore economically, because youwon’t beoverworkingitallthetime.Enginesshouldseldombecrowded.Atthesametimeyouneverknowwhenyoumaywant ahigher capacity thanyouhave,orhowmuchyoumay losebynothaving it.Of course youdon’twant an engine and

boiler that are too big, but you should always allow a fairmargin above youranticipatedrequirements.

4.Donot try toeconomizeonappliances.Youshouldhaveagoodpump,agoodinjector,agoodheater,anextrasteamgauge,anextrafusibleplugreadytoputin,aflueexpanderandaheader.Youshouldalsocertainlyhaveagoodforcepumpandhosetocleantheboiler,andthebestoilandgreaseyoucanget.Neverbelievethemanwhotellsyouthatsomethingnotquitethebestis justasgood.Youwillfinditthemostexpensivethingyouevertried—ifyouhavewitenoughtofindouthowexpensiveitis.

5. Ifyouwantmypersonaladviceon theproperengine toselect forvariouspurposes,Ishouldsaybyallmeansgetagasolineengineforsmallpowersaboutthe farm, such as pumping, etc. It is the quickest to start, by far the mosteconomicaltooperate,andthesimplesttomanage.Thedayofthesmallsteamengineispastandwillneverreturn,andtengasolineenginesofthiskindaresoldforeverysteamengineputout.Ifyouwantatractionengineforthreshing,etc.,stick to steam. Gasoline engines are not very good hill climbers because theapplicationofpowerisnotsteadyenough;theyarenotverygoodtogetoutofmudholeswithfor thesamereason,andasyet theyarenotperfectedforsuchpurposes. You might use a portable gasoline engine, however, though theapplicationofpowerisnotassteadyaswithsteamandtheflywheelsareheavy.Inchoosingatractionsteamengine,thedirectfluelocomotiveboilerandsimpleengine, though theoretically not so economical as the return flue boiler andcompound engine,will inmany cases prove so practically because they are somuchsimplerand there isnot thechance togowrongwith themthat there iswiththeothers.Ifforanyreasonyouwantaveryquicksteamer,buyanupright.Ifeconomyoffuelisveryimportantandyouarepreparedtomakethenecessaryefforttosecureit,areturnflueboilerwillbeagoodinvestment,andareallygoodcompound engine may be.Where a large plant is to be operated and a highpowerconstantandsteadyenergyisdemanded,sticktosteam,sincethegasolineenginesofthelargersizehavenotprovedsosuccessful,andarecertainlybynomeansso steady;and in suchacase theexhaust steamcanbeused forheatingandforvariousotherpurposesthatwillworkthegreatesteconomy.Forsuchaplantchooseahorizontaltubularboiler,setinmasonry,andacompoundengine(thelatterifyouhaveascientificengineer).

Ingeneral, inthetractionengine, looktotheconvenienceofarrangementofthethrottle,reverselever,steeringwheel,frictionclutch,independentpumpandinjector, all ofwhich shouldbewithin easy reachof the footboard, as such an

arrangement will save annoyance and often damage when quick action isrequired.

The boiler should bewell set; the firebox large,with large grate surface if alocomotivetypeofboilerisused,andthenumberoffluesshouldbesufficienttoallowgoodcombustionwithoutforceddraft.Areturnflueboilershouldhavealargemainflue,materialoftherequired5-16-inchthickness,amuddrum,andfourtosixhand-holessuitablysituatedforcleaningtheboiler.Thereshouldbearather high average boiler pressure, as high pressure ismore economical thanlow.Forasimpleengine,80poundsandforacompound125poundsshouldbeminimum.

A stationary engine should have a solid foundation built by a mason whounderstands thebusiness, and shouldbe ina light,dry room—never inadarkcellaroradampplace.

Everyfarmtractionengineshouldhaveafrictionclutch.

CHAPTERII

BOILERS

The firstboilersweremadeas a single cylinderofwrought iron set inbrickwork,withprovisionforafireunderoneend.Thiswasusedformanyyears,butitproducedsteamveryslowlyandwithgreatwasteoffuel.

The first improvement tobemade in thiswas a fire flue running thewholelengthoftheinterioroftheboiler,withthefireinoneendoftheflue.Thisfirefluewasentirelysurroundedbywater.

Thenaboilerwasmadewith two flues thatcametogetherat thesmoke-boxend.Firstonefluewasfiredandthentheother,alternately,theclearheatofoneburningthesmokeoftheotherwhenitcameintothecommonpassage.

The next step was to introduce conical tubes by which the water couldcirculatethroughthemainfireflue(Gallowayboiler).

FIG.1.Orr&Sembower’sstandardhorizontalboiler,withfull-archfrontsetting.

The object of all these improvements was to get larger heating surface. Tomake steam rapidly and economically, theheating surfacemust be as, large aspossible.Butthereisalimitinthattheboilermustnotbecumbersome,itmustcarryenoughwater,andhavesufficientspaceforsteam.

FIG.2.Gaar,Scott&Co.’slocomotiveboiler.

Thestationaryboilernowmostcommonlyusediscylindrical,thefireisbuiltin a brick furnace under the sheet and returns through fire tubes running thelengthoftheboiler.(Fig.1.)

LOCOMOTIVEFIRETUBETYPEOFBOILER

Theearliestofthemodernsteamboilerstocomeintousewasthelocomotivefiretubetype,withaspecialfirebox.Byreferencetotheillustration(Fig.2)youwillseethattheboilercylinderisperforatedwithanumberoftubesfrom2to4inchesindiameterrunningfromthelargefireboxontheleft,throughtheboilercylinder filled with water, to the smoke-box on the right, above which thesmokestackrises.

FIG.3.Thehuberfirebox.

Itwillbenoticed that thewallsof the fireboxaredouble,and that thewatercirculatesfreelyallaboutthefireboxaswellasallaboutthefiretubes.Theinnerwallsofthefireboxareheldfirmlyinpositionbystaybolts,aswillbeseeninFig.3,whichalsoshowsthepositionofthegrate.

FIG.4.Huberreturnflueboiler.

RETURNFLUETYPEOFBOILER

The return flue type of boiler consists of a large central fire flue runningthroughtheboilercylindertothesmokeboxatthefrontend,whichisentirelyclosed. The smoke passes back through a number of small tubes, and thesmokestack isdirectlyover the fireat therearof theboiler, though there isnocommunicationbetweenthe fireat therearof theboilerand itexcept throughthe main flue to the front and back through the small return flues. Fig. 4illustrates this type of boiler, though it shows but one return flue. The actualnumbermaybeseenbythesectionalviewinFig.5.

The fire is built in one end of themain flue, and is entirely surrounded bywater, as will be seen in the illustration. The long passage for the flame andheated gases enables the water to absorb a maximum amount of the heat of

combustion. There is also an element of safety in this boiler in that the smallflueswillbeexposedfirstshouldthewaterbecomelow,andlessdamagewillbedonethanifthelargecrownsheetofthefireboxboilerisexposed,andthislargecrownsheetisthefirstthingtobeexposedinthattypeofboiler.

FIG.5.Sectionviewofhuberreturnflueboiler.

WATERTUBETYPEOFBOILER

Thespecialdifferencebetweenthefiretubeboilerandthewatertubeboileristhatintheformerthefirepassesthroughthetubes,whileinthelatterthewaterisinthetubesandthefirepassesaroundthem.

Inthistypeofboilerthereisanuppercylinder(ormorethanone)filledwithwater;aseriesofsmalltubesrunningatananglefromthefrontorfiredoorendoftheuppercylindertoapointbelowandbackofthegrates,wheretheymeetinanother cylinder or pipe, which is connectedwith the other end of the uppercylinder.Theportionsofthetubesdirectlyoverthefirewillbehottest,andthewaterherewill becomeheatedand rise to the front endof theupper cylinder,whiletofillthespaceleft,colderwaterisdrawninfromthebackpipe,fromtherearendoftheuppercylinder,downtothelowerendsofthewatertubes,topassalongupthroughthemtothefrontendagain.

FIG.6.Freemanverticalboiler.

This typeof boiler gives greatheating surface, and since the tubes are smallthey will have ample strength with much thinner walls. Great freedom ofcirculationisimportantinthistypeofboiler,therebeingnocontractedcellsinthepassage.Thisisnotadaptedforaportableengine.

UPRIGHTORVERTICALTYPEOFBOILER

In the upright type of boiler the boiler cylinder is placed on end, the fire isbuiltatthelowerend,whichisafireboxsurroundedbyawaterjacket,andthesmokeandgasesofcombustionrise straightup throughvertical fire flues.Theamount of water carried is relatively small, and the steam space is also small,whiletheheatingsurfaceisrelativelylargeiftheboilerissufficientlytall.Youcangetupsteaminthistypeofboilerquickerthaninanyother,andincaseofthestationary engine, the space occupied is a minimum. The majority of smallstationary engines have this type of boiler, and there is a traction enginewithuprightboilerwhichhasbeenwidelyusedbutitisopentotheobjectionthattheupper or steam ends of the tubes easily get overheated and so become leaky.There is also often trouble frommud and scale deposits in the water leg, thebottomareaofwhichisverysmall.

DEFINITIONOFTERMSUSEDINCONNECTIONWITHBOILERS

Shell—Themaincylindrical steel sheetswhich formtheprincipalpartof theboiler.

Boiler-heads—Theendsoftheboilercylinder.TubeSheets—Thesheetsinwhichthefiretubesareinsertedateachendofthe

boiler.Firebox—A nearly square space at one end of a boiler, in which the fire is

placed.Properlyitissurroundedonallsidesbyadoublewall,thespacebetweenthetwoshellsofthesewallsbeingfilledwithwater.Allflatsurfacesaresecurelyfastenedbystayboltsandcrownbars,butcylindricalsurfacesareself-bracing.

Water-leg—Thespaceatsidesoffireboxandbelowitinwhichwaterpasses.Crown-sheet—Thesheetofsteelatthetopofthefirebox,justunderthewater

in the boiler. This crown sheet is exposed to severe heat, but so long as it iscovered with water, the water will conduct the heat away, and the metal cannever become any hotter than the water in the boiler. If, however, it is notcoveredwithwater,butonlybysteam,itquicklybecomesoverheated,sincethesteamdoesnotconducttheheatawayasthewaterdoes.Itmaybecomesohotitwillsoftenandsag,butthegreatdangeristhatthethinlayerofwaternearthisoverheatedcrownsheetwillbesuddenlyturnedintoagreatvolumeofsteamandcause an explosion. If some of the pressure is taken off, this overheatedwatermaysuddenlyburstintosteamandcauseanexplosion,asthesafetyvalveblowsoff,forexample(sincethesafetyvalverelievessomeofthepressure).

Smoke-box—Thespaceattheendoftheboileroppositetothatofthefire,inwhichthesmokemayaccumulatebeforepassingupthestackinthelocomotivetype,orthroughthesmallfluesinthereturntypeofboiler.

Steam-dome—Adrumorprojectionatthetopoftheboilercylinder,formingthehighestpointwhichthesteamcanreach.Thesteamistakenfromtheboilerthroughpiping leading fromthe topof thisdome, sinceat thispoint it is leastlikelytobemixedwithwater,eitherthroughfoamingorshakingupoftheboiler.Even under normal conditions the steam at the top of the dome is drier thananywhereelse.

Mud-drum—A cylindrical-shaped receptacle at the bottom of the boilersimilar to the steam-domeat the top, butnot sodeep. Impurities in thewateraccumulatehere,anditisofgreatvalueonareturnflueboiler.Inalocomotiveboilerthemudaccumulatesinthewaterleg,belowthefirebox.

Man-holes—Arelargeopeningsintotheinteriorofaboiler,throughwhicha

manmaypasstocleanouttheinside.Hand-holes—Aresmallerholesatvariouspoints in theboiler intowhichthe

nozzle of a hose may be introduced for cleaning out the interior. All theseopeningsmustbesecurelycoveredwithsteam-tightplates,calledman-holeandhand-holeplates.

Aboiler jacket—Anon-conductingcoveringofwood,plaster,hair, rags, felt,paper, asbestos or the like, which prevents the boiler shell from cooling toorapidlythroughradiationofheatfromthesteel.Thesematerialsareusuallyheldinplace against theboiler by sheet iron.An intervening air-spacebetween thejacketandtheboilershellwilladdtotheefficiencyofthejacket.

Asteam-jacket—Aspacearoundanenginecylinderorthelikewhichmaybefilledwithlivesteamsoastokeeptheinteriorfromcoolingrapidly.

Ash-pit—Thespacedirectlyunderthegrates,wheretheashesaccumulate.Dead-plates—Solid sheets of steel on which the fire lies the same as on the

grates,butwithnoopeningsthroughtotheash-pit.Dead-platesaresometimesusedtopreventcoldairpassingthroughthefireintotheflues,andarecommononstraw-burningboilers.Theyshouldseldomifeverbeusedoncoalorwoodfiringboilers.

GrateSurface—Thewholespaceoccupiedbythegrate-bars,usuallymeasuredinsquarefeet.

ForcedDraft—Adraftproducedbyanymeansotherthanthenaturaltendencyoftheheatedgasesofcombustiontorise.Forexample,adraftcausedbylettingsteamescapeintothestack.

Heating Surface—The entire surface of the boiler exposed to the heat of thefire,ortheareaofsteelorironsheetingortubing,ononesideofwhichiswaterandontheotherheatedairorgases.

Steam-space—The cubical contents of the space whichmay be occupied bysteamabovethewater.

Water-space—Thecubicalcontentsofthespaceoccupiedbywaterbelowthesteam.

Diaphragm-plate—Aperforatedplateusedinthedomesoflocomotiveboilerstopreventwaterdashing into the steamsupplypipe.Adry-pipe isapipewithsmallperforations,usedfortakingsteamfromthesteam-space,insteadoffromadomewithdiaphragm-plate.

THEATTACHMENTSOFABOILER*

Beforeproceedingtoaconsiderationofthecareandmanagementofaboiler,

letusbrieflyindicatethechiefworkingattachmentsofaboiler.Unlessthenatureand uses of these attachments are fully understood, it will be impossible tohandle the boiler in a thoroughly safe and scientific fashion, though someengineersdohandleboilerswithoutknowingallabouttheseattachments.Theirignoranceinmanycasescoststhemtheirlivesandthelivesofothers.

Thefirstdutyoftheengineeristoseethattheboilerisfilledwithwater.Thisheusuallydoesbylookingattheglasswater-gauge.

Two-rodwatergauge.

THEWATERGAUGEANDCOCKS

Thereisacockateachendoftheglasstube.Whenthesecocksareopenthewaterwillpassthroughthelowerintotheglasstube,whilesteamcomesthroughtheother.Thelevelofthewaterinthegaugewillthenbethesameasthelevelofthewater in the boiler, and thewater should never fall out of sight below thelowerendoftheglass,norriseabovetheupperend.

Belowthelowergaugecockthereisanothercockusedfordrainingthegaugeandblowingitoffwhenthereisapressureofsteamon.Byoccasionallyopeningthis cock, allowing theheatedwater or steam to blow through it, the engineermayalwaysbesurethatthepassagesintothewatergaugearenotstoppedupbyanymeans.Byclosing theupper cockandopening the lower, thepassage intothe lowermay be cleared by blowing off the drain cock; by closing the lowergauge cock and opening the upper the passage from the steam spacemay beclearedand tested in the samewaywhen thedraincock isopened. If theglass

breaks,bothupperandlowergaugecocksshouldbeclosedinstantly.

Gaugeortrycock.

In addition to the glasswater gauge, there are the try-cocks for ascertainingthe levelof thewater in theboiler.There shouldbe two to fourof these.Theyopendirectlyoutoftheboilersheet,andbyopeningtheminturnitispossibletotell approximatelywhere thewater stands. There should be one cock near thelevelofthecrownsheet,orslightlyaboveit,anotheraboutthelevelofthelowergaugecock,anotheraboutthemiddleofthegauge,anotherabouttheleveloftheupper gauge, and still another, perhaps, a littlehigher.But one above andonebelowthewaterlinewillbesufficient.Ifwaterstandsabovethelevelofthecock,itwillblowoffwhitemistwhenopened;ifthecockopensfromsteam-space, itwillblowoffbluesteamwhenopened.

Trycock.

The try-cocks should be opened from time to time in order to be sure thewater stands at the proper level in the boiler, for various thingsmay interferewiththeworkingoftheglassgauge.Try-cocksareoftencalledgaugecocks.

THESTEAMGAUGE

The steam gauge is a delicate instrument arranged so as to indicate by apointerthepoundsofpressurewhichthesteamisexertingwithintheboiler.Itisextremelyimportant,andadefectinitmaycausemuchdamage.

Pressuregauge.

The steam gauge was invented in 1849 by Eugene Bourdon, of France. Hediscovered that a flat tube bent in a simple curve, held fast at one end,wouldexpandandcontractifmadeofproperspringmaterial,throughthepressureofthewaterwithin the tube. The free end operates a clock-work thatmoves thepointer.

Itisimportantthatthesteamgaugebeattachedtotheboilerbyasiphon,orwithaknotinthetube,sothatthesteammayoperateonwatercontainedinthetube, and the water cannot become displaced by steam, since steam mightinterfere with the correct working of the gauge by expanding the gauge tubethroughitsexcessiveheat.

Steamgaugesiphon.

Steamgauges frequently get outof order, and shouldbe testedoccasionally.Thismayconvenientlybedonebyattachingthemtoaboilerwhichhasacorrectgaugealreadyonit.Ifbothregisteralike,itisprobablethatbothareaccurate.

Frontcylindercock.

Therearealsoself-testingsteamgauges.Withallpressureoff,thepointerwillreturn toO.Then a series ofweights are arrangedwhichmaybehungon thegauge and cause the pointer to indicate corresponding numbers. The chiefsourceofvariation is inthe looseningof the indicatorneedle.Thisshowsitselfusuallywhenthepressureisoffandthepointerdoesnotreturnexactlytozero.

Sectionalviewofkunklepopvalve.

The safety valve is a valveheld inplaceby aweighted lever**orby a spiralspring(ontractionengines)orsomesimilardevice,andisadjustablebyascreworthelikesothatitcanbesettoblowoffatagivenpressureofsteam,usuallytheratedpressureoftheboiler,whichontractionenginesisfrom110to130pounds.Thevalveissuppliedwithahandlebywhichitcanbeopened,anditshouldbeopenedoccasionally tomakesure it isworkingall right.When itblowsoff thesteamgaugeshouldbenotedtoseethatitagreeswiththepressureforwhichthesafetyvalvewas set. If theydonotagree, something iswrong; either the safetyvalvedoesnotworkfreely,orthesteamgaugedoesnotregisteraccurately.

Safetyvalve.

The cut shows the Kunkle safety valve. To set it, unscrew the jam nut andapply the key to the pressure screw. Formore pressure, screw down; for less,unscrew.Afterhavingthedesiredpressure,screwthejamnutdowntightonthepressurescrew.Toregulatetheopeningandclosingofthevalve,takethepointedendof a file and apply it to the teeth of the regulator. If valve closeswith toomuchboilerpressure,movetheregulatortotheleft.Ifwithtoolittle,movethe

regulatortotheright.Thiscanbedonewhenthevalveisatthepointofblowingoff.Othertypesofvalvesaremanagedinasimilarway,andexactdirectionswill

alwaysbefurnishedbythemanufacturers.

Phantomviewofmarshindependentsteampump.

FILLINGTHEBOILERWITHWATER

Therearethreewaysinwhichaboileriscommonlyfilledwithwater.First, before starting aboiler itmustbe filledwithwaterbyhand,orwith a

handforce-pump.Thereisusuallyafillerplug,whichmustbetakenout,andafunnelcanbeattachedinitsplace.Openoneofthegaugecockstoletouttheairasthewatergoesin.

Whentheboilerhasasufficientamountofwater,asmaybeseenbytheglasswater gauge, replace the filler plug. After steam is up the boiler should besuppliedwithwaterbyapumporinjector.

THEBOILERPUMP

There are two kinds of pumps commonly used on traction engines, theIndependentpump,andtheCross-headpump.

The Independent pump is virtually an independent engine with pumpattached.There are two cylinders, one receiving steam and conveying force tothe piston; the other a water cylinder, inwhich a plungerworks, drawing thewater into itselfbysuctionandforcingitoutthroughtheconnectionpipe intotheboilerbyforceofsteampressureinthesteamcylinder.

Straightglobevalve.

It is to benoted that all suctionpumps receive theirwater by reasonof thepressureoftheatmosphereonthesurfaceofthewaterinthesupplytankorwell.This atmospheric pressure is about 15 pounds to the square inch, and issufficienttosupportacolumnofwater28to33feethigh,33feetbeingtheheightof a columnofwaterwhich the atmospherewill support theoretically at aboutsealevel.Atgreateraltitudesthepressureoftheatmospheredecreases.Pumpsdonotworkverywellwhendrawingwaterfromadepthover20or22feet.

Angleglobevalve.

Watercanbeforcedtoalmostanyheightbypressureofsteamontheplunger,anditistakenfromdeepwellsbydeepwellpumps,whichsuckthewater20to25feet,andforceittherestofthewaybypressureonaplunger.

The amount of water pumped is regulated by a cock or globe valve in thesuctionpipe.

ACross-headboilerpumpisapumpattachedtothecross-headofanengine.Theforceoftheenginepistonistransmittedtotheplungerofthepump.

The pump portion works exactly the same, whether of the independent orcross-headkind.

Thecutrepresentsanindependentpumpthatusestheexhauststeamtoheatthewaterasitispumped(Marshpump).

Everyboilerfeed-pumpmusthaveatleasttwocheckvalves.

Valvewithinternalscrew.

Acheckvalveisasmallswinginggatevalve(usually)containedinapipe,andso arranged that when water is flowing in one direction the valve willautomaticallyopen to let thewaterpass,while ifwater shouldbe forced in theother direction, the valve will automatically close tight and prevent the waterfrompassing.

Thereisonecheckvalveinthesupplypipewhichconductsthewaterfromthetankorwelltothepumpcylinder.Whentheplungerisdrawnbackorraised,avacuum is created in the pump cylinder and the outside atmospheric pressureforceswaterthroughthesupplypipeintothecylinder,andthecheckvalveopenstoletitpass.Whentheplungerreturns,thecheckvalvecloses,andthewaterisforcedintothefeed-pipetotheboiler.

Sectionalviewofswingcheckvalve.

Thereareusuallytwocheckvalvesbetweenthepumpcylinderandtheboiler,bothswingingawayfromthepumportowardtheboiler.Inorderthatthewatermay flow steadily into theboiler there is an air chamber,whichmaybepartlyfilledwithwater at each stroke of the plunger.As thewater comes in, the airmustbecompressed,andasitexpandsitforcesthewaterthroughthefeedpipeinto theboiler ina steady stream.There isonecheckvalvebetween thepumpcylinder and the air chamber, toprevent thewater fromcomingback into thecylinder, and another between the air chamber and the boiler, to prevent thesteampressure forcing itself or thewater from theboiler orwaterheater back

intotheairchamber.

Sectionalviewofcaseheater.

Sectionalviewofpenberthyinjector.

U.S.automaticinjector.(Americaninjectorco.)

Allthreeofthesecheckvalvesmustworkeasilyandfittightifthepumpistobe serviceable. They usually close with rubber facings which in time will getworn,anddirt is liable towork into thehingeandotherwiseprevent tightandeasyclosing.Theycanalwaysbeopenedforinspection,andnewonescanbeputinwhentheoldaretoomuchworn.

Only cold water can be pumped successfully, as steam from hot water will

expand,andsopreventavacuumbeingformed.Thusnosuctionwilltakeplacetodrawthewaterfromthesupplysource.

Thereshouldalwaysbeaglobevalveorcockinthefeedpipeneartheboilertomakeitpossibletocutoutthecheckvalveswhentheboilerisunderpressure.Itisnevertobeclosedexceptwhenrequiredforthispurpose.

Automaticinjector.

Before passing into the boiler the water from the pump goes through theheater.Thisisasmallcylinder,withacoilofpipeinside.Thefeedpipefromthepumpisconnectedwithoneendofthisinnercoilofpipe,whiletheotherendofthecoilleadsintotheboileritself.Theexhauststeamfromtheenginecylinderisadmittedintothecylinderandpassesaroundthecoilofpipe,afterwardscomingout of the smoke stack to help increase the draft. As the feed water passesthroughthisheateritbecomesheatednearlytoboilingbeforeitenterstheboiler,andhasnotendencytocooltheboileroff.Heatingthefeedwaterresults inaneconomyofabout10percent.

TheInjectorisanothermeansofforcingwaterfromasupplytankorwellintotheboiler,andatthesametimeheatingit,byuseofsteamfromtheboiler.Itisanecessity when a cross-head pump is used, since such a pump will not workwhentheengineisshutdown.Itisusefulinanycasetoheatthewaterbeforeitgoes into the boiler when the engine is not working and there is no exhauststeamfortheheater.

Therearevarioustypesofinjectors,buttheyallworkonpracticallythesameprinciple.Thesteamfromtheboileris ledthroughataperingnozzletoasmallchamber intowhich there is anopening fromawater supplypipe.This steamnozzlethrowsoutitsspraywithgreatforceandcreatesapartialvacuuminthe

chamber, causing thewater to flow in. As the pressure of the steam has beenreducedwhenitpassesintotheinjector,itcannot,ofcourse,forceitswaybackintotheboileratfirst,andfindsanoutletattheoverflow.Whenthewatercomesin,however,thesteamjetstrikesthewaterandiscondensedbyit.Atthesametimeitcarriesthewaterandthecondensedsteamalongtowardtheboilerwithsuchforcethatthebackpressureoftheboilerisovercomeandastreamofheatedwater is passed into it. In order that the injectormaywork, its partsmust benicelyadjusted,andwithvaryingsteampressuresittakessomeingenuitytogetitstarted.Usuallythefullsteampressureisturnedonandthecockadmittingthewatersupplyisopenedavaryingamountaccordingtothepressure.

Plainwhistle.

First the valve between the check valve and the boiler should be opened, sothat the feedwatermay enter freely; then openwide the valve next the steamdome,andanyothervalvebetweenthesteamsupplypipeandtheinjector;lastlyopen thewater supply valve. Ifwater appears at theoverflow, close the supplyvalveandopenitagain,givingitjusttheproperamountofturn.Theinjectorisregulatedbytheamountofwateradmitted.

Insettingupaninjectorofanytype,thefollowingrulesshouldbeobserved:Allconnectingpipesasstraightandshortaspossible.The internal diameter of all connectingpipes shouldbe the sameor greater

thanthediameteroftheholeinthecorrespondingpartoftheinjector.Whenthereisdirtorparticlesofwoodorothermaterialinthesourceofwater

supply, the end of the water supply pipe should be provided with a strainer.Indeed,invariablyastrainershouldbeused.Theholesinthisstrainermustbeassmall as the smallest opening in the delivery tube, and the total area of theopeningsinthestrainermustbemuchgreaterthantheareaofthewatersupply(cross-section).

The steam should be taken from the highest part of the dome, to avoid

carryinganywaterfromtheboileroverwithit.Wetsteamcutsandgroovesthesteamnozzle.Thesteamshouldnotbetakenfromthepipeleadingtotheengineunlessthepipeisquitelarge.

Beforeusingnewinjectors,aftertheyarefittedtotheboilerit isadvisabletodisconnectthemandcleanthemoutwellbylettingsteamblowthroughthemorforcing water through. This will prevent lead or loose scale getting into theinjectorwheninuse.

Settheinjectoraslowaspossible,asitworksbestwithsmallestpossiblelift.Ejectorsandjetpumpsareusedforliftingandforcingwaterbysteampressure,

andareemployedinfillingtanks,etc.

BLASTANDBLOW-OFFDEVICES

In traction engines there is small pipewith a valve, leading into the smokestackfromtheboiler.Whenthevalve isopened, thesteamallowedtoblowoffintothesmokestackwillcreateavacuumandsoincreasethedraft.Blastorblowpipes areusedonly in starting the fire, and areof little valuebefore the steampressurereaches15poundsorso.

Theexhaustnozzlefromtheenginecylinderalsoleadsintothesmokestack,andwhen the engine is running the exhaust steam is sufficient to keepup thedraftwithoutusingtheblower.

Blow-offcocksareusedforblowingsedimentoutofthebottomofaboiler,orblowingscumoffthetopofthewatertopreventfoaming.Aboilershouldneverbeblownoutathighpressure,asthereisgreatdangerofinjuringit.Betterlettheboilercooloffsomewhatbeforeblowingoff.

Diamondsparkarrester.

Diamondsparkarrester.

SPARKARRESTER

Tractionenginesaresuppliedasausualthingwithsparkarrestersiftheyburnwoodorstraw.Coalsparksareheavyandhavelittlelife,andwithsomeenginesnosparkarresterisneeded.Butthereisgreatdangerofsettingafireifanengineisrunwithwoodorstrawwithoutthesparkarrester.

Spark arresters are of different types. Themost usual form is a large screendomeplacedoverthetopofthestack.Thisscreenmustbekeptwellcleanedbybrushing,orthedraftoftheenginewillbeimpairedbyit.

Inanother formof sparkarrester, thesmoke ismade topass throughwater,whicheffectuallykillseverypossiblespark.

The Diamond Spark Arrester does not interfere with the draft and is soconstructedthatallsparksarecarriedbya.countercurrentthroughatubeintoapailwherewateriskept.Theinvertedcone,asshownincut,ismadeofsteelwirecloth,whichpermitssmokeandgastoescape,butnosparks.Thereisnopossiblechance to set fire toanythingbysparks. It isadapted toanysteamengine thatexhaustsintothesmokestack.

*Unless otherwise indicated, cuts of fittings show those manufactured by the Lunkenheimer Co.,Cincinnati,Ohio.

**Thiskindofsafetyvalveisnowbeingentirelydiscardedasmuchmoredangerousthanthespringorpopvalve.

CHAPTERIIITHESIMPLEENGINE

The engine is the part of a power plantwhich converts steampressure intopower in such form that it can do work. Properly speaking, the engine hasnothing to do with generating steam. That is done exclusively in the boiler,whichhasalreadybeendescribed.

ThesteamenginewasinventedbyJamesWatt,inEngland,between1765and1790,andheunderstoodalltheessentialpartsoftheengineasnowbuilt.Itwasimproved,however,bySeguin,Ericsson,Stephenson,Fulton,andmanyothers.

Viewofsimplecylinder.(J.I.CaseThreshingMachineCo.)Letusfirstconsider:

THESTEAMCYLINDER,ITSPARTSANDCONNECTIONS

The cylinder proper is constructed of a single piece of cast iron bored outsmooth.

Thecylinderheadsaretheflatdiscsorcapsboltedtotheendsofthecylinderitself. Sometimes one cylinder head is cast in the same piece with the engineframe.

The piston is a circular disc working back and forth in the cylinder. It isusuallyahollowcasting,andtomakeitfitthecylindersteamtight,itissuppliedonitscircumferencewithpistonrings.Thesearemadeofslightlylargerdiameter

than the piston, and serve as springs against the sides of the cylinder. Thefollowerplateandboltscoverthepistonringsonthepistonheadandholdtheminplace.

Connectingrodandcrosshead.(J.I.CaseThreshingMachineCo.)Thepistonrodisofwroughtironorsteel,andisfittedfirmlyandrigidlyintothepistonatoneend.Itrunsfromthepistonthroughoneheadof

thecylinder,passingthroughasteam-tight“stuffingbox.”Oneendofthepistonrodisattachedtothecrosshead.

The crosshead works between guides, and has shoes above and below. It ispractically a joint,necessary in converting straightback and forthmotion intorotary.Thecrossheaditselfworksstraightbackandforth,justasthepistondoes,whichisfastenedfirmlytooneend.Attheotherendisattachedtheconnectingrod,whichworksonabearinginthecrosshead,calledthewristpin,orcrossheadpin.

Theconnectingrodiswroughtironorsteel,workingatoneendonthebearingknownasthewristpin,andontheotheronabearingcalledthecrankpin.

Thecrankisashortleverwhichtransmitsthepowerfromtheconnectingrodtothecrankshaft.Itmayalsobeadisc,calledthecrankdisc.

Letusnowreturntothesteamcylinderitself.Thesteamleavestheboilerthroughapipeleadingfromthetopofthesteam

dome,andisletonorcutoffbythethrottlevalve,whichisusuallyopenedandclosedbysomesortofleverhandle.ItpassesontotheSteam-chest,usuallyapartof the same casting as the cylinder. It has a cover called the steam-chest cover,whichissecurelyboltedinplace.

Crosshead.(J.I.CaseThreshingMachineCo.)

The steam valve, usually spoken of simply as the valve, serves to admit thesteamalternatelytoeachendofthecylinderinsuchamannerthatitworksthepistonbackandforth.

Therearemanykindsofvalves,thesimplest(showninthediagram)beingtheD-valve.Itslidesbackandforthonthebottomofthesteam-chest,whichiscalledthevalve seat, and alternatelyopens and closes the two steamports,which arelong,narrowpassagesthroughwhichthesteamentersthecylinder,firstthroughoneporttooneend,thenthroughtheotherporttotheotherend.Theexhauststeamalsopassesoutatthesesameports.

The exhaust chamber in the type of engine now under consideration is anopeningonthelowersideofthevalve,andisalwaysopenintotheexhaustport,whichconnectswiththeexhaustpipe,whichfinallydischargesitselfthroughtheexhaust nozzle into the smoke stack of a locomotive or traction engine, or inothertypesofengines,intothecondenser.

The valve isworkedby thevalve stem,whichworks through the valve stemstuffingbox.

Ofcoursethepistondoesnotworkquitethefulllengthofthecylinder,elseitwouldpoundagainstthecylinderheads.

Theclearance isthedistancebetweenthecylinderheadateitherendandthepistonwhenthepistonhasreachedthelimitofitsstrokeinthatdirection.

Inmostenginesthevalveissosetthat itopensatrifle justbeforethepistonreachesthelimitofitsmovementineitherdirection,thuslettingsomesteaminbeforethepistonisreadytomoveback.Thisopening,whichusuallyamountsto1/32to3/16ofaninch,iscalledthelead.Thesteamthusletinbeforethepistonreaches the limitof itsstroke formscushion,andhelps thepistontoreverse itsmotion without any jar, in an easy and silentmanner. Of course the cushionmustbe as slight aspossible and serve itspurpose, else itwill tend to stop theengine,andresultinlossofenergy.Someengineshavenolead.

Settingavalve isadjustingitonitsseatsothattheleadwillbeequalatboth

endsandsufficientfortheneedsoftheengine.Byshorteningthemovementofthevalvebackandforth,theleadcanbeincreasedordiminished.Thisisusuallyeffectedbychangingtheeccentricorvalvegear.

The lapof a slidevalve is thedistance it extendsover theedgesof theportswhenitisatthemiddleofitstravelLaponthesteamsideiscalledoutsidelap;lap on the exhaust side is called inside lap. The object of lap is to secure thebenefitofworkingsteamexpansively.Havinglap,thevalveclosesonesteamportbefore the other is opened, and before the piston has reached the end of itsstroke; also of course before the exhaust is opened. Thus for a short time thesteam that has been let into the cylinder to drive the piston is shut up withneither inlet nor outlet, and it drives the piston by its own expansive, force.Whenitpassesoutattheexhaustithasaconsiderablyreducedpressure,andlessofitsforceiswasted.

Letusnowconsiderthe

VALVEGEAR

The mechanism by which the valve is opened and closed is somewhatcomplicated, as various things are accomplished by it besides simply openingandclosingthevalve.Ifanenginehasareverselever,itworksthroughthevalvegear;andthegovernorwhichregulatesthespeedoftheenginemayalsooperatethroughthevalvegear.Itisthereforeveryimportant.

Thesimplestvalvegeardependsforitsactiononafixedeccentric.Aneccentricconsistsofacentraldisccalledthesheave,keyedtothemainshaft

atapointtoonesideofitstruecenter,andagroovedringorstrapsurroundingitandslidinglooselyaroundit.Thestrapisusuallymadeofbrassorsomeanti-frictionmetal. It is in twoparts,whicharebolted together so that they canbetightenedupasthestrapwears.

Theeccentric rod iseitherbolted to thestrapor formsa singlepiecewith it,andthisrodtransmitsitsmotiontothevalve.

Itwillbeseen,therefore,thattheeccentricisnothingmorethanasortofdisccrank,which,however,doesnotneedtobeattachedtotheendofashaftinthemannerofanordinarycrank.

Thedistancebetweenthecenteroftheeccentricsheaveandthecenteroftheshaftiscalledthethrowoftheeccentricortheeccentricity.

Theeccentricusuallyconveysitsforcethroughaconnectingrodtothevalvestem,whichmovesthevalve.

Thefirstmodificationofthesimpleeccentricvalvegearis.

THEREVERSINGGEAR

It is very desirable to control the movement of the steam valve, so that ifdesiredtheenginemayberunintheoppositedirection;orthesteamforcemaybebroughttobeartostoptheenginequickly;orthetravelofthevalveregulatedso that itwill let into the cylinderonly asmuch steamas isneeded to run theenginewhentheloadislightandthesteampressureintheboilerhigh.

There is a great variety of reversing gears; but we will consider one of thecommonestandsimplestfirst.

Hubersingleeccentricreverse.

If the eccentric sheave could be slipped around on the shaft to a positionoppositetothatinwhichitwaskeyedtoshaftinitsordinarymotion,themotionofthevalvewouldbereversed,anditwouldletsteaminfrontoftheadvancingendofthepiston,whichwouldcheckitsmovement,andstartitintheoppositedirection.

Thelinkgear,inventedbyStephenson,accomplishesthisinanaturalandeasymanner.Therearetwoeccentricsplacedjustoppositetoeachotheronthecrankshaft, theirconnectingrodsterminating inwhat iscalleda link, throughwhichmotion is communicated to the valve stem. The link is a curved slide, oneeccentricbeingconnectedtooneend,theothereccentrictotheotherend,andthelink-block,throughwhichmotionisconveyedtothevalve,slidesfreelyfromoneendtotheother.Lowerthelinksothattheblockisoppositetheendofthefirst rod,and thevalvewillbemovedby thecorrespondingeccentric; raise thelink,sothattheblockisoppositetheendoftheotherrod,andthevalvewillbemovedbytheothereccentric.Inthemiddletherewouldbeadeadcenter,andifthe block stopped here, the valve would notmove at all. At any intermediatepoint,thetravelofthevalvewouldbecorrespondinglyshortened.

Valveandlinkreverse.

Such is the theoretical effect of a perfect link; but the dead center is notabsolute, and themotionof the link is variedby thepoint atwhich the rod isattachedwhichliftsandlowersit,andalsobythelengthofthisrod.Infullgeartheblock isnot allowed to comequite to the endof the link, and this surplusdistance is called the clearance. The radius of a link is the distance from thecenterof thedrivingshaft tothecenterof the link,andthecurveof the link isthatofacirclewiththatradius.Thelengthoftheradiusmayvaryconsiderably,but thepointofsuspension is important. Ifa link issuspendedby itscenter, itwillcertainlycutoffsteamsoonerinthefrontstrokethanintheback.Usuallyitissuspendedfromthatpointwhichismostusedinrunningtheengine.

Thewoolfreversevalvegear.

TheWoolf reversinggear employsbutoneeccentric, to the strapofwhich is

castanarmhavingablockpivotedatitsend.Thisblockslidesinapivotedguide,the angle of which is controlled by the reverse lever. To the eccentric arm isattachedtheeccentricrod,whichtransmitsthemotiontothevalverodthrougharocker arm on simple engines and through a slide, as shown in cut, oncompoundengines.

TheMeyer valve gear does not actually reverse an engine, but controls theadmission of steambymeans of an additional valve riding on the back of themain valve and controlling the cut-off. Themain valve is like an ordinaryD-valve,exceptthatthesteamisnotadmittedaroundtheends,butthroughportsrunning through the valve, theseports beingpartially openedor closedby themotion of the riding valve, which is controlled by a separate eccentric. If thisridingvalveisconnectedwithagovernor,itwillregulatethespeedofanengine;and by the addition of a link the gear may be made reversible. The chiefobjectiontoitistheexcessivefrictionofthevalvesontheirseats.

Sectionalviewshowingvalveofwatersgovernor.

GOVERNORS

Agovernor is amechanismbywhich the supply of steam to the cylinder isregulatedbyrevolvingballs,orthelike,whichrunsfasterorslowerasthespeedoftheengineincreasesordiminishes.Thusthespeedofanengineisregulatedtovaryingloadsandconditions.

The simplest type of governor, and the one commonly used on tractionengines, is thatwhich isonlyamodificationof theone inventedbyWatt.Twoballs revolve around a spindle in such away as to risewhen the speed of theengine ishigh, and fallwhen it is low, and in risingand falling theyopenandcloseavalvesimilartothethrottlevalve.Theamountthatthegovernorvalveisopenedorclosedbytheriseandfallofthegovernorballsisusuallyregulatedby

a thumb screw at the top or side, or by what is called a handle nut, which isusuallyheldfirmbyachecknutdirectlyover it,whichshouldbescrewedfirmagainstthehandlenut.Motionisconveyedtothegovernorballsbyabeltandabandwheelworkingonamechanismofmetredcogs.

Pickeringhorizontalgovernor.

Thereisconsiderablefrictionaboutagovernorofthistypeandmuchenergyiswastedinkeepingitgoing.Thevalvestemorspindlepassesthroughasteam-tightstuffingbox,whereitisliabletostickifthepackingistootight;andifthisstuffingboxleakssteam,therewillbeimmediatelossofpower.

Suchagovernorashasjustbeendescribediscalledathrottlevalvegovernor.On high grade engines the difficulties inherent in this type of governor areovercomebymakingthegovernorcontrol,notavalveinthesteamsupplypipe,buttheadmissionofsteamtothesteamcylinderthroughthesteamvalveanditsgear.Suchenginesaredescribedashavingan“automaticcut-off.”Sometimesthegovernorisattachedtothelink,sometimestoaseparatevalve,as intheMeyergear already described. Usually the governor is attached to the fly-wheel, andconsequentlygovernorsofthistypearecalledfly-wheelgovernors.Anautomaticcut-offgovernorisfrom15percentto20percentmoreeffectivethanathrottlevalvegovernor.

CRANK,SHAFTANDJOURNALS

Wehave already seen how the piston conveys its power through the pistonrod,thecrosshead,andtheconnectingrodtothecrankpinandcrank,andhence

totheshaft.Thekey,gib,andstraparetheeffectivemeansbywhichtheconnectingrodis

attached,firsttothewristpininthecrosshead,andsecondlytothecrankpinonthecrank.

Thestrapisusuallymadeoftwoorthreepiecesofwroughtironorsteelboltedtogether so as tohold thebrasses,whichare in twopartsand loosely surroundthepin.Thebrassesdonotquitemeet,andas theywearmaybe tightenedup.Thisiseffectedbythegib,backofwhichisthekey,whichiscommonlyawedgewhichmaybedrivenin,orascrew,whichpressesonthebackofthegib,whichinturnforcestogetherthebrasses;andthusthelengthofthepistongeariskeptuniform in spite of the wear, becoming neither shorter nor longer.When thebrassesaresowornthattheyhavebeenforcedtogether,theymustbetakenoutand filed equally on all four of themeeting ends, and shims, or thin pieces ofsheetironorthelikeplacedbackofthemtoequalizethewear,andpreventthepistongearfrombeingshortenedorotherwisealtered.

Connectingrodandboxes.(A.W.StevensCo.)

Thecrankisasimpleleverattachedtotheshaftbywhichtheshaftisrotated.There are two types of crank in commonuse, the side crank,whichworks bywhatisvirtuallyabendintheshaft.Thereisalsowhatiscalledthedisccrank,avariationofthesidecrank,inwhichthepowerisappliedtothecircumferenceofadiscinsteadoftotheendofaleverarm.

Thebossofacrankisthatpartwhichsurroundstheshaftandbuttsagainstthemainbearing,andisusuallyabouttwicethediameterofthecrankshaftjournal.Thewebofthecrankistheportionbetweentheshaftandthepin.

To secure noiseless running, the crank pin should be turned with greatexactness,andshouldbesetexactlyparallelwiththedirectionoftheshaft.Whenthepressureonthepinoranybearingisover800poundspersquareinch,oilis

nolongerabletolubricateitproperly.Hencethebearingsurfaceshouldalwaysbe large enough to prevent a greater pressure than 800 pounds to the squareinch.Tosecuretheproperproportionsthecrankpinshouldhaveadiameterofone-fourththeboreofthecylinder,anditslengthshouldbeone-thirdthatofthecylinder.

The shaft is made of wrought iron or steel, and must not only be able towithstandthetwistingmotionofthecrank,butthebendingforceoftheenginestroke.Topreventbending,theshaftshouldhaveabearingasnearthecrankaspossible.

Thejournalsarethoseportionsoftheshaftwhichworkinbearings.Themainbearingsarealsocalledpedestals,pillowblocks,and journalboxes.Theyusuallyconsist of boxesmade of brass or some other anti-frictionmaterial carried inironpedestals.Thepillowblocksareusuallyadjustable.

THEFLY-WHEEL

Thisisaheavywheelattachedtotheshaft.Itsobjectistoregulatethevariableaction of the piston, and tomake themotion uniform even when the load isvariable.Byitsinertiaitstoresenergy,whichwouldkeeptheenginerunningforsometimeafterthepistonceasedtoapplyanyforceorpower.

LUBRICATORS

All bearingsmust be steadily and effectively lubricated, in order to removefriction as far as possible, or the working power of the engine will be greatlyreduced. Besides, without complete and effective lubrication, the bearings will“cut,”orwearinirregulargrooves,etc.,quicklyruiningtheengine.

Bearingsare lubricated throughautomatic lubricatorcups,whichholdoilorgreaseanddischargeituniformlyuponthebearingthroughasuitablehole.

A sight feed ordinary cup permits the drops of oil to be seen as they passdownward through a glass tube, and also the engineermay see howmuch oilthere is in the cup. Such a cup is suitable for all parts of an engine except thecrankpin,crosshead,and,ofcourse,thecylinder.

DESCRIPTION.C1—BodyorOilReservoir.C3—FillerPlug.C4—WaterValve.C5—PlugforinsertingSight-FeedGlass.C6—Sight-FeedDrainStem.C7—RegulatingValve.C8—DrainValve.C9—SteamValve.C10—UnionNut.C11—TailPiece.H—Sight-FeedGlass.

The“detroit”zerodoubleconnectionlubricator.

Thecrankpinoiler isanoil cupsoarrangedas to forceoil into thebearingonlywhen the engine isworking, andmore rapidly as the engineworksmorerapidly. In one form, which uses liquid oil, the oil stands below a disc; fromwhichistheopeningthroughtheshanktothebearing.Astheenginespeedsup,thecentrifugalforcetendstoforcetheoiltothetopofthecupandsoontothebearing,andthehigherthespeedthegreatertheamountofoilthrownintothecrankpin.

Hardoilorgreasehasoflatebeencomingintoextensiveuse.Itisplacedinacompressioncup,atthetopofwhichadiscispresseddownbyaspring,andalsobysomekindofascrew.Fromtimetotimethescrewistightenedupbyhand,andthespringautomaticallyforcesdownthegrease.

Glassoilcup.

Sectionalviewidealgreasecup.

TheCylinder Lubricator is constructed on a different principle, and uses anentirelydifferentkindofoil,called“cylinderoil.”Asight-feedautomaticoilerissoarrangedthattheoilpassesthroughwaterdropbydrop,sothateachdropcanbeseenbehindglassbeforeitpassesintothesteampipeleadingfromtheboilertothecylinder.Theoilmingleswiththesteamandpassesintothesteamchest,andthenceintothecylinder,lubricatingthevalveandpiston.

The discharge of the oilmay not only bewatched, but regulated, and somejudgmentisnecessarytomakesurethatenoughoilispassingintothecylindertopreventitfromcutting.

Acornoilpump.

Theoilisforcedintothesteambytheweightofthecolumnofwater,sincethesteam pressure is the same at both ends. There is a small cock by which thiswaterofcondensationmaybedrainedoffwhentheengineisshutdownincoldweather.Oilers are also injuredby straining fromheating causedby the steamactingoncoldoilwhenallthecocksareclosed.Thereisareliefcocktopreventthisstrain,anditshouldbeslightlyopened,exceptwhenoilerisbeingfilled.

Thereareanumberofdifferent typesofoilers,with their cocksarranged indifferentways;butthemanufactureralwaysgivesdiagramsandinstructionsfullyexplainingtheworkingoftheoiler.Oilpumpsservingthesamepurposearenowoftenused.

DIFFERENTIALGEAR

The gearing by which the traction wheels of a traction engine aremade todrive the engine is an important item. Of course, it is desirable to apply thepoweroftheenginetobothtractionwheels;yetifbothhindwheelsweregearedstiff, theenginecouldnot turn fromastraight line, since in turningonewheelmust move faster than the other. The differential or compensating gear is adevice to leave both wheels free to move one ahead of the other if occasionrequires. The principle is much the same as in case of a ratchet on a gearedwheel, if powerwere applied to the ratchet tomake thewheel turn; if for anyreasonthewheelhadatendencyofitsowntoturnfasterthantheratchetforcedit,itwouldbefreetodoso.Whencornersareturnedthepowerisappliedtoonewheelonly,andtheotherwheel ispermitted tomove fasterorslower thanthewheeltowhichthegearingappliesthepower.

There are several forms of differential gears, differing largely as tocombinationofspurorbevelcogs.Oneofthebestknownusesfourlittlebeveledpinions,whichareplacedinthemaindrivingwheelasshowninthecut.Beveledcogs work into these on either side of the main wheel. If one traction wheelmovesfasterthantheotherthesepinionsmovearoundandadjustthegearsoneitherside.

FRICTIONCLUTCH

Thepowerofanengine isusuallyapplied to the tractionwheelbya frictionclutchworking on the inside of the fly-wheel. (See plan of Frick Engine.) Thetractionwheelsarethetwolarge,broad-rimmedhindwheels,andareprovidedwithprojections togive thema firm footingon the road.Tractionengines are

alsoprovidedwithmudshoesandwheelcleaningdevicesformudandsnow.

Thehuberspurcompensatinggear.

THEFUSIBLEPLUG

Thefusibleplugisasimplescrewplug,thecenterofwhichisboredoutandsubsequentlyfilledwithsomeothermetalthatwillmeltata lowertemperaturethansteeloriron.Thisplugisplacedinthecrownsheetofalocomotiveboilerasaprecaution forsafety.Should thecrownsheetbecomefreeofwaterwhen thefireisveryhot,thesoftmetalinthefusibleplugwouldmeltandrunout,andtheoverheatedsteamwouldescapeintothefirebox,puttingoutthefireandgivingtheboilerreliefsothatanexplosionwouldbeavoided.Insomestatesa fusibleplug is required by law, and one is found in nearly every boiler which has acrownsheet.Returnflueboilersandotherswhichdonothavecrownsheets(asforexamplethevertical)donothavefusibleplugs.Tobeofvalueafusibleplugshouldberenewedorchangedonceamonth.

Aultman&Taylorbevelcompensatinggear.

Differentialgear,showingcushionspringsandbevelpinion.

STUFFINGBOXES

Anyarrangement tomakeasteam-tight jointaboutamovingrod,suchasapistonrodorsteamvalverod,wouldbecalledastuffingbox.Usuallythestuffingboxgives freeplay toapistonrodorvalverod,withoutallowinganysteamtoescape.Astuffingboxisalsousedonapumppistonsometimes,oracompressedairpiston. Inall thesecases it consistsofanannular spacearound themovingrod which can be partly filled by some pliable elastic material such as hemp,cotton, rubber,or the like; and this filling isheld inplaceandmade tighterorlooser by what is called a gland, which is forced into the partly filled box byscrewingupacapontheoutsideofthecylinder.Stuffingboxesmustberepackedoccasionally, since thepackingmaterialwill gethard anddead, andwill eitherleaksteamorcuttherod.

CYLINDERCOCKS

Thesecocksareforthepurposeofdrawingthewaterformedbycondensation

of steam out of the cylinder. They should be opened whenever the engine isstopped or started, and should be left open when the engine is shut down,especiallyincoldweathertopreventfreezingofwaterandconsequentdamage.Attentiontothesecocksisveryimportant.

These are small cocks arranged about the pump and at other places for thepurposeoftestingtheinsideaction.Bythemitispossibletoseeifthepumpisworkingproperly,etc.

STEAMINDICATOR

Thesteam indicator isan instrument thatcanbeattached toeitherendofasteamcylinder,andwill indicatethecharacterofthesteampressureduringtheentirestrokeofthepiston.Itshowsclearlywhethertheleadisright,howmuchcushion there is, etc. It is very important in studying the economical use anddistributionofsteam,expansiveforceofsteam,etc.

THEFRICKCOMPANYTRACTIONENGINEPlanviewof“eclipse”tractionengine,showingarrangementofpatentreversegearandfrictionclutchfor

drivingpinion.

LISTOFATTACHMENTSFORTRACTIONENGINEANDBOILER

The following list of brasses, etc., which are packed with the Case tractionenginewillbeusefulforreferenceinconnectionwithanysimilartractionengineandboiler.Theyoungengineer should rapidly runover everynewengineandlocateeachoftheseparts,whichwillbedifferentlyplacedondifferentengines:

1 Steam Gauge with siphon. I SafetyValve. 1BibbNoseCockforPump.

1LargeLubricator 1PetCockforThrottle.

1SmallLubricatorforPump. 2 Pet Cocks for Steam Cylinder ofPump.

7. Glass Water Gauge complete withglassandrods.

1 Pet Cock for Water Cylinder ofPump.

2GaugeCocks. 1PetCockforFeedPipefromPump.1Whistle.

1InjectorComplete. 1 Pet Cock for Feed Pipe fromInjector.

1GlobeValveforBlow-off.1CompressionGreaseCup forCross

Head. 1GovernorBelt.1FlueCleaner.

1GreaseCupforCrankPin. 15 ft. lin. Suction Hose. 5 ft.SprinklingHose.

1OilerforReverseBlock. 1StrainerforSuctionHose.1GlassOilerforGuides. 1StrainerforFunnel.1SmallOilerforEccentricRod. 4ft.6in.ofin.HoseforInjector.1CylinderCock(1isleftinplace. 5ft.6in.ofin.HoseforPump.2StopCockstodrainHeater. 2Nipples3/4x21/2in.forHose.1 Stop Cock for Hose Coupling on

Pump. 23/4in.HoseClamps.

21/2in.HoseStrainers.

TESTQUESTIONSONBOILERANDENGINEQ.Howisthemodernstationaryfire-flueboilerarranged?

Q.Howdoesthelocomotivetypeofboilerdiffer?Q.Whatisareturnflueboiler?Q.Whatisawater-tubeboilerandhowdoesitdifferfromafire-fluetubular

boiler?Q.Whatisaverticalboilerandwhatareitsadvantages?Q.Whatistheshell?Q.Whataretheboilerheads?Q.Whatarethetubesheets?Q.Whatisthefirebox?Q.Whatisthewaterleg?Q.Whatisthecrown-sheet?Q.Whereisthesmoke-boxlocated?Q.Whatisthesteamdomeintendedfor?Q.Whatisthemud-drumfor?Q.Whatareman-holesandhand-holesfor?Q.Whatisaboilerjacket?Q.Whatisasteamjacket?Q.Whereistheash-pit?Q.Whataredead-plates?Q.Howisgratesurfacemeasured?Q.Whatisforceddraft?Q.Howisheatingsurfacemeasured?Q.Whatissteamspace?Q.Whatiswaterspace?Q.Whatisadiaphragmplate?Q.Whatisthefirstdutyofanengineerintakingchargeofanewboiler?Q.Whatarethewatergaugeandtrycocksfor,andhowaretheyplaced?Q.Whatisthesteamgaugeandhowmayitbetested?Q.Whatisasafetyvalve?Shoulditbetouchedbytheengineer?Howmayhe

testitwiththesteamgauge?Q.Howisaboilerfirstfilledwithwater?Q.Howisitfilledwhenunderpressure?Q.Whatisanindependentpump?Whatisacrossheadpump?Q.Whatisacheckvalve,andwhatisitsuse,andwherelocated?Q.Whatisaheaterandhowdoesitwork?Q.Whatisaninjector,andwhatistheprincipleofitsoperation?Q.Wherearetheblow-offcockslocated?Howshouldtheybeused?

Q.Inwhatcasesshouldsparkarresterbeused?Q.Whoinventedthesteamengine,andwhen?Q.Whataretheessentialpartsofasteamengine?Q.Whatisthecylinder,andhowisitused?Q.Whatisthepiston,andhowdoesitwork?Thepiston-rings?Q.Whatisthepistonrodandhowmustitbefastened?Q.Whatisthecrosshead,andhowdoesitmove?Whatareguidesorways?

Shoes?Q.Whatistheconnectingrod?Wristpin?Crankpin?Q.Whatisthecrank?Crankshaft?Q.Whereisthethrottlevalvelocated,andwhatdoesopeningandclosingit

do?Q.Whatisthesteamchestfor,andwhereisitplaced?Q.Whatisasteamvalve?Valveseats?Ports?Q. What is the exhaust? Exhaust chamber? Exhaust port? Exhaust nozzle?

Whatisacondenser?Q.Howisthevalveworked,andwhatdutiesdoesitperform,andhow?Q.Whatisclearance?Q.Whatislead?Q.Whatiscushion?Q.Howwouldyousetavalve?Whatislap?Q.Howisasteamvalvemovedbackandforthinitsseat?Q.Howmayanenginebereversed?Q.Whatisagovernor,andhowdoesitwork?Q.Whatisaneccentric?Eccentricsheave?Strap?Rod?Q.Whatisthethrowofaneccentric?Q.Howdoesthelinkreversinggearwork?Q.HowdoestheWoolfreversegearwork?Q.HowdoestheMeyervalvegearwork?Willitreverseanengine?Q.Whatarethechiefdifficultiesintheworkingofagovernor?Q.Whatarekey,gib,andstrap?Brasses?Q.Whatisthebossofacrank?Web?Q.Howmaynoiselessrunningofacrankbesecured?QWhatarejournals?Pedestals?Pillowblocks?Journalboxes?Q.Whatistheobjectinhavingaflywheel?Q. What different kinds of lubricators are there?Where may hard oil or

greasebeused?Istheoilusedforlubricatingthecylinderthesameasthatused

forrestofengine?Q.Howdoesacylinderlubricatorwork?Q.Whatisdifferentialgear,andwhatisitfor?Q.Whatistheuseofafusibleplug,andhowisitarranged?Q.Whatarestuffing-boxes,andhowaretheyconstructed?Q.Whatarecylindercocks,andwhataretheyusedfor?Q.Whatarepetcocks?Q.Whatisasteamindicator?

CHAPTERIVHOWTOMANAGEATRACTIONENGINEBOILER

We will suppose that the young engineer fully understands all parts of theboilerandengine,asexplained intheprecedingchapters. It iswell torunoverthequestionsseveraltimes,tomakesurethateverypointhasbeenfullycoveredandiswellunderstood.

Wewillsupposethatyouhaveanengineingoodrunningorder.Ifyouhaveanew engine and it starts off nice and easy (the lone enginewithout load)withtwentypounds steampressure in theboiler,youmaymakeupyourmind thatyouhaveagoodenginetohandleandonethatwillgivebutlittletrouble.Butifitrequires fifty or sixty pounds to start it, youwant to keep your eyes open, forsomethingistight.Butdon'tbegintakingtheenginetopieces,foryoumightgetmorepieces thanyouknowwhat todowith.Oil everybearing fully, and thenstart your engine and let it run for a while. Then notice whether you findanythinggettingwarm.Ifyoudo,stopandloosenupaverylittleandstartagain.If theheatingstill continues, loosenagainasbefore.Butremember, loosenbutlittleatatime,foraboxorjournalwillheatfrombeingtoolooseasquicklyasfrombeingtootight,andifyouhavefoundawarmbox,don'tletthatboxtakeallyourattention,butkeepyoureyeontheotherbearings.

In the case of a new engine, the cylinder ringsmay be a little tight, and somoresteampressurewillberequiredtostarttheengine;butthisisnofault,forinadayortwotheywillbeworkingallrightifkeptwelloiled.

Instartinganewenginetroublesometimescomesfromthepresenceofacoalcinder in some of the boxes, which has worked in during shipment. Beforestarting a new engine, the boxes and oil holes should therefore be thoroughlycleanedout.Forthispurposetheengineershouldalwayshavesomecottonwasteoranoiledragreadyforconstantuse.

A new engine should be run slowly and carefully until it is found to be inperfectrunningorder.

If you are beginning on an old engine in good running order, the aboveinstructionswillnotbeneeded;butitiswelltotakenoteofthem.

Now ifyourengine isall right,youmayrun thepressureup to thepointofblowingoff,whichis100to130pounds,atwhichmostsafetyvalvesaresetatthe

factory.Itisnotuncommonforanewpoptostick,andasthesteamrunsupitiswell to try it bypulling the relief lever. If on letting it go it stops the escapingsteamatonce,itisallright.If,however,thesteamcontinuestoescapethevalvesticksinthechamber.Usuallyaslighttapwithawrenchorhammerwillstopitat once; but don't get excited if the steam continues to escape.As long as youhaveplentyofwaterintheboiler,andknowthatyouhaveit,youareallright.

STARTINGUPABOILER

Almost the only danger from explosion of a boiler is from not havingsufficientwaterintheboiler.Theboilerisfilledinthefirstplace,ashasalreadybeenexplained,byhandthroughafunnelatthefillerplug,orbyaforcepump.Thewatershouldstandaninchandahalfintheglassofthewatergaugebeforethefireisstarted.Itshouldbeheatedupslowlysoasnottostraintheboilerorconnections.When the steam pressure as shown by the steam gauge is ten orfifteenpounds,theblowermaybeusedtoincreasethedraft.

Ifyouletthewatergetabovethetopoftheglass,youareliabletoknockoutacylinderhead;andifyouletthewatergetbelowthebottomoftheglass,youarelikelytoexplodeyourboiler.

Theglassgaugeisnottobedependedupon,however,foranumberofthingsmayhappentointerferewithitsworking.Someonemayinadvertentlyturnoffthegaugecocks,and thoughthewaterstandsat theproperheight in theglass,thewaterintheboilerwillbeverydifferent.

Aproperlymadeboilerissuppliedwithtwotofourtry-cocks,onebelowtheproper water line, and one above it. If there are more than two they will bedistributedatsuitablepointsbetween.

Whentheboilerisunderpressure,turnonthelowertry-cockandyoushouldgetwater. Youwill know it because itwill appear aswhitemist. Then try theuppertry-cock,andyouwillgetsteam,whichwillappearblue.

NEVERFAILTOUSETHETRY-COCKSFREQUENTLY.This isnecessarynotonlybecauseyouneverknowwhentheglassisdeceivingyou;butifyoufailtousethemtheywillgetstoppedupwithlimeormud,andwhenyouneedtousethemtheywillnotwork.

In order also to keep the water gauge in proper condition, it should befrequentlyblownoutinthefollowingmanner:Shutoffthetopgaugecockandopenthedraincockatthebottomofthegauge.Thisallowsthewaterandsteamtoblowthroughthelowercockofthewatergauge,andyouknowthatitisopen.

Any lime ormud that has begun to accumulate will also be carried off. Afterallowing thesteamtoescapea fewseconds, shutoff the lowergaugecock,andopentheupperone,andallowittoblowoffaboutthesametime.Thenshutthedraincockandopenbothgaugecocks,whenyouwillseethewaterseekitslevel,andyoucanfeelassuredthatit isreliableandingoodworkingcondition.Thislittle operation you shouldperform, everyday you run your engine. If youdoyou will not think you have sufficient water in the boiler, but will know. Theengineerwhoalwaysknowshehaswaterintheboilerwillnotbelikelytohaveanexplosion. Especially should you never start your fire in the morning simplybecauseyouseewater inthegauge.Youshouldknow thatthereiswater intheboiler.

Now ifyourpumpandboilerare ingoodworkingcondition,andyou leavetheglobevalveinthesupplypipetothepumpopen,withthehoseinthetank,youwillprobablycometoyourengineinthemorningandfindtheboilernearlyfullofwater,andyouwillthinksomeonehasbeentamperingwiththeengine.Thetruthis,however,thatasthesteamcondensed,avacuumwasformed,andthewater flowed inon accountof atmosphericpressure, just as it flows into asuctionpumpwhentheplungerrisesandcreatesavacuuminthepump.Checkvalves are arranged to prevent anything passing out of the boiler, but there isnothingtopreventwaterpassingin.

Theonlyothercauseofanexplosion,besidepoormaterialinthemanufactureof the boiler, is too high steam pressure, due to a defective safety valve orimperfectteamgauge.Thesteamgaugeislikelytogetoutoforderinanumberofways,andsoisthesafetyvalve.Tomakesurethatbothareallright,theoneshould frequently be tested by the other. The lever of the safety valve shouldfrequentlybe tried fromtime to time, tomake sure thevalveopensandcloseseasily,andwheneverthesafetyvalveblowsoff,thesteamgaugeshouldbenotedtoseeifitindicatesthepressureatwhichthesafetyhasbeenset.

WHENYOURENGINEISALLRIGHT,LETITALONE

Some engineers are always loosening a nut here, tightening up a box there,adjustingthis,alteringthat.Whenanengineisallrighttheykeepatittillitisallwrong. As a result they are in trouble most of the time. When an engine isrunningallright,LETITALONE.Don’tthinkyouarenotearningyoursalarybecauseyouaremerelysittingstillandlookingon.Ifyoumustbeatwork,keepat itwithanoily rag, cleaningandpolishingup.That is theway to findout ifanythingisreallythematter.Asthepractisedhandoftheskilledengineergoes

overanengine,hisearswideopenforanypeculiarityofsound,anythingthatisnot as it should bewillmake itself decidedly apparent.On the other hand, anengineerwhodoesnotkeephisenginecleanandbrightbyconstantlypassinghishandoveritwithanoilyrag,iscertaintooverlooksomething,whichperhapsintheendwillcosttheowneragoodmanydollarstoputright.

Saysanoldengineer*weknow,“WhenIseeanengineerwatchinghisenginecloselywhilerunning,Iammostcertaintoseeanothercommendablefeatureinagoodengineer,andthatis,whenhestopshisenginehewillpickupagreasyragandgooverhisenginecarefully,wipingeveryworkingpart,watchingorlookingcarefullyateverypointthathetouches.Ifanutisworkingloose,hefindsit;ifabearingishot,hefindsit;ifanypartofhisenginehasbeencutting,hefindsit.Hepicksupagreasyraginsteadofawrench,fortheengineerthatunderstandshisbusinessandattendstoitneverpicksupawrenchunlesshehassomethingtodowithit.”

Thissameengineergoesonwithsomemoremostexcellentadvice.Sayshe:“Now, ifyourengine runs irregularly, that is, if it runsup toahigher speed

thanyouwant,andthenrunsdown,youare likely tosayatonce, ‘Oh, Iknowwhatthetroubleis,itisthegovernor’.Well,supposeitis.Whatareyougoingtodoaboutit?Areyougoingtoshutdownatonceandgototinkeringwithit?No,don’t do that. Stay close to the throttle valve and watch the governor closely.Keepyoureyeonthegovernorstem,andwhentheenginestartsoffononeofitsspeedtilts,youwillseethestemgodownthroughthestuffingboxandthenstopandstickinoneplaceuntiltheengineslowsdownbelowitsregularspeed,anditthen lets loose andgoesupquickly andyour engine lopesoff again.Youhavenow located the trouble. It is in the stuffingbox around the little brass rodorgovernorstem.Thepackinghasbecomedryandbylooseningitupandapplyingoilyoumayremedythetroubleuntilsuchtimeasyoucanrepackitwithfreshpacking.Candlewickisasgoodforthispurposeasanythingyoucanuse.

“ButifthegovernordoesnotactasIhavedescribed,andthestemseemstobeperfectlyfreeandeasyinthebox,andthegovernorstillactsqueerly,startingoffandrunningfastforafewsecondsandthensuddenlyconcludingtotakeiteasyandawaygoestheengineagain,seeifthegovernorbeltisallright,andifitisitwouldbewellforyoutostopandseeifawheelisnotloose.Itmightbeeitherthelittle belt wheel or one of the little cog wheels. If you find these are all right,examinethespoolonthecrankshaft fromwhichthegovernor isrun,andyouwillprobablyfinditloose.Iftheenginehasbeenrunforanylengthoftime,youwill always find the trouble in one of these places; but if it is a new one, the

governorvalvemightworkalittletightinthevalvechamber,andyoumayhavetotakeitoutandusealittleemerypapertotakeofftheroughprojectionsonthevalve.Never use a file on this valve if you can get emery paper, and I shouldadviseyoualwaystohavesomeofitwithyou.Itwilloftencomehandy.”

This is good advice in regard to any trouble youmay havewith an engine.Watch the affectedpart closely; think thematter over carefully, and see if youcannot locate the difficulty before you even stop your engine. If you find thetrouble and know that youhave found it, youwill soonbe able to correct thedefect,andnotimewillbelost.Atthesametimeyouwillnotruinyourenginebytryingallsortsofremediesatrandominthethoughtthatyoumayultimatelyhit the right thing.Thechancesare thatbeforeyoudohit the rightpoint, youwillhaveputhalfadozenothermatterswrong,anditwilltakehalfadaytogetthematterrightagain.

Astherearemanydifferenttypesofgovernorsinuse,itwouldbeimpossibleto give exact directions for regulating that would apply to them all; but thefollowing suggestions applying to the Waters governor (one widely used onthreshingengines)willgiveageneralideaofthemethodforall:

Thereare two littlebrassnutson the topof thestemof thegovernor,oneathumbnutandtheotheraloosejamnut.Toincreasethespeed,loosenthejamnutandthenturnthethumbnutbackslowly,watchingthemotionoftheengineallthetime.Whentherequiredspeedhasbeenobtained,thentightenupassnugasyoucanwithyourfingers(notusingawrench).Todecreasethespeed,loosenthejamnutasbefore,runningitupafewturns,andthenturndownthethumbnuttillthespeedmeetsyourrequirements,whenthethumbnutismadefastasbefore.Inanycase,beverycarefulnottopressdownonthestemwhenturningthe thumbnut,as thiswillmake theengineruna little slower thanwillbe thecasewhenyourhandhasbeenremoved.

Ifyourenginedoesnotstartwithanopenthrottle,looktoseeifthegovernorstemhasnotbeenscreweddowntight.Thisisusuallythecasewithanewengine,whichhasbeenscreweddownforsafetyintransportation.

WATERFORTHEBOILER

There isnothing thatneeds suchconstantwatchingand is likely tocause somuchtrouble if it isnotcared for,as thesupplyofwater.Hardwellwaterwillcoattheinsideoftheboilerwith limeandsoonreduceitssteamingpowerinaseriousdegree,tosaynothingofstoppinguppipes,cocks,etc.Atthesametime,

rainwaterthatisperfectlypure(theoretically)willbefoundtohavealittleacidoralkaliinitthatwilleatthroughtheironorsteelanddoequaldamage.

However,anengineermustusewhatwaterhecan.Hecannothaveitmadetoorderforhim,buthemusttakeitfromwell,frombrook,orcistern,orroadsideditch,ascircumstancesmayrequire.Theproblemfortheengineerisnottogetthebestwater,buttomakethebestuseofwhateverwaterhecanget,always,ofcourse,choosingthebestandpurestwhenthereissuchathingaschoosing.

In the first place, all supply pipes in water that is muddy or likely to havesticks, leaves, or the like in it, should be furnished with strainers. If sticks orleavesgetintothevalve,theexpenseintimeandworrytogetthemoutwillbetentimesthecostofastrainer.

Ifthewaterisrainwater,andtheboilerisanewone,itwouldbewelltoputinalittlelimetogivetheironaslightcoatingthatwillprotectitfromanyacidoralkalicorrosion.

If the water is hard, some compound or sal ammonia should be used. Nospecific directions can be given, since water ismade hard by having differentsubstancesdissolvedinit,andtherightcompoundorchemical isthatwhichisadaptedtotheparticularsubstanceyouaretocounteract.Anoldengineersayshis advice is to use no compound at all, but to put a hatful of potatoes in theboilereverymorning.

Occasionallyusingrainwaterforadayortwoprevioustocleaningisoneofthe best things in the world to remove and throw down all scale. It beatscompoundsateverypoint.Itisnature’sremedyforthebadeffectsofhardwater.

Theimportantthing,however,istocleantheboilerthoroughlyandoften.Innocaseshouldthelimebeallowedtobakeontheiron.Ifitgetsthick,theironorsteelissuretoburn,andthelimetobakesoharditwillbealmostimpossibletogetitoff.Butiftheboileriscleanedoften,suchathingwillnothappen.

Mudorsedimentcanbeblownoffbyopeningthevalvefromthemuddrumorthefireboxatthebottomoftheboilerwhenthepressureisnotover15or20pounds;andatthispressuremuchofthelimedistributedabouttheboilermaybeblownoff.Butthisisnotenough.Theinsideoftheboilershouldbescrapedand thoroughly washed out with a hose and force-pump just as often as theconditionofthewaterrequiresit.

Incleaningtheboiler,alwaysbecarefultoscrapeallthelimeoffthetopofthefusibleplug.

THEPUMP

In order to manage the pump successfully, the young engineer mustunderstandthoroughlyitsconstructionasalreadydescribed.Itisalsonecessaryto understand something of the theory of atmospheric pressure, lifting power,andforcingpower.

First see that the cocks or globe valves (whichever are used) are open bothbetweentheboilerandthepumpandbetweenthepumpandthewatersupply.Theglobevalvenext theboilershouldneverbeclosed,exceptwhenexaminingthe boiler check valve. Then open the little pet cock between the two upperhorizontalcheckvalves.Besurethatthecheckvalvesareingoodorder,sothatwatercanpassonly inonedirection.Aclear, sharpclickof thecheckvalves iscertainevidencethatthepumpisworkingwell.Ifyoucannotheartheclick,takeastickorpencilbetweenyourteethatoneend,puttheotherendonthevalve,stuffyour fingers inyourears,andyouwillhear themovementof thevalveasplainlyasifitwereasledge-hammer.

Thesmalldraincockbetweenthehorizontalcheckvalvesisusedtodrainhotwateroutofthepumpinstarting,forapumpwillneverworkwellwithhotwaterin it; and to drain off all water in closing down in cold weather, to preventdamage from freezing. It also assists in testing the working of the pump. Instartingupitmaybeleftopen.Ifwaterflowsfromthedraincock,weknowthepumpisworkingallright,andthenclosethedraincock.Ifyouareatanytimeindoubtas towhetherwater isgoing into theboilerproperly,youmayopenthisdraincockandseeifcoldwaterflowsfreely.Ifitdoes,everythingisworkingasitshould.Ifhotwaterappears,youmayknowsomethingiswrong.Also,totestthepump,placeyourhandonthetwocheckvalves,andiftheyarecold,thepumpisallright;iftheyarehot,somethingiswrong,sincetheheatmustcomefromtheboiler,andnohotwaterorsteamshouldeverbeallowedtopassfromtheboilerbacktothepump.

Astopcocknexttheboilerisdecidedlypreferabletoaglobevalve,sinceyoucantellifitisopenbysimplylookingatit;whereasyoumustputyourhandonaglobe valve and turn it. Trouble often arises through inadvertently closing thevalveorcocknexttheboiler,inwhichcase,ofcourse,nowatercanpassintotheboiler, and the pump is likely to be ruined, since the water must get outsomewhere.Somepartof thepumpwouldbesure toburst ifworkedagainstaclosedboilercockorvalve.

Should the pump suddenly cease to work or stop, first see if you have anywater in the tank. If there is water, stoppagemay be due to air in the pumpchamber,whichcangetinonlythroughthestuffing-box.Ifthisistrue,tighten

up thepumpplunger stuffing-boxnut a little. Ifnow thepumpstartsoffwell,youhavefoundthedifficulty;butatthefirstopportunityyououghttorepackthestuffing-box.

If the stuffing-box is all right, examine the supply suction hose. See thatnothingiscloggingthestrainer,andascertainwhetherthewaterissuckedinornot. If it is sucked inand then is forcedoutagain(whichyoucanascertainbyholdingyourhandlightlyoverthesuctionpipe),youmayknowsomethingisthematterwiththefirstcheckvalve.Probablyastickorstonehasgottenintoitandpreventsitfromshuttingdown.

If there isno suction, examine the secondcheckvalve. If there is somethingunderitthatpreventsitsclosing,thewaterwillflowbackintothepumpchamberagainassoonastheplungerisdrawnback.

Youcanalways tellwhether the trouble is in the secondcheckor in thehotwatercheckvalvebyopeningthelittledraincock.Ifhotwaterflowsfromit,youmayknowthatthehotwatercheckvalveisoutoforder;ifonlycoldwaterflows,youmaybeprettysurethehotwatercheckisallright.Ifthereisanyreasontosuspect the hotwater check valve, close the stop cock or valve next the boilerbeforeyoutouchthecheckinanyway.Totamperwiththehotwatercheckwhilethesteampressureisuponitwouldbehighlydangerous,foryouareliabletogetbadlyburnedwithescapingsteamorhotwater.Atthesametime,beverysurethestopcockorvalvenexttheboilerisopenagainbeforeyoustartthepump.

Another reason for check valves refusing towork besides having somethingunderthem,isthatthevalvemaystickinthevalvechamberbecauseofaroughplace in the chamber, or a little projection on the valve. Light tapping with awrenchmay remedy thematter. If that does not work, try the following plansuggestedbyanoldengineer**:“Takethevalveout,boreaholeinaboardaboutone-half inchdeep,and largeenough topermit thevalve tobe turned.DropalittleemerydustinthisholeIfyouhaven’tanyemerydust,scrapesomegritfromawhetstone. Ifyouhavenowhetstone,put some finesandorgritty soil in thehole,putthevalveontopofit,putyourbraceonthevalveandturnitvigorouslyforafewminutes,andyouwillremoveallroughness.”

Sometimestheburronthevalvecomesfromlonguse;buttheabovetreatmentwillmakeitasgoodasnew.

INJECTORS

All injectors are greatly affected by conditions, such as the lift, the steam

pressure, the temperature of thewater, etc. An injectorwill not use hotwaterwell,ifatall.Astheliftisgreater,thesteampressurerequiredtostartisgreater,and at the same time thehighest steampressureunderwhich the injectorwillworkatallisgreatlydecreased.Thesameappliestotheliftingofwarmwater:thehigherthetemperature,thegreaterthesteampressurerequiredtostart,andthelessthesteampressurewhichcanbeusedasamaximum.

Itisimportantforthesakeofeconomytousetherightsizedinjector.Beforebuyinganewinjector, findoutfirsthowmuchwateryouneedforyourboiler,and then buy an injector of about the capacity required, though of course aninjector must always have a maximum capacity in excess of what will berequired.

Ifthefeedwateriscold,agoodinjectoroughttostartwith25poundssteampressureandworkupto150poundsfora2-footlift.Iftheliftiseightfeet,itwillstart at 30 pounds and work up to 130. If the water is heated to 100 degreesFahrenheit it will start for a 2-foot lift with 26 pounds and work up to 120pounds, or for an 8-foot lift, itwill startwith 33 pounds andwork up to 100.Thesefiguresapplytothesingletubeinjector.Thedoubletubeinjectorshouldwork from 14 pounds to 250, and from 15 to 210 under same conditions asabove. The double tube injector is not commonly used on farm engines,however.

Careshouldbe takenthat the injector isnotsonear theboileras tobecomeheated,elseitwillnotwork.Ifitgetstoohot,itmustbecooledbypouringcoldwaterontheoutside,firsthavingcovereditwithaclothtoholdthewater.Iftheinjectoriscool,andthesteampressureandliftareallright,andstilltheinjectordoesnotwork,youmaybesurethereissomeobstructionsomewhere.Shutoffthesteamfromtheboiler,andruna finewiredownthroughtheconevalveorcylindervalve,afterhavingremovedthecaporplugnut.

Startinganinjectoralwaysrequiressomeskill,andinjectorsdiffer.Somestartbymanipulatingthesteamvalve;somerequirethatthesteambeturnedonfirst,andthenthewaterturnedoninjusttherightamount,usuallywithaquickshorttwist of the supply valve.Often somepatience is required to get just the rightturnonitsothatitwillstart.

Ofcourseyoumustbesurethatalljointsareair-tight,elsetheinjectorwillnotworkunderanyconditions.

Neveruseaninjectorwhereapumpcanbeused,astheinjectorismuchmorewasteful of steam. It is for an emergency or to throw water in a boiler whenengineisnotrunning.

Nolubricatorisneededonaninjector.

THEHEATER

The constructionof theheaterhas alreadybeen explained. It has two checkvalves, one on the side of the pump and one on the side of the boiler, bothopeningtowardtheboiler.Theexhauststeamisusuallyatatemperatureof215to220degreeswhenitenterstheheaterchamber,andheatsthewaternearlyorquitetoboilingpointasitpassesthrough.Theinjectorheatsthewateralmostashot.

The heater requires little attention, and the check valves seldom get out oforder.

Thepumpistobeusedwhentheengineisrunning,andtheinjectorwhentheengineiscloseddown.Thepumpisthemoreeconomical;butwhentheengineisnotworking theexhaust steamisnot sufficient toheat thewater in theheater;andpumpingcoldwaterintotheboilerwillquicklybringdownthepressureandinjuretheboiler.

ECONOMICALFIRING

Themanagementofthefireisoneofthemostimportantthingsinrunningasteamengine.Onitdependtwothingsofthegreatestconsequence—success ingettingupsteamquicklyandkeepingitatasteadypressureunderallconditions;andeconomyintheuseoffuel.Anengineerwhounderstandsfiringinthemosteconomicalwaywillprobablysavehiswagestohisemployerovertheengineerwhoisindifferentorunscientificaboutit.Thereforetheyoungengineershouldgivethesubjectgreatattention.

First,letusconsiderfiringwithcoal.Allexpertengineersadvisea“thin”fire.Thismeansthatyoushouldhaveathinbedofcoals,sayaboutfourinchesthick,alloverthegrate.Thereshouldbenoholesordeadplacesinthis,forifthereareany,coldairwillshort-circuitintothefirefluesandcoolofftheboiler.

Thebestwayoffiringistospreadthecoalonwithasmallhandshovel,averylittle at a time, scattering itwell over the fire.Anotherway, recommended bysome,istohaveasmallpileoffreshfuelatthefrontofthegrate,pushingitbackover the grate when it is well lighted. Tomanage this well will require somepracticeandskill,andforabeginner,werecommendscatteringsmallshovelsful

all over the fire. All lump coal should be broken to a uniform size. No piecelargerthanaman’sfistshouldbeputinafirebox.

Seldomuse thepokerabove the fire, fornothinghassucha tendency toputoutacoalfireasstirringitwithapokerabove.Andwhenthereisagoodglowallover the grate below, thepoker is notneededbelow.When the grate becomescovered with dead ashes, they should be cautiously but fully removed, andclinkersmust be lifted outwith the poker from above, care being exercised tocoveruptheholeswithlivecoals.

Hardcoalifusedshouldbedampenedbeforebeingputonthefire.Whenthefireisburningalittletoobriskly,closethedraftbutdonottamper

withthefireitself.Shoulditbecomeimportantonasuddenemergencytocheckthefireatanytimequickly,neverdashwateruponit,butratherthrowplentyoffreshfueluponit.Freshfuelalwayslowerstheheatatfirst.Ifalldraftsareclosedtight,itwilllowertheheatconsiderablyforquiteatime.

Incheckingafire,itmustberememberedthatverysuddencoolingwillalmostsurelycracktheboiler.Ifthereisdangerofanexplosionitmaybenecessarytodraw the fire out entirely; but under no circumstances should cold water bethrownon.Afterdrawingthefireclosealldoorsanddampers.

FIRINGWITHWOOD

Alwayskeepthefiredoorshutasmuchaspossible,ascoldairthusadmittedwillcheckthefireandruintheboiler.

Firingwithwood is inmanyways the exact reverse of firingwith coal.Thefireboxshouldbefilledfullofwoodatalltimes.Thewoodshouldbethrowninineverydirection,inpiecesofmoderatesize,andasitburnsaway,freshpiecesshouldbeputinatthefrontsothattheywillgetlightedandreadytoburnbeforebeingpushedbackneartheboiler.Itoftenhelpsawoodfire,too,tostiritwithapoker.Woodmakesmuchlessashthancoal,andwhatlittleaccumulatesinthegratewill not domuchharm. Sometimes greenwoodwill not burnbecause itgetstoomuchcoldair.Inthatcasethesticksshouldbepackedasclosetogetheraspossible,stillleavingaplacefortheairtopass.Alsoawoodfire,especiallyonewithgreenwood,shouldbekeptuptoahightemperatureallthetime;forifitisallowedtodropdownthewoodwillsuddenlyceasetoburnatall.

FIRINGWITHSTRAW

Infiringwithstrawitisimportanttokeeptheshutefullofstrawallthetimesothatnocoldaircangetinontopofthefire.Don’tpushthestrawintoofast,either,butkeepitmovingatauniformrate,withsmallforkfulls.Nowandthenitiswelltoturntheforkoverandrunitdownintothefiretokeepthefire level.Ashesmaybeallowedtofillupinrearofashbox,butfifteeninchesshouldbekeptclearinfronttoprovidedraft.Thebrickarchmaybewatchedfromthesideopening in the firebox. and should show a continuous stream of white flamecoming over it. If toomuch straw is forced in, that will check the flame. Theflameshouldneverbechecked.Ifdampstrawgetsagainsttheendsoftheflues,itshouldbescrapedoffwiththepokerfromsidedoor.Cleanthetubeswellonceaday.Thedraftmustalwaysbekeptstrongenoughtoproduceawhiteheat,andifthiscannotbedoneotherwise,asmallernozzlemaybeusedontheexhaustpipe;but this shouldbe avoidedwhenpossible, since it causesbackpressureon theengine.Neverletthefrontendoftheboilerstandonlowground.Engineshouldbe level,or frontendhigh, if ithasa firebox locomotiveboiler; ifa return flueboiler,becarefultokeepitalwayslevel.Inburningstrawtakeparticularnoticethatthesparkscreeninstackdoesnotgetfilledup.

THEASHPIT

Inburningcoalitisexceedinglyimportantthattheashesbekeptcleanedout,asthehotcindersfallingdownontheheapofashesalmostashighasthegratewilloverheatthegrateinaveryshorttimeandwarpitalloutofshape,soruiningit.

Withwood and straw, on the contrary, an accumulation of asheswill oftenhelpandwillseldomdoanyharm,becausenoveryhotcinderscandropdownbelowthegrates,andthehottestpartofthefireissomedistanceabovethegrates.

STARTINGAFIRE

Youmustmakeupyourmindthatitwilltakehalfanhourtoanhourorsotogetupsteaminanyboilerthatisperfectlycold.Themetalexpandsandshrinksagreatdealwiththeheatandcold,andasuddenapplicationofheatwouldruinaboiler in a short time.Hence it is necessary for reasons of engine economy tomakechangesoftemperature,eithercoolingofforheatingup,gradually.

Firstseethatthereiswaterintheboiler.Startabriskfirewithpinekindlings,graduallyputtingoncoalorwood,asthe

casemaybe,andspreadingthefireoverthegratesothatallpartswillbecoveredwithglowingcoals.

When you have 15 or 20 pounds of steam, start the blower.As has alreadybeendescribed,theblowerisapipewithanozzleleadingfromthesteamspaceof theboiler to thesmokestack,andfittedwithaglobevalve.The forceof thesteamdrives the air out of the stack, causing a vacuum,which is immediatelyfilledbythehotgasesfromthefireboxcomingthroughtheboilertubes.Littleistobegainedbyusingtheblowerwithlessthan15poundsofsteam,astheblowerhassolittlestrengthbelowthat,thatitdrawsoffaboutasmuchsteamasismadeandnothingisgained.

Theblowerisseldomneededwhentheengineisworking,astheexhauststeamshould be sufficient to keep the fire going briskly. If it is not, you shouldconclude that something is the matter. There are times, however, when theblower is required even when the engine is going. For example, if you areworking with very light load and small use of steam, the exhaust may beinsufficienttokeepupthefire;andthiswillbeespeciallytrueifthefuelisverypoor.Insuchacase,turnontheblowerveryslightly.Butrememberthatyouarewastingsteamifyoucangetalongwithouttheblower.

Examinethenozzleoftheblowernowandthentoseethatitdoesnotbecomelimedup,orturnedsoastodirectthesteamtoonesideofthestack,whereitsforcewouldbewasted.

Beware,also,ofcreating toomuchdraft; for toomuchdraftwilluseup fuelandmakelittlesteam.

SMOKE

Coalsmokeisnothingmoreorlessthanunburnedcarbon.Themoresmokeyouget, the lesswill be theheat froma given amountof fuel.Great cloudsofblacksmokefromanengineallthetimeareaverybadsigninanengineer.Theyshow that he does not know how to fire. He has not followed the directionsalreadygiven,tohaveathin,hotfire,withfewashesunderhisgrate.Instead,hethrowsongreat shovelsfulofcoalata time,andhas thecoalup to the fireboxdoor.Hisfuelisalwaysmakingsmoke,whichsoonclogsupthesmokefluesandlessenstheamountofsteamheisgetting.Ifhehadkepthisfirevery“thin,”butveryhot, throwingonasmallhandshovelofcoalata time,seldompokinghisfire except to lift out clinkers or clean away dead ashes under the grate, andkeeping his ashpit free from ashes, there would be only a little puff of black

smoke when the fresh coal went on, and then the smoke would quicklydisappear,whilethefireflueswouldburncleanandnotgetcloggedupwithsoot.

Itisimportant,however,tokeepthesmallfirefluesespeciallywellcleanedoutwith a good flue cleaner; for all accumulation of soot prevents the heat frompassing through the steel, and so reduces the heating capacity of the boiler.Cleaningthetubeswithasteamblowerisneveradvisable,asitformsapasteonthetubethatgreatlyimpairsitscommodity.

SPARKS

Withcoalthereislittledangeroffirescausedbysparksfromtheengine.Whatsparksthereareareheavyanddead,andwillevenfallonapileofstrawwithoutsetting it on fire. On a very windy day, however, when you are running yourengineveryhard,especiallyifitisofthedirectlocomotiveboilertype,youwanttobecarefulevenwithcoal.

Withwooditisverydifferent;andlikewisewithstraw.Woodandstrawsparksare always dangerous, and an engine should never be run for threshing withwoodorstrawwithoutusingaspark-arrester.

Itsometimeshappensthatwhencoal isuseditwillgiveout,andyouwillbeaskedtofinishyourjobwithwood.Insuchacase,itisthedutyofanengineertostate fullyand frankly thedangerof firingwithwoodwithouta sparkarrester,andheshouldgoononlywhenorderedtodosobytheproprietor,afterhehasbeenfullywarned. In thatcaseall responsibility isshifted fromtheengineer totheowner.

THEFUSIBLEPLUG

The careful engineer will never have occasion to do anything to the fusibleplug except to clean the scaleoff from the topof it on the insideof theboileronce a week, and put in a fresh plug once a month. It is put in merely as aprecautiontoprovideforcarelessness.Theengineerwhoallowsthefusibleplugtomeltoutisbythatveryfactmarkedasacarelessman,andoughttofinditsomuchthehardertogetajob.

Ashasalreadybeenexplained, the fusibleplug is aplug filled in themiddlewithsomemetalthatwillmeltatacomparativelylowtemperature.Solongasitiscoveredwithwater,noamountofheatwillmelt it, since thewaterconducts

the heat away from the metal and never allows it to rise above a certaintemperature.Whentheplugisnolongercoveredwithwater,however,—inshort,whenthewaterhas fallenbelowthedanger line intheboiler—themetal intheplugwillfuse,ormelt,andmakeanopeningthroughwhichthesteamwillblowintothefireboxandputoutthefire.However,ifthetopofthefusibleplughasbeenallowedtobecomethicklycoatedwithscale,thissafetyprecautionmaynotwork and the boiler may explode. In any case the fusible plug is not to bedependedon.

Atthesametimeagoodengineerwilltakeeveryprecaution,andoneoftheseis to keep the top of the plugwell cleaned.Alsohewill have an extra plug allreadyandfilledwithcompositionmetal,toputinshouldtheplugintheboilermeltout.Thenhewillrefilltheoldplugassoonaspossible.Thismaybedonebyputting a little moist clay in one end to prevent the hot metal from runningthrough,andthenpouringintotheotherendoftheplugasmuchmeltedmetalasitwillhold.Whencold,tampdownsolidly.

LEAKYFLUES

Onecommoncauseofleakyfluesisleavingthefiredooropensothatcurrentsofcoldairwillrushinontheheatedfluesandcausethem,orsomeotherpartsoftheboiler,tocontracttoosuddenly.Thebestboilermademayberuinedintimebyallowingcoldcurrentsofairtostriketheheatedinterior.Onceortwicewillnotdoit;butcontinuallyleavingthefiredooropenwillcertainlyworkmischiefintheend.

Ofcourse,iffluesinanewboilerleak,itisthefaultoftheboilermaker.Thetubeswerenotlargeenoughtofilltheholesinthetubesheetsproperly.Butifaboiler runs fora seasonor soand then the fluesbegin to leak, thechancesarethatitisduetothecarelessnessoftheengineer.Itmaybehehasbeenmakinghisfires too hot; itmay be leaving the firebox door open; itmay be running theboilerattoohighpressure;itmaybeblowingouttheboilerwhenitistoohot;orblowingouttheboilerwhenthereisstillsomefireinthefirebox;itmaybeduetolimeencrustedontheinsideofthetubesheets,causingthemtooverheat.Fluesmayalsobemadetoleakbypumpingcoldwaterintotheboilerwhenthewaterinside is too low; or pouring cold water into a hot boiler will do it. Someengineersblowouttheirboilerstocleanthem,andthenbeinginahurrytogettowork,refill themwhile themetal ishot.The fluescannotstandthis, since theyarethinnerthantheshelloftheboilerandcoolmuchmorequickly;hencethey

willcontractmuchfasterthantherestoftheboilerandsomethinghastocomeloose.

Onceafluestartstoleaking,itisnotlikelytostoptillithasbeenrepaired;andoneleakyfluewillmakeothersleak.

Nowwhatshallyoudowithaleakyflue?Torepairaleakyflueyoushouldhaveaflueexpanderandacalkingtool,with

a light hammer. If you are small enough youwill creep in at the firebox doorwithacandle inyourhand.First, cleanoff theendsof the fluesand flue sheetwithsomecottonwaste.Thenforcetheexpanderintotheleakyflue,bringingtheshoulderwellupagainst theendoftheflue.Thendrive inthetaperingpin.Beverycarefulnot todrive it in toofar, for ifyouexpandthe flue toomuch,youwill strain the flue sheet and cause other flues to leak. You must use yourjudgmentandproceedcautiously.Itisbettertomaketwoorthreetrialsthantospoilyourboilerbybadwork.TherollerexpanderispreferabletotheProsserinthehandsofanovice.Thetubeshouldbeexpandedonlyenoughtostoptheleak.Fartherexpandingwillonlydoinjury.

Whenyouthinkthefluehasbeenexpandedenough,hitthepinasideblowtoloosen it.Then turn the expanderaquarter round, anddrive in thepinagain.Loosenupandcontinuetillyouhaveturnedtheexpanderentirelyaround.

Finally remove the expander, anduse the calking tool to bead the end. It isbest,however,toexpandallleakyfluesbeforedoinganybeading.

Thebeading isdonebyplacing theguideorgauge inside the flue, and thenpoundingtheendsofthefluedownagainstthefluesheetbylightblows.Beverycarefulnottobruisethefluesheetorflues,andusenoheavyblows,norevenaheavyhammer.Goslowlyandcarefullyaroundtheendofeachflue;andifyouhavedoneyourworkthoroughlyandcarefullytheflueswillbeallright.Butyoushould test your boiler before steaming up, tomake sure that all the leaks arestopped,especiallyiftherehavebeenbadones.

Therearevariousways to testingaboiler. Ifwaterworksarehandy, connectthe boilerwith a hydrant and after filling the boiler, let it receive the hydrantpressure.Thenexaminethecalkedfluescarefully,andifyouseeanyseepingofwater, use your beader lightly till thewater stops. In case nowaterworkswithgoodpressureareathand,youcanuseahydraulicpumporagoodforcepump.

Theamountofpressurerequiredintestingaboilershouldbethatatwhichthesafetyvalveissettoblowoff,say110to130lbs.Thiswillbesufficient.

Ifyouareinthefieldwithnohydrantorforcepumphandy,youmaytestyourboilerinthisway:Takeoffthesafetyvalveandfilltheboilerfullofwaterthrough

thesafetyvalveopening.Thenscrewthesafetybackinitsplace.Youshouldbesure that everybit of space in theboiler is filled entirely full ofwater,with allopeningstightlyclosed.Thengetbackintheboilerandhaveabundleofstrawburnedunderthefirebox,orunderthewaistoftheboiler,sothatatsomepointthewaterwillbeslightlyheated.Thiswillcausepressure.Ifyoursafetyvalveisinperfectorder,youwillknowassoonaswaterbeginstoescapeatthesafetyvalvewhetheryourfluesarecalkedtightenoughornot.

Thewaterisheatedonlyafewdegrees,andthepressureiscoldwaterpressure.In very cold weather this method cannot be used, however, as water has noexpansiveforcewithinfivedegreesoffreezing.

Theabovemethodsarenotintendedfortestingthesafetyofaboiler,butonlyfortestingforleakyflues.Ifyouwishtohaveyourboilertested,itisbettertogetanexperttodoit.

*J.H.Maggard,authorof“RoughandTumbleEngineering,”towhomweareindebtedforanumberofvaluablesuggestionsinthischapter.

**J.H.Haggard.

CHAPTERVHOWTOMANAGEATRACTIONENGINE

Atractionengineisusuallythesimplestkindofanenginemade.Ifitwerenot,itwouldrequireahighlyexpertengineertorunit,andthiswouldbetoocostlyfor a farmer or thresherman contractor. Therefore the builders of tractionenginesmake them of the fewest possible parts, and in themost durable andsimplestyle.Still,eventhesimplestenginerequiresacertainamountofbrainstomanageitproperly,especiallyifyouaretogetthemaximumofworkoutofitatthelowestcost.

If the engine is in perfect order, about all you have to do is to see that allbearingsareproperlylubricated,andthattheautomaticoilerisingoodworkingcondition.Butassoonasanenginehasbeenusedforacertaintime,therewillbewear,whichwillappear first in the journals,boxesandvalve,and it is the firstdutyofagoodengineertoadjustthese.Toadjustthemaccuratelyrequiresskill;anditisthepossessionofthatskillthatgoestomakearealengineer.

Your first attention will probably be required for the crosshead and crankboxesorbrasses.The crankbox andpinwill probablywear first; butboth thecrossheadandcrankboxesaresonearlyalikethatwhatissaidofonewillapplytotheother.

Youwill find thewristbox in twoparts. Inanewengine thesepartsdonotquitemeet. There is perhaps an eighth of an inch waste space between them.They arebroughtup to thebox inmost farmenginesby awedge-shapedkey.This should be drivendown a little at a time as the boxeswear, so as to keepthemsnuguptothepin,thoughnottootight.

Youcontinuetodriveinthekeyandtightenuptheboxesastheywearuntilthetwohalvescometighttogether.Thenyoucannolongeraccomplishanythinginthisway.

Whenthebrasseshavewornsothattheycanbeforcednoclosertogether,theymustbetakenoffandtheendsofthemfiledwheretheycometogether.Fileoffasixteenthofaninchfromeachend.Doitwithcare,andbesureyougettheendsperfectlyeven.Whenyouhavedonethisyouwillhaveanothereighthofaninchtoallowforwear.

Now, by reflection youwill see that as thewrist boxwears, and thewedge-

shapedkeyisdrivenin,thepitman(orpistonarm)islengthenedtotheamountthatthehalfoftheboxfarthestfromthepistonhaswornaway.Whenthebrassesmeet,thiswillamounttoone-sixteenthofaninch.

Nowifyoufile theendsoffandtheboxeswearsoas tocometogetheroncemore, the pitman will have been shortened one-eighth of an inch; and prettysoon the clearance of the piston in the cylinderwill have been offset, and theenginewillbegintopound.Inanycase,theclearanceatoneendofthecylinderwill be one-sixteenth or one-eighth of an inch less, and in the other end one-sixteenthorone-eighthofaninchmore.Whenthisisthecaseyouwillfindthattheengineisnotworkingwell.

To correct this,whenyou file thebrasses eitherof the crossheadboxor thecrankboxyoumustputinsomefillingbackofthebrassfarthestfromthepiston,sufficient toequalize thewear thathas takenplace, that is,one-sixteenthof aninch each time you have to file off a sixteenth of an inch. This fillingmay besomeflatpiecesoftinorsheetcopper,commonlycalledshims,andtheprocessiscalledshimming.Astothefronthalfofthebox,noshimsarerequired,sincethetaperingkeybringsthatboxuptoitsproperplace.

Great caremust be exercisedwhen driving in the tapering key orwedge totightenuptheboxes,nottodriveit intoohard.Manyengineersthinkthisisasureremedyfor“knocking”inanengine,andeverytimetheyhearaknocktheydriveinthecrankboxkey.Oftentheknockisfromsomeothersource,suchasfromalooseflywheel,orthelike.Yourearislikelytodeceiveyou;foraknockfromanypartofanengineislikelytosoundasifitcamefromthecrankbox.Ifyouinsistondrivinginthekeytoohardandtoooften,youwillruinyourengine.

Intighteningupakey,firstloosenthesetscrewthatholdsthekey;thendrivedownthekeytillyouthinkitistight;thendriveitbackagain,andthistimeforceitdownwithyourfistasfarasyoucan.Byusingyourfistinthiswayafteryouhaveoncedriventhepinintightandlooseneditagainyoumaybeprettycertainyouarenotgoingtogetitsotightitwillcausetheboxtoheat.

WHATCAUSESANENGINETOKNOCK

Themostcommonsignthatsomethingislooseaboutanengineis“knocking,”asitiscalled.Ifanyboxwearsalittleloose,oranywheelorthelikegetsatrifleloose,theenginewillbegintoknock.

Whenanenginebeginstoknockorrunhard,itisthedutyoftheengineertolocate the knock definitely.Hemust not guess at it.When he has studied theproblemout carefully, andknowswhere theknock is, thenhemayproceed to

remedyit.Neveradjustmorethanonepartatatime.Aswehavesaid,aknockisusuallyduetoloosenesssomewhere.Thejournals

ofthemainshaftmaybelooseandcauseknocking.Theyareheldinplacebysetboltsandjamnuts,andaretightenedbysimplyscrewingupthenuts.Butasmallturnofanutmaymaketheboxsotightitwillbegintoheatatonce.Greatcareshould be taken in tighteningup such a box to be surenot to get it too tight.Onceaboxbeginstocut,itshouldbetakenoutandthoroughlycleaned.

Knockingmaybeduetoalooseeccentricyoke.Thereispackingbetweenthetwohalvesoftheyoke,andtotightenupyoumusttakeoutathinlayerofthispacking.Butbecarefulnottotakeouttoomuch,ortheeccentricwillstickandbegintoslip.

Another cause of knocking is the piston rod loose in the crosshead. If thepiston rod is keyed to the crosshead it is less liable to get loose than if itwerefastenedbyanut;butifthekeycontinuestogetloose,itwillbebesttoreplaceitwithanewone.

Unlessthepistonrodiskepttightinthecrosshead,thereis liabilityofabadcrack.Asmallstrainwillbringthepistonoutofthecrossheadentirely,whenthechancesareyouwillknockoutoneorbothcylinder-heads.Ifanutisused,therewillbethesamedangerifitcomesoff.Itshouldthereforebecarefullywatched.Thebestwayistotraintheeartocatchanyusualsound,whenlooseningofthekeyornutwillbedetectedatonce.

Another source of knocking is looseness of the crosshead in the guides.Provisionisusuallymadefortakingupthewear;butifthereisnot,youcantakeofftheguidesandfilethemorhavethemplanedoff.Youshouldtakecaretoseethattheyarekepteven,sothattheywillwearsmoothwiththecrossheadshoes.

Iftheflywheelisintheleastlooseitwillalsocauseknocking,anditwillpuzzleyounotalittletolocateit.Itmayappeartobetight;butifthekeyistheleastbittoonarrowforthegrooveintheshaft,itwillcauseanenginetobumphorribly,verymuchastoomuch“lead”will.

LEAD

Wehavealreadyexplainedwhat “lead” is. It isopeningof theport at eitherend of the steam cylinder allowed by the valve when the engine is on a deadcentre.Tofindoutwhattheleadis,thecoverofthesteamchestmustbetakenoff,andtheengineplacedateachdeadcentreinsuccession.Iftheleadisgreateratoneendthanitisattheother,thevalvemustbeadjustedtoequalizeit.Asa

ruletheengineisadjustedwithasuitableamountof leadif it isequalized.Thecorrectamountof leadvarieswiththeengineandwiththeportopening.Iftheport opening is long andnarrow, the lead shouldobviously be less than if theportisshortandwide.

Iftheleadisinsufficient,therewillnotbeenoughsteamletintothecylinderforcushion,andtheenginewillknock.Ifthereistoomuchleadthespeedoftheenginewillbelessened,anditwillnotdotheworkitought.Toadjusttheleaddenovoisbynomeansaneasytask.

HOWTOSETASIMPLEVALVE

In order to set a valve the engine must be brought to a dead centre. Thiscannot be done accurately by the eye. An old engineer* gives the followingdirectionsforfindingthedeadcentreaccurately.Sayshe:“Firstprovideyourselfwitha ‘tram.’This isarodofone-fourth inch ironabouteighteen inches long,with two inchesatoneendbentover toa sharpangle.Sharpenbothends toapoint.Fastenablockofhardwoodsomewherenearthefaceoftheflywheel,sothatwhenthestraightendofyourtramisplacedatadefinitepointintheblock,the hooked endwill reach the crown of the flywheel. The blockmust be heldfirmlyinitsplace,andthetrammustalwaystouchitatexactlythesamepoint.

“You are now ready to set about finding the dead centre. In doing this,remembertoturntheflywheelalwaysinthesamedirection.

“Bring the engineover till itnearly reachesoneof thedeadcentres,butnotquite.Makeadistinctmarkacrossthecrossheadandguides.Alsogoaroundtotheflywheel,andplacingthestraightendofthetram:attheselectedpointontheblockofwood,makeamarkacrossthecrownorcentreoffaceoftheflywheel.Nowturnyourenginepastthecentre,andontoapointatwhichthemarkonthe cross headwill oncemore exactly correspondwith the line on the guides,making a single straight line. Once more place the tram as before and makeanothermarkacrossthecrownoftheflywheel.Byuseofdividers,findtheexactcentre between the two marks made on the flywheel, and mark this pointdistinctlywith a centre punch.Nowbring the flywheel to the pointwhere thetram, setwith its straight endat the requiredpointon theblockofwood,willtouchthispointwiththehookedend,andyouwillhaveoneofthedeadcentres.

“Turn the engine over and proceed in the sameway to find the other deadcentre.”

Now,setting theengineononeof thedeadcentres, remove thecoverof thesteamchestandproceedtosetyourvalve.

Assumingthattheenginemakergavethevalvetheproperamountofleadinthe first place, you can proceed on the theory that it is merely necessary toequalizetheleadatbothends.Assumesomeconvenientlead,asone-sixteenthofaninch,andsetthevalvetothat.Thenturntheengineoverandseeiftheleadattheotherendisthesame.Ifitisthesame,youhavesetthevalvecorrectly.Ifitislessattheotherend,youmayconcludethattheleadatbothendsshouldbelessthanone-sixteenthofaninch,andmustproceedtoequalizeit.Thisyoucandobyfittingintotheopenspacea littlewedgeofwood,changingthevalvea littleuntil the wedge goes in to just the same distance at each end. Then youmayknowthattheleadatoneendisthesameasattheotherend.Youcanmarkthewedgeforforcingitagainstthemetal,ormarkitagainsttheseatofthevalvewithapencil.

Thevalveissetbylooseningthesetscrewsthatholdtheeccentricontheshaft.Whentheseareloosenedupthevalvemaybemovedfreely.Whenitiscorrectlysetthescrewsshouldbetightened,andtherelativepositionoftheeccentricontheshaftmaybepermanentlymarkedbysettingacoldchiselsothatitwillcutintotheshaftandtheeccentricatthesametimeandgivingitasmartblowwiththehammer,soas tomakeamarkonboththeeccentricandtheshaft.Shouldyour eccentric slip at any time in the future, you can set your valve by simplybringingthemarkontheeccentricsothat itwillcorrespondwiththemarkontheshaft.Manyengineshavesuchamarkmadewhenbuilt,tofacilitatesettingavalveshouldtheeccentricbecomeloose.

Thesedirectionsapplyonlytosettingthevalveofasingleeccentricengine.

HOWTOSETAVALVEONADOUBLEECCENTRICENGINE

Insettingavalveonareversibleordoubleeccentricengine,thelinkmaycauseconfusion, and you may be trying to set the valve to run one way when theengineissettoruntheother.

Thevalveonsuchanengineisexactlythesameasonasingleeccentricengine.Set thereverse lever for theenginetogo forward.Thenset thevalveexactlyaswith a single eccentric engine.When you have done so, tighten the eccentricscrewssothattheywillholdtemporarily,andsetthereverseleverfortheenginetogobackward.Thenput theengineondeadcentresandsee if thevalve isallright at both ends. If it is, youmay assume that it is correctly set, and tighteneccentricscrews,markingbotheccentricsasbefore.

Aswehave said,most engines aremarked in the factory, so that it is not adifficultmatter to set the valves, it beingnecessary only to bring the eccentric

aroundsothatthemarkonitwillcorrespondwiththemarkontheshaft.Youcaneasilytellwhethertheleadisthesameatbothendsbylisteningtothe

exhaust.Ifitislongeratoneendthantheother,thevalveisnotproperlyset.

SLIPPINGOFTHEECCENTRICORVALVE

Iftheeccentricslipstheleastbititmaycausetheenginetostop,ortoactveryqueerly. Therefore the marks on the shaft and on the eccentric should bewatched closely, andof course all grease anddirt shouldbekeptwipedoff, sothat they canbe seen easily.Then the jamnuts shouldbe tightenedup a littlefromtimetotime.

Iftheengineseemstoactstrangely,andyettheeccentricsareallright,lookatthevalveinthesteamchest.If thevalvestemhasworkedloosefromthevalve,troublewillbecaused.Itmaybeheldinplacebyanut,andthenutmayworkoff;orthevalvemaybeheldbyaclampandpin,andthepinmayworkloose.Eitherwillcauselossofmotion,andperhapsasuddenstoppingoftheengine.

USEOFTHECYLINDERSTEAMCOCKS

It is a comparatively simple matter to test a steam cylinder by use of thecylinder cocks. To do this, open both cocks, place the engine on the forwardcenter,andturnonalittlesteam.Ifthesteamblowsoutattheforwardcock,wemayjudgethatourleadisallright.Nowturntheenginetothebackcenterandletonthesteam.Itshouldblowoutthesameatthebackcock.Alittletrainingofthe earwill showwhether the escape of steam is the same at both ends.Thenreverse the engine, set it on each center successfully, and notice whether thesteamblowsoutfromonecockatatimeandinthesamedegreeofforce.

Ifthesteamblowsoutofbothcocksatthesametime,oroutofonecockononecenter,butnotoutof theother cockon its corresponding center,wemayknowsomethingiswrong.Thevalvedoesnotworkproperly.

Wewillfirstlookattheeccentricsandseethattheyareallright.Iftheyare,wemustopenthesteamchest,firstturningoffallsteam.Probablyweshallfindthatthevalveislooseonthevalverod,ifourtroublewasthatthesteamblewoutofthecockbutdidnotoutoftheotherwhentheenginewasontheoppositecenter.

Ifourtroublewasthatsteamblewoutofbothcocksatthesametime,wemayconcludeeitherthatthecylinderringsleakorelsethevalvehascutitsseat.Itwillbea littledifficulttotellwhichatfirstsight.Inanycaseit isabadthing,for itmeanslossofpowerandwasteofsteamandfuel.Totelljustwherethetroubleis

you must take off the cylinder head, after setting the engine on the forwardcenter.Letinalittlesteamfromthethrottle.Ifitblowsthrougharoundtherings,thetroubleiswiththem;butifitblowsthroughthevalveport,thetroubleiswiththevalveandvalveseat.

If therings leakyoumustgetanewset if theyareof theself-adjustingtype.Butiftheyareofthespringoradjustingtypeyoucansetthemoutyourself;butfew engines now use the latter kind of rings, so a new pair will probably berequired.

Ifthetroubleisinthevalveandvalveseat,youshouldtakethevalveoutandhavetheseatplaneddown,andthevalvefittedtotheseat.Thisshouldalwaysbedonebyaskilledmechanic fullyequipped forsuchwork,asanovice isalmostsuretomakebadworkofit.Thevalveseatandvalvemustbescrapeddownbytheuseofaflatpieceofveryhardsteel,aneighthofaninchthickandabout3by4inchesinsize.Thescrapingedgemustbeabsolutelystraight.Itwillbeaslowandtediousprocess,andalittletoomuchscrapingononesideortheotherwillpreventaperfectfit.Bothvalveandvalveseatmustbescrapedequally.Novicessometimestrytoreseatavalvebytheuseofemery.Thisisverydangerousandissuretoruinthevalve,asitworksintotheporesoftheironandcausescutting.

LUBRICATION

Aknowledgeof thedifferencebetweengoodoilandpooroil,andofhowtouseoilandgrease,isaprimeessentialforanengineer.

Firstletusgivealittleattentiontothetheoryoflubrication.Theoilorgreaseshouldformaliningbetweenthejournalanditspinorshaft.Itisinthenatureofaslightandfrictionlesscushionatallpointswherethetwopiecesofmetalmeet.

Nowifoilistokeepitsplacebetweenthebearingandtheshaftorpinitmuststicktighttobothpiecesofmetal,andthetighterthebetter.Iftheoilislighttheforces at work on the bearings will force the oil away and bring the metalstogether.Assoonas theycometogether theybegintowearoneachother,andsometimesthewearisveryrapid.Thisiscalled“cutting.”Ifa littlesandorgritgetsintothebearing,thatwillhelpthecuttingwonderfully,andmoreespeciallyifthereisnogreasethere.

Forinstance,gasolineandkeroseneareoils,buttheyaresolighttheywillnotstick toa journal,andsoarevalueless for lubricating.Good lubricatingoilwillcost a littlemore than cheap oil which has beenmixedwith worthless oils toincreaseitsbulkwithoutincreasingitscost.Thehigherpricedoilwillreallycost

lessintheend,becausethereisalargerpercentageofitwhichwilldoservice.Agoodengineerwillhaveitinhiscontractthatheistobefurnishedwithgoodoil.

Nowanenginerequirestwodifferentkindsofoil,oneforthebearings,suchasthe crank pin, the crosshead and journals, and quite a different kind forlubricatingthesteamcylinder.

It is extremely important that the steam cylinder should be well lubricated;and this cannot be done direct. The oil must be carried into the valve andcylinderwith steam.Theheatof the steam,moreover, ranging fromabout320degrees Fahr. for 90 lbs. pressure to 350 degrees for 125 lbs. of pressure, willquicklydestroy the efficacyof apooroil, and a good cylinderoilmustbeonethatwillsticktothecylinderandvalveseatunderthishightemperature.Itmusthavestayingqualities.

Thelinkreverseisoneofthebestforitspurpose;butitrequiresagoodqualityofoilonthevalveforittoworkwell.Ifthevalvegetsalittledry,orthepooroiluseddoesnotserveitspurposeproperly,thelinkwillbegintojumpandpound.Thisisareasonwhymakersaresubstitutingotherkindsofreversegearinmanywaysnotasgood,butnotopentothisobjection.Ifalinkreversebeginstopoundwhenyouareusinggoodoil,andtheoilerisworkingproperly,youmaybesuresomethingisthematterwiththevalveorthegear.

Agoodengineerwilltrainhisearsothathewilldetectbysimplylisteningatthecylinderwhethereverythingisworkingexactlyasitought.Forexample,theexhaustateachendofthecylinder,whichyoucanheardistinctly,shouldbethesameandequal.Iftheexhaustatoneendislessthanitisattheother,youmayknowthatoneendofthecylinderisdoingmoreworkthantheother.Andalsoany little loosenessor lackofoilwill signify itself by thepeculiar sound itwillcause.

While the cylinder requires cylinder oil, the crank, crosshead and journalsrequireengineoil,orhardgrease.Theuseofhardgrease is rapidly increasing,and it ishighly tobe recommended.Withagoodautomatic springgrease cuphardgreasewillbefarlesslikelytoletthebearingsheatthancommonoilwill.Atthe same time itwill bemuch easier to keep an engine clean if hard grease isused.

Anoldengineer**givesthefollowingdirectionsforfittingagreasecuponaboxnotpreviouslyarrangedforone:“Removethejournal,takeagougeandcutacleangrooveacrossthebox,startingatonecorner,aboutone-eighthofaninchfromthepointofthebox,andcutdiagonallyacross,comingoutattheoppositecorneron theother endof thebox.Then start at theopposite corner and run

throughasbefore,crossingthefirstgrooveinthecenterofthebox.Groovebothhalvesoftheboxthesame,beingcarefulnottocutoutateitherend,asthiswillallow the grease to escape from the box and cause unnecessary waste. Theshimmingorpackingintheboxshouldbecutsoastotouchthejournalatbothendsofthebox,butnotinthecenterorbetweenthesetwopoints.Sowhenthetopboxisbroughtdowntightthiswillformanotherreservoirforthegrease.Iftheboxisnottappeddirectlyinthecenterforthecup,itwillbenecessarytocutanother groove fromwhere it is tapped into the grooves alreadymade.A boxpreparedinthiswayandcarefullypolishedinside,willrequirelittleattentionifyouusegoodgrease.”

AHOTBOX

Whenaboxheatsintheleastdegree,itisasignthatforlackofoilorforsomeotherreasonthemetalsarewearingtogether.

Thefirstthingtodo,ofcourse,istoseethattheboxissuppliedwithplentyofgoodoilorgrease.

Ifthisdoesnotcausetheboxtocooloff,takeitapartandcleanitthoroughly.Thencoatthejournalwithwhiteleadmixedwithgoodoil.Greatcareshouldbeexercised to keep all dirt or grit out of your can of lead and away from thebearing.

Replacetheoilorgreasecup,andtheboxwillsooncooldown.

A.W.StevensCo.Frictionclutch.

THEFRICTIONCLUTCH

Nearly all traction engines are now provided with the friction clutch forengagingtheenginewiththepropellinggear.Theclutchisusuallyprovidedwithwoodenshoes,whichareadjustableastheywear;andtheclutchisthrownonby

alever,convenientlyplaced.Before running an engine, you must make sure that the clutch shoes are

properlyadjusted.Greatcaremustbetakentobesurethatbothshoeswillcomeincontactwiththefrictionwheelatthesameinstant;forifoneshoetouchesthewheelbeforetheothertheclutchwillprobablyslip.

Theshoesshouldbesosetastomakeitatrifledifficulttodrawtheleverclearback.

To regulate the shoes on the Rumely engine, for example, first throw thefrictionin.Thenutonthetopofthetoggleconnectingthesleeveofthefrictionwiththeshoemustthenbeloosened,andthenutbelowtheshoetightenedup,forcing the shoe toward thewheel. Both shoes should be carefully adjusted sothattheywillengagethebandwheelequallyandatexactlythesametime.

Tousethefrictionclutch,firststarttheengine,throwingthethrottlegraduallywideopen.When theengine is runningat itsusual speed, slowlybringup theclutch until the gearing is fully engaged, letting the engine start slowly andsmoothly,withoutanyjar.

Traction engines having the friction clutch are also providedwith a pin forsecuringarigidconnection,tobeusedincasesofnecessity,aswhentheclutchgetsbrokenorsomethingaboutitgivesout,oryouhavedifficultyinmakingitholdwhenclimbinghills.Thispin isa simpleroundorsquarepin thatcanbeplacedthroughaholeinoneofthespokesofthebandwheeluntilitcomesintoasimilar opening in the friction wheel. When the pin is taken out, so as todisconnectthewheels,itmustbeentirelyremoved,notleftstickinginthehole,asitisliabletocatchinsomeotherpartofthemachinery.

MISCELLANEOUSSUGGESTIONS

Becarefulnottoopenthethrottlevalvetooquickly,oryoumaythrowoffthedrivingbelt.Youmayalso stirup thewater andcause it topassoverwith thesteam,startingwhatiscalled“priming.”

Alwaysopenyour cylinder cockswhenyou stop, tomake sure allwaterhasbeendrainedoutof thecylinder;andseethat theyareopenwhenyoustart,ofcourseclosingthemassoonasthesteamisletin.

Whenyoupullout theashesalwayshaveapailofwater ready, foryoumaystartafirethatwilldonoendofdamage.

Ifthewaterinyourboilergetslowandyouarewaitingforthetanktocomeup,don’tthinkyou“cankeeponalittlelonger.”butstopyourengineatonce.It

isbettertolosealittletimethanruntheriskofanexplosionthatwillruinyourreputationasanengineerandcauseyouremployeraheavyexpense.

Aultman&Taylorfrictionclutch.

Neverstartthepumpwhenthewaterintheboilerislow.Besuretheexhaustnozzledoesnotgetlimedup,andbesurethepipewhere

thewater enters theboiler from theheater isnot limedup,oryoumay split aheaterpipeorknockoutacheckvalve.

Neverleaveyourengineincoldweatherwithoutdrainingoffallthewater;andalwayscoverupyourenginewhenyouleaveit.

Neverdisconnecttheenginewithaleakythrottle.Keepthesteampressuresteady,notvaryingmorethan10to15lbs.Ifcalledontorunanoldboiler,haveitthoroughlytestedbeforeyoutouchit.Alwayscloseyourdamperbeforepullingthroughastackyard.Examineeverybridgebeforeyoupullontoit.Donotstopgoingdownasteepgrade.

*J.H.Maggard.**J.H.Maggard.

CHAPTERVIHANDLINGATRACTIONENGINEONTHEROAD

Itissomethingofatricktohandleatractionengineontheroad.Thenoviceisalmostcertaintorunitintoaditchthefirstthing,orgetstuckonahill,orinasandpatchoramudhole.Someattentionmust thereforebepaidtohandlingatractionengineontheroad.

In the firstplace,neverpull the throttleopenwitha jerk,norputdown thereverse lever with a snap. Handle your engine deliberately and thoughtfully,knowingbeforehandjustwhatyouwishtodoandhowyouwilldoit.Atractionengine ismuch like an ox; try to goad it on too fast and itwill stop and turnaround on you. It does its best work when moving slowly and steadily, andseldomisanythinggainedbyrushing.

The first thing for an engineer to learn is to handle his throttle.When anengine is doingwork the throttle should bewide open; but on the road, or inturning, backing, etc., the engineer’s handmust be on the throttle all the timeandhemustexerciseanicejudgmentastojusthowmuchsteamtheenginewillneed to do a certain amount of work. This the novice will find out best byopeningthethrottleslowly,takingallthetimeheneeds,andneverallowinganyonetohurryhim.

Asanengineerlearnsthethrottle,hegraduallycomestohaveconfidenceinit.Asitwere,hefeelsthepulseoftheanimalandnevermakesamistake.Suchanengineeralwayshaspowertospare,andneverwastesanypower.Hefindsthatalittleisoftenmuchbetterthantoomuch.

Thenextthingtolearnisthesteeringwheel.Ithastricksofitsown,whichonemust learn by practice. Most young engineers turn the wheel altogether toomuch. If you let your engine run slowly youwill have time to turn thewheelslowly,andaccomplishjustwhatyouwanttodo.Ifyouhurryyouwillprobablyhavetodoyourworkalloveragain,andsolosemuchmoretimeintheendthanifyoudidn’thurry.

Always keep your eyes on the front wheels of the engine, and do not turnaroundtoseehowyourloadiscomingon.Yourloadwilltakecareofitselfifyoumanagethefrontwheelsallright,fortheydeterminewhereyouaretogo.

Inmaking a hard turn, especially, go slow.Then youwill runno chance of

losingcontrolofyourengine,andyoucanseethatneitheryounoryourloadgetsintoaditch.

GETTINGINTOAHOLE

Youaresuresoonerorlatertogetintoaholeintheroad,foratractionengineissoheavyitissuretofindanysoftspotintheroadtheremaybe.

As togettingoutofahole,observe in the firstplace thatyoumustuseyourbestjudgment.

First,neverletthedrivewheelsturnroundwithoutdoinganywork.Themoretheyspinroundwithouthelpingyou,theworseitwillbeforyou.

Yourfirstthoughtmustbetogivethedrivewheelssomethingtheycanclimbon,somethingtheycanstickto.Aheavychainisperhapstheverybestthingyoucanputunderthem.Butusuallyontheroadyouhavenochainhandy.Inthatcase,youmustdowhatyoucan.Oldhayorstrawwillhelpyou;andsowilloldrailsoranyoldtimber.

Spendyourtimetryingtogiveyourwheelssomethingtoholdto,ratherthantrying topullout.When thewheels areall right, theenginewill goon itswaywithoutanytroublewhatever.Anddonothalfdoyourworkoffixingthewheelsbeforeyoutrytostart.Seethatbothwheelsaresecurebeforeyouputonapoundofsteam.Makesureofthisthefirsttimeyoutry,andyouwillsavetimeintheend.Ifyoufixonewheelanddon’tfixtheother,youwillprobablyspoilthefirstwheelbystartingbeforetheotherisready.

Shouldyoubewhereyourenginewillnotturn,thenyouarestuckindeed.Youmustlightenyourloadordigawayout.

BADBRIDGES

A traction engine is so heavy that the greatest care must be exercised incrossing bridges. If a bridge floor is worn, if you see rotten planks in it, orliabilityofholes,don’tpullontothatbridgewithouttakingprecautions.

Thebestprecautionistocarrywithyouacoupleofplankssixteenfeet long,threeinchesthickinthemiddle,taperingtotwoinchesattheends;alsoacoupleofplankseightfeetlongandtwoinchesthick,thelatterforculvertsandtohelpoutonlongbridges.

Beforepullingontoabadlookingbridge,laydownyourplanks,oneforeach

pair of wheels of the engine to run on. Be exceedingly careful not to let theenginedropofftheedgeoftheseplanksonthewayover,orpassovertheendsontothefloorofthebridge.Ifonepairofplanksistooshort,useyoursecondpair.

Anotherprecautionwhichitiswisetotakeistocarryfiftyfeetofgood,stouthemprope,andwhenyoucometoashakybridge,attachyourseparatortotheenginebythisropeatfulllength,sothattheenginewillhavecrossedthebridgebeforetheweightoftheseparatorcomesuponit.

Cross a bad bridge very slowly. Nothing will be gained by hurrying. Thereshouldespeciallybenosuddenjerksorstarts.

SANDPATCHES

Asandyroadisanexceedinglyhardroadtopullaloadover.Inthefirstplace,don’thurryoversand.Ifyoudoyouareliabletobreakthe

footingofthewheels,andthenyouaregone.Inthesecondplace,keepyourengineassteadyandstraightaspossible,sothat

bothwheelswillalwayshaveanequalandevenbearing.Theyare less liable toslipifyoudo.Itisuselesstotryto“wiggle”overasandpatch.Slow,steady,andevenistherule.

Ifyourwheelsslipinsand,abundleofstraworhay,especiallyoldhay,willbeaboutthebestthingtogivethemafooting.

HILLS

Inclimbinghills take thesameadvicewehavegivenyouallalong:Goslow.Nothingisgainedbyrushingatahillwithasteamengine.Suchanengineworksbestwhenitsforceisappliedsteadilyandevenly,alittleatatime.

Ifyouhaveafrictionclutch,asyouprobablywillhave,youshouldbesureitisingoodworkingorderbeforeyouattempttoclimbhills.Itshouldbeadjustedtoanicety, aswehave already explained.When you come to a badhill itwouldprobably be well to put in the tight gear pin; or use it altogether in a hillycountry.

When the friction clutch first came into use, salesmen and others used tomakethefollowingrecommendation(arecommendationwhichwewillsayrighthereisbad).Theysaid,whenyoucometoanobstacleintheroadthatyoucan’t

very well get your engine over, throw off your, friction clutch from the roadwheels,letyourenginegetundergoodheadwayrunningfree,andthensuddenlyputonthefrictionclutchandjerkyourselfovertheobstacle.

Nowthis isnodoubtonewaytogetoveranobstacle;butnogoodengineerwould takehis chancesof spoilinghis enginebydoing any such thingwith it.Somepart of itwould be badly strained by such a procedure; and if thisweredoneregularlyall throughaseason,anenginewouldbeworthverylittleattheendoftheseason.

CHAPTERVII

POINTSFORTHEYOUNGENGINEER

QUESTIONSANDANSWERS

THEBOILER

Q.Howshouldwaterbefedtoaboiler?A.Inasteadystream,byuseofapumporinjectorworkingcontinuouslyand

supplying just the amount of water required. By this means the water in theboiler is maintained at a uniform level, and produces steammost evenly andperfectly.

Q.Whyshouldpurewaterbeusedinaboiler?A.Becauseimpurewater,orhardwater,formsscalesontheboilerfluesand

plates,andthesescalesactasnonconductorsofheat.Thustheheatofthefurnaceisnotabletopasseasilythroughtheboilerfluesandplatestothewater,andyourboilerbecomeswhatiscalled“ahardsteamer.”

Q.Whatmustbedonetopreventtheformationofscale?A.First,usesomecompoundthatwilleitherpreventscalefromforming,or

will precipitate the scale forming substance as a soft powder that can easily bewashedoff.Salsodadissolvedinthefeedwaterisrecommended,butgreatcareshouldbeexercisedintheuseofsalsodanottousetoomuchatatime,asitmaycauseaboiler to foam.Besidesusingacompound,cleanyourboileroftenandregularlywithahandhoseandaforcepump,andsoakitoutasoftenaspossiblebyusingrainwaterforadayortwo,especiallybeforecleaning.Rainwaterwillsoftenandbringdownthehardscalefarbetterthananycompound.

Q.Howoftenshouldyoucleanyourboiler?A.Asoftenasitneedsit,whichwilldependupontheworkyoudoandthe

conditionofthewater.Onceaweekisusuallyoftenenoughiftheboilerisblowndownalittleeveryday.Ifyourwaterisfairlygood,onceamonthwillbeoftenenough.A boiler should be blown off about one gauge at a time two or threetimesadaywiththeblow-offifthewaterismuddy.

Q.Howlongshouldthesurfaceblow-offbeleftopen?A. Only for a few seconds, and seldom longer than aminute.The surface

blow-offcarriesoffthescumthatformsonthewater,andotherimpuritiesthatrisewiththescum.

Q.Howdoyoucleanaboilerbyblowingoff?A.Whenthepressurehasbeenallowedtorundownopentheblow-offvalve

atthebottomoftheboilerandletthewaterblowoutlessthanaminute,tillthewaterdropsoutofsightinthewatergauges,orabouttwoandone-half inches.Blownoffmoreisonlyawasteofheatandfuel.

Q.Whatharmwillbedonebyblowingoffaboilerunderahighpressureofsteam?

A.Theheatintheboilerwhilethereissuchapressurewillbesogreatthatitwill bake the scale on the inside of the boiler, and it will be very difficult toremoveitafterward.Afteraboilerhasbeenblownoffthescaleshouldbeforthemostpartsoft,sothatitcanbewashedoutbyahoseandforcepump.

Q.Whyshouldahotboilerneverbefilledwithcoldwater?A. Because the cold water will cause the boiler to contractmore in some

places than in others, and so suddenly that the whole will be badly strained.Leakyfluesaremadeinthisway,andthelifeofaboilergreatlyshortened.Asaruleaboiler shouldbe filledonlywhenthemetaland thewaterput into itareaboutatthesametemperature.

Q. After a boilerhasbeen cleaned,how should themanhole andmanholeplatesbereplaced?

A.Theyareheldinpositionbyaboltpassingthroughayokethatstraddlesthehole;buttobesteamandwatertighttheymusthavepackingallaroundthejunctionoftheplatewiththeboiler.Thebestpackingissheetrubbercutintheformofaringjusttherightsizeforthebearingsurface.Hemporcottonpackingarealsoused,buttheyshouldbefreefromall lumpsandsoakedinoil.Donotuseanymorethanisabsolutelyneeded.Becareful,also,toseethatthebearingsoftheplateandboilerarecleanandsmooth,withalltheoldpackingscrapedoff.Candlewicksaturatedwithredleadisnextbesttorubberaspacking.

Q.Whatarethechiefdutiesofanengineerincareofaboiler?A.First,towatchallgauges,fittings,andworkingparts,toseethattheyarein

order; try thegaugecocks tomakesure thewater isat therightheight; try thesafetyvalvefromtimetotimetobesureitisworking;seethattherearenoleaks,that there is no rusting or wearing of parts, or to replace parts when they dobegintoshowwear;toexaminethecheckvalvefrequentlytomakesurenowater

can escape through it from the boiler; take precautions against scale andstoppageofpipesbyscale;andkeepthefiregoinguniformly,cleanly,andinaneconomicalfashion.

Q.Whatshouldyoudoiftheglasswatergaugebreaks?A.Turnoffthegaugecocksaboveandbelow,theloweronefirstsothatthe

hotwaterwillnotburnyou.Youmayputinanewglassandturnongaugecocksatonce.Turnonthelowerorwatercockfirst,thentheupperorsteamcock.Youmaygoonwithouttheglassgauge,however,usingthegaugecocksortrycockseveryfewminutestomakesurethewaterisattherightheight,neithertoohighnortoolow.

Q. Why is it necessary to use the gauge cockswhen the glass gauge is allright?

A.First,becauseyoucannototherwisebesurethattheglassgaugeisallright;and, secondly, because if you do not use them frequently they are likely tobecome scaledup so that you cannotuse them in caseof accident to the glassgauge.

Q.Ifagaugecockgetsleaky,whatshouldbedone?A. Nothinguntiltheboilerhascooleddown.Theniftheleakisintheseat,

takeitoutandgrindandrefitit;iftheleakiswherethecockisscrewedintotheboiler,tightenitupanotherturnandseeifthatremediesthedifficulty.Ifitdoesnotyouwillprobablyhavetogetanewgaugecock.

Q.Whynotscrewupagaugecockwhilethereisapressureofsteamon?A.Thecockmightblowoutandcauseseriousinjurytoyourselforsomeone

else.Makeitarulenevertofoolwithanyboilerfittingswhilethereisapressureofsteamontheboiler.Itisexceedinglydangerous.

Sometimesagaugecockgetsbrokenoffaccidentallywhiletheboilerisinuse.Ifsuchanaccidenthappens,bankthefirebyclosingthedraftandcoveringthefirewith fresh fuel or ashes. Stop the engine and let thewaterblowoutof theholetillonlysteamappears;thentrytoplugtheopeningwithalongwhitewoodorpoplar,orevenapinestick(sixoreightfeetlong),oneendofwhichyouhavewhittleddowntoabout thesizeof thehole.Whenthesteamhasbeenstoppedthe stick may be cut off close to the boiler and the plug driven in tight. Ifnecessaryyoumaycontinuetousetheboilerinthisconditionuntilanewcockcanbeputin.

Q.Whatshouldyoudowhenagaugecockisstoppedup?A.Letthesteampressuregodown,andthentakeoffthefrontpartandruna

smallwire intothepassage,workingthewirebackandforthuntilallscaleand

sedimenthasbeenremoved.Q.Whatshouldyoudowhenthesteamgaugegetsoutoforder.A.Ifthesteamgaugedoesnotworkcorrectly,oryoususpectitdoesnot,you

maytest itbyrunning thesteamupuntil itblowsoffat thesafetyvalve. If thesteamgaugedoesnotindicatethepressureatwhichthesafetyvalveissettopopoff,andyouhavereasontosupposethesafetyvalveisallright,youmayconcludethatthereissomethingthematterwiththesteamgauge.Inthatcaseeitherputinanewone,or,ifyouhavenoextrasteamgaugeonhand,shutdownyourboilerand engine till you can get your steam gauge repaired. Sometimes this can bedonesimplybyadjustingthepointer,whichmayhavegotloose,andyoucantestitbyattachingittoanotherboilerwhichhasasteamgaugethatisallrightandbywhich you can check up yours. It is VERYDANGEROUS to run your boilerwithoutasteamgauge,dependingonthesafetyvalve.Neverallowtheslightestvariation in correctnessof the steamgaugewithout repairing it atonce. Itwillnearlyalwaysbecheaperinthesedaystoput inanewgaugeratherthantrytorepairtheoldone.

Q.Whatshouldyoudoifthepumpfailstowork?A.Usetheinjector.Q.Whatshouldyoudoifthereisnoinjector?A. Stop the engine at once and bank the fire with damp ashes, especially

noting that thewater does not fall below the bottomof the glass gauge. Thenexaminethepump.Firstseeiftheplungerleaksair;ifitisallright,examinethecheckvalves,usingthelittledraincockaspreviouslyexplainedtotesttheupperones, for the valves may have become worn and will leak; third, if the checkvalves are all right, examine the supplypipe, looking at the strainer, observingwhethersuctiontakesplacewhenthepumpisworked,etc.Theremaybealeakinthesuctionhosesomewhereduringitscoursewhereaircangetin,oritmaybecomeweakandcollapseundertheforceoftheatmosphere,ortheliningofthesuction pipemay have become torn or loose. The slightest leak in the suctionpipewillspoiltheworkingofthepump.Oldtubingshouldneverbeused,asitissure togive trouble.Finally, examine thedeliverypipe.Close thecockorvalvenext theboiler, and examine theboiler checkvalve;noticewhether thepipe isgetting limedup. Ifnecessary,disconnect thepipe and clean it outwith a stiffwire. Ifeverything isall rightup to thispoint,youmust let theboilercooloff,blowout thewater,disconnect thepipebetween the checkand theboiler, andthoroughlycleanthedeliverypipeintotheboiler.Stoppageofthedeliverypipeisdue to deposits of lime from the heating of the water in the heater. Stoppage

fromthissourcewillbegradual,andyouwillfindlessandlesswatergoingintoyourboilerfromyourpumpuntilnoneflowsatall.Fromthisyoumayguessthetrouble.

Q. Howmay thecommunicationwith thewatergaugealwaysbekept freefromlime?

A. By blowing it off through the drain cock at the bottom. First close theuppercockandblowoffforafewseconds,thewaterpassingthroughthelowercock; thenclose the lowercockandopentheupperone,allowing thesteamtoblowthroughthisandthedraincockforafewseconds.Ifyoudothiseverydayorofteneryouwillhavenotrouble.

O.Shouldthewatergetlowforanyreason,whatshouldbedone?A. Closealldampers tightsoas topreventalldraft,andbankthe firewith

freshfuelorwithashes(dampashesarethebestifdangerisgreat).Thenlettheboiler cool down before putting in freshwater. Banking the fire is better thandrawingordumpingit,aseitherofthesemaketheheatgreaterforamomentortwo,andthatadditionalheatmightcauseanexplosion.Dashingcoldwateruponthefireisalsoverydangerousandineverywayunwise.Again,donotopenthesafetyvalve, for thatalso,byrelievingsomeof thepressureonthesuperheatedwater,mightcauseittoburstsuddenlyintosteamandsocauseanexplosion.

Q.Undersuchcircumstances,wouldyoustoptheengine?A. No;forasuddencheckingoftheoutflowofsteammightbringaboutan

explosion.Donothingbutchecktheheatasquicklyandeffectivelyasyoucanbybankingorcoveringthefires.

Q.Whynotturnonthefeedwater?A. Because the crown sheet of the boiler has become overheated, and any

coldwatercominguponitwouldcauseanexplosion.Ifthepumporinjectorarerunning,ofcourseyoumay let themrun,and theboilerwillgradually refill astheheatdecreases.Undersuchcircumstanceslowwaterisduetooverheatingtheboiler.

Q.Wouldnotthefusibleplugavertanydisasterfromlowwater?A.Itmight,anditmightnot.Thetopofitisliabletogetcoatedwithlimeso

thatthedeviceisworthless.Youshouldactatalltimespreciselyasiftherewereno fusible plug. If it ever does avert an explosion you may be thankful, butavertingexplosionsbytakingsuchmeansaswehavesuggestedwillbefarbetterforanengineer’sreputation.

Q.Wouldnotthesafetyvalvebeasafeguardagainstexplosion?A. No; only under certain conditions. It prevents too high a pressure for

accumulatingintheboilerwhenthereisplentyofwater;butwhenthewatergetslow the safety valve may only hasten the explosion by relieving some of thepressure and allowing superheated water to burst suddenly into steam, thusvastlyexpandinginstantly.

Q.Shouldwaterbeallowedtostandintheboilerwhenitisnotinuse?A.Itisbettertodrawitoffandcleantheboiler,topreventrusting,formation

ofscale,hardeningofsediment,etc.,ifboileristobeleftforanygreatlengthoftime.

Q.Whatshouldyoudoifagratebarbreaksorfallsout?A.Youshouldalwayshaveasparegratebaronhandtoputinitsplace;butif

youhavenoneyoumayfillthespacebywedginginastickofhardwoodcuttherightshapetofilltheopening.Coverthiswoodwithashesbeforepokingthefireover it, and it will last for several hours before it burns out. You will find itexceedinglydifficulttokeepupthefirewithabigholeinthegratethatwill letcoldairintothefurnaceandallowcoaltodropdown.

Incasethegrateisoftherockertypetheopeningmaybefilledbyshapingapieceofflatiron,whichcanbesetinwithoutinterferingwiththerockingofthegrate;or theopeningmaybe filledwithwoodasbefore if thewood iscoveredwellwithashes.Ofcourse theuseofwoodwillprevent thegrate fromrockingandthepokermustbeusedtoclean.

Q.Whyshouldanengineerneverstartaboilerwithahotfire,andneverlethisfiregethotterthanisneededtokeepupsteam?

A.Bothwillcausethesheetstowarpandthefluestobecomeleaky,becauseunderhighheatsomepartsof theboilerwillexpandmorerapidly thanothers.Forasimilarreason,anysuddenapplicationofcoldtoaboiler,eithercoldwateror cold air through the firebox door,will cause quicker contraction of certainpartsthanotherparts,andthiswillruinaboiler.

Q.Howshouldyousupplyaboilerwithwater?A.Inaregularstreamcontinually.Onlybymakingthewaterpassregularly

andgraduallythroughtheheaterwillyougetthefulleffectoftheheatfromtheexhauststeam.Ifagreatdealofwaterispumpedintotheboileratonetime,theexhauststeamwillnotbesufficienttoheatitasitought.Thenifyouhaveafullboilerandshutoffthewatersupply,theexhauststeamintheheateriswasted,foritcandonoworkatall.Besides, ithurtstheboilertoallowthetemperaturetochange,asitwillinevitablydoifwaterissuppliedirregularly.

WHATEVERYOUDO,NEVERATTEMPTTOTIGHTENA SCREWOR

CALKABOILERUNDERSTEAMPRESSURE.IFANYTHINGISLOOSEITISLIABLE TO BLOW OUT IN YOUR FACE WITH DISASTROUSCONSEQUENCES.

Q.Ifboilerfluesbecomeleaky,cananordinarypersontightenthem?A.Yes,iftheworkisdonecarefully.Seefullexplanationpreviouslygiven,p.

17.Greatcareshouldbetakennottoexpandthefluestoomuch,forbysodoingyouarelikelytoloosenotherfluesandcausemoreleaksthanyouhadinthefirstplace.Smallleaksinsideaboilerarenotparticularlydangerous,buttheyshouldberemediedattheearliestpossiblemoment,sincetheyreducethepoweroftheboilerandputoutthefire.Besides,theylookbadfortheengineer.

Q.Howshouldfluesbecleaned?A.Someuseasteamblower;butabetterwayistoscrapeoffthemetalwith

oneofthemanypatentscrapers,whichjustfilltheflue,andwhenattachedtoarod and worked back and forth a few times the whole length of the flue doadmirableservice.

Q.Whatharmwilldirtyfluesdo?A.Twodifficultiesarisefromdirtyflues.Iftheybecomereducedinsizethe

fire will not burn well. Then, the same amount of heat will do far less workbecause it is somuchharder for it to get through the layer of soot and ashes,whicharenonconductors.

Q.Whatwouldyoudoifthethrottlebroke?A.Usereverselever.

CHAPTERVIIIPOINTSFORTHEYOUNGENGINEER.—(CONT.)

QUESTIONSANDANSWERS

THEENGINE

Q.Whatisthefirstthingtodowithanewengine?A.Withsomecottonwasteorasoftragsaturatedwithbenzineorturpentine

cleanoffallthebrightwork;thencleaneverybearing,boxandoilhole,usingaforcepumpwithaircurrentfirst,ifyouhaveapump,andthenwipingtheinsideoutcleanwithanoilyrag,usingawireifnecessarytomaketheworkthorough.Ifyoudonotcleantheworkingpartsoftheenginethusbeforesettingitup,gritwillgetintothebearingsandcausethemtocut.Partsthathavebeenputtogetherneed not be taken apart; but you should clean everything you can get at,especially the oil holes and other places that may receive dirt duringtransportation.

Aftertheoilholeshavebeenwellcleaned,theoilcupsmaybewipedoffandputinplace,screwingtheminwithawrench.

Q.Whatkindofoilshouldyouuse?A.Cylinderoilonlyforthecylinder;lardoilforthebearings,andhardgrease

ifyourengineisprovidedwithhardgreasecupforthecross-headandcrank.Theonly good substitute for cylinder oil is pure beef suet tried out.Merchantabletallowshouldneverbeused,asitcontainsacid.

Q.Canfittingsbescrewedonbyhandonly?A.No;allfittingsshouldbescreweduptightwithawrench.Q.Whenallfittingsareinplace,whatmustbedonebeforetheenginecanbe

started?A. See that the grates in the firebox are inplace andall right; then fill the

boilerwithcleanwateruntilitshowsaninchtoaninchandahalfinthewatergauge.Startyourfire,andletitburnslowlyuntilthereisapressureintheboilerof10or15lbs.Thenyoucanturnontheblowertogetupdraft.Inthemeantimefillalltheoilcupswithoil;putgreaseonthegears;openandcloseallcockstoseethattheyworkallright;turnyourengineoverafewtimestoseethatitworksall

right; let a little steam into the cylinder with both cylinder cocks open—justenough to showat the cockswithoutmoving the engine—and slowly turn theengineover,stoppingitonthedeadcenterstoseeifthesteamcomesfromonlyoneofthecylindercocksatatime,andthattheproperone;reversetheengineandmakethesametest.Alsoseethatthecylinderoilerisinplaceandreadyforoperation. See that the pump is all right and in place, with the valve in thefeedpipeopenandalsothevalveinthesupplypipe.

By going over the engine in this way you will notice whether everything istightandinworkingorder,andwhetheryouhavefailedtonoticeanypartwhichyou do not understand. If there is any part or fitting you do not understand,knowallaboutitbeforeyougoahead.

Havingstartedyour firewithdrywood,addfuelgradually,a littleata time,until you have a fire covering every part of the grate. Regulate the fire by thedamperalone,neveropeningthefireboxdoorevenifthefiregetstoohot.

Q.Inwhatwayshouldtheenginebestarted?A. Whenyouhave from25 to40 lbs.ofpressureopen the throttlevalvea

little,allowingthecylindercocks tobeopenalso.Somesteamwillcondenseatfirstinthecoldcylinder,andthiswatermustbeallowedtodrainoff.Seethatthecrankisnotonadeadcenter,andputonjustenoughsteamtostarttheengine.Assoonasitgetswarmedup,andonlydrysteamappearsatthecocks,closethecylindercocks,open the throttlegradually till it iswideopen,andwait for theenginetoworkuptoitsfullspeed.

Q.Howisthespeedoftheengineregulated??A. By thegovernor,which isoperatedbyabelt running to themainshaft.

The governor is adelicate apparatus, and shouldbewatched closely. It shouldmoveupanddownfreelyonthestem,whichshouldnotleaksteam.Ifitdoesn’twork steadily, you should stop the engine and adjust it, afterwatching it for aminuteortwotoseejustwherethedifficultylies.

Q.Areyoulikelytohaveanyhotboxes?A.Thereshouldbenoneifthebearingsareallcleanandwellsuppliedwith

oil. However, in starting a new engine you should stop now and then andexamineeverybearingbylayingyourhanduponit.Remembertheeccentric,thelinkpin,thecross-head,thecrankpin.Ifthereisanyheat,loosentheboxesupatrifle,butonlyaverylittleatatime.Ifyounoticeanyknockingorpounding,youhaveloosenedtoomuch,andshouldtightenagain.

Q.Whatmustyoudoinregardtowatersupply?A.Aftertheengineisstartedandyouknowitisallright,fillthetankonthe

engine and start the injector. It may take some patience to get the injectorstarted,andyoushouldcarefullyfollowthedirectionspreviouslygivenandthosewhich apply especially to the type of injector used. Especially be sure that thecocksadmittingthewaterthroughthefeedpipeandintotheboilerareopen.

Q.Whyarebothapumpandaninjectorrequiredonanengine?A.Thepumpismosteconomical,becauseitpermitstheheatintheexhaust

steamtobeusedtoheatthefeedwater,whiletheinjectorheatsthewaterbylivesteam.Thereshouldalsobeaninjector,however,forusewhentheengineisnotworking,inorderthatthewaterintheboilermaybekeptupwithheatedwater.Ifacross-headpumpisused,ofcourse,itwillnotoperatewhentheengineisnotrunning;andincaseofanindependentpumptheheaterwillnotheatthewaterwhen the engine is not running because there is little or no exhaust steamavailable. There is an independent pump (the Marsh pump) which heats thewaterbeforeitgoesintotheboiler,andthismaybeusedwhentheengineisshutdowninsteadoftheinjector.

Q.Whatisthenextthingtotest?A. The reversingmechanism.Throw the reverse lever back, and see if the

enginewillrunequallywellintheoppositedirection.Repeatthisafewtimestomakesurethatthereverseisingoodorder.

Q.Howisatractionenginesetgoingupontheroad?A. Most tractionenginesnowhave the frictionclutch.When theengine is

going at full speed, take hold of the clutch lever and slowly bring the clutchagainst thebandwheel. Itwill slip a little at first, gradually engaging thegearsandmoving theoutfit.Hold theclutch lever inonehand,whilewith theotheryou operate the steeringwheel. By keeping your hand on the clutch lever youmaystopforwardmotioninstantlyifanythinggoeswrong.Whentheengineisonceupontheroad,theclutchlevermaysetinthenotchprovidedforit,andtheenginewillgoatfullspeed.Youcanthengiveyourentireattentiontosteering.

Q.Whatshouldyoudoiftheenginehasnofrictionclutch?A.Stoptheengine,placingthereversingleverinthecenternotch.Thenslide

the spur pinion into the gear and open the throttle valve wide. You are nowready to control the engine by the reversing lever. Throw the lever forward alittle, bringing it back, and so continue until you have got the engine startedgradually.Whenwellunderwaythrowthereverseleverintothelastnotch,andgiveyourattentiontosteering.

Q.Howshouldyousteeratractionengine?A.Inallcasesthesamemanshouldhandlethethrottleandsteertheengine.

Skillinsteeringcomesbypractice,andabouttheonlyrulethatcanbegivenistogo slow, and under no circumstances jerk your engine about. Good steeringdependsagreatdealonnaturalabilitytojudgedistancesbytheeyeandpowerbythefeel.Agoodengineermusthaveagoodeye,agoodear,andagoodtouch(ifwemaysospeak).Ifeitheriswanting,successwillbeuncertain.

Q.Howshouldanenginebehandledontheroad?A.Therewillbenospecialdifficultyinhandlinganengineonastraight,level

piece of road, especially if the road is hard and without holes. But when youcometoyourfirsthillyourtroubleswillbegin.

Beforeascendingahill, see that thewater in theboilerdoesnot standmorethantwoinchesintheglassgauge.Ifthereistoomuchwater,asitisthrowntooneendoftheenginebythegradeitisliabletogetintothesteamcylinder.Ifyouhavetoomuchwater,blowoffalittlefromthebottomblow-offcock.

Indescendingahillneverstopyourengineforamoment,sinceyourcrownsheetwillbeuncoveredby reasonof thewaterbeing thrown forward, andanycessation in the jolting of the engine which keeps the water flowing over thecrownsheetwillcausethefusibleplugtoblowout,makingdelayandexpense.

Makeitapointnevertostopyourengineexceptonthelevel.Before descending a hill, shut off the steam at the throttle, and control the

engine by the friction brake; or if there is no brake, do not quite close thethrottle, but set the reverse lever in the center notch, or back far enough tocontrol the speed. It is seldom necessary to use steam in going down hill,however,andifthethrottleisclosedevenwithnofrictionbrake,thereversemaybeusedinsuchawayastoformanairbrakeinthecylinder.

Getdowntothebottomofahillasquicklyasyoucan.Beforedescendingahillitwouldbewelltocloseyourdampersandkeepthe

fireboxdoorclosedtightallthetime.Coverthefirewithfreshfuelsoastokeeptheheatdown.

Thepumporinjectormustbekeptatwork,however,sinceasyouhaveletthewater down low, you must not let it fall any lower or you are likely to havetrouble.

Inascendingahill,dojustthereverse,namely:Keepyourfirebriskandhot,with steam pressure ascending; and throw the reverse lever in the last notch,givingtheengineallthesteamyoucan,elseyoumaygetstuck.Ifyoustopyouarelikelytooverheatforwardendoffiretubes.Youarelessliabletogetstuckifyougoslowlythanifyougofast.Regulatespeedbyfrictionclutch.

CHAPTERIXPOINTSFORTHEYOUNGENGINEER.—(CONT.)

MISCELLANEOUS

Q.WhatisFoaming?A.Thewordisusedtodescribetherisingofwaterinlargebubblesorfoam.

Youwilldetectitbynoticingthatthewaterintheglassgaugerisesandfalls,orisfoamy.It isduetosedimentintheboiler,orgreaseandotherimpuritiesinthefeedsupply.Shakinguptheboilerwillstartfoamingsometimes;atothertimesitwillstartwithoutapparentcause.Insuchcasesitisduetothesteamtryingtogetthroughathickcrustonthesurfaceofthewater.

Q.Howmayyoupreventfoaming?A.Itmaybecheckedforamomentbyturningoffthethrottle,sogivingthe

waterachancetosettle.Itisgenerallypreventedbyfrequentlyusingthesurfaceblow-off to clear away the scum.Of course thewatermust be kept as pure aspossible,andespeciallyshouldalkaliwaterbeavoided.

Q.Whatispriming?A.Primingisnotthesameasfoaming,thoughitisoftencausedbyfoaming.

Priming is the carrying of water into the steam cylinder with the steam. It iscausedbyvariousthingsbesidefoaming,foritmaybefoundwhentheboilerisquiteclean.Asuddenandveryhot firemaystartpriming.Primingsometimesfollowsloweringofthesteampressure.Oftenitisduetolackofcapacityintheboiler,especiallylackofsteamspace,orlackofgoodcirculation.

Q.Howcanyoudetectpriming?A. By the clicking sound itmakes in the steam cylinder.Thewater in the

gaugewillalsogoupanddownviolently.Therewillalsobea showerofwaterfromtheexhaust.

Q.Whatistheproperremedyforpriming?A.Ifitisduetolackofcapacityintheboilernothingcanbedonebutgeta

newboiler.Inothercasesitmayberemediedbycarryinglesswaterintheboilerwhenthatcanbedonesafely,bytakingsteamfromadifferentpointinthesteamdome,orifthereisnodomebyusingalongdrypipewithperforationattheend.

Alargersteampipemayhelpit;oritmayberemediedbytakingoutthetop

rowofflues.Leakycylinderringsoraleakyvalvemayalsohavesomethingtodowithit.In

all cases these should bemade steam tight. If the exhaust nozzle is chokedupwithgreaseorsediment,cleanitout.

A traction enginewith small steamportswouldprimequicklyunder forcedspeed.

Q.Howwouldyoubankyourfires?A.Pushthefireasfartothebackofthefireboxaspossibleandcoveritover

withveryfinecoalorwithdryashes.Aslargeaportionaspossibleofthegrateshouldbeleftopen,sothattheairmaypassoverthefire.Closethedampertight.Bybankingyour firesatnightyoukeep theboilerwarmandcangetupsteammorequicklyinthemorning.

Q. Whenwater is left in theboilerwithbanked fire in coldweather,whatprecautionsoughttobetaken?

A.Thecocksintheglasswatergaugeshouldbeclosedandthedraincockatthe bottom opened, for fear the water in the exposed gauge should freeze.Likewisealldraincocksinsteamcylinderandpumpshouldbeopened.

Q.Howshouldatractionenginebepreparedforlayingupduringthewinter?A. First, theoutsideoftheboilerandengineshouldbethoroughlycleaned,

seeing that all gummy oil or grease is removed. Then give the outside of theboilerandsmokestackacoatofasphaltpaint,oracoatoflampblackandlinseedoil,oratanyrateadopingofgrease.

Theoutsideoftheboilershouldbecleanedwhileitishot,sothatgrease,etc.,maybeeasilyremovedwhilesoft.

Aftertheoutsidehasbeenattendedto,blowoutthewateratlowpressureandthoroughly clean the inside in the usual way, taking out the handhole andmanholeplates,andscrapingoffallscaleandsediment.

Aftertheboilerhasbeencleanedontheinside,fillitnearlyfullofwater,andpouruponthetopabucketofblackoil.Thenletthewateroutthroughtheblow-offatthebottom.Asthewatergoesdownitwillhaveacoatingofoildownthesidesoftheboiler.

Allthebrassfittingsshouldberemoved,includinggaugecocks,checkvalves,safety valve, etc.Disconnect all pipes thatmay containwater, to be sure noneremains in any of them.Open all stuffing boxes and take out packing, for thepackingwillcausethepartstheysurroundtorust.

Finally,cleanouttheinsideofthefireboxandthefireflues,andgivetheash-panagoodcoatofpaintallover,insideaswellasout.

The inside of the cylinder should be well greased, which can be done byremovingthecylinderhead.

Seethatthetopofthesmokestackiscoveredtokeepouttheweather.Allbrassfittingsshouldbecarefullypackedandputawayinadryplace.Alittleattentiontotheenginewhenyouputitupwillsavetwiceasmuchtime

whenyoutakeitoutnextseason,andbesidessavemanydollarsofvalueinthelifeoftheengine.

Q.Howshouldbeltingbecaredfor?A.First,keepbeltsfreefromdustanddirt.Neveroverloadbelts.Donotletoilorgreasedripuponthem.Neverputanystickyorpastygreaseonabelt.Never allow any animal oil or grease to touch a rubber belt, since it will

destroythelifeoftherubber.Thegrainorhairsideshouldrunnextthepulley,asitholdsbetterandisnot

solikelytoslip.Rubber beltswill be greatly improved if they are coveredwith amixture of

blackleadandlitharge,equalparts,mixedwithboiledoil,andjustenoughjapantodrythemquickly.Thismixturewilldotoputonplacesthatpeel.

Q.Whatistheproperwaytolaceabelt?A. First,squaretheendswithapropersquare,cuttingthemofftoanicety.

Begintolaceinthemiddle,anddonotcrossthelacesonthepulleyside.Onthatsidethelacingsshouldrunstraightwiththelengthofthebelt.

Theholes in thebelt shouldbepunched if possiblewith anovalpunch, thelongdiametercoincidingwiththelengthofthebelt.Maketworowsofholesineach endof the belt, so that theholes in each rowwill alternatewith those inprecedingrow,makingazigzag.Fourholeswillberequiredforathree-inchbeltineachend,twoholesineachrow;inasix-inchbelt,placesevenholesineachend,fourintherownearesttheend.

To find the length of a belt when the exact length cannot be measuredconveniently,measureastraightlinefromthecenterofonepulleytothecenteroftheother.Addtogetherhalfthediameterofeachpulley,andmultiplythatby31/4 (3.1416). The result added to twice the distance between the centers willgivethetotallengthofthebelt.

Abeltwillworkbestifitisallowedtosagjustatrifle.The seam sideof a rubberbelt shouldbeplacedoutward,or away from the

pulley.

Ifsuchabeltslips,coattheinsidewithboiledlinseedoilorsoap.Cotton beltingmay be preserved by painting the pulley side while running

withcommonpaint,afterwardapplyingsoftoilorgrease.Ifabeltslipsapplyalittleoilorsoaptothepulleyside.Q.Howdoesthecapacityofbeltsvary?A. Inproportiontowidthandalsotothespeed.Doublethewidthandyou

doublethecapacity;also,withinacertainlimit,doublethespeedandyoudoublethecapacity.Abeltshouldnotberunover5,000feetperminute.Onefour-inchbeltwillhavethesamecapacityastwotwo-inchbelts.

Q. How are piston rods and valve rods packed so that the steam cannotescapearoundthem?

A.Bypackingplacedinstuffing-boxes.Thestuffingisofsomematerialthathasacertainamountofelasticity,suchaslampwick,hemp,soapstone,etc.,andcertainpatentpreparations.Thepackingisheldinplacebyagland,asitiscalled,whichactstotightenthepackingasthecapofthestuffing-boxisscrewedup.

Q.Howwouldyourepackastuffing-box?A.Firstremovethecapandthegland,andwithapropertooltakeoutallthe

old packing. Do not use any rough instrument like a file, which is liable toscratchtherod,foranyinjurytothesmoothsurfaceoftherod,willmakeitleaksteamorworkhard.

Ifpatentpacking isused, cutoff a sufficientnumberof lengths tomake therequiredrings.Theyshouldbeexactly theright length togoaround inside thestuffing-box.Iftoolong,theycannotbescreweduptight,astheendswillpresstogetherandcauseirregularities.Iftooshort,theendswillnotmeetandwillleaksteam. Cut the ends diagonally so that theywillmake a lap joint instead of asquare one.When the stuffing-box has been filled, place the gland in positionandscrewuptight.Afterwardsloosenthenutsatrifle,asthesteamwillcausethepackingtoexpand,usually.Thestuffing-boxshouldbejustaslooseasitcanbeandnotallowleakageofsteam.Ifsteamleaks,screwuptheboxalittletighter.Ifitstillleaks,donotscrewupastightasyoupossiblycan,butrepackthebox.Ifthestuffing-boxistootight,eitherforthepistonrodorvalvesteam,itwillcausetheenginetoworkhard,andmaygroovetherodsandspoilthem.

Ifhemppackingisused,pullthefibresoutstraightandfree,gettingridofallknots and lumps. Twist together a few of the fibres,making three cords, andbraidthesethreecordstogetherandsoakthemwithoilorgrease,windaroundthe rod till stuffing-box is sufficiently full, replace the gland, and screw up asbefore.

Stuffing-boxforwaterpistonofpumpmaybepackedasdescribedabove,butlittleoilorgreasewillbeneeded.

Neverpackthestuffing-boxtootight,oryoumayflutetherodandspoilit.Alwayskeepthepackinginacleanplace,wellcoveredup,neverallowingany

dusttogetintoit,forthedustorgritisliabletocuttherod.

CHAPTERXECONOMYINRUNNINGAFARMENGINE

It issomethingtobeabletorunafarmengineandkeepoutof trouble.It isevenagreatdeal ifeverythingrunssmoothlyday inanddayout, if theenginelooks clean, and you can always develop the amount of power you need. Youmustbeabletodothisbeforeyoucangivethefinepointsofengineeringmuchconsideration.

Whenyoucometothepointwhereyouarealwaysabletokeepoutoftrouble,youareprobablyreadytolearnhowyoucanmakeyourenginedomoreworkonlessfuelthanitdoesatpresent.Inthatdirectionthebestofushaveaninfiniteamounttolearn.Itisafactthatinanordinaryfarmengineonlyabout4percentofthecoalenergyisactuallysavedandusedforwork;therestislost,partlyintheboiler,more largely intheengine.Soweseewhatasplendidchancethere is tosave.

Ifweareaskedwhereall thelostenergygoesto,wemightreplyinageneralsortofway,agooddealgoesupthesmokestackinsmokeorunusedfuel;someisradiated from theboiler in the formofheatand is lostwithoutproducinganyeffectonthesteamwithintheboiler;someislostinthecoolingofthesteamasitpassestothesteamcylinder;someislostinthecoolingofthecylinderitselfaftereach stroke; some is lost through the pressure on the back of the steamvalve,causingafrictionthatrequiresagooddealofenergyintheenginetoovercome;someislostinfrictioninthebearings,stuffing-boxes,etc.Ateachofthesepointseconomymaybepracticed if theengineerknowshow todo it.Weoffera fewsuggestions.

THEORYOFSTEAMPOWER

As economy is a scientific question,we cannot study it intelligentlywithoutknowingsomethingofthetheoryofheat,steamandthetransmissionofpower.Therewillbenothingtechnicalinthefollowingpages;andassoonasthetheoryisexplainedinsimplelanguage,anyintelligentpersonwillknowforhimselfjustwhatheoughttodoinanygivencase.

First,letusdefineordescribeheataccordingtothescientifictheory.Scientistssuppose thatallmatter ismadeupof smallparticlescalledmolecules, so small

thattheyhaveneverbeenseen.Eachmoleculeismadeupofstillsmallerparticlescalledatoms.There isnothing smaller thananatom, and there areonly aboutsixty-five different kinds of atoms, which are called elements; or rather, anysubstancemadeupofonlyonekindofatomiscalledanelement.Thusironisanelement,andsoiszinc,hydrogen,oxygen,etc.Butasubstancelikewaterisnotan element, but a compound, since its molecules are made up of an atom ofoxygenunitedwithtwoatomsofhydrogen.Woodismadeupofmanydifferentkindsofatomsunitedinvariousways.Airisnotacompound,butamixtureofoxygen,nitrogenandafewothersubstancesinsmallquantities.

Thereasonwhyairisamixtureandnotacompoundisaninterestingone,andbringsustoournextpoint.Inordertoformacompound,twodifferentkindsofatomsmust have an attraction for each other. There is no attraction betweenoxygenandnitrogen;but there is great attractionbetweenoxygenandcarbon,and when they get a chance they rush together like long separated overs.Anthracitecoalisalmostpurecarbon.Soischarcoal.Softcoalconsistsofcarbonwithwhichvariousotherthingsareunited,oneofthem,beinghydrogen.Thisisinteresting and important, because it accounts for a curious thing in firing upboilers with soft coal.We have already said that water is oxygen united withhydrogen.Whensoftcoalburns,notonlydoesthecarbonunitewithoxygen,butthehydrogenuniteswithoxygenand formswater,or steam.While theboilersarecoldtheywillcondensethewaterorsteaminthesmoke,justasacoldplateinasteamyroomwillcondensewaterfromthesteamyair,sosweating.

Nowthescientistssupposethattwoorthreeatomssticktogetherbyreasonoftheirattractionforeachotherandformmolecules.Thesemoleculesinturnsticktogether and form liquids and solids. The tighter they stick, the harder thesubstance. At the same time, these molecules are more or less loose, and areconstantlymovingbackandforth.Inasolidlikeirontheymoveverylittle;butacurrentofelectricitythroughironmakesthemoleculesmoveinapeculiarway.Inaliquidlikewater,themoleculesclingtogetherveryloosely,andmayeasilybepulled apart. In any gas, like air or steam, the molecules are entirelydisconnected,andareconstantlytryingtogetfartherapart.

Heat, says the scientist, is nothing more or less than the movement of themolecules back and forth. Heat up a piece of iron in a hot furnace, and themolecules keep getting further and further apart, and the iron gets softer andsofter, till itbecomesa liquid.Ifwetakesomeliquidlikewaterandheat it, themolecules get farther and farther apart, till thewater boils, aswe say, or turnsintosteam.Assteamthemoleculeshavebrokenapartentirely,andarebeating

backand forth so rapidly that theyhavea tendency topusheachother fartherandfartherapart.Thispushing tendency is thecauseofsteampressure. Italsoexplainswhysteamhasanexpansivepower.

Heat,then,isthemovementofthemoleculesbackandforth.Therearethreefixedranges inwhichtheymove; thesmallrangemakesasolid; thenextrangemakesaliquid;thethirdrangemakesagas,suchassteam.Thesethreestatesofmatterasaffectedbyheatareverysharpanddefinite.Thepointatwhichasolidturnstoaliquidiscalledthemeltingpoint.Themeltingpointoficeis32°Fahr.Thepointatwhichitturnstoagasiscalledtheboilingpoint.Withwaterthatis212°Fahr.Thegeneral tendencyofheat is topushapart,orexpand;andwhentheheatistakenawaythesubstancescontract.

Letusconsideroursteamboiler.Wesawthatsomedifferentkindsofatomshaveastrongtendencytorushtogether;forexample,oxygenandcarbon.Theairisfullofoxygen,andcoalandwoodarefullofcarbon.Whentheyareraisedtoacertain temperature, and themolecules get loose enough so that they can tearthemselves away from whatever they are attached to, they rush together withterribleforce,whichsetsallsurroundingmoleculestovibratingfasterthanever.Thismeansthatheatisgivenout.

Anotherimportantthingisthatwhenasolidchangestoaliquid,oraliquidtoagas,itmusttakeupacertainamountofheattokeepthemoleculesalwaysjustso far apart. That heat is said to become latent, for it will not show in athermometer, itwill not cause anything to expand, norwill it do anywork. Itmerelyservestoholdthemoleculesjustsofarapart.

HOWENERGYISLOST

Wemaynowseesomeofthewaysinwhichenergyislost.First,theairwhichgoesintothefireboxconsistsofnitrogenaswellasoxygen.Thatnitrogenisonlyintheway,andtakesheatfromthefire,whichitcarriesoutatthesmokestack.

Again,iftheaircannotgetthroughthebedofcoalseasilyenough,orthereisnotenoughofitsothateveryatom,ofcarbon,etc.,willfindtherightnumberofatomsofoxygen,someof theatomsofcarbonwillbe tornoffandunitedwithoxygen, and theother atomsof carbon, leftwithout anyoxygen tounitewith,willgofloatingoutatthesmokestackasblacksmoke.Also,thecarbonandtheoxygen cannot unite except at a certain temperature, and when fresh fuel isthrown on the fire it is cold, and a good many atoms of carbon after beingloosenedup,getcooledoffagainbefore theyhaveachance to findanatomofoxygen,andsothey,too,gofloatingoffandarelost.

Ifthesmokecouldbeheatedup,andtherewereenoughoxygenmixedwithit,the loose carbon would still burn and produce heat, and there would be aneconomy of fuel. This has given rise to smoke consumers, and arranging twoboilers, so thatwhen one is being fired the heat from the otherwill catch theloosecarbonbeforeitgetsawayandburnitup.

Sowehavethesepoints:1.Enoughoxygenorairmustgetintoafurnacesothateveryatomofcarbon

willhave its atomofoxygen.Thismeans thatyoumusthaveagooddraft andthattheairmusthaveachancetogetthroughthecoalorotherfuel.

2.Thefuelmustbekepthotenoughallthetimesothatthecarbonandoxygencan unite. Throwing on too much cold fuel at one time will lower the heatbeyondtheeconomicalpointandcauselossinthicksmoke.

3.Ifthesmokecanpassoverahotbedofcoals,orthroughahotchamber,thecarbon in itmay still be burned. This suggests putting fuel at the front of thefirebox,alittleatatime,sothatitssmokewillhavetopassoverahotbedofcoalsandthewastecarbonwillbeburned.Whenthefreshfuelgetsheatedup,itmaybepushedfartherback.

Fromapracticalpointofviewthesepointsmean,Nodeadplatesinafurnacetokeep theair fromgoing throughcoalorwood; a thin fire so theair cangetthrough easily; place the fresh fuel where its smoke will have a chance to beburned;anddonotcooloffthefurnacebyputtingonmuchfreshfuelatatime.

(Laterwewillgivemorehintsonfiring.)

HOWHEATISDISTRIBUTED

We have described heat as themovement ofmolecules back and forth at ahigh rate of speed. If these heatedmolecules beat against a solid like iron, itsmoleculesaresetinmotion,oneknocksthenext,andsoon,justasyoupushoneman ina crowd,hepushes thenext, and soon till thepushcomesouton theother side. So heat passes through iron and appears on the other side. This iscalled“conduction.”

All space is supposed to be filledwith a substance inwhichheat, light, etc.,maybetransmitted,calledtheether.Whenthemoleculesofasheetofironareheated, or set vibrating, they transmit the vibration through the air, or ether.This is called “radiation.” Heat is “conducted” through solid and liquidsubstances,and“radiated”throughgases.

Nowsomesubstancesconductheatreadily,andsomedosowiththegreatest

difficulty.Ironisagoodconductor;carbon,orsootonthefluesofaboiler,andlimeorscaleontheinsideofaboiler,areverypoorconductors.Sotheheatwillgo through the ironandsteel to thewater inaboilerquicklyandeasily,andalargepercentoftheheatofthefurnacewillgettothewaterinaboiler.Whenaboiler isoldandiscloggedwithsootandcoatedwithlime,theheatcannotgetthrough easily, and goes off in the smokestack. The air coming out of thesmokestackwillbemuchhotter;andthatextraheatislost.

Ironisagoodradiator, too.Soif theoutershellofaboiler isexposedtotheair,agreatdealofheatwillrunoff intospaceandbe lost.Here, then, iswhereyouneedanon-conductor,asitiscalled,suchaslime,wood,orthelike.

Economysays,covertheoutsideofaboilershellwithanon-conductor.Thismaybebrickworkinasetboiler;inatractionboileritmeansajacketofwood,plaster,hair,orthelike.Thesteampipe,ifitpassesthroughouterair,shouldbecoveredwithfelt;andthesteamcylinderoughttohaveitsjacket,too.

Atthesametimeallsootandallscaleshouldbescrupulouslycleanedaway.

PROPERTIESOFSTEAM

Aswehavealreadyseen,steamisagas.Itisslightlyblueincolor,justasthewaterintheoceanisblue,ortheairinthesky.

Wemust distinguish between steam and vapor. Vapor is small particles ofwaterhangingintheair.Theyseemtosticktothemoleculescomposingtheair,orhangthereinminutedrops.Waterhangingintheairis,ofcourse,waterstill.Itsmoleculesdonothavethemovementthatthemoleculesofatruegasdo,suchassteamis.Steam,moreover,hasabsorbedlatentheat,andhasexpansiveforce;but vapor has no latent heat, and no expansive force. So vapor is dead andlifeless,whilesteamisliveandfullofenergytodowork.

Whenvaporgetsmixedwith steam it isonly in theway; it is a sortofdeadweightthatmustbecarried;andthesteampowerisdiminishedbyhavingvapormixedwithit.

Now all steam as it bubbles up throughwater in boiling takes up with it acertainamountofvapor.Suchsteamiscalled“wet”steam.Whenthevaporisnolonger in it, the steam is called “dry” steam. It is dry steam that does the bestwork,andthateveryengineerwantstoget.

Whilewaterwill be takenup togreatheights in the air and formclouds, insteam itwill not rise verymuch, and at a certainheight above the level of thewater in a boiler the steamwill bemuch drier than near the surface. For this

reasonsteamdomeshavebeendevised,sothatthesteammaybetakenoutatapoint as high as possible above the water in the boiler, and so be as dry aspossible.Also“dry tubes”havebeendevised,which let the steampass throughmanysmallholesthatservetokeepbackthewatertoacertainextent.

However, there will bemore or lessmoisture in all steam until it has beensuperheated,asitiscalled.Thismaybedonebypassingitthroughthehotpartofthefurnace,wheretheaddedheatwillturnallthemoistureinthesteamintosteam,andweshallhaveperfectlydrysteam.

Themoment,however,thatsteamgoesthroughacoldpipe,oronecooledbyradiation,orgoesintoacoldcylinder,oracylindercooledbyradiation,someofthe steamwill turn towater, or condense, as it is called. Sowehave the sametroubleagain.

Muchmoisturepassingintothecylinderwiththesteamiscalled“priming.”Inthatcasethedeadweightofwaterhasbecomesogreatastokillagreatpartofthesteampower.

HOWTOUSETHEEXPANSIVEPOWEROFSTEAM

Wehavesaidthatthemoleculesinsteamarealwaystryingtogetfartherandfarther apart. If they are free in the air, they will soon scatter; but if they areconfinedinaboilerorcylindertheymerelypushoutineverydirection,forming“pressure.”

Whensteamislet intothecylinderithasthewholeaccumulatedpressureintheboilerbehindit,andofcoursethatexertsastrongpushonthepiston.Shutofftheboilerpressureandthesteaminthecylinderwillstillhaveitsownnaturaltendency to expand. As the space in the cylinder grows larger with themovement of the piston from end to end, the expansive power of the steambecomes less and less, of course.However, every littlehelps, and thepush thislessenedexpansiveforceexertsonthepistonissomuchenergysaved.Ifthefullboilerpressureiskeptonthepistonthewholelengthofthestroke,andthentheexhaustportisimmediatelyopened,allthisexpansiveenergyofthesteamislost.Itescapesthroughtheexhaustnozzleintothesmokestackandisgone.Possiblyitcannotgetoutquicklyenough,andcausesbackpressureon thecylinderwhenthepistonbeginsitsreturnstroke,soreducingthepoweroftheengine.

To save this the skilled engineer “notches up” his reverse lever, as they say.Thereverselevercontrolsthevalvetravel.Whentheleverisinthelastnotchthevalvehas its full travel.When the lever is in the centernotch thevalvehasnotravelatall,andnosteamcanget into thecylinder;ontheotherside the lever

allowsthevalvetotravelgraduallymoreandmoreintheoppositedirection,soreversingtheengine.

Asthechangefromonedirectiontotheotherdirectionis,ofcourse,gradual,thevalvemovementisshortenedbydegrees,andletssteamintothecylinderfora correspondingly less time. At its full travel it perhaps lets steam into thecylinderforthree-quartersofitsstroke.Forthelastquartertheworkisdonebytheexpansivepowerofthesteam.

Set the lever in the half notch, and the travel of the valve is so altered thatsteamcangetintothecylinderonlyduringhalfthestrokeofthepiston,theworkduringtherestofthestrokebeingdonebytheexpansiveforceofthesteam.

Settheleverinthenotchnexttothemiddlenotch,orthequarternotch,andsteamwillgetintothecylinderonlyduringaquarterofthestrokeofthepiston,theworkbeingdoneduringthree-quartersofthestrokebytheexpansiveforceofthesteam.

Obviouslythemorethesteamisexpandedthelessworkitcando.Butwhenitescapes at the exhaust therewill be very little pressure to be carried away andlost.

Thereforewhen the loadonhis engine is light the economical engineerwill“notchup”hisenginewiththereverselever,andwilluseupcorrespondinglylesssteam and save correspondinglymore fuel.When the load is unusually heavy,however,hewillhavetousethefullpowerofthepressureintheboiler,andthewastecannotbehelped.

THECOMPOUNDENGINE

The compound engine is an arrangement of steam cylinders to save theexpansive power of steam at all times by letting the steam from one cylinderwhere it isathighpressure intoanotherafter it exhausts fromthe first, in thissecondcylinderdoingmoreworkpurelybytheexpansivepowerofthesteam.

The illustration shows a sectional view of a compound engine having twocylinders, one high pressure and one low. The low pressure cylinder is muchlarger than the high pressure. There is a single plate between them called thecenter head, and the same piston rod is fitted with two pistons, one for eachcylinder.Thesteamchestdoesnot receivesteamfromtheboiler,but fromtheexhaust of the high pressure cylinder. The steam from the boiler goes into achamber in the double valve, from which it passes to the ports of the highpressurecylinder.Atthereturnstroketheexhauststeamescapesintothesteamchest,andfromthereitpassesintothelowpressurecylinder.Theremaybeone

valveridingonthebackofanother;butthesimplestformofcompoundengineisbuilt with a single double valve, which opens and closes the ports for bothcylindersatonemovement.

Theoretically the compound engine should effect a genuine economy. Inpractice there aremany things to operate against this. Of course if the steampressure is lowtostartwith, theamountofpressure lost in theexhaustwillbesmall. But if it is very high, the saving in the low pressure cylinder will berelativelylarge.Iftheworkcanbedonejustaswellwithalowpressure,itwouldbeapracticalwaste tokeepthepressureabnormallyhigh inordertomakethemostofthecompoundengine.

Woolftandemcylinder.

Anenginemustbeacertainsizebeforethesavingofacompoundcylinderwillbeappreciable. Inthesedaysnearlyallvery largeenginesarecompound,whilesmallenginesaresimple.

Another consideration tobe taken intoaccount is that a compound ismorecomplicated and so harder to manage; and when any unfavorable conditioncauseslossitcausesproportionatelymorelossonacompoundthanonasimpleengine.Fortheseandotherreasonscompoundengineshavebeenused less fortraction purposes than simple engines have. It is probable that a skilled andthoroughly competent engineer, who wouldmanage his engine in a scientificmanner,wouldgetmoreoutofacompoundthanoutofasimple;andthiswouldbeespeciallytrueinregionswherefuelishigh.Iffuelischeapandtheengineer

unskilled,acompoundenginewouldbeapooreconomizer.

FRICTION

Wehaveseenthatthemoleculesofwaterhaveatendencytostickinthesteamas vapor or moisture. All molecules that are brought into close contact havemoreorlesstendencytosticktogether,andthisiscalledfriction.Thesteamasitpassesalongthesteampipeischeckedtoacertainextentbythefrictiononthesidesofthepipe.Frictioncausesheat,anditmeansthattheheatcausedhasbeentaken from some source of energy. The friction of the steam diminishes theenergyofthesteam.

So, too, the fly wheel moving against the air suffers friction with the air,besideshavingtodriveparticlesofairoutofitspath.Allthemovingpartsofanenginewhereonemetalmovesonanothersufferfriction,sincewherethemetalsarepressedverytightlytogethertheyhavemoretendencytostickthanwhennotpressed so tightly. When iron is pressed too tightly, as under the blows of ahammerinasoftstate,itactuallyweldstogethersolidly.

Thereisagreatdealoffrictioninthesteamcylinder,sincethepackingringsmust press hard against the walls of the cylinder to prevent the steam fromgettingthrough.ThereisagreatdealoffrictionbetweentheDvalveanditsseat,becauseofthehighsteampressureonthebackofthevalve.Thereisfrictioninthe stuffing boxes both of the valve and the piston. There is friction at all thebearings.

Therearevariouswaysinwhichfrictionmaybereduced.Themostobviousistoadjustallpartssonicelythattheywillbindaslittleaspossible.Thestuffing-boxeswillbenotighterthanisnecessarytopreventleakingofsteam;andsowiththepistonrings.Journalboxeswillbetightenoughtopreventpounding,butnotighter.Toobtainjusttherightadjustmentrequiresgreatpatienceandthekeenpowersofobservationandjudgment.

Themakersofenginestrytoreducefrictionasmuchaspossiblebyusinganti-frictionmetalsintheboxes.Ironandsteelhavetobeusedinshafts,gears,etc.,becauseofthestrengththattheypossess;buttherearesomemetalsthatsticktoeachotherandtoironandsteelmuchlessthanironorsteelsticktoeachotherwhenpressedclosetogether.Thesemetalsaremoreorlesssoft;buttheymaybeused in boxes and journal bearings. They are called anti-friction metals. Thehardest for practical purposes is brass, and brass is usedwhere there ismuchwear.Where there is lesswear various alloys of copper, tin, zinc, etc.,may be

usedintheboxes.Oneoftheseisbabbitmetal,whichisoftenusedinthemainjournalbox.

Alltheseanti-frictionmetalswearoutrapidly,andtheymustbeputinsothattheycanbeadjustedorrenewedeasily.

Butthegreatanti-frictionagentisoil.Oilispeculiarinthatwhilethemoleculesseemtosticktightlytogetherandto

ametallikeironorsteel,theyrollarounduponeachotherwiththeutmostease.Anideallubricatorisonethatstickssotighttothejournalthatitformsasortofcushionallaroundit,andpreventsanyofitsmoleculescomingintocontactwiththe molecules of the metal box. All the friction then takes place between thedifferentmoleculesofoil,andthisfrictionisaminimum.

The same principle has been applied to mechanics in the ball bearing. Anumberoflittleballsrollaroundbetweenthejournalanditsbox,preventingthetwo metals from coming into contact with each other; while the balls, beingspheres, touch each other only at a single point, and the total space at whichstickingcanoccurisreducedtoaminimum.

Asiswellknown,thereisgreatdifferenceinoils.Someevaporate,likegasolineandkerosene,andsodisappearquickly.Othersdonotsticktightlytothejournal,so are easily forcedout of place, and themetals are allowed to come together.Whatiswanted,then,isaheavy,stickyoilthatwillnotgethard,butwillalwaysformagoodcushionbetweenbearings.

Steam cylinders cannot be oiled directly, but the oilmust be carried to thesteamchestandcylinderinthesteam.Agoodcylinderoilmustbeabletostandahightemperature.Whileitisdiffusedeasilyinthesteam,itmuststicktightlytothewallsof thesteamcylinderandtothevalveseat,andkeepthemlubricated.Onceit isstucktothemetal, theheatofthesteamshouldnotevaporate itandcarryitaway.

Again, a cylinder oil should not have any acid in it which would have atendencytocorrodethemetal.Nearlyallanimalfatsdohavesomesuchacid.Sotallow and the like shouldnot be placedwhere they can corrode ironor steel.Lardandsuetalonearesuitableforuseonanengine.

Whenitcomestolubricatingtractiongears,otherproblemsappear.Aheavygrease will stick to the gears and prevent them from cutting; but it will stickequallytoallsandandgritthatmaycomealong,andthat,workingbetweenthecogs,maycutthembadly.Sosomeengineersrecommendtheuseongearsofanoilthatdoesnotgathersomuchdirt.

Thefrictionofthevalveonitsseatduetothepressureofthesteamonitsback

hasgivenrisetomanyinventionsforcounteractingit.Themostobviousoftheseiswhatiscalled“thebalancedvalve.”Inthecompoundengine,wherethesteampressureisobtaineduponbothsidesofthevalve,itridesmuchmorelightlyonitsseat—solightly,indeed,thatwhensteampressureislow,asingoingdownhilloroperatingundera light load,plungerpistonsmustbeusedtokeepthevalvedowntightonitsseat.

Thepoppetvalvesweredevisedtoobviate theunduefrictionof theDvalve;but the same lossof energy is to a certain extent transferred, and thepracticalsaving isnotalwaysequal to thetheoretical.Onlargestationaryenginesrotaryvalvesandotherforms,suchasareusedontheCorlissengine,havecomeintocommonuse;buttheyaretoocomplicatedforafarmengine,whichmustbeassimpleaspossible,withleastpossibleliabilityofgettingoutoforder.

CHAPTERXIECONOMYINRUNNINGAFARMENGINE.—(CONT.)

PRACTICALPOINTS

The first practical point in the direction of farm engine economy is to notethatthebestworkcanbedoneonlywheneverypartoftheengineandboilerareindueproportion.Ifthepowerisinexcessoftheworktobedonethereisloss;ifthegratesurfaceistoolargecoldairgetsthroughthefuelandpreventscompletecombustion, and if thegrate surface is too small,not enoughairgets in; if thesteaming power of the boiler is too large, heat is radiated away that otherwisecouldbesaved,foreveryfootofexposedareaintheboilerisasourceofloss;ifthesteamingpoweroftheboileristoolowfortheworktobedone, itrequiresextrafueltoforcetheboilertodoitswork,andanyforcingmeanscomparativelylarge lossorwaste. Itwill be seen thatnotonlymust the engine andboilerbebuiltwiththeproperproportions,buttheymustbeboughtwithanicesenseofproportiontotheworkexpectedofthem.Thisrequiresexcellentjudgmentandsomeexperienceinmeasuringworkinhorsepowers.

GRATESURFACEANDFUEL

Thegrate surface ina fireboxshouldbenot less than two-thirdsofa squarefootperhorsepower, for average size tractionengines. If thehorsepowerof anengineissmall,proportionatelymoregratesurfacewillbeneeded; if it is large,the grate surface may be proportionately much smaller. An engine boiler7x8x200rev.,with100lbs.pressure,shouldhaveagreatsurfacenotlessthansixsquare feet, and seven would be better. In a traction engine there is always atendency tomake thegrate surfaceas small aspossible, so that theenginewillnotbecumbersome.

Anotherreasonwhythegratesurfaceshouldbesufficientlylargeisthatforceddraftisabadthing,sinceithasatendencytocarrytheproductsofcombustionandhotgasesthroughthesmokestackandoutintospacebeforetheyhavetimetocompletecombustionandespeciallybeforetheheatofthegaseshastimetobe

absorbedbytheboilersurface.Alargegratesurface,then,withamoderatedraft,isthemosteconomical.

The draft depends on other things, however. If a great deal of fine fuel isthrownonafire,theairmustbeforcedthrough,becauseitcannotgetthroughinthe naturalway.This results inwaste. So a fire should be as open as possible.Coalshouldbe“thin”onthegrates;woodshouldbethrowninsothattherewillbe plenty of air spaces; straw should be fed in just so that it will burn upcompletelyasitgoesin.Moderatesizecoalisbetterthansmallorfine.Dustincoalchecksthedraft.Agoodengineerwillchoosehisfuelandhandlehisfiresothathecangetalongwithaslittleforceddraftaspossible.

Inastrawburningengineagoodcirculationofaircanbeobtained,ifthedraftdoorisjustbelowthestrawfunnel,byextendingthefunnelintothefurnacesixinchesorso.Thiskeepsthestrawfromclogginguptheplacewheretheairentersandenablesittogetatthefuelsomuchmorefreelythatthecombustionismuchmorecomplete.

Wehavealreadysuggestedthatinfiringwithcoal,thefreshfuelbedepositedinfront,sothatthesmokewillhavetopassoverlivecoalsandsothecombustionwillbemorecomplete.Thenwhenthecoaliswell lighteditcanbepokedbackovertheotherportionsofthegrate.Thismethodhasanotheradvantage,inthatthe firstheating isusuallysufficient toseparate thepurecoal fromthemineralsubstanceswhich form, clinkers, andmost of the clinkerswill be deposited atthat one point in the grate. Here they can easily be lifted out, and will notseriouslyinterferewiththeburningofthecoalastheywouldifscatteredalloverthe grate.Clinkers in front can easily be taken out by hooking the poker overthemtowardthebackofthefireboxandpullingthemupandtothefront.Theyoftencomeoutasonebigmasswhichcanbeeasilyliftedout.

Thebesttimetocleanthegrateiswhenthereisagoodbriskfire.Thenitwillnot cause steam to go down. Stirring a fire does little good. For one thing, itbreaksuptheclinkersandallowsthemtorundownonthegratebarswhentheystickandfinallywarpthebars.Ifthefireisnotstirredtheclinkerscanbeliftedout in largemasses.Stirringa firealsocreatesa tendency tochokeuporcoke,andinterfereswiththeevenandregularcombustionofthecoalatallpoints.

Thehighestheatthatcanbeproducedisayellowheat.Whenthereisagoodyellowheat,forceddraftwillonlycarryofftheheatandcausewaste.Itwillnotcausestillmorerapidcombustion.Whentheheatismerelyred,increaseddraftwill raise the temperature. Combustion is not complete until the flame showsyellow.However,ifthedraftisslightandtimeisgiven,redheatwillbenearlyas

effective,butitwillnotcarrytheheatedgasesoversolargeapartoftheheatingsurfaceoftheboiler.Withaverylargegratesurface,redheatwilldoverywell.Certainlyitwillbebetterthanaforceddraft,oraneffortatheatingbeyondtheyellowpoint.

BOILERHEATINGSURFACE

Theheatofthefurnacedoesitsworkonlyastheheatedgasestouchtheboilersurface.Theironconductstheheatthroughtothewater,whichisraisedtotheboilingpointandturnedintosteam.

Nowtheamountofheatthattheboilerwilltakeupisdirectlyinproportiontotheamountofexposedsurfaceandtothetimeofexposure.Iftheboilerheatingsurface is small, and the draft is forced so that the gases pass through rapidly,theydonothaveachancetocommunicatemuchheat.

Alsoiftheheatingsurfaceistoolarge,sothatitcannotallbeutilized,thepartnotusedbecomesaradiatingsurface,andtheefficiencyoftheboilerisimpaired.

Practicehasshownthattheamountofheatingsurfacepracticallyrequiredbyaboileris12to15squarefeetperhorsepower.Inreckoningheatingsurface,allareawhichtheheatedgasestouchiscalculated.

Anotherpointinregardtoheatingsurfaceintheproductionofsteamisthis,that only such surface as is exposed to a heat equal to turning the water intosteamiseffective.Ifthereisapressureof150lbs.thetemperatureatwhichthewater would turn to steam would be 357 degrees, and any gases whosetemperaturewasbelow357degreeswouldhavenoeffectontheheatingsurfaceexcepttopreventradiation.Thusinareturnflueboilertheheatedgasesbecomecooledoftentosuchanextentbeforetheypassoutatthesmokestackthattheydo not help the generation of steam.Yet a heat just below 357 degreeswouldturnwaterintosteamunder149lbs.pressure.Thoughithasworkinit,theheatislost.

Anotherpracticalpointastoeconomyinlargeheatingsurfaceisthatitcostsmoneytomake,andiscumbersometomoveabout.Itmaycostmoretomoveatractionenginewithlargeboilerfromplacetoplacethanthesavinginfuelwouldamountto.Sothekindofroadsandthecostoffuelmustbetakenintoaccountandnicelybalanced.

However,itmaybesaidthataboilerwithcertainoutsidedimensionsthatwillgenerate20horsepowerwillbemoreeconomicalthanoneofthesamesizethatwill generate only 10 horsepower. In selecting an engine, the higher the

horsepower for the given dimensions, the more economical of both fuel andwater.

Thevalueofheatingsurfacealsodependsonthematerialthroughwhichtheheatmust penetrate, and the rapidity with which the heat will pass.We havealreadypointedoutthatsootandlimescalepermitheattopassbutslowlyandiftheyareallowedtoaccumulatewillgreatlyreducethesteamingpowerofaboilerfor a given consumptionof fuel.Another point is that the thinner the iron orsteel,thebetterwilltheheatgetthrougheventhat.Soitfollowsthatflues,beingthinner,arebetterconductorsthanthesidesofthefirebox.Longfluesarebetterthanshortonesinthatthelongonesallowlesssoot,etc.,toaccumulatethantheshortonesdo,andaffordmoretimefortheboilertoabsorbtheheatofthegases.

Again,wehavestatedthatheatingsurfaceisvaluableonlyasit isexposedtothe gases at a sufficiently high temperature. Some boilers have a tendency todrawthehotgasesmostrapidlythroughtheupperflues,whilethelowerfluesdonotgettheirproportionoftheheat.Thisresultsinaloss,fortheheattogiveitsfullbenefitshouldbeequallydistributed.

Topreventtheheatbeingdrawntoorapidlythroughupperflues,abaffleplatemaybeplacedinthesmokeboxjustabovetheupperflues,thuspreventingthemfromgettingsomuchofthedraft.

Again,iftheexhaustnozzleistoolowdown,thedraftthroughthelowerfluesmaybegreater than through theupper.This is remediedbyputtingapieceofpipeontheexhausttoraiseithigherinthesmokestack.

EXPANSIONANDCONDENSATION

Wehavealreadypointedoutthateconomyresults ifwehookupthereverseleversothattheexpansiveforceofthesteamhasanopportunitytoworkduringhalforthree-quartersofthestroke.

Onedifficultyarising fromthismethod is that thewallsof thecylindercoolmore rapidly when not under the full boiler pressure. Condensation in thecylinder is a practical difficulty which should be met and overcome as far aspossible.

High speed gives some advantage. A judicious use of cushion helpscondensation somewhat also, because when any gas like steam or air iscompressed, it gives off heat, and this heat in the cushion will keep up thetemperature of the cylinder. This cannot be carried very far, however, for thebackpressureofcushionwillreducetheenergyoftheenginemovement.

LEADANDCLEARANCE

Toomuchclearancewilldetractfromthepowerofanengine,asthereisjustsomuchmorewaste space tobe filledwithhot steam.Too little clearancewillcausepounding.

Likewisetherewillbelossofpowerinanengineiftheleadistoogreatortoolittle. The proper amount of lead differswith conditions.Ahigh speed enginerequiresmorethanalowspeed,andifanengineisadjustedforacertainspeed,itshould be kept uniformly at that speed, as variation causes loss. The moreclearance an engine has the more lead it needs. Also the quicker the valvemotion,thelessleadrequired.Sometimeswhenalargeengineispullingonlyalight loadand there isnochance to shorten thecut-off,a turnof theeccentricdiskforatriflemoreleadwilleffectsomeeconomy.

Cut-off should be as sharp as possible. A slow cut-off in reducing pressurebeforecut-offiscomplete,causesalossofpowerintheengine.

THEEXHAUST

If the exhaust from the cylinder does not begin before the piston begins itsreturn stroke, there will be back pressure due to the slowness with which thevalveopens.Theexhaustshouldbeearlier inproportiontotheslownessof thevalvemotion,andalsoinproportiontothespeedoftheengine,sincethehigherthespeedthelesstimethereisforthesteamtogetout.Itfollowsthatanenginewhoseexhaustisarrangedforalowspeedcannotberunatahighspeedwithoutcausinglossfrombackpressure.

Inusingsteamexpansivelytherelativeproportionbetweenthebackpressureandtheforceofthesteamisofcoursegreater.Soinusingsteamexpansivelythebackpressuremustbeataminimum,andthisisespeciallytrueinthecompoundengine.Somanythingsaffect this, that itbecomesoneof thereasonswhy it ishardtouseacompoundenginewithasgreateconomyastheorywouldindicate.

Another thing, the smallnessof theexhaustnozzle in the smokestackaffectsthebackpressure.Thesmallerthenozzle,thegreaterthedraftagivenamountofsteamwillcreate;butthemorebackpressuretherewillbe,duetotheinabilityoftheexhaust steamtogetouteasily.So theexhaustnozzle shouldbeas largeascircumstanceswillpermit.Itisafavoritetrickwithengineerstestingthepullingpowerof theirengines toremovetheexhaustnozzleentirely fora fewminutes

when the fire is up. The back pressure savedwill at once show in the pullingpoweroftheengine,andeveryonewillbesurprised.Ofcoursethefirecouldn’tbekept going longwithout thenozzle on.Wehave alreadypointedout that anaturaldraftisbetterthanaforcedone.Hereisanotherreasonforit.

LEAKS

Leaksalwayscauseawasteofpower.Theymayusuallybeseenwhenabouttheboiler;butleaksinthepistonandvalvewilloftengounnoticed.

Itistobeobservedthatifavalvedoesnottravelashortdistancebeyondtheendofitsseat,itwillwearthepartitdoestravelon,whiletheremainingpartwillnotwearandwillbecomeashoulder.Suchashoulderwillnearlyalwayscausealeak in the valve, and besides will add the friction, and otherwise destroy theeconomyoftheengine.

Likewisethepistonwillwearpartofthecylinderandleaveashoulderateitherendifitdoesnotpassentirelybeyondthesteam-tightportionoftheinsideofthecylinder. That it may always do this and yet leave sufficient clearance, thecounterborehasbeendevised.Allgoodenginesareboredlargerateachendsothatthepistonwillpassbeyondthesteam-tightportionatrifleattheendofeachstroke.Ofcourseitmustnotpassfarenoughtoallowanysteamtogetthrough.

Self-settingpistonringsarenowgenerallyused.Theyarekeptinplacebytheirown tension. There will always be a little leakage at the lap. The best lap isprobablyabrokenjointratherthanadiagonalone.Moreover,astheringswearthey will have a tendency to get loose unless they are thickest at a point justoppositetothelap,sincethisisthepointatwhichitisnecessarytomakeupforthetensionlostbythelapping.

CHAPTERXII

DIFFERENTTYPESOFENGINES

STATIONARY

Sofarwehavedescribedandreferredexclusivelytotheusualformofthefarmtractionengine,whichisnearlyalwaysthesimplestkindofanengine,exceptinone particular, namely, the reverse which gives a variable cut-off. Stationaryengines,however,areworkedundersuchconditionsthatvariouschangesinthearrangementmaybemadewhichgiveseconomyinoperating,orotherdesirablequalities.Wewillnowbrieflydescribesomeofthedifferentkindsofstationaryengines.

D.June&Co.’sstationaryfour-valveengine.

THROTTLINGANDAUTOMATICCUT-OFFTYPES

Engines may be divided into two classes, namely, throttling and automaticcut-offengines.Thethrottlingengineregulatesthespeedoftheenginebycuttingoffthesupplyofsteamfromtheboiler,eitherbythehandoftheengineeronthethrottle or by a governorworking a special throttling governor valve.Railroadlocomotives are throttling engines, and moreover they have no governor, thespeedbeingregulatedbytheengineeratthethrottlevalve.Tractionenginesareusuallythrottlingenginesprovidedwithagovernor.

Anautomaticcut-offengineregulatesitsspeedbyagovernorconnectedwith

thevalve,anddoes itbyshorteningthetimeduringwhichsteamcanenterthecylinder.Thisisagreatadvantage,inthattheexpansivepowerofsteamisgivena chance to work, while in the throttling engine steam ismerely cut off. Thesubjecthasbeen fullydiscussedunder “Economy inRunning aFarmEngine.”Anautomaticcut-offengineismuchthemosteconomical.

While on traction engines the governor is usually of the ball variety, onstationaryenginesimprovedformsofgovernorsarealsoplacedintheflywheel,andworkinvariousways,accordingtotherequirementsofthevalvegear.

THECORLISSENGINE

The Corliss engine is a type now well known andmade bymany differentmanufacturers. It is consideredoneof themost economical stationary enginesmade,butcannotbeusedfortractionpurposes.Itmaybecompound,andmaybe usedwith a condenser. It cannot be used as a high speed engine, since thevalveswillnotworkrapidlyenough.

ThepeculiarityofaCorlissengineisthearrangementofthevalves.Ithasfourvalves instead of one, and they are of the semi-rotary type. They consist of asmall,longcylinderwhichrocksbackandforth,soastocloseandopentheport,whichisratherwideandshortcomparedtoothertypes.Thereisavalveateachendofthecylinderopeningusuallyintotheclearancespace,toadmitsteam;andtwomorevalvesbelowthecylinder for theexhaust.Theseexhaustvalvesallowanywater of condensation to run out of the cylinder.Moreover, as the steamwhenitleavesthecylinderismuchcolderthanwhenitenters,theexhaustalwayscools the steam ports, and when the same ports are used for exhaust andadmissionthefreshsteamhastopassthroughportsthathavebeencooledandcause condensation. In the Corliss engine the exhaust does not have anopportunity tocool the live steamportsand thecondensation is reduced.Thisworksconsiderableeconomy.

Also theCorliss valveshave little friction fromsteampressureon theirownbacks, since themoment they are lifted from their seats theywork freely. Thevalvesarecontrolledbyagovernorsoastomaketheautomaticcut-offengine.

The Corliss type of frame for engine is often used on traction engines andmeans the use of convex shoes on cross-head and concaveways or guides. Inlocomotivetype,cross-headslidesinfoursquareangleguides.

THEHIGHSPEEDENGINE

Ahigh speed enginemeans one inwhich the speed of the piston back andforth is high, rather than the speed of rotation, there being sometimes adifference.Highspeedenginescameintousebecauseoftheneedofsuchtorundynamosforelectriclighting.Withoutahighspeedengineanintermediategearwouldhavetobeused,soastoincreasethespeedoftheoperatingshaft.Inthehighspeedenginethisisdoneawaywith.

Asanengine’spowervariesdirectlyasitsspeedaswellasitscylindercapacityor size, an engine commonlyused for tenhorsepowerwouldbecomea twentyhorsepowerengineifthespeedcouldbedoubled.Sohighspeedenginesareverysmallandcompact,andrequirelessmetaltobuildthem.Thereforetheyshouldbemuchcheaperperhorsepower.

Ahighspeedenginediffersfromalowspeedinnoessentialparticular,exceptthe adjustment of parts. A high steam pressuremust be used; a long, narrowvalveport is used, so that the full steampressuremaybe let onquickly at thebeginningofthestrokewhenthepistonisreversingitsmotionandneedspowertogetstartedquicklyonitsreturn;theslidevalvemustbeused,sincethesemi-rotaryCorlisswouldbetoowideandshortforaquickopening.Somehighspeedenginesarebuiltwhichuse fourvalves, asdoes theCorliss.The frictionof theslidevalve isusually“balanced” insomeway,eitherby“pressureplates”abovethevalve,whichpreventthesteamfromgettingatthetopandpressingthevalvedown,orbylettingthesteamunderthevalve,makingitslideonnarrowstrips,sincethepressureabovewouldthenbereducedinproportionwiththesmallnessof the bearing surface below, and if the bearing surface were very small thepressureabovewouldbecorrespondinglysmall,perhapsonlyenoughtokeepthevalveinplace.Someautomaticcut-offgearisalmostalwaysused.Ahighspeedenginemayattain900revolutionsperminute,600beingcommon.Inmanywaysitiseconomical.

CONDENSINGANDNON-CONDENSING

Inthetractionenginetheexhaustisusedinthesmokestacktohelpthedraft,since the smokestackmust necessarily be short. A stationary engine is usuallyprovided with a boiler set in brickwork, and a furnace with a high chimney,whichcreatesall thedraftneeded.Inotherwords,theheatedgaseswastedina

tractionengineareutilizedtomakethedraft.

Thewoolfcompound.

Itthenbecomesdesirabletosavethepowerintheexhauststeaminsomeway.Someofthiscanbeusedtoheatthefeedwater,butonlyafractionofit.

Nowwhentheexhauststeamissuesintotheairitmustovercomethepressureoftheatmosphere,nearly15lbs.tothesquareinch,whichisalargeitemtobeginwith.Thiscanbesavedby letting thesteamexhaust intoacondenser,whereasprayofcoldwaterorthelikesuddenlycondensesthesteamsothatavacuumiscreated. There is then no back pressure on the exhaust steam, theoretically.Practicallyaperfectvacuumcannotbecreated,andthereisabackpressureof2or3lbs.persquareinch.Bytheuseofacondenserabackpressureofabout12lbs. is taken off the head of the piston on its return stroke, a matter ofconsiderable economy. But an immense amount of water is required to run acondenser,namely,20timesasmuchforagivensavingofpowerasisrequiredinaboilertomakethatpower.Socondensersareusedonlywherewaterischeap.

COMPOUNDANDCROSS-COMPOUND

Wehavealreadyexplainedtheeconomyeffectedbythecompoundengine,inwhichalargelowpressurecylinderisoperatedbytheexhaustfromasmallhighpressurecylinder.Inthecutusedforillustrationthelowpressurecylinderisindirect line with the high pressure cylinder, and one piston rod connects bothpistons. This arrangement is called the “tandem.” Sometimes the low pressurecylinder isplacedbythesideofthehighpressure,oratadistancefromit,andoperatesanotherpistonandconnectingrod.Byusingasteamchesttostorethe

exhauststeamandvaryingthecut-offofthetwocylinders,thecrankofthelowpressuremaybeat anangleof90degreeswith thecrankof thehighpressure,andtherecanbenodeadcenter.

Whenaveryhighpressureofsteamisusedtheexhaustfromthelowpressurecylindermaybeused tooperatea thirdcylinder; and theexhaust from that tooperateafourth.Enginessoarrangedaretermedtripleandquadrupleexpansionengines,ormultipleexpansion.

Thepractical savingofacompoundenginewhen itsvaluecanbeutilized tothe full is 10 per cent to 20 per cent. Small engines are seldom compounded,largeenginesnearlyalways.

CHAPTERXIII

GASANDGASOLINEENGINES

The gas and gasoline engines (they are exactly the same except that onegenerates the gas it needs from gasoline, while the other takes commonilluminating gas, the use of gas or gasoline being interchangeable on the sameenginebyreadjustmentofsomeoftheparts)areoperatedonaprincipleentirelydifferentfromsteam.Whiletheyarearrangedverymuchasasteamengine,thepowerisgivenbyanexplosionofgasmixedwithairinthecylinder.Insteadofbeingasteadypressurelikethatfurnishedbysteam,itisasuddenpressuregivento one end of the piston usually once in four strokes or two revolutions, onestrokebeingrequiredtodrawthegasolinein,thesecondtocompressit,thethirdtoreceivetheeffectoftheexplosion(thisistheonlypowerstroke),thefourthtopushouttheburnedgasespreparatorytoadmittinganewcharge.Thefactthatforce isgiven thecylinderat suchwide intervalsmakes itnecessary tohaveanextraheavy flywheel tokeep theengine steady,and thedoublecylinderenginewhichcangiveastrokeatleasteveryrevolutionisstillbetterandisindispensablewhentheflywheelcannotbeaboveacertainweight.

For small horsepowers, such as are required for pumping, feed grinding,churning, etc., the gas engine is somuchmore convenient and so verymuchcheaperinoperationthanthesmallsteamenginethatitissafetosaythatwithinavery fewyears thegas enginewillhave completelydisplaced the small steamengine.Infact, thediscoveryofthegasenginepermitsthesameeconomiesforthesmallenginethattheprogressinsteamengineeringhasmadepossibleforthelargesteamengine.Asyetthegasenginehasmadelittleornoprogressagainstthelargesteamplant,withitsCorlissengine,itstripleexpansion,itscondenser,andalltheotherapplianceswhicharenotpracticablewiththesmallengine.

COMPARISONOFSTEAMANDGASENGINES

The followingpointspreparedby an experienced farmenginemanufacturerwill show clearly the advantages of the gas engine over the steam engine forgeneraluseaboutafarm:

Inthefirstplace,thefarmerusespower,asarule,atshortintervals,andalso

usessmallpower.Shouldheinstallasteamengineandwishpowerforanhourortwo, it would be necessary for him to start a fire under the boiler and get upsteambeforehecouldstarttheengine.Thiswouldtakeatleastanhour.Attheendoftherunhewouldhaveagoodfireandgoodsteampressure,butnouseforit,andwouldhavetoletthefiredieoutandthepressurerundown.Thisinvolvesagreatwasteofwater,timeandfuel.Withagasolineengineheisalwaysreadyandcanstarttoworkwithinafewminutesafterhemakesuphismindtodoso,and he does not have to anticipate hiswants in the power line for half a day.Aside from this, in some states, notably Ohio, the law compels any personoperating an engine above ten horsepower to carry a steam engineer’s license.Thisdoesnotapplytoagasolineengine.

Again, the gasoline engine is as portable as a traction engine, and can beappliedtoalltheusesofatractionengineandtogeneralfarmusealltherestoftheyear.Atlittleexpenseitcanbefitteduptohoisthay,topumpwater,tohuskandshellcorn, tosawwood,andevenbyrecent inventions toplowing. It isasgoodaboutafarmasanextramanandateamofhorses.

A gasoline engine can be run on a pint of gasoline per hour for eachhorsepower,andassoonas thework isdonethere isnomoreconsumptionoffuelandtheenginecanbeleftwithoutfear,exceptfordrainingoffthewaterinthewater jacket incoldweather.Asteamenginefor farmusewouldrequireatleastfourpoundsofcoalperhorsepowerperhour,andinthemajorityofcasesitwouldbe twice that, taking into consideration the amountof fuelnecessary tostartthefireandthatleftunburnedafterthefarmeristhroughwithhispower.Ifyouknowthecostofcrudegasolineatyourpointandthecostofcoal,youcaneasily figure the exact economy of a gasoline engine for your use. To theeconomyoffuelquestionmaybeaddedthelabororcostofpumpingorhaulingwater.

Theonlypointwhereinafarmermightfinditadvantageoustohaveasteamplantwouldbewhereheisrunningadairyandwishedsteamandhotwaterforcleansing his creamerymachinery. This can be largely overcome by using thewaterfromthejacketswhichcanbekeptatatemperatureofabout175degrees,and ifahigher temperature isneededhecanheat itwith theexhaust fromtheengine.Thetimewillcertainlycomesoonwhennofarmerwillconsiderhimselfuptodateuntilhehasagasolineengine.

Somepersonsunaccustomedtogasolinemaywonderifagasolineengineisassafeasasteamengine.Thefactis,theyareverymuchsafer,anddonotrequireaskilled engineer to run them. The gasoline tank is usually placed outside the

building, where the danger from an explosion is reduced to aminimum. Theonlydangerthatmaybeencounteredisinstartingtheengine,fillingthesupplytankwhenaburnernearathandisinflame,etc.Onceagasolineengineisstartedandissuppliedwithgasoline,itmaybeleftentirelyalonewithoutcareforhoursatatimewithoutdangerandwithoutadjustment.

With a steam engine there is always danger, unless a highly skilledman iswatching the engine everymoment. If thewater gets a little lowhe is liable tohaveanexplosion;ifitgetsalittletoohighhemayknockoutacylinderheadinhisengine; the firemustbe fedevery fewminutes; thegratescleaned.There isalwayssomethingtobedoneaboutasteamengine.

So here is another point of great saving in a gasoline engine, namely, thesavingofoneman’stime.Themanwhorunsthegasolineenginemaygivenearlyallhistimetootherwork,suchasfeedingacorn-sheller,afodderchopper,orthelike.

Kerosenemayalsobeusedinthesamewaywithaspecialtypeofgasengine.Theamountsoffuelrequiredofthedifferentkindspossibleinagasengineare

comparedasfollowsbyRoper:Illuminatinggas,17to20cubicfeetperhorsepowerperhour.Pittsburgnaturalgas,aslowas11cubicfeet.74°gasoline,knownasstovegasoline,one-tenthofagallon.Refinedpetroleum,one-tenthofagallon.If a gas producing plant using coal supplies the gas, one pound of coal per

horsepowerperhourissufficientonalargeengine.

DESCRIPTIONOFTHEGASORGASOLINEENGINE

The gas engine consists of a cylinder and piston, piston rod, crosshead,connecting rod, crank and flywheel, very similar to those used in the steamengine.

Thereisagasvalve,anexhaustvalve,andinconnectionwiththegasvalveaself-acting air valve.The gas valve and the exhaust valve are operatedby leverarmorcamworked fromthemainshaft,arrangedbyspiralgearor the likesothat itgetsonemovement foreach tworevolutionsof themain shaft.Suchanengineiscalled“fourcycle”(meaningonepowerstroketoeachfourstrokesofthepiston),andworksasfollows:

Asthepistonmovesforwardtheairandfuelvalvesaresimultaneouslyopenedandclosed,startingtoopenjustasthepistonstartsforwardandclosingjustasthepistoncompletes its forwardstroke.Gasandairare simultaneously sucked

into the cylinder by thismovement.As the cylinder returns it compresses thechargetakeninduringtheforwardstrokeuntilitagainreachesbackcenter.Themixture in theOttoengine iscompressed toabout70poundspersquare inch.Ignition then takes place, causing themixture to explode and giving the forcefromwhichthepowerisderived.Asthecrankagainreachesitsforwardcenterthe piston uncovers a portwhich allows the greater part of the burnt gases toescape. As the piston comes back, the exhaust valve is opened, enabling thepistontosweepouttheremainderoftheburntgases.Bythetimethecrankisonthebackcentertheexhaustvalveisclosedandtheengineisreadytotakeanothercharge,havingcompletedtworevolutionsorfourstrokes.Thesideshaftwhichperforms the functionsofopeningandclosing thevalves,getting itsmotion intheColumbusenginebyapairofspiralgears,makesbutonerevolutiontotwoofthecrankshaft.

FAIRBANKS,MORSE&CO.’SGASOLINEENGINE.Aisenginecylinder.Hisgasolinesupplytanklocatedoutsideofbuildingandunderground.Iisair-suctionpipe.Eisgasolinepump.Oissuctionpipefromgasolinetank.NispipefrompumpE.leadingtoreservoirP.Qisignitertube.Rischimneysurroundingtube.TistanksupplyingBunsenburnerforheatingtube.

Gas engines are governed in various ways. One method is to attach a ballgovernorsimilartotheWatersonthesteamengine.Whenthespeedistoohigh,theballsgoout,andavalveisclosedorpartlyclosed,cuttingoffthefuelsupply.Sincetheenginetakesinfuelonlyonceinfourstrokes,thegoverningcannotbeso close as on the steam engine, since longer time must elapse before thegovernorcanact.

Anothertypeofgovernoroperatesbyopeningtheexhaustportandholdingitopen.Thepistonthenmerelydrawsinairthroughtheexhaustport,butnogas.This is called the “hit or miss” governing type. One power stroke is missed

completely.Theheatcausedbytheexplosionwithinthecylinderisverygreat,somesayas

highas3,000degrees.Suchaheatwouldsoondestroy theoilusedto lubricatethecylinderandmakethepistoncut,aswellasdestroyingthepistonpacking.Tokeepthisheatdownthecylinderisprovidedwithawaterjacket,andacurrentofwateriskeptcirculatingaroundittocoolitoff.

Whengasisused,thegasispassedthrougharubberbag,whichhelpstomakethe supply even. It is admitted to the engine by a valve similar to the throttlevalveonanengine.

Gasoline is turned on by a similar valve or throttle. It does not have to begasefied,but is sucked into thecylinder in the formofa spray.As soonas theengineisstarted,thehighheatofthecylindercausedbytheconstantexplosionsreadilyturnsthegasolinetogasasitenters.Thesupplytankofgasolineisplacedoutside the building, or at a distance, and stands at a point below the feed.Asmallpumppumpsituptoasmallboxorfeedtank,whichhasanoverflowpipetoconductanysuperfluousgasolinebacktothesupplytank.Inthegasolineboxor feed tank a conical-shaped basin is filled with gasoline to a certain height,whichcanberegulated.Whateverthisconicalbasincontainsissuckedintothecylinder with the air. By regulating the amount in the basin the supply ofgasoline in thecylindercanbe regulated to theamount required foranygivenamount of work. In the Columbus engine this regulation is accomplished byscrewingtheoverflowregulatorupordown.

There are two methods of igniting the charge in the cylinder in order toexplodeit.Oneisbywhatiscalledagasolineorgastorch.Ahollowpinorpipeisfixedinthetopofthecylinder.TheupperpartofthispinorpiperunsupintoagasolineorgaslampoftheBunsentypewhereitisheatedredhot.Whenthegasandairinthecylinderarecompressedbythebackstrokeofthepiston,someofthemixtureisforcedupintothispipeortubeuntilitcomesincontactwiththeheated portion and is exploded, together with the rest of the charge in thecylinder. Of course this tube becomes filled with burnt gases which must becompressedbefore theexplosivemixturecan reach theheatedportion, andnoexplosionistheoreticallypossibleuntilthepistoncausescompressiontothefullcapacityofthecylinder.Thelengthofthetubemustthereforebenicelyregulatedtotherequirementsoftheparticularengineused.

The othermethod is by an electric spark from a battery. Two electrodes ofplatinum or some similar substance are placed in the compression end of thecylinder.Thesparkmightbecausedbybringingtheelectrodessufficientlynear

together at just the rightmoment, but themore practical and usual way is tobreakthecurrent,closingitsharplybymeansofaleverworkedbythegearingatjustthemomentthepistonisreadytoreturnaftercompressingthecharge.Theelectricsparkisbylongoddsthemostdesirablemethodofignition,beingsaferand easier to take care of, but it requires some knowledge of electricity andelectricconnectiontokeepitalwaysinworkingorder.

OPERATIONOFGASANDGASOLINEENGINES

To all intents and purposes the operation of a gas or gasoline engine is thesameasthatofasteamenginewiththecareoftheboilereliminated.Thecareoftheengineitselfispracticallythesame,thoughthebearingsarerelativelylargerin a gasoline or gas engine and do not require adjustment so often. Somemanufacturerswilltellyouthatagasenginerequiresnoattentionatall.Anyonewhowentonthattheorywouldsoonruinhisengine.Tokeepagasolineengineinworkingordersoastogetthebestservicefromitandmakeitlastaslongaspossible,youshouldgiveitthebestofcare.

An engine of this kind needs just as much oiling and cleaning as a steamengine.Allbearingsmustbelubricatedandkeptfreefromdirt,greatcaremustbe taken that the piston and cylinder are well lubricated. In addition, theengineermustseethatthevalvesallworkperfectlytight,andwhentheyleakinany way theymust be taken out and cleaned. Usually the valve seats are castseparatefromthecylinder,sothattheycanberemovedandgroundwhentheyhaveworn.

Alsothewaterjacketmustbekeptinordersothatthecylindercannotbecometoohot.

STARTINGAGASOLINEENGINE

It issomethingofatricktogetagasolineorgasenginestarted—especiallyagasoline engine—and some skill must be developed in this or there will betrouble.Thisarisesfromthefactthatwhenanenginehasnotbeenrunningthecylinderiscoldanddoesnotreadilygasefythegasoline.Atbestonlyapartofacharge of gasoline can be gasefied, and if the cylinder is very cold indeed thechargewillnotexplodeatalltillthecylinderiswarmedup.

When preparing to start an engine, first see that the nuts or studs holdingcylinderheadtocylinderaretight,astheheatingandcoolingofthecylinderareliable to loosen them. Then oil all bearingswith a hand oil can, and carefully

wipeoffalloutsidegrease.Whenallisready,workthegasolinepumptogettheairoutofthefeedpipes

andfillthereservoir.First,theenginemustbeturnedsothatthepistonisasfarbackasitwillgo,

andtopreventairbeingpressedbacktheexhaustmustbeheldopen,oracockinprimingcupontopofcylinderopened.

Ifgasolinepriming isneeded, thegasolinemustbepoured into theprimingcupafterclosingthecockintothecylinder,foritwoulddonogoodtomerelyletthegasolinerundownintothecylinderinacoldstream:itmustbesprayedin.Ifthe exhaust has been held open, and the priming charge of gasoline is to bedrawninthroughtheregularsupplypipeandvalve,theexhaustshouldbeclosedand the throttle turned on to a point indicated by the manufacturer of theengine.

Wesupposethattheigniterisreadytowork.Ifthehottubeisused,thetubeshouldbehot;iftheelectricigniterisused,theigniterbarshouldbeinpositiontobe snappedsoas toclose thecircuitandcausea sparkwhen thechargehasbeencompressed.

If all is ready, open the cock from which the supply of gasoline is to beobtained,andatthesametimeturntheengineoversoastodrawthechargeintothecylinder.Ifaprimingcockhasbeenopened,thatmustbeclosedbyhandassoonas thecylinder is filledandthepistonreadytoreturn forcompression. Iftheregularfeedisused,theautomaticvalvewillcloseofitself.

Bringtheflywheelovertobackcentersothatpistonwillcompressthecharge.Withtheflywheelinthehand,bringthepistonbacksharplytwoorthreetimes,compressing the charge. This repeated compression causes a little heat to beliberated,whichwarms up the cylinder inside. If the cylinder is very cold thiscompressionmay be repeated until the cylinder is sufficiently warm to ignite.When performing this preparatory compression the piston may be broughtnearlyuptothedeadcenterbutnotquite.Atlastbringitoverthedeadcenter,and justas itpassesover, snaptheelectric ignitionbar. Ifanexplosion followstheenginewillbestarted.

Ifthehottubeisused,theflywheelmaybebroughtaroundsharplyeachtimesothatthepistonwillpassthedeadcenter,asanexplosionwillfollowcompletecompression.Iftheexplosiondoesnotfollow,theflywheelmaybeturnedbackagainandbroughtupsharplypastthedeadcenter.Eachsuccessivecompressionwillwarmupthecylinderalittletillat lastanexplosionwilltakeplaceandtheenginewillbestarted.

Moregasolinewillbeneededtostart incoldweather than inwarm,andthestartingsupplyshouldberegulatedaccordingly.Moreover,whentheenginegetsto going, the cylinderwillwarmup,more of the gasolinewill vaporize, and asmallersupplywillbeneeded.Thenthethrottlecanbeturnedsoastoreducethesupply.

Aftertheengineisstarted,thewaterjacketshouldbesetinoperation,andyoushouldseethatthecylinderlubricationistakingplaceasitought.

As the above method of starting the engine will not always work well,especially in cold weather, what are called “self-starters” are used. They arevariouslyarrangedondifferentengines,butareconstructedonthesamegeneralprinciple. This is, first, to pump air and gasoline into the cylinder instead ofdrawing it in by suction. Sometimes the gasoline is forced in by an aircompression tank. The engine is turned just past the back center, care havingbeentakentomakesurethatthestrokeistheregularexplosionstroke.Thismaybetoldbylookingatthevalvecamorshaft.Ifanelectricigniterisused,itissetreadytosnapbyhand.Ifthetubeigniterisused,adetonatorisarrangedinthecylinder, to be charged by the head of a snapping parlormatchwhich can beexplodedbyhand.Holdingtheflywheelwithonehandwithpistonjustpastbackcenter,fillthecompressedendofthecylinderbyworkingthepumporturningon the air in compression tank till you feel a strong pressure on the pistonthrough the flywheel. Then snap igniter or detonator and the engine is off. Ifthrottlevalvehasnotbeenopened,itmaynowbeimmediatelyopened.

Theskillcomes inmanagingtheflywheelwithonehand,oronehandandafoot,andtheigniter,etc.,withtheotherhand.Caremustbeexercisednottogetcaughtwhentheflywheelstartsoff.Thefootmustneverbeputthroughthearmofthewheel,thewheelmerelybeingheldwhennecessarybytheballofthebigtoe,sothatiftheflywheelshouldstartsuddenlyitwouldmerelyslipoffthetoewithout carrying the foot around or unbalancing the engineer. Until one getsusedtoit,itisbettertohavesomeoneelsemanagetheflywheel,whileyoulookafterthegasolinesupply, igniter,etc.Whenusedto it,onemancaneasilystartanygasolineengineupto15horsepower.

WHATTODOWITHAGASOLINEENGINEWHENITDOESN’TWORK.

QuestionsandAnswers

Q.Iftheenginesuddenlystops,whatwouldyoudo?A.First,seethatthegasolinefeedisallright,plentyofgasolineinthetank,

feed pipe filled, gasoline pumpworking, and then if valves are all in workingorder.Perhapstheremaybedirtinthefeedreservoir,orthepipeleadingfromitmaybe stoppedup. If everything is right so far, examine thevalves to see thattheyworkfreelyanddonotgetstuckfromlackofgoodoil,orfromuseofpooroil.Raisethemafewtimestoseeiftheyworkfreely.Carefullyobserveiftheairvalveisnottightinsleeveofgasvalve.

Q.Whatwouldbethecauseofthepiston’sstickinginthecylinder?A.Eitheritwasnotproperlylubricated,oritgottoohot,theheatcausingit

toexpand.Q.Areboxesonagasolineenginelikelytogethot?A.Yes,thoughnotsolikelyasonasteamengine.Theymustbewatchedwith

thesamecareastheywouldbeonasteamengine.Iftheenginestops,turnitbyhandafewtimestoseethatitworksfreelywithoutstickinganywhere.

Q.Istheelectricsparkingdevicelikelytogetoutoforder?A. Yes. You can always test it by loosening one wire at the cylinder and

touching it to theother to see that a sparkpassesbetween them. If there isnospark,thereistroublewiththebattery.

Q.Howshouldthebatteriesbeconnectedup?A.AwireshouldpassfromcarbonofNo.1tocopperofNo.2;fromcarbon

of No. 2 to copper of No. 3, etc., always from copper to carbon, never fromcarbontocarbonorcoppertocopper.Wirefromlastcarbontosparkcoilandfromcoil to switch, and from switch tooneof the connectionson the engine.Wire from copper ofNo. 1 to the other connection on the engine. Inwiring,alwaysscrapetheendsofthewirecleanandbrightwheretheconnectionistobemadewithanyothermetal.

Q.Whatprecautionscanbetakentokeepbatteriesinorder?A. Theconnectionsbetweenthecellscanbechangedeveryfewdays,No.1

beingconnectedwithNo.3,No.3withNo.5,etc.,alternatingthem,butalwaysmaking a single line of connection from one connection on cylinder to firstcopper, from the carbon of that cell to copper of next cell, and so on till thecircuittothecylinderiscompleted.Whentheengineisnotinoperation,alwaysthrowout theswitch, topreventpossibleshortcircuiting. Ifbattery is feebleatfirst,fastenwirestogetherforhalfanhouratenginetillcurrentgetswellstarted.

Q.Istherelikelytobetroublewiththeigniterinsidecylinder?A.Theremaybe.Youwillprobablyfindaplugthatcanbetakenoutsoasto

provideapeephole.Neverputyoureyenear thishole, for somegasolinemayescapeandwhensparkismadeitwillexplodeandputoutyoureye.Alwayskeep

theeyeafootawayfromthehole.Practicelookingatthesparkwhenyouknowitisallrightandnogasolineisnear,inorderthatyoumaygettherightpositionatwhichtoseethesparkincaseoftrouble.Inanycase,alwaystakepainstoforceoutanypossiblegasbeforesnappingignitertoseeifthesparkworksallright.

Q.Ifthereisnospark,whatshouldbedone?A.Cleantheplatinumpoints.Thismaybedonebythrowingoutswitchand

cuttingapieceofpineone-eighthofaninchthickandone-half inchwide,andrubbing it between the points. Itmaybenecessary to push camout a trifle tocompensateforwear.

Q.Howcanyoulookintopeepholewithoutendangeringeyesight?A.Byuseofamirror.Q.Ifthehottubefailstowork,whatmaybedone?A.Conditionsofatmosphere,pressure,etc.,varysomuchthatthelengthof

thetubecannotalwaysbedetermined.Ifatubeoftheusuallengthfailstowork,tryonealittlelongerorshorter,butnotvaryingover11/2inches.

Q.Whengasisused,whatmayinterferewithgassupply?A. Water in the gas pipes. This is always true of gas pipes not properly

drained,especially incoldweatherwhencondensationmaytakeplace.Ifwateraccumulates,tubesmustbetakenapartandblownout,andifnecessaryadraincockcanbeputinatthelowestpoint.

Q.Whattroubleislikelytobehadwiththevalves?A.Intimetheseatswillwear,andmustbetakenoutandgroundwithflour

oremery.Q.Shouldthecylinderofagasolineenginebekeptascoolasitcanbekept

withrunningwater?A. No. It shouldbeashotas thehandcanbeborneupon it,orabout100

degrees.Ifitiskeptcoolerthanthisthegasolinewillnotgasefywell.Ifatankisused,thecirculationinthetankwilljustifythetemperatureproperly.Thewatermaybekeptat175degreesoftemperature,andusedforhotwaterheating.Theexhaustgasesarealsohotandmaybeusedforheatingbycarryinginpipescoiledinahotwaterheater.

Q.Arewaterjointslikelytoleak?A. Yes. The great heating given the cylinder is liable to loosen the water

joints.Theyarebestpackedwithasbestossoaked inoil, sheets1-16 inchthick.Oldpackingshouldalwaysbe thoroughlycleanedoffwhennewpacking isputin.

Q.Howmaythebearingsbereadjustedwhenworn?

A.Usuallytherearelinerstoadjustbearing.Incrankboxadjustasinsteamenginebytighteningthekey.

Q. If you hear a loud explosion in the exhaust pipe after the regularexplosion,shouldyoubealarmed?

A.No.Allgasorgasolineenginesgivethemattimesandtheyareharmless.Ifthe gas or gasoline fed to the engine is not sufficient to make an explosivemixture,theenginewillperhapsmisstheexplosion,andlivegaswillgointotheexhaust pipe. After two or three of these have accumulated an explosionmaytakeplaceandtheburnedgasescomingoutoftheportashotflameswillexplodethe live gas previously exhausted.Anymissing of the regular explosion by theengine,throughtroublewithbattery,orthelike,willcausethesamecondition.

Q.Whenyougetexhaustpipeexplosions,whatshouldyoudo?A.Turnonthefueltilltheexhaustissmoky.Thenyouknowyouhavefuel

enoughandmorethanenough.Iftheexplosionsstillcontinue,concludethattheignitersparkistooweak,ordoesnottakeplace.

Q.Whatprecautionmustbetakenincoldweather?A.Thewatermustbecarefullydrainedoutofjacket.Q.Willcommonsteamenginecylinderoildoforagasolineengine?A.No.Theheatissogreatthatonlyaspecialhighgrademineraloilwilldo.

Anyoilcontaininganimalfatwillbeworsethanuseless.Q.Howcanyoutellifrightamountofgasorgasolineisbeingfedtoengine

togivehighestpower?A. Turn on as much as possible without producing smoke. A smokeless

mixtureisbetterthanonewhichcausessmoke.Q.Ifyouhavereasontosupposegasmaybeinthecylinder,shouldyoutryto

startcylinder?A.No.Emptythegasalloutbyturningtheengineoverafewtimesbyhand,

holdingexhaustopenifnecessary.Q.Howlongwillabatteryrunwithoutrecharging?A.Thetimevaries.Usuallynotoverthreeorfourmonths.Q.Isitobjectionabletoconnectanelectricbellwithanenginebattery?A.Certainly.Neverdoit.Q.Ifyourenginedoesn’trun,howmanythingsarelikelytobethetrouble?A.Notmorethanfour—compression,spark,gassupply,valves.

GASANDGASOLINEENGINES—CONTINUED

ExplanationofPrinciplesReferencehasalreadybeenmadetothegasengine,andageneraldescription

isgivenofthisinterestingandusefulmachine,butasnodetailedexplanationisthere given of the principles controlling its action, it was deemedwise by theauthor to place before his readers, additionalmatter pertaining to the subject,and indoing soanefforthasbeenmade topresent it inas simpleandplainamanneraspossible, inorderthat itmaybeeasilywithinthecomprehensionofall.Asthegas,andgasolineenginearepracticallyidenticalinprinciple,thesameexplanation and illustrations will, with the exception of a few minor details,applytoboth.

All gas engines inpractical use at thepresent time are twoor four cycle, ashereindescribed,oraremodificationsoftheseforms.Ofthesetwotypesthefourcyclemachinehasbyfarbeenthemoregenerallyadopted.Wewillnowexplainand illustrate the principles involved and the difference of action in the twotypes,takingupthefourcyclefirst.

GASENGINES

Beforeproceedingfarther, itwillbewell toexplainthemeaningof thewordcycleasusedinthisconnection.

ACYCLEmeansaroundof timeoraroundofeventsnecessary toproduceacertainresult.

Asappliedtothegasengineitmeanstheroundofmovementsoreventstogetone “explosion” as it is commonly called, or on impulse. In other words oneworkingstroke.

Inthefourcycleenginewehavefourdistinctmovementsoreventstogetone“explosion.”

BeginningwithFig.IweshowthepistonC,startingonthefirstordownwardstroke, drawing in, by suction, the charge or mixture of air and fuel throughvalveA.

FIG.1.

FIG.2.

FIG.3.

FIG.4.

Illustratingthecycleofagasengineasreferredtointhefollowingchapter.

ThisistheSUCTIONorINTAKEstrokeandisthefirstmovementorevent.ThevalveA isnowclosedby its spring,and inFig.2we show thepistonC

returning,andcompressingthechargeintoasmallspace,calledthecompressionspace,intheupperendofthecylinder.ThisistheCOMPRESSIONstrokeandisthesecondmovement.

InFig.3weshowpistonCalmosttothetoporendofthestroke.Themixtureofair andgas isnowundercompressionandat thispoint theelectric spark ismadewhichfiresthecharge.Bythetimethemixtureisignited,andthecrankDreachesthecenter,theheatoftheburningchargeexpandswithgreatforceanddrivespistonCdownonitsPOWERstroke.Thisisthethirdmovement.

InFig. 4we showpistonCnearly to the endof the stroke.Asmuchof thepowerof theheatexpansionhasbeendeliveredascanbeobtained,andat thispointtheexhaustvalveBisforcedopenbyacam,andtheremainingheatrushesout. Valve B is held open by the cam while piston C travels back to the topdrivingoutthefoul,spentgases.ThisistheSCAVENGINGstrokeandisthefourthandlastmovementinthecycleofoperation.WhenthepistonC,reachesthetop,valveBclosesandtheengineisreadytobeginthecycleorroundofeventsoveragain.

Wethusseethatinafourcycleenginewehavefourmovements—onecycle—givingittheshortandwellfittedname“fourcycle.”

Two revolutions of the flywheel are used to get the fourmovements of thepiston.Many four cycle engines aremadehorizontal, that is,with the cylinderlyingdowninsteadofstandingupasshownintheillustrations.Themovementsoractions,however,remainthesame.

The twocycle enginedraws ina charge, compresses it, fires it, andexhauststheburnedgases,butitisalldoneintwostrokesormovements,hencewecallitatwocycleengine.InFigs.5and6weillustratetheactionoftheordinarytwocyclemachine.

InFig.5theairisdrawninatA,andfuelfromB,asregulatedbyneedlevalveC.Thismixtureisdrawnintothecrankcaseasthepistongoesup,andachargethat is in the cylinder above the piston is compressed at the same time, thusdrawinginachargeandcompressingone,inonestrokeormovement.Whenthepiston reaches the top the compressedcharge is fired, and thepiston isdrivendown,deliveringthepoweroftheburningchargeandalsocompressingthefreshchargejustdrawnintothecrankcase.Asthepistonnearstheendofthestroke,ituncoverstheportEandtheengineexhausts.AninstantlatertheinletportFisuncoveredasthepistonmoveson,andthefreshchargenowundercompression

inthecrankcaserushesupthroughtheinletportF,andisturnedupwardbytheprojectionontheendofthepiston.

FIG.5

Asthenewchargerushesinitisexpectedtodriveouttheburnedgasesattheexhaust port E. So we see the down stroke combines both the power andscavenging events, while the up stroke combines the intake and compressionevents.Twomovementsdoherewhat fourarerequiredtodo in the fourcycleengine.Thistypeisknownasthetwoporttwocycleengine.

In Fig. 6 air and fuel are drawn in at port A by the vacuum the pistonproduces,inthecrankcase,onitsupwardstroke.Bythisconstructionthecheckvalve,showninFig.5,isnotneeded.OtherwisetheactionillustratedinFig.6isthesameas inFig.5.The typeshown inFig.6 isknownas the threeport twocycleengine.

FIG.6

Therearemanyotherformsforthemechanicalconstructionofthetwo-cycleengine,but they all follow the samegeneralprincipleswehavehere illustratedanddescribed.

Owing to its simple constructionandan impulse every two strokesor everyrevolution, the two cycle engine has proven very attractive to hundreds ofinventors, and a great variety of designs have been built. Simplicity ofconstructionismuchtobedesiredinanymachineif itproducestheresultswewant.Theresultsdemandedofagasengineareeconomyintheuseoffuelandreliabilityofaction.

Thefourcycleengine,inspiteofitsvalvesandgears,hasgivensomuchbetterpracticalresultsasarule,thatithasbeenadoptedbymostofthebuilders.Thetwocycleenginefinds itsbestapplications inservicewhere the loadandspeedarecomparativelyuniform.

Comparingthemachineswehaveillustrated,weseeachargedrawnineveryrevolution by the two cycle construction. Part of the charge may be lost, byleakagethroughthebearings,whenthepistoncomesdowncompressingitinthecrankcase.

Thechargenextpassestothecylinderandasthepistonreturnstothetopitcompressesthechargeasecondtime,alossofnetpowertotheengine.

Asthetwocycleengine,whenworkingproperly,takesachargeandburnsoneevery revolution, it would seem, at first thought, that it should give twice asmuchpowerasafourcyclemachineofthesamecylinderdimensions.Owingtothelosseswehavementioned,andthefactthatthescavenging(drivingoutoftheburnedgases)isuncertain,thetwocycledevelopsonly20percentto50percent

morepowerthanthesamesizefourcyclecylinder.Asthebearingswear,thelossfrom the crankcase is apt to become greater, and the port action also changesslightly.

Oneconstructionofthetwocycleengineavoidscrankcasecompression,andthe losses thereby, by a design similar to steam engine practice. The engine ismadewithacrossheadandpistonrod.Theendofthecylinder,usuallyleftopenbygasenginebuilders,isclosedandfittedwithastuffingboxthroughwhichthepistonrodworksexactlylikethesteamengine.Thisclosedendofthecylinderisused,insteadofthecrankcase,forhandlingthemixtureorcharge.

The principles involved in the two cycle engine depend largely on a certainvelocityforthemovingortransferringofthechargefromthereceivingandfirstcompression chamber to the cylinder; hence as wide a variation in the speedcannotbepermittedaswiththefourcyclemachine.

FUELSFORTHEGASENGINE

Gasin itsnatural form,as foundinsomeplaces, is themostconvenient fuelknownforthegasengine,especiallyforstationarywork.

Only a few sections, however, are so favored, and in other places, and forportable or traction work the gas for the engine must be made or producedartificiallyfromthemostavailablesubstance.

Atthepresenttimegasolineisusedmorethananythingelseowingtotheeasewith which it is carbureted, or converted into gas just as it is needed by theengine.

Naturalgasandgasolinehavebeenusedsomuchmorethanotherfuelsthattheexpression“gasandgasolineengines”asfrequentlyusedistakenbysometomeantwodistincttypesofengines.

The expression as heretofore explained is misleading, for the generalprinciples are precisely the same.The only difference in construction is in thecompressionused,andinthemixerordeviceforfeedingthefuel;itisasimplemattertochangeagasenginetogasoline,oragasolineenginetogas.

Whenwe say “gas engine”wehave covered theground, andweunderstandthat in using gasoline, oil, coal, etc., proper means must be provided forconvertingthefuelusedintogas.

Many fuels will produce gas whichmay be used in the gas engine. Amongthesearecoal, crudeoil, coaloilorkerosene,gasoline,woodalcohol, spiritsofvariouskinds,etc.

Agreatmanyofthepossiblefuelsareoutofthequestionbecauseofprice,andothers involve difficulties in the way of generating or producing the gas asneededandofproperquality.Somegasesalsoinvolveobjectionablefeatures intheburningorcombustion,asforexample,thegasfromcrudeoil(averycheapfuel)carrieswithitacarbonelementthatisdepositedontheheadofthepistonand on thewalls of the compression space,making it necessary to clean thesepartsfrequently.

The difficulties in generating or producing gases, and in burning them toproducepower,arebeingrapidlyovercomebynewimprovementsandmethods,andtheadvantagesofthegasengineareincreasingthereby.

Gasfromcoalisprovingtobeaverycheapfuelforgasenginesforheavyandstationarywork.

Onetonofcoalusedinthisway,asprovedbyactualpracticalresults,willdotwotothreetimestheworkthatitwilldobyburningitunderasteamboiler.

As thisbookhas reference,moreespecially, togasengines for lightportableand tractionwork,wewill pay particular attention to gasoline as the availablefuelpossessingthemostadvantages.

Carbureters orMixers.—Several different types of mixers or carbureters forgasolineareincommonuse,theprincipleweillustrateinFig.I,probablybeingmostgenerallyused.

GisanoverflowchamberholdingthegasolineatacertainlevelinstandpipeF,as indicated by the dotted lineN.Gasoline flows into the chamber,G, from apump,throughpipe,L,andtheoverflowgoesbacktothetankthroughpipeM.

As the air is drawn into the cylinder, through the air regulator E, it pullsgasolinewithitfromstandpipeF,theamountbeingregulatedbytheneedlevalveH.

Thismaybecalledtheconstantleveloverflowsystem,andisgenerallybuiltinas part of the engine proper, in the plain, heavy engines now common forstationarywork.

If a floatwasplaced in chamberG,operating a gasoline inlet valve, and thegasolinetankwasplacedhigherthanthechamber,wewouldthenhavethefloatfeedcarburetersystem.ThefloatwouldholdthegasolineatacertainlevelinthestandpipejustastheoverflowinFig.1.

Thefloatfeedcarbureterisgenerallyaseparatepartoradjuncttotheengine,and it is common for this part to be made by the manufacturer of parts orspecialties.

Figure7isacross-sectionofafloatfeedcarbureter.ThefloatMcontrolsthe

valveO,andholds thegasolineatacertain level in thespraynozzleL.Theairsupply in starting, or at slow speed of the motor comes through the narrowpassageI,andinpassingthespraynozzleL,itdrawsasmallquantityofgasolineasregulatedpositivelybyneedlevalveA.JistheconnectiontotheengineandKisathrottletoenabletheoperatortocontrolthequantityofmixtureadmittedtothecylinder.TheairvalveF,isheldtoitsseatbyalightspringG,withtensionadjustedbyscrewBandlockingdeviceC.

FIG.7

As the throttle K is opened, admittingmoremixture to the engine, the airvalveAopenswider, admittingmore air.As the suctionon the gasoline spraynozzle L is greater, more gasoline is drawn, thus keeping the proportionatemixtureapproximatelyrightunderthethrottle,andatthevariousenginespeeds.Both air and gasoline are thus automatically measured, under the varyingconditions.

Figure8showsafloatcarbureterwithadifferentprinciple.A is the connection; B, gasoline needle valve; C, constant air inlet; D,

compensating,orautomaticairvalve,withspringtensionregulatedbyE;Fisthegasolinepipeconnection;GisathrottleintheairpassageC;H,floatchamber;I,needle valve control lever; J, cam, operatingmixture throttle lever; L, nut foradjustinglevertopositiondesired.

FIG.8

Instarting,theconstantairpassageC,ispartlyclosed,tosecuremoresuctiononthegasoline.Asthethrottle,operatedbyleverKisopened,thecamJmoveslever I, gradually opening gasoline needle valve B, admittingmore gasoline inproportiontotheincreasedairsupplycomingthroughtheairvalveD.

Inthiscarburetertheairsupplyisautomaticallycontrolled,butthegasolineispositivelyregulated.

It is evident that the gasoline tank must be higher than the carbureter tosupplygasolinetotheflatvalvebygravity.

Thegasolinemaybesuppliedfromalowerlevelbyairpressureinthegasolinetank,butasthisiscomplicatingthemechanismoftheoutfit,itisrarelyused.

Itwill be observed that the general principles of the overflow and feed floatsystemsarethesame.

Another very commonmethod of feeding gasoline is bymeans of amixingvalveasillustratedinFig.5.

Thegasoline,regulatedbytheneedlevalveC,feedstotheseatofthemixingvalve.Whenthepistondrawsinair fromA,themixingvalve is lifted,gasolineflowsinandismixedwiththeair.

Attheendofthesuctionstrokethevalvecloses,shuttingoffthegasoline.Thegasolinemaybesuppliedtothevalvebygravityorbyairpressure,thesameaswiththefloatfeedsystem.

A faultwith theordinarymixingvalve is found in the fact that, as thevalvecloses, thefuelremainingontheseat isprojectedbackwardbytheangleof theseat,causingthevalveto“spit”or“slobber”thefuel.

Inallthesesystemsoffeeding,thegasolineissovolatilethat,bymixingwiththeairasitisdrawninandinpassingintotheheatedcylinder,itiscarburetedorvaporized,sothatbythetimethesparkismade,themixtureisformedandreadytobeignited.

Fuelgasforgasenginesismadefromtheheavycrudeoilsbysubjectingtheoiltoheatinaspecialproducerapparatus,thatmakesagasvaporfromthevolatilepartsoftheoil,whileseparatingandretainingtheheavy,solidmatter.

Toomuchgasinthecylinderwillnotburnforwantofsufficientair,justthesameasafurnacefirewillnotburnifthedampersareclosed.

Too much fuel turned on in starting is a frequent cause of a gas enginerefusingtostart.Inthiscaseclosetheneedlevalve,andturntheengineuntilthesurplusfuelhasbeendrivenout.

Nomatterwhatkindoffuelgasisused,theprincipleoffeedingtotheengineremains the same—A CERTAIN QUANTITY OF GAS WITH THE RIGHTAMOUNTOFAIR,mustbetakenforeach“explosion”orimpulse.

Itmustalsoberememberedthatsolidandliquidfuelsmustbeconvertedintogasbeforetheenginewillrun.

In using gasoline the natural heat of the air is generally dependedupon forvaporizing,ormakingenoughgastostarttheengine.Inthewinterseasontheairfrequently does not possess the required warmth, or heat for starting, oftencausingtroubletotheinexperiencedoperator.Inthiscasethenecessaryheattosupplythefirstchargesofgasmustbeprovided.

After the first few “explosions” there will be enough heat in the enginecylindertovaporizethegasolineinthecoldestweather.

Gasesvaryagreatdealintheheatpowerorheatunitspossessed,andforthisreasondifferentgaseswillincrease,ordecreasethepowerofanengineofgivensize.

Gasfromgasolineisverypowerful,furnishinganotherexcellentreasonforitscommonusewithgasengines.

Compression.—Compressing the charge or mixture of air and gas, beforeignitingitincreasestheforceofthe“explosion.”

Thehigherthecompressioncanbesuccessfullycarried,thegreaterwillbethepowerderivedfromagivenamountoffuel.

Thecompressionheatsthemixturerapidly,and,ifthecompressioniscarriedtoohigh,thisheatwill firethechargebeforetimeforthespark,andbeforethepiston reaches theendof the stroke.Thiswouldcause someof the force tobeappliedinthebackwarddirection,andcausetheengineto“pound”orperhaps

stop.Theamountof compression that canbe successfullyused,dependson, first,

thekindoffuelgasthatistobeused;second,thespeedforwhichtheengineisdesigned,andthird,theuniformheatofthecylinderwallsandheadatalltimes.

Differentgasesrequirehigherorlowercompressiontoobtainthebestresults,asforexample,naturalgaswilladmitofmuchhighercompressionthanthegasfromgasoline.

Anenginebuiltforhighspeedwillcarryahighercompressionthancouldbeusedatlowspeed.Thepistoncominguptotheendofthestrokesomuchfasterenablesthecranktopassthecenterbeforetheimpulsebegins,eventhoughthecharge should be self-ignited from the heat of the high compression. Reliable,eventemperatureofthecylinderwallsandheadisofgreatimportanceforahighcompression,forifthewallsbecomeoverheatedattimes,thecompressionheatwillbegreater; if thecompressionisalreadyuptothelimit, thisextraheatwillcausepre-ignition,orfiringofthechargetoosoon.

Whileit isdesirable,fromthestandpointofeconomyinfuel,andmaximumorgreatestpowerforagivencylinderdimension,tousethehighestcompressionpossible,yetnorulecanbegiventhatwillfitdifferentmakesofenginesforthereasonsgivenabove.

The manufacturer must be depended upon for the highest compressionpracticalinhisparticularengine,tosuitthedesign,speed,andfueltobeused.

Asweare referring togasolineas themostconvenientandpractical fuel forlightportable,andtractionwork,wemightsaythata fairaveragecompressionforthisfuelwouldbe60lbs.gaugepressure,butthereaderwillunderstandthatitmay bemore or less depending on the conditions as stated. This would beequal to about five atmospheres—that is, the volume of the cylinder andcompressionspacewouldbesqueezedupintoaspaceone-fifththetotalvolume.

Thisamountofcompressionwill,underproperconditions,giveabout300lbs.persquareinch,heatexpansiveforce,or“explosive”pressureatthemomentofcompleteignition.

Acompressionof40lbs.gaugepressurewillgiveaninitial“explosive”forceofabout225 lbs.per square inch, sowe see, as stated, that thenetworking forceincreasesasweincreasethecompression.

The gauge pressure of the compressionmay be determined by the methoddescribedundertheheading“HowtoTesttheConditionofanEngine.”

Ifadifferentgasfuel,fromthatforwhichtheenginewassold,istobeused,itwould be advisable to write the manufacturer of the engine as to the proper

compression, as shown by factory tests, and how to change the compressionspacetobestadvantage.Thiswillsavemuchtimeandtroubleinexperimentingtoobtainthebestpossibleresults.

The efficiency and economy of a gas engine depends in large measure onperfect compression, and any leakages in rings, valves, packings or porouscylinderwalls,directlyaffecttheworkingofthemachine.

Thebuildingofanengineforthehighestpossiblecompressionisamatterofcloseandcarefulstudyforthedesigneronly,hencewewillnotgointodetailsofconstruction.

Intheoperator’shandsanymakeofenginemustbecarefullyguardedagainstleakagesofcompression,ifthehighestpossibleefficiencyandfueleconomyaredesired.

IgnitionApparatus.—Intheearlystagesofthedevelopmentofthegasengine,thechargeofairandgaswasignitedbyahottube.Thistube,withtheouterendclosed, was screwed into position on the engine and connected with thecompressionspace.Thetubewasenclosedbyacasinglinedwithheavyasbestos,andwas kept at an intense heat by a gas fire within the casing. A part of thechargeormixturewas forced into the tubeby the compression strokewhen itwouldbeignitedbythefierceheatoftheouterclosedend.

Thissystem,clumsyandcrudeinthelightoflateimprovements,isknownashot tube ignition. It required time in starting toproperlyheat the tube; itwaswastefulintheuseoffuel,andthefiretoheatthetubewasasourceofdanger.Wasteoffuelwasduetomaintainingthefiretoheatthetube,andtothefactthatthetimeofignitionwasnotunderperfectcontrol.Tubesburningoutfrequentlyaddedtothetroubles.

The ignitionor firingof thechargebyanelectric spark,undercontrolatalltimes,isoneofthegreatimprovementsinthegasengine,andhashadmuchtodowithbringingthemachineintofavorwithpowerusers.

Thesparkismadeontheinsideofthecylinder,thuseliminatingthedangeroffirewiththehottube.Bythisimprovementthegasenginebecameasafepowergeneratingmachineinthestrictestsenseoftheword.

Electric ignition has come into such general use that the hot tube is nowseldommade,unlessforemergencyuseandmostmanufacturersdonotfurnishitatall.

Therearetwosystemsofelectric ignitioningeneraluse,viz: theprimary,ormakeandbreak,andthesecondaryor jumpspark.Bothof thesesystemsmusthaveasourceofelectriccurrent;acoilforstoring,anddischargingthecurrent,a

device formakingandbreaking thecircuit,andan igniterorsparkplugas thecasemaybe.

The source of electric current for either system may be a battery, or agenerator driven by the engine. Where a generator is used it is generallyconsidered necessary to have batteries for starting, and switch over to thegeneratoraftertheenginegetsupspeed.Mostgeneratorsrequiremorespeed,tofurnishthenecessarycurrent,thantheoperatorwouldbeable,orwillingtogiveitinstartingtheengine.

Thesparkcoilactsasasortofreservoirtostoreupcurrentwhenthecircuitismade,andtodischargeitwhenthecircuitisbroken,andthisdischargebetweentwopoints,insidethecompressionspace,makesthesparkthatfiresthecharge.

With themake andbreak system, the circuit ismade andbroken inside thecompressionspace,givingthissystemitsname.

Thecontact,ormakeandbreakpointsaresetinablockorcarrier,thewholeformingadeviceknownastheigniter.

Thecontactpointsarecalledelectrodes,oneofwhichismadestationaryandinsulatedbyanon-conductingmaterialfromtheotherpartsoftheengine.Theotherelectrodeismovable,andthemechanismoftheenginecausesittoformacontact, inside the compression space, with the insulated stationary electrode,justaninstantbeforetimeforthespark.Duringthisveryshorttimeofcontactthecurrentfromthebatteryorgeneratorflowsthroughandchargesthecoil.Atthe rightmoment themovable electrode is snappedback,breaking thecontactwith the insulated electrode, and the current, stored in the coil, is dischargedacross thegapbetweenthecontactpointsorelectrodes,causingthespark.Thequickerthebreakismadethebetterandstrongerwillbethesparkproduced.

Thesparkcoilforprimaryormakeandbreakignitionconsistsofabundleorcoreofsoftironwirearoundwhichiswoundaquantityofinsulatedcopperwirecalledaprimarywinding.Thecurrentfromthiscoilisaprimarycurrent,whichexplainswhymakeandbreakignitionisalsocalledprimaryignition.

For the secondary or jump spark system the spark coil receives anotherwinding, of several thousand feet of fine insulated wire, called the secondarywinding.

Thismakesajumpspark,orhightensioncoilasthesecondarywindingcarriesa current of high voltage. The electric circuit for this system of ignition isinterruptedatanysuitable,convenientpointontheengine,andcausesasparktojumpbetweentwostationarypointsinsidethecombustionchamber.

Thesetwopointsarecarriedbyasparkplugthatisscrewedintoanopeningto

thecombustionchamber,andoneofthepointsmustbeinsulatedsothecurrentwill pass around and jump the gap provided. The device for interrupting thecircuitinthejumpsparksystemisatimer,sometimescalledthe“commutator”andisshowninFig.9atD.Thebreakofthecontactpointsofthetimermustbeveryquick,andproducesasparkatthegapbetweenthepointsofthesparkplug.

It has become quite common to provide the spark coil with an automaticvibrator;theinstantthetimermakesthecircuit,theautomaticvibratorsetsupavibratingmotionproducinga stringof sparksat theplug insteadofone.Withthe automatic vibrator, the very quick parting of the timer contact is notessential.

FIG.9.Wiringdiagram—jumpsparkignition.

A—Batteries.B—Switch.C—JumpSparkCoil.D—Timeror“Commutator.”E—SparkPlug.F—GroundWiretoEngine.

Themeritsofthevibratorasagainsttheplainjumpsparkcoilhavebeenmuchdiscussed.Someauthoritiesclaimtheplaincoilislessliabletogetoutoforder,nothavingadelicatevibratoradjustment;thatmakingonegoodsparkdoesthework,whichisallthatisrequired.

It is claimed for the vibrator coil that a more sure and rapid ignition isobtained;thatthedelicateadjustmentofthevibratorisasimplematter,andnota disadvantage in the hands of the intelligent operator, and that the necessaryquickmakeandbreakof the circuit,beingmadeautomatically, insuresperfectignitionatanyspeedoftheengine.Asthevibratorcoilhascomeintogeneraluseit must be conceded that themajority of users think it has advantages whichoverbalanceitsdisadvantages.

Theillustration,Fig.9,showshowtoconnecttwosetsofbatteriestoaswitch

soonesetmaybeusedwhile theother isoutofcircuit—thusholdinganextrabatteryinreadinessforimmediateserviceshouldthesetinusefail.

WhentheswitchB,isinthecentralpositionasshown,bothbatteriesareoutofcircuit.

Inconnectingupa jumpspark ignitionoutfit itwillgenerallybe found thatthemanufacturerof the coilhasmarked the terminalsorbindingposts. “Bat.”stamped on the coilmeans to attach the battery to that binding post. “Com.”means the connection to the timer or “commutator,”while “Sec.” denotes theterminalofthesecondarywinding,tobeconnectedtothesparkplug.

Shouldtherebetwosecondaryterminalsonthecoil,onemaybeconnectedtothe terminal marked “com.” This is usually done within the coil, leaving butthreeoutsideconnectionsasshowninFig.9.

Theswitchisplacedbetweenthebatteryandthecoilanditisunderstoodthatthe “Bat.” connection on the coil is carried to the switch and then on to thebattery.

A generator,made for jump spark ignitionmay be connected to the switchinsteadofoneof thebatteries, similar to the connections forprimary ignition,illustrated in Fig. 10, which shows the wiring for a make and break ignitionoutfit,usingabattery forstartingandconnections toswitchthegenerator intocircuitassoonastheenginegetsupthespeednecessarytomakethegeneratordelivertherequiredcurrent.

Somegeneratorsareadvertisedasfurnishingcurrentataverylowspeedandtherebydispensingwiththebattery.Mostgenerators,however,willrequiremorespeedthantheoperatorwouldbeableorwillingtogiveitinstartingtheengine.

It is important, in connecting up an ignition outfit, to see that the wireterminals,andbindingpostsarecleanandthattheconnectionsaremadesecure.Thegroundwiresmaybe attachedat any convenientpointon the engine,butpaintandgreasemustberemovedtosecureagoodcircuit.

Flexible wiring is less liable to break at the point of connection and causetrouble.Asolidcopperwirewill frequentlybreakclosetothebindingpostandremaininpositionapparentlysound.

Sparkcoilsaremanufacturedbyspecialistsandtheirmanufacture,onalargescale,hasbeensowelldevelopedthatthesellingpriceistoolowfortheenginemanufacturertothinkofmakinghisowncoils.

Thewire,fromthesecondarywindingofthejumpsparkcoiltothesparkplug,shouldbeheavilyinsulated,orcaremustbetakentokeepitclearofotherpartsthatwouldcompleteacircuit,owingtothehighvoltagecurrentthatwouldleak

and short circuit througha light insulation.This is a frequentcauseof troublewithjumpsparkignition.Alightorfaultyinsulationonthesecondarywirewilloftendeceivetheinexperiencedoperator.

FIG.10Wiringdiagram—batteryandgenerator.Makeandbreakignition.

A—Battery.B—Switch.C—SimplePrimaryCoil.D—MagnetoorGenerator.EE—GroundWirestoEngine.F—WirestoStationaryElectrodeofIgniter.

Abarewire,fromthesecondarybindingpostonthecoiltotheplug,wouldbebetterthanadefectiveinsulation,forwiththebarewireeveryonewouldknowitmustnottouchotherobjectsthatwouldconductthecurrent.

There is a great deal of discussion among gas engine builders and usersconcerningtherelativemeritsofthetwosystemsofelectricignition,butasbothgivegoodserviceandsatisfactionunderproperconditions,itisamatterthatcanbedecidedonlyinindividualcases.It isarguedforthemakeandbreaksystemthat the lowvoltage current is less liable to short circuit; that the coil ismuchcheaper,andlessliabletogowrong,andthatabiggerandbettersparkismade.

Forthejumpsparkignitionagreatadvantageisclaimedbydoingawaywiththe movable electrode, its wear and consequent leakage from the combustionchamber;thatthetimeofthesparkcanbeeasilyretardedandadvancedatwilltosuitall speedsandconditions,and that if thecoilandhigh tensioncurrentarehandled intelligently they will not fail, but will go on indefinitely doing theirworkfaithfully.

It is generally considered that jump spark ignition is better suited for highspeedengines,whilethelowspeed,heavilyconstructedenginescommonlyusedforstationaryworkareusuallyequippedwiththemakeandbreaksystem.Sofaras practical application is concerned either system can be applied to suit any

condition.As both are good, the reader will be left to decide for himself as his own

experienceorpreferencemaydirect.Timing the Valves and Spark—The valves of the gas engine are almost

universallyof thepoppet variety, and areoperatedby camsand springswhichproduce a very quick opening and closing action. In order to obtain a highefficiency intheworkingof theengine it isnecessarythat thevalvesopen,andthatthesparkoccuratthepropermoment,toproducethebestresults.TheinletvalveA, shown inFig. I, isof theautomatic type,beingopenedby the suctionstroke of the piston. While many gas engines are built this way, it is quitecommontoopentheinlet,aswellastheexhaustvalvemechanically,orbymeansofacamoperatedbytheengine.

The automatic inlet valve, as its name implies, is self timed, opening at thebeginning,andclosingattheendofthesuctionstroke.

Thecamstoopenallmechanicallyoperatedvalvesmustbesetortimedwithreference to thepositionof the crankandpiston.The exhaust valve shouldbeopenedabout40°beforethecrankonitspowerstrokereachescenter.

Inanenginewith6˝stroke,thepistonwouldbeabout11/16˝fromtheendofthestroke.

This last part of the stroke is not effective in delivering power to the crankshaft,andtheexhaustvalveisopenedthusearlytogetridoftheremainingheatassoonasitbecomesuselessandthushavethecylinderinbettershapetoreceivethe next charge. The exhaust valve should not close before the end of thescavengingstroke,andnotlaterthan20°pastdeadcenter.

Iftheinletvalveisoperatedmechanically,thecamshouldbesettoopenandclosethevalvewhenthecrankhaspassedthedeadcenters10°,to20°accordingtothespeedoftheengine.

Thelateclosingoftheinletvalveonhighspeedenginesistoallowtheinertiaormovingforceoftheincomingchargetoincreasethepowerofthecylinderbyincreasingtheamountorvolumeofmixturetakenin.Someclaimthecrankmaypass the center 30° to 40° before the mixture stops coming in, although thepistonhastraveledbackonthecompressionstrokeone-half inchormore.Thepossibleadvantageisaslightincreaseofpowerfromacylinderofgivensize.

Thetimingoftheignitionisofmuchgreaterimportancethanwasrealizedformanyyearsafterthegasenginecameintouse.Althoughapropermixtureundercompression fireseasilyandburnsrapidly,yet it requiresa little spaceof time,and the sparkmustoccur farenoughaheadof thecenter so thechargewillbe

aflame,and theexpansion takingplacewhen thepistonandcrankstarton thepowerstroke.Ifthesparkcomestoolate,apartoftheeffectiveimpulsestrokeislost,while if the spark ismade too early, theheat expansionbeginsbefore thecrankreachesthecenterandsomeofthepoweristhusdeliveredinabackwarddirection.Thiswillcausetheengineto“pound”orperhapsstop,iftheignitionisverymuchtooearly.

The correct time for the spark depends on the fuel used, and speed of theengine.Athighspeedsthesparkmustbeadvancedormadefurtheraheadofthecentertogivethenecessarytimeforignition,whileatlowspeedsthesparkmustberetardedormadelater.

It isnecessary toprovidehigh speed engineswith adevice for retarding thesparkinstarting,andchangingtotheadvancedpositionaftertheenginegetsupspeed.

Forveryhighspeedsthesparkmustbeproducedsomewherefrom60°to90°aheadofcenterandthisposition,withtheslowspeedinstarting,woulddeliverallthepowerinabackwarddirection,causingtheengineto“kick.”

Owingtothegreatlyvaryingspeedsuseditisimpossibletogiveasetruleforthecorrectpointof ignition,but theproper timingof the sparkcanbe readilydetermined by a little experimenting. The operatorwill soon learn the correctpositionbyobservingtheresultsofearlyorlateignition.

It is needless to say, that if the spark is too far advanced in starting theoperatorwillsoonfinditout,fortheengineissuretomakea“kick”aboutit.

Agasenginewillrunwiththevalvesandsparkconsiderablyoutoftime,butitsfullpowerandefficiencywillnotbedevelopedunlessthetimingisright.

As the inlet and exhaust valves, in proper turn, only open every secondrevolution of the crank shaft (with the four-cycle engine), the reader willunderstandthatthecamsarelocatedonthebackgearedshaft,whichrunsatjustone-halfthespeedofthecrankshaft.

Intimingthevalvesthequestionnaturallyariseswhenisthecrankexactlyattheendofthestrokeoron“deadcenter?”

Thecrank travelsaconsiderabledistanceateachendof thestroke,withbutlittleperceptiblemovementofthepistonandthisfactgivesconsiderablerangeinsettingthevalveswhilenotgreatlyaffectingtheresults.

Some users, especially of small engines, guess at the center by noting thepiston’smovement,but for thebenefitof readerswho insistonknowingwhenthecrankisatcenter,weillustrateinFig.11thefollowingmethod:

Withthecrankturnedtoonesideofcenter,asshown,insertarodA,through

anopeningintheheadoftheengineallowingtherodtorestagainstthepiston.Mark on the rod at B to show the distance to the piston and also mark thebalancewheelatafixed,stationarypointerCprovidedontheengine.Nowturntheengineuntilthecrankisontheothersideofcenterasshownbythedottedlines. This position is determined by bringing the piston to the same distancefrompointBasshownbythemarkweplacedontherodA.

FIG.11

NowmakeanothermarkonthebalancewheelatthestationarypointerC.ThetwomarksDandEonthebalancewheelareatequaldistancesfromthecentralposition for the crank, and it follows that in bisecting or equally dividing thedistancebetweenthemarksDandEandturningtheenginesothecentralmarkF, comes to the stationary pointer C, we have thus brought the crank to the“dead”center.

Theoppositecenterisdeterminedinalikemanner.ThecrankisthusbroughtateachendofthepistonstrokeexactlytothecenterlineK-L.Havingestablishedthe center we can readily calculate the degrees from this for the opening andclosing of the valves. The circumference of the wheel is always equal to 360degrees.Ifwedivide360bythecircumferenceinincheswewillknowhowmanydegrees in each inch.To find apoint 40degrees from “dead” centerdivide 40degreesbythenumberofdegreesinaninchofthecircumference.Theresultwillbethenumberofinchesfromcentertothepointdesired.

In the illustration, Fig. 11, itwill benoticed that oneof the valveshas beenremovedtoinserttherodAthroughthevalvestemguide.Byusingarodthatfitstheguidethetwopositionsofthepiston,atequaldistancefromthecentercanbeaccuratelydetermined.Forengines thatdonothavethevalves intheheadanyother openings, such as for the spark plug or an igniter, may be used, but itwould be advisable to use a special plug, or plate to fit the opening throughwhichahole,tofitrodA,maybedrilled.

Theabovemethodforlocatingdeadcenteristhesamethatisgenerallyusedfor the steam engine except that the mark B on the rod A is made on thecrossheadandguides.

Asthegasengineordinarilyhasnocrossheadtheprocesswehavedescribedandillustratedwillbefoundequallyeffectiveandsimple,while,aswiththesteamengine,itismechanicallycorrect.

TESTINGTHECONDITIONOFAGASENGINE

Firstseethatthevalvesarecorrectlytimed.The next thing to know is that the fuel reaches the mixing chamber or

carbureter.Nowlookafterthecompressiontoseeifthereisanyseriousleakagethroughtherings,valvesorpackedjoints.

Oiltheenginethoroughlyusingcaretoknowthatthecylinderwallsarewelllubricatedwithgoodgasengineoil,thenasaquick,ordinarycompressiontest,sufficient for practical purposes, the engine is revolved bringing the piston upquickly on the compression stroke and holding it at the highest point ofcompressiontoseehowsoonthepressurewilldisappear.Thismayproperlybecalled“feelingofthecompression”andafteralittleexperiencetheoperatorwillbeabletojudgeprettyaccuratelyastowhatresultsmayexpectedoftheengine.

Theonlyrecoursewhenseriousleakagethroughtheringsoccurs,isnewrings,orperhapsre-boringofthecylinder,newpistonandnewrings.

Thisisajobforthemachinist.After knowing that the fuel gets to the engine in proper time, and that the

compressionisallright,nextlookaftertheignitionapparatus,averyimportantpartofeverygaspowermachine.

Themakeandbreaksystemmaybetestedoutasfollows:Throwintheswitch,thendetachthewirefromthestationary, insulatedelectrodeoftheigniter,andscrapeitonthebindingpostfromwhichitwasremoved.Ifasparkisproducedwiththeignitercontactpointsopenitwillprovetheinsulationofthestationaryelectrodetobefaulty.Shouldnosparkappear,nextclosethecontactpointsand

scrape the wire again on the binding post. A good spark should now beproduced. Ifnot, goover thewiringvery carefully to see if all connections areclean and secure, and to look for possible leakage of all the current, or shortcircuitingasitiscommonlycalled.

Next remove the igniter to see if the contact points are corroded thuspreventingthepassageofthecurrent.

Whilehavingtheigniterdetacheditisagoodplantoholdittotheengineandsnaporbreakthecontactpointsapartaswhentheengineisrunning.If,withthecontactpointsclean,connectionsallproperlymadeandnoshortcircuits,asparkisnotyetobtained,nextlookafterthesourceofcurrent(batteryorgeneratorasthecasemaybe),andthetroublewillsoonbelocatedinanexhaustedbattery,orin case of a generator it may be bad brushes or possible loss of speed if thegeneratorisdrivenbybeltorfriction.

Once inagreatwhile thesparkcoilmayfail,but this isarareoccurrence, iftheignitionapparatusiskeptinadryplaceasitshouldbe.

Brieflystated,seethattheenginegetsthefuelinthepropertime;seethatthereisnoseriousleakageandseethatagoodsparkisproducedattherighttime.

These things in proper order and assuming, of course, in case liquid fuel isused, that theproper condition is present for carburetion, or vaporization, theengineisreadytorunandmaybedependedupon.

The routine for testing a jump spark ignition outfit is similar to that justdescribedfortheprimaryormakeandbreaksystem.Bydetachingthesparkplugandallowingittorestontheengine,sothecircuitwillbethesameaswhentheplugisinposition,workthecircuitinterruptingdevice(ifaplainjumpsparkcoilisused),orincaseofavibratorcoil,turntheengineuntilthecircuitismadebythetimer,whenthevibrator,ifproperlyadjusted,willsetupthebuzzingsoundfamiliartousersofvibratorcoils.

Agoodsparkshouldnowappearbetweenthepointsofthesparkplug.Ifnot,detach the wire from the plug, and holding the end of the wire within one-sixteenthtoone-eighthinchofsomepartoftheengineagainworkthetremblerormakecontactwiththetimer.

If a spark can now be produced it proves the insulation of the plug faulty,while should no spark appear next look for bad connections, short circuit orfurtherbacktothesourceofcurrentaswiththemakeandbreaksystem.

Now,knowingthattheenginetakesthechargeandfiresitproperly,nextseethat the cooling system is in working order. If the cooling jacket, or passagesformedinthecastingsofthecylinderandheadforallowingthecoolingelement,

oil,waterorotherliquidtocirculate,shouldbecomecloggedorchokedtheheatof the cylinderwill rise too high, so in testing the condition of amachinewemustexaminethecoolingfacilities,andknowthatsufficientradiationofexcessheatismaintained.Thismeans,ofcourse,thatthepropercirculationoftheheatcarryingagent(whetheritbethewater,oil,orair)mustbeprovided.

The compression test described in the fore-going is a quick, offhandwayofsizingup therunningconditionofsmallandmediumsizedengines,but itcanonlygiveanapproximate ideaof theamountof thecompression.AverygoodmethodofobtainingthegaugepressureofthecompressionisillustratedinFig.11.

ApressuregaugeG,isattachedtoareceivingchamberH,whichisconnectedtothecompressionchamberoftheenginebyaglobevalveI,andcheckvalveJ.

Runtheengineup to full speed, then throwout theswitchand immediatelyopen thevalve I.Thehighest compressionpressurewillbeaccumulated in thechamberH,andthegaugewillregisterthepoundspersquareinch.

ThevalveImustnotbeopenedwhiletheengineisyetfiringthecharges,butitshouldbeopenedveryquickly after the firinghas stopped so the compressionpressuremayberegisteredatpracticallythenormalrunningspeedoftheengine.

This test of the compression is not necessary to the successful care andoperation of a gas engine for themanufacturer of themachine has, of course,figuredoutthebestcompressionforthekindoffueltobeusedandtheworktobedone.

Wedescribeand illustrate thegauge test for thebenefitof readerswhomaywishtomakeadeeperstudyofthegasengine,andgasengineprinciplesthanisnecessaryfortheordinaryuser.

THESCIENCEOFTHRESHING

CHAPTERXIVHOWTORUNATHRESHINGMACHINE

A threshing machine, though large, is a comparatively simple machine,consisting of a cylinderwith teethworking into other teethwhich are usuallyconcaved(thisprimarypartreallyseparatesthegrainfromthehusk),androtaryfanandsievestoseparategrainfromchaff,andsomesortofstackertocarryoffthe straw. The common stacker merely carries off the straw by some endlessarrangementofslatsworkinginalongbox;whiletheso-called“windstacker”isa pneumatic device for blowing the straw through a large pipe. It has theadvantage of keeping the straw undermore perfect control than the commonstacker. The separation of the grain from the straw is variously effected bydifferentmanufacturers,therebeingthreegeneraltypes,calledapron,vibrating,andagitating.

The following list of parts packed inside the J. I. Case separator (of theagitativetype)whenitisshippedwillbeusefulforreferenceinconnectionwithanytypeofseparator:

2Hopperarms,RightandLeft, 1Tailingsauger,1Elevatorspout,1Hopperbottom, 1Elevatorshakearm,complete,IHopperrodwiththumbnut, 1Setfish-backs,forstraw-rack,2Feedtables,2Feedtablelegs, 1Elevatorpulley,529T.,

2Bandcutterstandsandbolts, 1Beater pulley, 6-inch 1254T., or 4-inch1255T.,

1Largecrankshaft, 1Elevatordrivepulley1673T.,1Grainaugerwith1223T.pulleyand

1154T.,Box,1 Crank pulley to drive grain auger

1605T.,1 Cylinder pulley to drive crank 4-

inch973T.,or6-inch1085T.,1 Belt reel, 5016 T., or 1642 T., with

crankandbolt.4Shoesieves,1Cylinderpulleytodrivefan1347T., 4Shoerods,withnutsandwashers,

1348T.,or1633T., 1Conveyorextension,

1Fanpulley,1244T.,or1231T.,

1Sheetirontailboard,

2Tailboardcastings1654

IBelttightener,complete,withpulley, T.,and1655T.

Inadditiontothesearethepartsofthestacker.As each manufacturer furnishes all needed directions for putting the parts

together,wewillsupposetheseparatorisinworkingcondition.A new machine should be set up and run for a couple of hours before

attemptingtothreshanygrain.Theoilboxesshouldbecarefullycleaned,andalldirt,cinders,andpaintremovedfromtheoilholes.Thegreasecupsoncylinder,beaterandcrankboxesshouldbescreweddownafterbeingfilledwithhardoil,moderatelythinoilbeingusedforotherpartsofthemachine.Beforeputtingonthebelts, turn themachinebyhanda few times to see thatnoparts are loose.Lookintothemachineonstrawrackandconveyor.

Firstconnectupbeltwithengineandrunthecylinderonlyforatime.Screwdownthegreasecup lugswhennecessary,andsee thatnoboxesheat.Takeoffthetightenerpulley,cleanoutoilchambersandthoroughlyoilthespindle.Thenoileachseparatebearinginturn,seeingthatoilholeisclean,andthatpulleyorjournalworksfreely.Thesuccessivebeltsmaythenbeputononeatatime,untilthestackerbeltisputonafteritspulleyshavebeenoiled.Especiallynotewhichbeltsaretoruncrossed—usuallythemainbeltandthestackerbelt.Youcantellbynotingwhichway themachinerymustrun tokeep thestrawmoving in theproperdirection.

Sectionalviewoftheagitatorseparator.

Sectionalviewoftheagitatorseparator.

Oilingonthefirstrunofamachineisespeciallyimportant,asthebearingsareatrifleroughandmoreliabletoheatthanaftermachinehasbeenusedforsometime.Itiswelltooilashaftwhileitruns,sincethemotionhelpstheoiltoworkinoverthewholesurface.

Thesieves,concaves,checkboardandblindsmustbeadjustedtothekindofgraintobethreshed.Whentheyhavebeensoadjustedthemachineisreadytothresh.

SETTINGSEPARATOR

It is important that themachinebekeptperfectlysteady,andthat itbe levelfromsidetoside,thoughitsbeingalittlehigherorloweratoneendortheothermaynotmattermuch. If the level sidewise is not perfect the grainwill have atendencytoworkovertooneside.Aspiritlevelshouldbeused.

Oneormoreofthewheelsshouldbesetinholes,accordingtotheunevenneasoftheground,andtherearwheelsshouldbewellblocked.Gettheholesready,judgingaswellaspossiblewhatwillgiveatruelevelandaconvenientposition.Haulthemachineintopositionandseethatitisallrightbeforeuncouplingtheengine.Ifholesneedrediggingtosecureproperlevel,machinemaybepulledoutandbackedinagainbytheengine.Whenmachineishighinfrontitcaneasilybeleveledwhenengineorteamhavebeenremoved,bycrampingthefrontwheelsanddigginginfrontofoneandbehindtheother,thenpullingthetonguearoundsquare.

Block the right hind wheel to prevent the belt drawing machine forward.Alwayscarryasuitableblocktohaveonehandy.

Instartingoutofholesoronsoftground,crampthefrontaxlearound,anditwillrequireonlyhalfthepowertostartthatwouldberequiredbyastraightpull.

Insettingthemachine,ifthepositioncanbechosen,chooseoneinwhichthestrawwillmove in thegeneraldirectionof thewind,but a littlequartering, sothat dust and smoke from engine will be carried away from themen and thestrawstack.Inthispositionthereislessdangerfromfirewhenwoodisused.

THECYLINDER

The cylinder is arrangedwith several rows of teeth working into stationaryteeth inwhat is called the concave. It is important that all these teeth be kepttight,andthatthecylindershouldnotworkfromsidetoside.Theteethareliableto get loose in a newmachine, and should be tightenedup frequently.A little

brineoneachnutwillcauseittorustslightlyandhelptoholditinplace.Ifthecylinder slips endwise even a sixteenth of an inch, the teeth will be so muchnearer the concaves on one side and somuch farther away from themon theotherside.Wheretheyareclose, theywillcrackthegrain;wheretheyarewideaparttheywillletthestrawgothroughwithoutthreshingortakingoutthegrain.Soitisimportantthatthecylinderanditsteethruntrueandsteady.Iftheteethgetbentinanyway,theymustbestraightened.

The speed of the cylinder is important, since its pulley givesmotion to theotherpartsofthemachine,andthismovementmustbeuptoacertainpointtodotheworkwell.Ausualspeedforthecylinderpulley is1,075revolutionsperminute,upto1,150.

There is always an arrangement for adjusting the cylinder endwise, so thatteethwillcomeinthemiddle.Thisshouldbeadjustedcarefullywhennecessary.The end play to avoid heating may be about 1-64 of an inch. It may beremembered that the cylinder teeth carry the straw to the concaves, and theconcavesdothethreshing.

THECONCAVES

The concaves are to be adjusted to suit the kind of grain threshed. Whendesiring to adjust concaves, lift themup a few times anddrop so as to jar outdust.Wedgingablockofwoodbetweencylinderteethandconcaveswillinsometypesofseparatorservetobringupconcaveswhencylinderisslowlyturnedbyhand.

Therearefromtwotosixrowsofteethintheconcave,andusuallythenumberof rows is adjustable or variable. Two rows will thresh oats, where six arerequired for flax and timothy. Four rows are commonly used for wheat andbarley.The arrangement of rows of teeth and blanks is important.When fourrowsareused,oneiscommonlyplacedwellback,onefront,blankinthemiddle.Whenstrawisdryandbrittle,cylindercanbegiven“draw”byplacingblankinfront.Alwaysuseasfewteethandleavethemaslowaspossibletothreshclean,sincewithmoreteeththannecessarysethigher thanrequiredthestrawwillbecutupandagreatdealofchoppedstrawwillgetintothesieves,allofwhichalsorequiresadditionalpower.Sometimestheteethcanbetakenoutofonerow,sothat one, three, or five rows may be used. For especially difficult grain likeTurkeywheat,aconcavewithcorrugatedteethmaybeused,insetsofthreerowseachuptoninerows.Thecorrugatedteethareusedforalfalfainlocalitieswheremuchisraised.

THEBEATERANDCHECKBOARD

Afterthecylinderhasloosenedthegrainfromthehuskandstraw,itmuststillbe separated.Some threshershaveagrateunder thecylinderandbehind it. Inanycase thebeatercauses theheavygrain toworktowardthebottom,andthecheckboardkeepsthegrainfrombeingcarriedtorearontopofthestraw,whereitwould not have a chance to become separated. If the grain is very heavy ordamp, there may be a tendency for the straw to stick to the cylinder and becarriedaroundtoofar.Insuchacasethebeatershouldbeadjustedtogivemorespace,andthecheckboardraisedtoallowthestrawtopasstotherearfreely.

STRAWRACK

The straw rack and conveyor carry the straw and grain to the rear with avibratorymovement,causing thegrain tobeshakenout.Todogoodwork thestrawrackmustmovewithasufficientnumberofvibrationsperminute,say230.A speed indicator on the crank shaftwill show thenumber of vibrations best.Greatcaremustbetakenwiththispartofthethresher,oragreatdealofgrainwillbecarriedintothestraw.The.lessthestrawiscutup,thebetterthisportionofthemachineworks;sothesmallestpracticablenumberofteethintheconcaveshouldbeused.

Thecrankboxesandpitmansshouldbeadjustedsothatthereisnopounding.If therearvibratingarmsdrop too lowtheygetbelowthedeadcenterandareliable to break, at any rate causing severe pounding and hard running. Topreventthis,thecrankboxescanbemovedforwardbyputtingleatherbetweenthemand theposts,or shouldbeotherwiseadjusted.The troublebeingdue tothepitmanshavingwornshort,thepitmansmaybelengthenedinsomewaybyputting pieces of leather over the end or the like, or new pitmans may beintroduced.

THEFAN

Thechiefdifficultylikelytoarisewiththefanisblowingovergrain.Topreventthis blinds are usually arranged, whichmay be adjusted while themachine isrunningsoastopreventthegrainfrombeingblownover.Atthesametimeitisimportanttocleanthegrain,sotheadjustmentshouldnotgotooneextremeortheother.

Inwindyweather theblinds shouldbeclosedmoreonone side thanon theother.Thespeedofthefanmustbeadjustedtotherequirementsofthelocality.

As much blast should be used as the grain will stand, and heavy feedingrequires more wind than light feeding, since the chaff checks the blast to acertainextent.

Care shouldbe taken that thewindboardover thegrainaugerdoesnotgetbent,anditshouldbeadjustedsothat thestrongestpartof theblastwillcomeaboutthemiddleofthesieve.

SIEVES

Thereisusuallyoneconveyorsieve,whichcausesthegraintomovealong,andshoesieves,whicharerequiredtocleanthegrainthoroughly.Differentkindsofsieves are provided for different kinds of grain, and the proper selection andadjustmentofthesesievesastomesh,etc.,isoftheutmostimportance.

Much depends on the way the sieves are set, and on the rate at which thethresherisfed,ortheamountofworkit isreallydoing.Thebestguideiscloseobservationandexperience,bothyourownandthatofotherthreshermen.

CONVEYOREXTENSION

This carries the coarse chaff from the conveyor sieve to the stacker. Theconveyor sieve should be coarse enough to let all the good grain through, aswhateveriscarriedontotheextensionmustbereturnedwiththetailingstothecylinder.Thismeanssomuchwastework.Theconveyorextensionisremovable,andshouldalwaysbetightbeforemachineisstarted.Seethatitis.

Whennecessary,thegrainmayberunoverascreen,whichdiffersfromasieveinthatthemeshissmallandintendedtoletdustandsmallchaffthroughwhilethegraindoesnotpass.Therefusefromthescreenisdroppedontotheground.All screenshave a tendency tobecome clogged, and in this conditionobstructthegrainandwind.Itisdesirablenottousethemexceptwhennecessary,andifusedtheyshouldbefrequentlycleaned.

TAILINGSELEVATOR

Thetailingsarecarriedbacktothecylinderbyanelevatorusuallyworkedwithachain.Thischainshouldbekepttightenoughnottounhook,yetnotsotightastobind.

Toputthechainintotheelevator,tieaweightonaropeanddropitdownthelowerpartoftheelevator.Thechainmaybefastenedtotheropeandamanatthetopcanthenpullthechainup,whileanotherfeedsitinatthebottom.When

chainhas beendrawnup to the top, the rope should be droppeddownupperportion of elevator and used at bottom to pull chain down after it has beenadjustedoverthesprocket.Someoneatthebottomshouldcontinuetofeedthechaininasitispulleddown,sothatitwillgointotheelevatorstraight.Whenthechainhasbeenpulledthroughitmaybehookedandadjustedtolowersprocket,andtightenedupbyscrewsattop.Turnthechainaroundoncebyhandtomakesuretherearenokinksinit.

Thetailingsshouldbesmall,containingnolightchaffandlittlefull-sizegrain.Theyareagoodindicationofhowthesievesareworking.Ifmuchgoodgrainiscomingthrough,seeifitgetsovertheconveyorsievebywayoftheextensiontothetailingsauger,orovertheshoesieve.Ifthesievesarenotright,theymaybeadjustedinvariousways,accordingtothedirectionsofthemanufacturer.

Grainreturnedinthetailingsisliabletogetcrackedinthecylinder,andmuchchaffinthetailingschokesthecylinder.Foreveryreason,thetailingsshouldbekeptaslowaspossible.

SELF-FEEDER

Theself-feederisarrangedtocutthebandsofthesheavesandfeedthegraintothecylinderautomatically.Ithasagovernortopreventcrowdingintoomuchgrain,andusuallyachangeofpulleysforsloworfastfeeding,ascircumstancesmayrequire.Instartinganewgovernorthefrictionpulleyandinsideofthebandshouldhavepaint scrapedoff, and a little oil shouldbeputon faceof frictionwheel.Thecarriershouldnotstarttillthemachineattainsfullthreshingmotion,andtopreventthisafewsheavesshouldbelaiduponit.Theknifearmsshouldberaisedorloweredtoadjustthemtothesizeofthesheavesandconditionofthegrainforcuttingbands.

Thecranksandcarriershaftboxesshouldbeoiledregularly,but the frictionbandsshouldnotbeoiledafteritoncebecomessmooth.

THEWINDSTACKER

Thewindstacker is arranged to swingbyahand-wheelor the like, andalsoautomatically.

Great care shouldbe takennot touse thehandmovingapparatuswhen thestackerissetforautomaticmoving,asabreakisliabletofollow.Thereisaclutchtostopthestacker,however.Attimesitwillbemoreconvenienttoleaveoffthebeltthatcausestheautomaticmovement.

By theuseof variouspulleys the speedof the stackermaybe altered, and itshould be run no faster than is necessary to do thework required,whichwilldependonthecharacterofthestraw.Anyextraspeedusedwilladdtothecostofrunningtheengineandisalossineconomy.

Inmovingmachinewithwindstackerinplace,careshouldbetakentoseethatitrestsinitssupportbeforemachinemoves.

Thecanvascurtainunderthedecking,usedtoturnthestrawintothehopper,mayneedapieceofwoodfastenedto its loweredgetokeepitmorestiffwhenstiffryestrawispassing.Thebearingsofthefanandjackshaftsshouldbekeptwelllubricatedwithhardoil,andthebevelgearsshouldbekeptwellgreasedwithaxle grease applied with a stick. Other bearings and worm gear of automaticdeviceshouldbeoiledwithsoftoil.

Theattachedstackerissimpleinoperation,andifitisdesirednottousetheautomaticswingingdevicebutswingbyhand,theautomaticgearmaybethrownout.Anindependentstackerismanagedinmuchthesameway.

ATTACHMENTS

Aweigher,bagger,andahighloaderareusuallyusedwithaseparator.Theiroperationissimple,anddependsupontheparticulartypeormake.

BELTING

The care of the belting is one of the most important things about themanagementofa threshingmachine,andsuccessor failurewilldepend largelyon thecondition inwhich thebeltsarekept.Ofcourse thehair sideshouldberunnextthebandwheel.Oncetherewasdisagreementamongengineersonthispoint,butithasbeenconclusivelyproventhatbeltswearlongerthiswayandgetbetterfriction,forthesimplereasonthatthefleshsideismoreflexiblethanthehairside,andwhenontheoutsidebetteraccommodatesitselftotheshapeofthepulley. If the hair side is outermost, it will be stretchedmore or less in goingaroundthepulleyandintimewillcrack.Rubberbeltsmustberunwiththeseamontheoutside.

Whenleatherbeltsbecomehardtheyshouldbesoftenedwithneatsfootoil.Aflexiblebeltissaidtotransmitconsiderablymorepowerthanahardone.

Pulleysmustbekeptinlineorthebeltwillslipoff.Whenpulleysareinlinethebelthasa tendency towork to the tightestpoint.Hencepulleysareusuallymadelargerinthemiddle,whichiscalled“crowning.”

Beltsonaseparatorshouldbelookedovereveryday,andwhenanylacingisworn, it should be renewed at once. Thiswill prevent breaks duringworking,withlossoftime.Somethreshermencarryanextrasetofbeltstobereadyincaseanythingdoesbreak,andtheyassertthattheysavemoneybysodoing.

Lacingisnotstrongerinproportionasitisheavy.Ifitisheavyandclumsyitgetsstrainedingoingroundthepulley,andsoongivesout.Theidealwaytolaceabeltistomakeitasnearlyliketherestofthebeltaspossible,sothatitwillgooverthepulleyswithoutajar.Theendsofthebeltshouldbecutoffsquarewithatry square, and a small punchused formakingholes.Holes should be equallyspaced,andoutsideonesnotsoneartheedgeastotearout.Theruleisaholetoeveryinchofthebelt,andinaleatherbelttheymaybeascloseasaquarterofaninch to the endswithout tearing out.Other things being equal, the nearer theendstheholesarethebetter,asbeltwillthenpassoverpulleymoreeasily.Thechiefdangeroftearingisbetweentheholes.

A stacker web belt may be laced by turning the ends up and lacing themtogetherflatatrightanglestorestofbelt.Rubberorcottonbeltingthatdoesnotrun over idler or tightener pulleys so that both sidesmust be smoothmay belacedinthisway.Thislacinglaststwoorthreetimesaslongwithsuchbeltsasanyother, for thereasonthat thestring isnotexposedtowearandthere isnostraininginpassingroundpulleys.

Theordinarymethodof lacinga leatherbelt is tomakethe lacesstraightonthepulley side, all running in the samedirectionas themovementof thebelt,andcrossingthemontheoutsidediagonallyinbothdirections.Whenbeltsrunonpulleysonbothsides,astheydoonthebeltdrivingbeaterandcrank,andalsoonwindstacker,ahingelacingmaybemadebycrossingthelacingaroundtheendofthebelttothenextadjacentholeopposite,thelacingshowingthesameonbothsides.Thisallowsthebelttobendequallywelleitherway.

Thebestwaytofastenalacingistopunchaholewherethenextrowoflaceholeswouldcomewhenthebeltiscutoff,andafterpassingthelacethroughthishole,bringtheendaroundandforceitthroughagain,cuttingtheendoffshortafter it has passed through. This hole must be small enough to hold the lacesecurely,andcareshouldbetakenthatitisinpositiontobeusedasalace-holethenexttimeaseriesofholesisrequired.

Newbeltsstretchagooddeal,andtheendsofthelacingshouldnotbecutoffshorttillthestretchistakenoutofthebelts.

Beltingthathasgotwetwillshrinkandlacingmustbeletoutbeforebeltisputonagain.Tightbeltshavebeenknowntobreaktheendofashaftoff,andalways

causeunnecessaryfriction.Cotton orGandy belting should not be punched for lacing, but holesmade

withapointedawl,sincepunchingcutssomeofthethreadsandweakensbelt.

HOWTOBECOMEAGOODFEEDER

Theartofbecomingagoodfeederwillnotbe learnedinaday.Thebundlesshould be tippedwell up against the cylinder cap, and flat bundles turned onedge, so that cylinder will take them from the top. It is not hard to spread abundle, and in fast threshing a bundlemay be fed on each side, each bundlebeingkeptprettywell to its own side,while the cylinder is kept full the entirewidth.Agoodfeederwillkeepthestrawcarrierevenlycoveredwithstraw,andwill watch the stacker, tailings and grain elevator and know the momentanythinggoeswrong.

WASTE

Nothreshingmachinewillsaveeverykernelofthegrain,butthebestresultscanbeattainedonlybycareandjudgmentinoperating.

It iseasytoexaggeratethe lossofgrain,for ifaverysmallstreamofgrainisseengoingintothestrawitwillseemenormous,thoughitwillnotamounttoabusheladay.Therearepracticallyamillionkernelsofwheatinabushel,or600handfuls,andevenifahandfuliswastedeveryminute,itwouldnotbeenoughtocounterbalancethesavinginfinishingajobquickly.

Of course, wastemust bewatched, however, and checked if too great. Firstdeterminewhether the grain is carriedover in the strawor thewaste is at theshoesieve.

Ifthewasteisintheconveyorsieve,catchahandfulofthechaff,andifgrainisfound,seewhetherthesieveisthepropermesh.Toohighaspeedwillcausethegraintobecarriedover.Iftoomanyteethareusedintheconcave,theconveyorsievewillbeforcedtocarrymorechaffthanitcanhandle.Theblastmaybetoostrongandcarryovergrain,soadjusttheblindsthattheblastwillbenostrongerthan is necessary to clean the wheat well and keep sieves free. If grain is stillcarriedover, theconveyorsievemaybeadjustedformoreopenwork,butcareshouldbetakennottooverworktheshoesieve.Becarefulthatthewindboardisnot bent so that some grain will go into the fan and be thrown out of themachinealtogether.

If the grain is not separated from the straw thoroughly, it may be due to

“slugging”thecylinder(resultofpoorfeeding),causingavariablemotion.Itmayalso be because speed of crank is not high enough. Check board should beadjusted as low as possible toprevent grainbeing carriedon topof straw. Seethatcylinderandconcaveteethareproperlyadjustedsoasnottocutupstraw,whileatthesametimethreshingoutallthegrain.Sometimesheadsnotthreshedoutbythecylinderwillbethreshedoutbythefanofthewindstacker,andthefault will be placed on the separating portions instead of on the imperfectcylinder.

Grainpasses through the cylinder at the rate of about amile aminute.Thebeater reduces this to1,500 feetperminute.Afterpassing thecheckboard thestrawmovesabout36feetperminute.Atthesethreedifferentspeedsthestrawpassesthe17feetlengthofthemachineinabout25seconds.Theproblemistostopthegrainwhile thestrawisallowedtopassout.Evidentlytheremustbeasmallpercentageofloss,andthereisalwaysalimitastowhatitwillpaytotrytosave.Eachmanmustjudgeforhimself.

BALANCINGACYLINDER

Acylinder shouldbe sobalanced that itwill come to rest at anypoint. In aroughwayacylindermaybebalancedbyplacingthejournalsontwocarpenter’ssquares laid on saw-horses. Gently roll the cylinder back and forth and everytimeitstops,makeachalkmarkontheuppermostbar.Ifthesamebarcomesupthreetimesinsuccessionitprobablyislight,andawedgeshouldbedrivenundercenterbandatchalkmark.Continueexperimentinguntilcylinderwillcometorestatanypoint.

COVERINGPULLEYS

This iseasilydone,butcaremustbe takenthat the leathersare tightor theywillsooncomeoff.

Tocoveracylinderpulley,takeoffwhatremainsoftheoldcover,pulloutthenails, and renew thewedges if necessary. Select a good piece of leather a littlewider than face of pulley and about four inches longer than enough to goaround.Soakitinwaterforaboutanhour.Cutoneendsquareandnailittothewedges,usingnailsjustlongenoughtoclinch.Putaclampmadeoftwopiecesofwoodand twoboltson the leather,block the cylinder tokeep it from turning,andbymeansoftwoshortleverspryovertheclamptostretchtheleather.Nailtothenextwedges,movetheclampandnailtoeachinturn,finallynailingtothe

firstoneagainbeforecuttingoff.Trimtheedgesevenwiththerimofthepulley.Thesamemethodmaybeusedwithrivetedcovers.

CAREOFASEPARATOR

Agoodseparatoroughttolasttenyears,andmanyhavebeeninusetwicethattime.After theseason isover themachineought tobe thoroughlycleanedandstoredinadryplace.Dirtonamachineholdsmoistureandwillruinaseparatorduringawinterifitislefton.Italsocausesthewoodtorotandsievesandironworktorust.

Onceintwoyearsatleastaseparatoroughttohaveagoodcoatoffirst-classcoachvarnish.Beforevarnishing,cleanoffallgreaseandoilwithbenzineandseethatpaintisbright.

At the beginning of the season give the machine a thorough overhauling,puttingnewteethincylinderifanyareimperfect,andnewslatsinstackerweborstrawrackiftheyareneeded.Wornboxesshouldbetakenuporrebabbitted,andconveyor and shoe eccentrics replaced if worn out. Tighten nuts, replace lostbolts, leaving the nut always turned square with the piece it rests on. Everyseparatoroughttobecoveredwithacanvasduringtheseason.Itwillpay.

Therightandleftsidesofathreshingmachinearereckonedfromthepositionofthefeederashestandsfacingthemachine.

Incaseoffire,thequickestwayistolettheenginepullthemachineoutbythebelt.Takeblocksawayfromwheels,placeamanatendof tonguetosteer,andbackengineslowly.Ifnecessary,menshouldhelpthewheelstostartoutofholesorsoftplaces.

Watch the forks of the pitchers to see that none are loose on the handles,especiallyifaself-feederisused.Apitchforkinaseparatorisabadthing.

CHAPTERXVQUESTIONSASKEDENGINEERSWHENAPPLYINGFORA

LICENSE*

Q. Ifyouwerecalledonto takechargeofaplantwhatwouldbeyour firstduty?

A. To ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its attachments(safetyvalve,steamgauge,pump,injector),andengine.

Q.Howoftenwouldyoublowoffandcleanyourboilersifyouhadordinarywatertouse?

A.Onceamonth.Q. Whatsteampressurewillbeallowedonaboiler50 inchesdiameter3/8

inchthick,60,000T.S.1-6oftensilestrengthfactorofsafety?A. One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of plate,

dividedbyone-halfofthediameterofboiler,givessafeworkingpressure.Q. Howmuch heating surface is allowed per horse power by builders of

boilers?A.Twelvetofifteenfeetfortubularandflueboilers.Q.Howdoyouestimatethestrengthofaboiler?A.Byitsdiameterandthicknessofmetal.Q.Whichisthebetter,singleordoubleriveting?A.Doublerivetingisfromsixteentotwentypercentstrongerthansingle.Q.Howmuchgratesurfacedoboilermakersallowperhorsepower?A.Abouttwo-thirdsofasquarefoot.Q.Ofwhatuseisamuddrumonaboiler,ifany?A.Forcollectingallthesedimentoftheboiler.Q.Howoftenshoulditbeblownout?A.Threeorfourtimesaday.Q.Ofwhatuseisasteamdomeonaboiler?A.Forstorageofdrysteam.Q.Whatistheobjectofasafetyvalveonaboiler?A.Torelievepressure.Q.Whatisyourdutywithreferencetoit?A.Toraiseittwiceadayandseethatitisingoodorder.

Q.Whatistheuseofcheckvalveonaboiler?A.Topreventwaterfromreturningbackintopumporinjectorwhichfeeds

theboiler.Q.Doyouthinkaman-holeintheshellontopofaboilerweakensitany?A.Yes,toacertainextent.Q.Whateffecthascoldwateronhotboilerplates?A.Itwillfracturethem.Q.Whereshouldthegaugecockbelocated?A.Thelowestgaugecockoughttobeplacedaboutaninchandahalfabove

thetoprowofflues.Q.Howwouldyouhaveyourblow-offlocated?A.Inthebottomofmud-drumorboiler.Q.Howwouldyouhaveyourcheckvalvearranged?A.Withastopcockbetweencheckandboiler.Q.Howmanyvalvesarethereinacommonplungerforcepump?A.Twoormore—areceivingandadischargevalve.Q.Howaretheylocated?A.Oneonthesuctionside,theotheronthedischarge.Q.Howdoyoufindthepropersizeofsafetyvalvesforboilers?A. Three square feetofgrate surface isallowed forone inchareaof spring

loadedvalves; or two square feet of grate surface toone inch areaof commonlevervalves.

Q.Givethereasonswhypumpsdonotworksometimes?A.Leakinsuction,leakaroundtheplunger,leakycheckvalve,orvalvesout

oforder,orlifttoolong.Q.Howoftenoughtboilerstobethoroughlyexaminedandtested?A.Twiceayear.Q.Howwouldyoutestthem?A.Withhammerandwithhydrostatictest,usingwarmwater.Q. Describe the singleactingplungerpump;how it gets anddischarges its

water?A.Theplungerdisplacestheairinthewaterpipe,causingavacuumwhichis

filledbytheatmosphereforcingthewatertherein;thereceivingvalveclosesandtheplungerforcesthewateroutthroughthedischargevalve.

Q.Whatisthemosteconomicalboiler-feeder?A.The(Trix)ExhaustInjector.**Q.WhateconomyisthereintheExhaustInjector?

A.From15to25percentsavinginfuel.Q.Whereisthebestplacetoentertheboilerwiththefeedwater?A.Belowthewaterlevel,butsothatthecoldwatercannotstrikehotplates.If

injectorisusedthisisnotsomaterialasfeedwaterisalwayshot.Q.Whataretheprincipalcausesofpriminginboilers?A.Tohighwater,notsteamroomenough,misconstruction,enginetoolarge

forboiler.Q.Howdoyoukeepboilerscleanorremovescaletherefrom?A.Thebest“scalesolvent”and“feedwaterpurifier”isanhonest,intelligent

engineer who will regularly open up his boilers and clean them thoroughly,soakingboilersinrainwaternowandthen.

Q.Ifyoufoundathinplate,whatwouldyoudo?A.Putapatchonit.Q.Wouldyouputitontheinsideoroutside?A.Inside.Q.Whyso?A.Becausetheactionthathasweakenedtheplatewillthensetonthepatch,

andwhenthisiswornitcanberepeated.Q.Ifyoufoundseveralthinplaces,whatwouldyoudo?A.Patcheachandreducethepressure.Q.Ifyoufoundablisteredplate?A.Putapatchonthefireside.Q.Ifyoufoundaplateonthebottombuckled?A.Putastaythroughthecenterofbuckle.Q.Ifyoufoundseveraloftheplatesbuckled?A.Stayeachandreducethepressure.Q.Whatistobedonewithacrackedplate?A.Drillaholeateachendofcrack,caulkthecrackandputapatchoverit.Q.Howdoyouchangethewaterintheboilerwhenthesteamisup?A.Byputtingonmorefeedandopeningthesurfaceblowcock.Q. If the safetyvalvewas stuckhowwouldyou relieve thepressureon the

boilerifthesteamwasupandcouldnotmakeitsescape?A. Work the steamoffwith engine after covering fires heavywith coal or

ashes,andwhentheboilerissufficientlycoolputsafetyvalveinworkingorder.Q.Ifwaterinboilerissufferedtogettoolow,whatmaybetheresult?A.Burntopofcombustionchamberandtubes,perhapscauseanexplosion.Q.Ifwaterisallowedtogettoohigh,whatresult?

A.Causepriming,perhapscausebreakingofcylindercoversorheads.Q.Whataretheprincipalcausesoffoaminginboilers?A.Dirtyandimpurewater.Q.Howcanfoamingbestopped?A.Closethrottleandkeepclosedlongenoughtoshowtruelevelofwater.If

that level is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing off will usually suffice tocorrecttheevil.

Q. Whatwouldyoudo ifyoushouldfindyourwatergonefromsightverysuddenly?

A.Drawthefiresandcooloffasquicklyaspossible.Neveropenorcloseanyoutletsofsteamwhenyourwaterisoutofsight.Q. Whatprecautions shouldyou take toblowdownapartof thewater in

yourboilerwhilerunningwithagoodfire?A.Neverleavetheblow-offvalve,andwatchthewaterlevel.Q.Howmuchwaterwouldyoublowoffatoncewhilerunning?A.Neverblowoffmorethanonegaugeofwateratatimewhilerunning.Q. Whatgeneralviewshaveyouinregardtoboilerexplosions—whatisthe

greatestcause?A.Ignoranceandneglectarethegreatestcausesofboilerexplosions.Q. Whatprecaution should the engineer takewhennecessary to stopwith

heavyfires?A.Closedampers,putoninjectororpumpandifableederisattached,useit.Q.Whereistheproperwaterlevelinboilers?A.Asafewaterlevelisabouttwoandahalfinchesovertoprowofflues.Q.Whatisanengineer’sfirstdutyonenteringtheboilerroom?A.Toascertainthetruewaterlevel.Q.Whenshouldaboilerbeblownout?A.Afteritiscooledoff,neverwhilehot.Q.Whenlayingupaboilerwhatshouldbedone?A. Clean thoroughly inside andout; removeall oxidationandpaintplaces

withreleased;examineallstaysandbracestoseeifanyarelooseorbadlyworn.Q.Whatisthelastthingtodoatnightbeforeleavingplant?A.Lookaroundforgreasywaste,hotcoals,matches,oranythingwhichcould

firethebuilding.Q.Whatwouldyoudoifyouhadaplantingoodworkingorder?A.Keepitso,andletwellenoughalone.Q.Ofwhatuseistheindicator?

A. Theindicator isusedtodeterminetheindicatedpowerdevelopedbyanengine,toserveasaguideinsettingvalvesandshowingtheactionofthesteaminthecylinder.

Q.Howwouldyouincreasethepowerofanengine?A. To increase the power of an engine, increase the speed; or get higher

pressureofsteam,uselessexpansion.Q.Howdoyoufindthehorsepowerofanengine?A. Multiply the speed of piston in feet per minute by the total effective

pressureuponthepistoninpoundsanddividetheproductby33,000.Q. Which has themost friction, a perfectly fitted, or an imperfectly fitted

valveorbearing?A.Animperfectone.Q. How hot can you get water under atmospheric pressure with exhaust

steam?A.12degrees.Q.Doespressurehaveanyinfluenceontheboilingpoint?A.Yes.Q. Whichdoyouthinkisthebesteconomy,torunwithyourthrottlewide

openorpartlyshut?A.Alwayshavethethrottlewideopenonagovernorengine.Q.Atwhattemperaturehasironthegreatesttensilestrength?A.About600degrees.Q. Inwhatpositionon theshaftdoes theeccentric stand inrelation to the

crank?A.Thethrowoftheeccentricshouldalwaysbeinadvanceofthecrankpin.Q. Abouthowmanypoundsofwaterarerequiredtoyieldonehorsepower

withourbestengines?A.From25to30.Q.Whatismeantbyatmosphericpressure?A.Theweightoftheatmosphere.Q.Whatistheweightofatmosphereatsealevel?A.14.7pounds.Q.Whatisthecoalconsumptionperhourperindicatedhorsepower?A.Variesfromoneandahalftosevenpounds.Q. What is the consumption of coal per hour on a square foot of grate

surface?A.From10to12pounds.

Q. What is the water consumption in pounds per hour per indicatedhorsepower?

A.From25to60pounds.Q.Howmanypoundsofwatercanbeevaporatedwithonepoundofbestsoft

coal?A.From7to10pounds.Q. How much steam will one cubic inch of water evaporate under

atmosphericpressure?A.Onecubicfootofsteam(approximately).Q.Whatistheweightofacubicfootoffreshwater?A.Sixty-twoandahalfpounds.Q.Whatistheweightofacubicfootofiron?A.486.6pounds.Q.Whatistheweightofasquarefootofone-halfinchboilerplate?A.20pounds.Q.Howmuchwoodequalsonetonofsoftcoalforsteampurposes?A.About4,000poundsofwood.Q.Whatisthesourceofallpowerinthesteamengine?A.Theheatstoredupinthecoal.Q.Howistheheatliberatedfromthecoal?A.Byburningit;thatis,bycombustion.Q.Ofwhatdoescoalconsist?A.Carbon,hydrogen,nitrogen,sulphur,oxygenandash.Q.Whataretherelativeproportionsofthesethatenterintocoal?A. There are different proportions in different specimens of coal, but the

following shows the average per cent: Carbon, 80; hydrogen. 5; nitrogen, 1;sulphur,2;oxygen7;ash.

Q.Whatmustbemixedwithcoalbeforeitwillburn?A.Atmosphericair.Q.Whatisaircomposedof?A.Itiscomposedofnitrogenandoxygenintheproportionof77ofnitrogen

to23ofoxygen.Q.Whatpartsoftheairmixwithwhatpartsofthecoal?A.Theoxygenoftheairmixeswiththecarbonandhydrogenofthecoal.Q.Howmuchairmustmixwiththecoal?A.150cubicfeetofairforeverypoundofcoal.Q.Howmanypoundsofairarerequiredtoburnonepoundofcarbon?

A.Twelve.Q.Howmanypoundsofairarerequiredtoburnonepoundofhydrogen?A.Thirty-six.Q.Ishydrogenhotterthancarbon?A.Yes,fourandone-halftimeshotter.Q.Whatpartofthecoalgivesoutthemostheat?A.Thehydrogendoespartforpart,butasthereissomuchmoreofcarbon

thanhydrogeninthecoalwegetthegreatestamountofheatfromcarbon.Q.Inhowmanydifferentwaysisheattransmitted?A.Three;byradiation,byconductionandbyconvection.Q. If thefireconsistedofglowingfuel,showhowtheheatenters thewater

andformssteam?A.Theheatfromtheglowingfuelpassesbyradiationthroughtheairspace

above the fuel to the furnace crown. There it passes through the iron of thecrownbyconduction.Thereitwarmsthewaterrestingonthecrown,whichthenrisesandpartswithitsheattothecolderwaterbyconductiontillthewholemassofwater isheated.Thentheheatedwaterrisestothesurfaceandpartswithitssteam,soaconstantcirculationofwaterismaintainedbyconvection.

Q.Whatdoeswaterconsistof?A.Oxygenandhydrogen.Q.Inwhatproportion?A.Eightofoxygentooneofhydrogenbyweight.Q.Whatarethedifferentkindsofheat?A.Latentheat,sensibleheatandsometimestotalheat.Q.Whatismeantbylatentheat?A. Heat that does not affect the thermometer andwhich expands itself in

changingthenatureofabody,suchasturningiceintowaterorwaterintosteam.Q.Underwhatcircumstancesdobodiesgetlatentheat?A.Whentheyarepassingfromasolidstatetoaliquidorfromaliquidtoa

gaseousstate.Q.Howcanlatentheatberecovered?A.Bybringingthebodybackfromastateofgastoaliquidorfromthatofa

liquidtothatofasolid.Q.Whatismeantbyathermalunit?A. Theheatnecessary to raiseonepoundofwaterby1degreeFahrenheit,

whichis39degreesFahrenheit.Q.Ifthepowerisincoal,whyshouldweusesteam?

A.Becausesteamhassomepropertieswhichmakeitaninvaluableagentforapplyingtheenergyoftheheattotheengine.

Q.Whatissteam?A. It is an invisible elastic gas generated fromwater by the application of

heat.Q.Whatareitspropertieswhichmakeitsovaluabletous?A. 1.—The ease with which we can condense it. 2.—Its great expansive

power.3.—Thesmallspaceitoccupieswhencondensed.Q.Whydoyoucondensethesteam?A.Toformavacuum,andsodestroythebackpressurethatwouldotherwise

beonthepistonandthusgetmoreusefulworkoutofthesteam.Q.Whatisvacuum?A.Aspacevoidofallpressure.Q.Howdoyoumaintainavacuum?A. Bythesteamusedbeingconstantlycondensedbythecoldwaterorcold

tubes,andtheairpumpasconstantlyclearingthecondenserout.Q.Whydoescondensingtheusedsteamformavacuum?A.Becauseacubicfootofsteam,atatmosphericpressure,shrinksintoabout

acubicinchofwater.Q.Whatdoyouunderstandbythetermhorsepower?A.Ahorsepowerisequivalenttoraising33,000poundsonefootperminute,

or550poundsraisedonefootpersecond.Q.Howdoyoucalculatethehorsepoweroftubularorflueboilers?A. For tubular boilers,multiply the square of the diameter by length, and

dividebyfour.Forflueboilers,multiplythediameterbythelengthanddividebyfour;or,multiplyareaofgratesurfaceinsquarefeetby11/2.

Q.Whatdoyouunderstandbyleadonanengine’svalve?A. Lead on a valve is the admission of steam into the cylinder before the

pistoncompletesitsstroke.Q. What is theclearanceofanengineas the term isappliedat thepresent

time?A.Clearanceisthespacebetweenthecylinderheadandthepistonheadwith

theportsincluded.Q.Whatareconsideredthegreatestimprovementsonthestationaryengine

inthelastfortyyears?A.Thegovernor,theCorlissvalvegearandthetriplecompoundexpansion.Q.Whatismeantbytripleexpansionengine?

A.Atripleexpansionenginehasthreecylindersusingthesteamexpansivelyineachone.

Q.Whatisacondenserasappliedtoanengine?A.Thecondenserisapartofthelowpressureengineandisareceptacleinto

whichtheexhaustentersandistherecondensed.Q. What are the principles which distinguish a high pressure from a low

pressureengine?A. Where no condenser is used and the exhaust steam is open to the

atmosphere.Q.Abouthowmuchgainistherebyusingthecondenser?A.17to25percentwherecostofwaterisnotfigured.Q.Whatdoyouunderstandbytheuseofsteamexpansively?A. Where steam admitted at a certain pressure is cut off and allowed to

expandtoalowerpressure.Q.Howmanyinchesofvacuumgivethebestresultsinacondensingengine?A.Usuallyconsidered25.Q.Whatismeantbyahorizontaltandemengine?A.Onecylinderbeingbehindtheotherwithtwopistonsonsamerod.Q.WhatisaCorlissvalvegear?A.(Describethehalfmoonorcrabclawgear,orovalarmgearwithdashpots.)

Q.Fromwhatcausedobeltshavethepowertodriveshafting?A.Byfrictionorcohesion.Q.Whatdoyouunderstandbylap?A.Outsidelapisthatportionofvalvewhichextendsbeyondtheportswhen

valve is placed on the center of travel, and inside lap is that portion of valvewhichprojectsovertheportsontheinsideortowardsthemiddleofvalve.

Q.Whatistheuseoflap?A.Togivetheenginecompression.Q.Whereisthedeadcenterofanengine?A.Thepointwherethecrankandthepistonrodareinthesamerightline.Q.WhatisthetensilestrengthofAmericanboileriron?A.40,000to60,000poundspersquareinch.Q.Whatisveryhightensilestrengthinboilerironapttogowith?A.Lackofhomogeneousnessandlackoftoughness.Q.Whatistheadvantageoftoughnessinboilerplate?A.Itstandsirregularstrainsandsuddenshocksbetter.Q.Whataretheprincipaldefectsfoundinboileriron?

A.Imperfectwelding,brittleness,lowductility.Q.Whataretheadvantagesofsteelasamaterialforboilerplates?A. Homogeneity, tensile strength,malleability, ductility and freedom from

laminationsandblisters.Q.Whatarethedisadvantagesofsteelasamaterialforboilerplates?A. It requires greater skill inworking than iron, andhas, as bad qualities,

brittleness,lowductilityandflawsinducedbythepressureofgasbubblesintheingot.

Q.Whenwouldyouoilanengine?A.Beforestartingitandasoftenwhilerunningasnecessary.Q.Howdoyoufindpropersizeofanystayboltsforawellmadeboiler?A. First,multiplythegivensteampressurepersquareinchbythesquareof

thedistancebetweencentersofstaybolts,anddividetheproductby6,000,andcalltheanswer“thequotient.”Second,divide“thequotient”by7854,andextractthesquarerootofthelastquotient;theanswerwillgivetherequireddiameterofstayboltsatthebottomofthread.

Q.Inwhatpositionwouldyouplaceanengine,totakeupanyslackmotionofthereciprocatingparts?

A. Place engine in the position where the least wear takes place on thejournals.Thatis,intakingupthewearofthecrank-pinbrasses,placetheengineoneitherdeadcenter,as,whenrunning,thereisbutlittlewearuponthecrank-pin at these points. If taking up the cross-head pin brasses—withoutdisconnectingandswingingtherod—placetheengineathalfstroke,whichistheextremepointofswingoftherod,therebeingtheleastwearonthebrassesandcross-headpininthisposition.

Q.Whatbenefitsarederivedbyusingflywheelsonsteamengines?A.Theenergydevelopedinthecylinderwhilethesteamisdoingitsworkis

storedupintheflywheel,andgivenoutbyitwhilethereisnoworkbeingdoneinthecylinder—thatis,whentheengineispassingthedeadcenters.Thistendstokeepthespeedoftheengineshaftsteady.

Q.Nameseveralkindsofreducingmotions,asusedinindicatorpractice?A.Thepantograph,thependulum,thebrumbopulley,thereducingwheel.Q.Howcananengineertellfromanindicatordiagramwhetherthepistonor

valvesareleaking?A.Leakysteamvalveswillcausetheexpansioncurvetobecomeconvex;that

is, it will not follow hyperbolic expansion, and will also show increased backpressure.But if the exhaust valves leak also, onemayoffset the other, and the

indicatordiagramwouldshownoleak.A leaky piston can be detected by a rapid falling in the pressure on the

expansion curve immediately after the point of cut-off. It will also showincreasedbackpressure.

A falling inpressure in theupperportionof thecompressioncurve showsaleakintheexhaustvalve.

Q.Whatwouldbethebestmethodoftreatingabadlyscaledboiler,thatwastobecleanedbyaliberaluseofcompound?

A.Firstopentheboilerupandnotewheretheloosescale,ifany,haslodged.Washoutthoroughlyandputintherequiredamountofcompound.Whiletheboilerisinservice,opentheblow-offvalveforafewseconds,twoorthreetimesaday,tobeassuredthatitdoesnotbecomestoppedupwithscale.

After running theboiler foraweek, shut itdown,and,when thepressure isdown and the boiler cooled off, run thewater out and take off the hand-holeplates. Note what effect the compound has had on the scale, and where thedisengaged scale has lodged. Wash out thoroughly and use judgment as towhetheritisadvisabletousealessorgreaterquantityofcompound,ortoaddasmallquantitydaily.

Continuethewashingoutatshortintervals,asmanyboilershavebeenburnedbylargequantitiesofscaledroppingonthecrownsheetsandnotbeingremoved.

Q.Ifacondenserwasattachedtoaside-valveengine,thathadbeensettorunnon-condensing,whatchanges,ifany,wouldbenecessary?

A. Morelapwouldhavetobeaddedtothevalvetocutoff thesteamatanearlierpointofthestroke;ifnot,theinitialpressureintothecylinderwouldbethrottled down and the economy, to be gained from running condensing,lessened.

Q. If you are carrying a vacuum equal to 271/2 inches of mercury, whatshouldthetemperatureofthewaterinthehotwellbe?

A.108degreesFahrenheit.Q.Definespecificgravity.A. The specific gravity of a substance is the number which expresses the

relation between the weights of equal volume of that substance, and distilledwaterof60degreesFahrenheit.

Q. Findthespecificgravityofabodywhosevolumeis12cubicinches,andwhichfloatsinwaterwith7cubicinchesimmersed.

A.Whenabodyfloatsinwater,itdisplacesaquantityofwaterequaltotheweightofthefloatingbody.Thus, ifabodyof12cubicinchesinvolumefloats

with7cubicinchesimmersed,7cubicinchesofwatermustbeequalinweightto12cubicinchesofthesubstanceandonecubicinchofwatertotwelve-seventhscubicinchesofthesubstance.

Asspecificgravityequalsweightofonevolumeofsubstancedividedbyweightofequalvolumeofwater,thenspecificgravityofthesubstanceinthiscaseequalsIdividedbytwelve-sevenths.

USEFULINFORMATION

Tofindcircumferenceofacircle,multiplydiameterby3.1416.Tofinddiameterofacircle,multiplycircumferenceby31831.Tofindareaofacirclemultiplysquareofdiameterby7854.Tofindareaofatriangle,multiplybasebyone-halftheperpendicularheight.Tofindsurfaceofaball,multiplysquareofdiameterby3.1416.Tofindsolidityofasphere,multiplycubeofdiameterby5236.Tofindsideofanequalsquare,multiplydiameterby8862.Tofindcubicinchesinaballmultiplycubeofdiameterby5236.Doublingthediameterofapipeincreasesitscapacityfourtimes.Agallonofwater(U.S.standard)weighs81-3poundsandcontains231cubic

inches.A cubic foot of water contains 71/2 gallons, 1728 cubic inches, and weighs

621/2pounds.Tofindthepressureinpoundspersquareinchofacolumnofwatermultiply

theheightofthecolumninfeetby434.Steamrisingfromwateratitsboilingpoint(212degrees)hasapressureequal

totheatmosphere(14.7poundstothesquareinch).Astandardhorsepower:Theevaporationof30lbs.ofwaterperhourfroma

feedwatertemperatureof100degreesF.intosteamat70lbs.gaugepressure.Tofindcapacityoftanksanysize;givendimensionsofacylinderininches,to

finditscapacityinU.S.gallons:Squarethediameter,multiplybythelengthandby0034.

To ascertain heating surface in tubular boilers, multiply two-thirds of thecircumferenceofboilerbylengthofboilerininchesandaddtoittheareaofallthetubes.

One-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of plate anddividedbyone-halfthediameterofboilergivessafeworkingpressurefortubularboilers.Formarineboilersadd20percentfordrilledholes.

To find the horsepower of an engine, the following four factors must beconsidered:Meaneffectiveoraveragepressureonthecylinder,lengthofstroke,diameterofcylinder,andnumberofrevolutionsperminute.Findtheareaofthepistoninsquareinchesbymultiplyingthediameterby3.1416andmultiplytheresultbythesteampressureinpoundspersquareinch;multiplythisproductbytwice the product of the length of the stroke in feet and the number ofrevolutions perminute; divide the result by 33,000, and the result will be thehorsepoweroftheengine.

(Theoreticallyahorsepowerisapowerthatwillraise33,000poundsonefootinoneminute.)Thepowerof fuel ismeasuredtheoretically fromthefollowingbasis:Ifapoundweightfall780feetinavacuum,itwillgenerateheatenoughtoraisethetemperatureofonepoundofwateronedegree.Conversely,powerthatwillraiseonepoundofwateronedegreeintemperaturewillraiseaonepoundweight780feet.Theheatforcerequiredtoturnapoundofwaterat32degreesinto steamwould lift a tonweight 400 feet high, or develop two-fifths of onehorsepower for an hour. The best farm engine practically uses 35 pounds ofwaterperhorsepowerperhour,showingthatonepoundofwaterwoulddeveloponly one-thirty-fifth of a horsepower in an hour, or 71-7 per cent of the heatforceliberated.Therestoftheheatforceislostinvariousways,asexplainedinthebodyofthisbook.

The following***willassist indetermining theamountofpowersupplied toan engine: “For instance, a 1 inch belt of the standard grade with the propertension,neithertootightortooloose,runningatamaximumspeedof800feetaminutewill transmit one horsepower, running 1,600 feet two horsepower and2,400feetthreehorsepower.A2-inchbeltatthesamespeed,twicethepower.

“Now if you know the circumference of your flywheel, the number ofrevolutions your engine is making and the width of belt, you can figure verynearly the amount of power you can supply without slipping your belt. Forinstance,wewillsayyourflywheelis40inchesindiameteror10.5feetnearlyincircumferenceandyourenginewasrunning225revolutionsaminute,yourbeltwouldbetraveling225x10.5feet=2362.5feet,orverynearly2,400feet,andifone inchofbeltwould transmit threehorsepowerrunning this speed,a6-inchbeltwouldtransmiteighteenhorsepower,a7-inchbelttwenty-onehorsepower,an8-inchbelttwenty-fourhorsepower,andsoon.Withtheaboveasabasisforfiguringyoucansatisfyyourselfas to thepoweryouare furnishing.Toget thebestresultsabeltwantstosagslightly,asithugsthepulleycloser,andwill lastmuchlonger.”

KEYINGPULLEYS****

Akeymustbeofequalwidthitswholelengthandaccuratelyfittheseatsonshaft and in pulley. The thickness should vary enough to make the tapercorrespondwiththatoftheseatinthepulley.Thekeysshouldbedrivenintightenoughtobesafeagainstworkingloose.Thehubsofmostofthepulleysonthemachinerunagainsttheboxes,andinkeyingtheseon,about1-32ofaninchendplaytotheshaftshouldbeallowed,becausethereisdangerofthepulleyrubbingsohardagainsttheendoftheboxastocauseittoheat.

Akeythatistoothinbutotherwisefitsallrightcanbemadetightbyputtingastripoftinbetweenthekeyandthebottomoftheseatinthepulley.

DrawingKeys.Ifapartofthekeystandsoutsideofthehub,catchitwithapairof horseshoe pinchers and pry with them against the hub, at the same timehittingthehubwithahammersoastodrivepulleyon.Akeycansometimesbedrawnbycatchingtheendofitwithaclawhammeranddrivingonthehubofpulley.Ifpulleyisagainstboxandkeycutoffflushwithhub,taketheshaftoutanduseadriftfromtheinside,orifseatisnotlongenoughtomakethispossible,drivethepulleyonuntilthekeyloosens.

BABBITTINGBOXES*

Tobabbittanykindofabox,firstchipoutalloftheoldbabbittandcleantheshaftandboxthoroughlywithbenzine.This isnecessaryorgaswillbe formedfrom the grease when the hot metal is poured in and leave “blow holes.” Inbabbittingasolidboxcovertheshaftwithpaper,drawitsmoothandtight,andfasten the lapped ends withmucilage. If this is not done the shrinkage of themetal incoolingwillmakeit fastontheshaft,sothat itcan’tbemoved.If thishappeneditwouldbenecessarytoputtheshaftandboxtogetherinthefireandmeltthebabbittoutorelsebreaktheboxtogetitoff.Paperaroundtheshaftwillpreventthisandiftakenoutwhenthebabbitthascooledtheshaftwillbefoundtobejusttightenoughtorunwell.

Beforepouringthebox,blockuptheshaftuntilitisinlineandincenteroftheboxandputstiffputtyaroundtheshaftandagainsttheendsoftheboxtokeepthebabbitt fromrunningout.Besure to leaveair-holesateachendat the top,makingalittlefunnelofputtyaroundeach.Alsomakealargerfunnelaroundthepouringhole,or,ifthereisnone,enlargeoneoftheair-holesattheendandpourinthat.Themetalshouldbeheateduntilitisjusthotenoughtorunfreelyandthefireshouldnotbetoofaraway.Whenreadytopourthebox,don’thesitateor

stop,butpourcontinuouslyandrapidlyuntilthemetalappearsattheairholes.Theoilholemaybestoppedwithawoodenplugandifthisplugextendsthroughfarenough to touch theshaft, itwill leaveahole through thebabbitt so that itwillnotbenecessarytodrillone.

Asplitboxisbabbittedinthesamemannerexceptthatstripsofcardboardorsheet-ironareplacedbetweenthetwohalvesoftheboxandagainsttheshafttodivide thebabbitt.To let thebabbitt run from theupperhalf to the lower, cutfourorsixV-shapednotches,aquarterofaninchdeep,intheedgesofthesheet-ironorcardboardthatcomeagainsttheshaft.Covertheshaftwithpaperandputcardboardlinersbetweentheboxtoallowforadjustmentasitwears.Boltthecaponsecurelybeforepouring.Whenthebabbitthascooled,breaktheboxapartbydriving a cold chisel between the two halves. Trim off the sharp edges of thebabbitt andwitha round-nosechisel cutoilgrooves fromtheoilhole towardstheendsof theboxandontheslacksideof theboxortheoneopposite tothedirectioninwhichthebeltpulls.

The ladle should hold six or eight pounds of metal. If much larger it isawkwardtohandleandiftoosmallitwillnotkeepthemetalhotlongenoughtopour a good box. The cylinder boxes on the separator take from two to threepoundsofmetaleach.Ifnoputtyisathand,claymixedtotheproperconsistencymaybeused.Usethebestbabbittyoucangetforthecylinderboxes.Ifnotsureofthequality,useordinaryzinc.Itisnotexpensiveandisgenerallysatisfactory.

MISCELLANEOUS

Limemaybetakenoutofaninjectorbysoakingitovernightinamixtureofonepartofmuriaticacidandtenpartssoftwater.Ifalargerproportionofacidisuseditislikelytospoiltheinjector.

A good blacking for boilers and smokestacks is asphaltum dissolved inturpentine.

Topolishbrass,dissolve5cents’worthofoxalicacidinapintofwaterandusetocleanthebrass.Whentarnishhasbeenremoved,dryandpolishwithchalkorwhiting.

It is said that ironor steelwillnot rust if it isplaced fora fewminutes inawarmsolutionofwashingsoda.

Greaseonthebottomofaboilerwill stickthereandprevent thewater fromconducting away the heat.When steel is thus coveredwith grease itwill soonmeltinahotfire,causingaboilertoburstifthesteelispoor,orwarpingitoutof

shapeifthesteelisgood.Sulphate of lime in water, causing scale, may be counteracted and scale

removedbyusingcoaloilandsalsoda.Whenwatercontainscarbonateoflime,molasseswillremovethescale.

CODEOFWHISTLESIGNALS

Oneshortsoundmeanstostop.Twoshortsoundsmeanstheengineisabouttobeginwork.Threemediumshortsoundsmeanthatthemachinewillsoonneedgrainand

grainhaulersshouldhurry.One rather long sound followedby three shortonesmeans thewater is low

andwaterhaulershouldhurry.Asuccessionofshort,quickwhistlesmeansdistressorfire.

WEIGHTPERBUSHELOFGRAIN

Thefollowingtablegivesthenumberofpoundsperbushelrequiredbylaworcustom in the sale of grain in the several states:

*FurnishedbycourtesyofafriendofAultman&TaylorCo.**Sosaysoneexpert.Othersmaythinkotherwise.***J.H.Maggardin“RoughandTumbleEngineering.****CourtesyJ.I.CaseThreshingMachineCo.,from“ScienceofSuccessfulThreshing.”

CHAPTERXVI

DIFFERENTMAKESOFTRACTIONENGINES

J.I.CASETRACTIONENGINES

Theseenginesareamongthesimplestandatthesametimemostsubstantialanddurabletractionenginesonthemarket.Theyarebuiltofthebestmaterialsthroughout,andareoneoftheeasiestenginesforanovicetorun.

They are of the side crank type, with spring mounting. The engine issupportedbyabracketboltedtothesideoftheboiler,andapillowblockbearingatthefireboxendboltedtothesideplateoftheboiler.

ThevalveistheimprovedWoolf,asinglesimplevalvebeingused,workedbyasingleeccentric.Theeccentricstraphasanextendedarmpivotedinawoodenblock sliding in a guide.The direction of this guide can be so changed by thereverseleverastovarythecut-offandeasilyreversetheenginewhendesired.

Theengineisbuilteitherwithasimplecylinderorwithatandemcompoundcylinder.

Intheoperationofthedifferentialgear,thepowerisfirsttransmittedtospurgear,containingcushionsprings,fromthencebythespringstoacenterringandfour bevel pinions which bear equally upon both bevel gears. The wholedifferential consequently will move together as but one wheel when engine ismoving straight forward or backward; but when turning a corner the fourpinions revolve in the bevel gears just in proportion to the sharpness of thecurve.

There is a frictionclutchworkingon the insideof the flywheelbymeansoftwofrictionshoesthatcanbeadjustedastheywear.

There is a feed water heater with three tubes in a watertight cylinder intowhichtheexhauststeamisadmitted.Thethreetubeshavesmallerpipesinsidesothatthefeedwaterinpassingthroughformsathincylindricalring.

J.I.Casetractionengines.

Thetractionwheelsaredrivenfromtherims.Thefrontwheelshaveasquarebandon the centerof the rim, toprevent slipping sidewise.The smokestack iscastironinonepiece.

The firebox will burn wood, coal or straw, a fire brick arch being used forstraw,makingthisfuelgiveauniformheat.

Theboilerisofthesimplelocomotivetype,withwaterlegaroundthefireboxand numerous fire flues connecting the firebox with the smokestack in front.Thereissafetyplugincrownsheetandtheusualfittings.Thewatertankisundertheplatform.Thesteeringwheelandbandwheelareonrightsideofengine.AnindependentMarshpumpandinjectorareused.TheMarshpumpisarrangedtoheat the feed water when exhaust heater cannot be used. The governor is theWaters,thesafetyvalvetheKunkle.

THEFRICKCO.’STRACTIONENGINE

Themostnoticeable featureof thisengine is that ithasa framemountedonthetractionwheelsentirelyindependentoftheboiler,thusrelievingtheboilerofallstrain.Thisisanundeniableadvantage,sinceusuallythestrainontheboilerisgreatenoughwithoutforcingtheboilertocarrytheengineandgears.

TheFrickCo.’stractionengine.

The gearing to the tractionwheels is simple and direct, and a patent elasticspring or cushion connection is usedwhich avoids sudden strain and possiblebreakageof gears. Steel tractionwheels and riveted spokes.Differential gear inmainaxle,withlockingdevicewhenbothtractionwheelsarerequiredtopulloutofahole.Thereversegearissingleeccentric,theeccentricturningontheshaft.Itiswelladaptedtousingsteamexpansively.Thecrownsheetissoarrangedasnottobeleftbareofwateringoingupordownhills.Workingpartsarecovereddust proof. Engine has self-oiling features and sight feed lubricator. Frictionclutch in flywheel.Safetybrakeonmainaxle.Engineer’splatformmountedonspringsandeverypartofenginerequiringattentioncanbereachedconvenientlyfromplatform.

Garr,Scott&Co.’stractionengine.

Crankiscentertype.Cross-headpumpisused.Usualfittings.Theseenginesarebuiltwithboilerof locomotivetypeforburningwoodand

coal, and of return flue type for burning straw. They are also built of three

generaltypes,“Corliss-pattern”frame,“Standard”and“Compound.”The engine is side crank,mounted on brackets attached to the sides of the

boiler.Thebedplate,cylinderandguidesareboredatoneoperationandcannotgetoutofalignment.Cylinderhaswideportsand freeexhaust, andpistonhasself-settingrings.Thegenuinelinkreversegearisused,asonlocomotives,anditundoubtedlyhasmanyadvantagesoveranyother,includinganeasilyadjustablevariablecut-offbycorrectsettingofreverselever.

Thedifferentialgearisheavyandeffective.Apatentsteeringattachment,withspiral roll, holds chains taut and gives positive motion. Friction clutch ismountedonengineshaftandconnectswiththehubofthepiniononthisshaft.Rigid pinion is also provided. Cross-head pump and injector are used, andPickering governor with improved spring speeder, permitting quick and easychangeofspeed;alsoSawyer’s leverfortestingsafety.Steampassesdirect fromdometocylinder,withoutlossfromcoolingorcondensing.Thesteelwatertankcanbefilledbyajetpumpoperatedbysteam.

D.JUNE&CO.’STRACTIONENGINE

Thisisoneoftheveryfewtractionenginesbuiltwithuprightboiler,butithasbeenonthemarketmanyyearsandhasbeenwidelyusedwithgreatsuccessasageneralroadlocomotive.

D.June&Co.’stractionengine.

Theengineismountedonthewatertank.Theweightoftheboilercomeson

thehindwheels,andmakesthistypeofenginesuperiorforpulling.Itisclaimedthatithasnoequalonthemarketasapuller.Theuprighttypeofboilerhastheadvantagethatthecrownsheetisneverexposedandit isclaimedflueswill lastlonger than inhorizontal type. Itworks equallywellwhether it stands level ornot,anadvantagethatnoothertypehas.

This type getsup steammorequickly than anyother— it is said, fromcoldwater, intwentyminutes.Thesteamissuperheatedinawaytoeconomizefuelandwater.Bybeingmountedonthetank,theenginedoesnotgethotasitwouldifmountedontheboiler,andthecorrespondingstrainingofpartsisavoided.Apatentwatersparkarresterisusedwhichisanabsoluteprotection.

Theengineisgearedtothetractionbyachain,whichcaneasilyberepairedasthe links wear. The friction clutch works inside flywheel. Engine has a newreversibleeccentric,anddifferentialgear,withusualfittings.

NICHOLS&SHEPARDTRACTIONENGINE

The builders of this engine lay special stress upon the care with which theboilerandsimilarpartsareconstructed.Theimportantseamsaredoubleriveted,andthefluesheetishalfinchsteel,drilledinsteadofpunchedfortheflues,andfittedwithseamlesssteelflues,allofthebeststeel.

Theboileristhedirectfluelocomotivetype.Thecrownsheetslopesbackwardtoallowittobecoveredwithwaterindescendinghills.Boilerhasround-bottomfirebox.Axlepassesaroundbelowtheboiler,andspringsareprovided.

Theengineismountedona longheater,whichisattachedtothesideof theboiler.Thelocomotivelinkreverseisused,withaplainslidevalve.

Cross-head pump and injector are used, and improved pop safety valve.Cylinderisjacketed,andcross-headguidesarerigidwithcylinder,sothatperfectalignmentisalwayssecured.

Engines are built to burn coal or wood. A straw burner is provided withfirebrickarch.Compoundenginesarealsobuilt.

Nichols&Shepardtractionengine.

THEHUBERTRACTIONENGINE

The Huber boiler is of the return flue type, and the gates are in the largecentral tube. This does away with the low-hanging firebox, and enables theenginetocrossstreamsandstraddlestumpsas the lowfireboxtypecannotdo.The cylindrical shape of the boiler also adds considerably to its strength. Thewatertankiscarriedinfront,andswingsaroundsoastoopenthesmokebox,sothatrepairsmaybemadeonthefiretubesatthisendeasilyintheopenair.Withwaterfrontreturnflueboilerstheworkmanhastocrawlthroughentirelengthofcentralflue.Asthereisnofirebox,theboilerismountedabovetheaxle,notbyboltingaplatetothesideofthefirebox.Theboilerismadefasttotheaxle,whichismountedonwheelswithspringcushiongear,thespringsbeingplacedinthewheel itself, between the two bearings of the wheel or the hub on trunnions,whichformthespindleforthehub.Thewheelrevolvesonthetrunnioninsteadofontheaxle,andthere isnowearontheaxle.Thetractiongearhasaspringconnection so that in starting a load there is little danger of breakage. Thecompensatinggearisallspur.Theintermediategearhasaten-inchbearing,withan eccentric in the center for adjusting the gear above and below. There is aspringdrawbarandelastic steeringdevice.An improved frictionclutchworkson inside of flywheel. Engine has a special governor adapted to varying workoverroughroads,etc.

Thehubertractionengine.

Asingleeccentricreversegearisused,witharmandwoodslideblock(Woolf);andthereisavariableexhaust,bywhichastrongdraftmaybequicklycreatedbyshutting off one of two exhaust nozzles. When both exhausts are open, backpressureisalmostentirelyrelieved.

Thesteamiscarriedinapipedownthroughthemiddleofthecentralflue,sothat superheating is secured,which it is claimedmakes a saving of over 8 percent in fuel andwater. The stack is double walled with air space between thewalls.

A special straw-burning engine is constructed with a firebox extension infront, and strawpasses over the endof a grate in such away as to get perfectcombustion. This make of engine is peculiarly adapted to burning strawsuccessfully.

A.W.STEVENS’TRACTIONENGINE

This engine has locomotive pattern boiler, with sloping crown sheet, andespeciallyhighoffsetoverfirebox,doublingsteamspacethatwillgivedrysteamatalltimes.Alargesizesteampipepassesfromdomeinrearthroughboilertoengine in front, superheatingsteamandavoidingcondensation fromexposure.Grateisarockingone,easilycleanedandrequiringlittleattention,andfiredoorisofapatternthatremainsair-tightandneedseldombeopened.

The engine is mounted upon the boiler, arranged for rear gear tractionattachment.Engineframe,cylinder,guides,etc.,arecastinonesolidpiece.

It has a special patented single eccentric reverse, and Pickering horizontalgovernor. There is a friction clutch, Marsh steam pump, and injector. Otherfittingsarecomplete,andengineiswellmadethroughout.

A.W.Stevens’tractionengine.

AULTMAM-TAYLORTRACTIONENGINE

TheAultman-TaylorTractionEngineisanexceptionallywellmadeengineofthe simplest type, and has been on the market over 25 years. There are twogeneraltypes,thewoodandcoalburnerswithlocomotiveboilers,andreturnflueboilerstyleforburningstraw.AcompoundengineisalsomadewiththeWoolfsinglevalvegear.

Aspecialfeatureofthisengineisthattherearaxlecomesbehindthefireboxinsteadofbetweenthefireboxandthefrontwheels.Thisdistributestheweightoftheenginemoreevenly.Themakersdonotbelieveinspringsfortherearaxle,since they have a tendency to wear the gear convex or round, and reallyaccomplishmuchlessthantheyaresupposedto.

Aultman-Taylortractionengine.

Anotherspecialpointisthebeveltractiongear.Theengineismountedonthe

boilerwelltowardthefront,andtheflywheelisnearthestack(inthelocomotivetype).Bybevelgearsandalongshaftthepowerisconductedtothedifferentialgearinconnectionwiththerearwheels.Themakersclaimthatlostmotioncanbetakenupinabevelgearmuchbetterthaninaspurgear.Besides,thespurgearisnoisyandnotnearlysodurable.Muchlessfrictionisclaimedforthistypeofgear.

Thegovernor is thePickering; cross-headpump isused,withU.S. injector,heater,andotherfittingscomplete.Abandfrictionclutchisused,saidtobeverydurable. Diamond special spark arrester is used except in straw burners. Theplatform and front bolster are provided with springs. The makers especiallyrecommendtheircompoundengine,claimingagainofabout25percent.Theuseofautomaticbandcuttersandfeeders,automaticweighersandbaggers,andpneumaticstackerswiththreshingmachineoutfitsmakeadditionaldemandsonan engine that is bestmet by the compound type.With large outfits, makinglargedemands, the compoundenginegives the requiredpowerwithoutundueweight.

AVERYTRACTIONENGINE

TheAveryisanenginewithareturnflueboilerandfullwaterfront,andalsoisarrangedwitha fireboxbesides.There isnodoubt that iteffects thegreatesteconomyoffuelpossible,andisadaptableequallyforwood,coal,orstraw.Theboilerissobuiltthatamanmayreadilycrawlthroughthelargecentralflueandgetatthefrontendsofthereturntubestorepairthem.

Averytractionengine.

The side gear is used with a crank disc instead of arm. The reverse is theGrime,asingleeccentricwithdeviceforshiftingforreverse.Thefrictionclutchhas unusually long shoes, working inside the flywheel, with ample clearancewhen lever is off. A specialty is made of extra wide traction wheels for softcountry. The traction gear is of the spur variety. There is also a double speed

deviceofferedasanextra.Thewatertankiscarriedinfront,andlubricator,steeringwheel(onsameside

asbandwheelforconvenienceinliningupwithseparator),reverselever,frictionclutch,etc.,areallrightatthehandoftheengineer.

The traction gear is of the spur variety, adjusted to be evenly distributed tobothtractionwheelsthroughthecompensatinggear,andtogetthebestpossiblepullincaseofneed.

For pulling qualities and economy of fuel, this engine is especiallyrecommended.

BUFFALOPITTSTRACTIONENGINE

TheBuffaloPittsEngineisbuilteithersinglecylinderordoublecylinder.Theboiler isof thedirect flue locomotive type,with fullwaterbottomfirebox.Thestrawburnersareprovidedwithafirebrickarchinthefirebox.Boilersarefullyjacketed.

Thesingleanddoublecylinderenginesdifferonly in thisoneparticular, thedouble cylinder having the advantage of never being on a dead center andstartingwithperfectsmoothnessandgently,seldomthrowingoffbelt.Theframehasboredguides,insamepiecewithcylinder,effectingperfectalignment.

The compensating gear is of the bevel type, half shrouded and so closetogether that sand and grit are kept out. Three pinions are used, which it isclaimedpreventrockingcausedbytwoorfourpinions.

Cross-headhasshoesunusuallylongandwide.Theengineframeisoftheboxpattern,andisalsousedasaheater,feedwaterforeitherinjectororsteampumppassingthroughit.Valveisoftheplainlocomotiveslidetype.

BuffaloPittstractionengine.

The friction clutch has hinged arms working into flywheel with but slightbevelingon flywheel innersurface,andbeingsusceptibleofeasyrelease. It isaspeciallypatenteddevice.TheWoolfsingleeccentricreversegearisused.Engineis fully provided with all modern fittings and appliances in addition to thosementioned. It was the only traction engine exhibited at Pan-AmericanExpositionwhichwongoldmedalorhighestaward.Itclaimsextrahighgradeofworkmanshipanddurability.

THEREEVESTRACTIONENGINES

These engines are made in two styles, simple double cylinder and crosscompound. The double cylinder and cross compound style have been verysuccessfullyadaptedtotractionenginepurposeswithcertainadvantagesthatnootherstyleoftractionenginehas.Withtwocylindersandtwopistonsplacedsidebyside,withcrankpinsatrightanglesontheshaft,therecanbenodeadcenters,atwhich an enginewill be completely stuck. Then sudden starting is liable tothrow off themain belt.With a double cylinder engine the starting is alwaysgradualandeasy,andneverfails.

TheReevestractionengine.

Thesameisequallytrueof thecrosscompound,whichhastheadvantageofusingthesteamexpansivelyinthelowpressurecylinder.Incaseofneedthelivesteammaybeintroducedintothelowpressurecylinder,enormouslyincreasingthe pulling power of the engine for an emergency, though the capacity of theboilerdoesnotpermitlonguseofbothcylindersinthisway.

Theengineisplacedontopofthefireboxportionoftheboiler,andtheweightisnicelybalancedsothatitcomesonbothsidesalike.

Thegearingisattachedtotheaxleandcountershaftwhichextendacrosstheengine.Thecompensatinggearisstrongandwellcoveredfromdirt.Thegearingis the gear type, axle turningwith thedrivers.There is an independent pump;alsoinjector,andallattachments.Thebandwheelbeingonthesteeringwheelorrightsideoftheengine,makesiteasytolineuptoathreshingmachine.EngineframeisoftheCorlisspattern;boileroflocomotivetype,andextrastronglybuilt.

THERUMELYTRACTIONENGINE

The most striking peculiarity is that the engine is mounted on the boilerdifferentlyfrommostsidecranktractionengines,thecylinderbeingforwardandthe shaft at the rear. This brings the gearing nearer the traction wheels andreducesitsweightandcomplication.

TheRumelytractionengine.

Theboilerisoftheroundbottomfireboxtype,withdomeinfrontandanashpaninlowerpartoffirebox,andisunusuallywellbuiltandfirmlyriveted.

The tractionwheels areusuallyhigh, and the flywheel is betweenonewheelandtheboiler.

Theengineframeisofthegirderpattern,withoverhangingcylinderattachedtooneend.

Theboilerisofthedirectfluelocomotivetype,fittedforstraw,wood,orcoal.Beamaxle of the engine is behind the firebox, and is a single solid steel shaft.Frontaxleiselliptical,andsostrongerthananyothertype.

Adoublecylinderengineisnowbeingbuiltaswellasthesinglecylinder.Thegovernorregulatesthedoublecylinderenginemorecloselythansinglecylindertypes, and in the Rumely is very close to the cut-off where a special simplereverseisusedwiththedoublecylinderengine.

Engine is supplied with cross-head pump and injector, Arnold shiftingeccentric reverse gear, friction clutch, and large cylindrical water tank on theside.Italsohastheusualengineandboilerfittings.

PORTHURONTRACTIONENGINE

The Port Huron traction engine is of the direct flue locomotive type, builteithersimpleorcompound,andofmediumweightandexcellentproportionsforgeneral purpose use. The compound engine (tandem Woolf cylinders) isespecially recommended and pushed as more economical than the simplecylinderengine.As livesteamcanbeadmitted to the lowpressurecylinder, soturning the compound into a simple cylinder engine with two cylinders,enormouspowercanbeobtainedatamoment’snoticetohelpoutatadifficultpoint.

Two injectors are furnished with this engine, and the use of the injector is

recommended, contrary to the general belief that a pump ismore economical.Thecompanycontendsthatthelongexhaustpipecausesmorebackpressureonthe cylinder than would be represented by the saving of heat in the heater.However,across-headpumpandspecialcondensingheaterwillbefurnishedifdesired.

Onthesimpleengineapistonvalve isused, theseatof thevalvecompletelysurrounding it and the ports being circular openings, the result, it is claimed,beingabalancedvalve.

ThevalvereversegearisoftheWoolfpattern,theengineframeofthegirdertype, Waters governor, with special patent speed changer, specially balancedcrankdisc,patentstrawburnerarrangement forstrawburningengines, specialpatentsparkextinguisher,specialpatentgear lock,andspecialpatentsonfrontaxle,drivewheelandlococab.

Theusualfittingsaresupplied.

PortHurontractionengine.

MINNEAPOLISTRACTIONENGINE

TheMinneapolistractionengineisbuiltbothsimpleandcompound.Allsizesandstyleshavethereturnflueboiler,forwood,coalorstraw.Bothaxlesextendentirely and straight under the boiler, giving complete supportwithout strain.Thecylinder,steamchestandguidesformonepiece,andaremountedaboveaheater,securedfirmlytotheboiler;valvesinglesimpleDpattern.Specialthrottleofthebutterflypattern,largecrankpinturnedbyspecialdeviceafteritisdriven

in,soinsuringperfectadjustment;specialpatentexhaustnozzlemadeadjustableand so as always to throw steam in center of stack; friction clutch with threeadjustable shoes. Boiler is supplied with a superheater pipe. Woolf valve andreversegear.Specialheavybrassboxesandstuffing-boxes.Sightfeedlubricatorand needle feed oiler; Gardner spring governor. Complete with usual fittings.Thisisasimplyconstructedbutverywellmadeengine.

Minneapolistractionengine.

INDEX

A

Ashpit,442,503Attachmentsfortractionengine,480Automaticcut-offengines,468,583

B

BabbittBoxes,howto,677–678Blastdevices,455Blow-offdevices,455Boilerandengine,testquestions,482Boiler,433

attachments,480heatingsurfaceof,442,576–578howtofillwithwater,450howtomanage,486locomotive,432,434,435questionsandanswers,533returnflue,437startinga,487–490termsconnectedwith,440–442vertical,439–440waterfor,493–495

Boss,469Box,ahot,523–524Boxes,howtobabbitt,667–668Bridges,howtocrosssafely,530–531Buyinganengine,429

C

Carburetersormixers,614Centeringthecrank,631–632Clearance,460Clearanceandlead,578–579Compoundandcrosscompoundengines,587–588Compoundengines,566Compressioningasengines,619–622,636Condensationandexpansion,578Condenser,460

Condensingengines,585–587Connectingrod,459Corlissengines,583–584Crank,459,469,470Cross-head,459Cushion,461Cycle—meaningofexplained,606Cylindercocks,478Cylindercocks,howtouse,519–520Cylinderhead,458Cylinderlubricators,472

DDifferentialgear,473–474Doubleeccentric,howtosetvalve,518

EEccentric,462

rod,462slippingof,518–519

Economyinrunningfarmengine,556,573Engineandboiler,testquestions,482Engine

compound,566differenttypesof,582howtomanage,511simple,457

Exhaustchamber,460Exhaust,the,579–580Exhaustnozzle,460Expansionandcondensation,578Expansivepowerofsteam,howtouse,564–565

FFarmengine,economyinrunning,556,573Fire,starting,504–505Firing

economical,500–502withcoal,501withstraw,502–503withwood,502

Fly-wheel,470

Fourcyclegasengine,593,607–612Friction,568–572Frictionclutch,474,524–525Fuelandgratesurface,573–576Fuelsforgasengines,612–613Fusibleplug,475–477,506–507

GGasandgasolineengines,589,606

principlesofexplained,606–612testingconditionof,633–637

Gasenginescomparedwithsteam,590–592Gasolineengines

descriptionof,593–597howtooperate,597whattodowhentheydon’twork,601–605

Gauge,steam,445–448Gauge,water,443–445Governors,466–468Grain,weightperbushel,680–681Gratesurface,573–576

HHeater,452,500Heatingsurfaceofaboiler,576–578Highspeedengines,584–585Hills,howtopasswithengine,531–532Hole,howtogetoutof,529–530Hotbox,a,523–524Howenergyislost,560–561Howheatisdistributed,561–562

IIgnitionapparatusforgasengines,621

electric,622–623hottube,621jumpsparksystem,623–628makeandbreaksystem,623,627sparkcoil,623timing,630

Indicator,steam,478–479Injectors,452–454,498–500

J

Journals,468,470

K

Key,gib,andstrap,468Knock,whatmakesanengine,513–515

L

Lapofavalve,461Lead,461,515Leadandclearance,578–579Leaks,580–581Leakyflues,507License,questionsaskedapplicantsfor,657Linkgear,463Lubrication,521–523Lubricators,470–473

M

Meyervalvegear,466

N

Non-condensingengines,585–587

P

Pillowblocks,470Piston,458Ports,460Practicalpointsofeconomy,573Pulleys,howtokey,676–677Pumps,boiler,448,495–498

Q

Questionsandanswers,533,543,601theboiler,533theengine,543

Questions,test,onengineandboiler,482

RReversinggear,462–466Road,howtohandletractionengineonthe,528

SSafetyvalves,446Sandpatches,howtogetoverwithengine,531Settingavalve,461,515Shaft,468Smoke,505–506Sparkarresters,455–456Sparks,506Stationaryengines,582Steam-chest,460Steamcylinder,458Steam

howtouseexpansivepowerof,564–565propertiesof,562–564

Steamvalve,460Stuffingbox,460,478

TTestingagasengine,633–637Threshingmachines,howtorun,639

attachments,649balancingacylinder,654belting,650–652concaves,644conveyorextension,646–647coveringpulleys,654–655cylinder,643fan,645–646howtofeed,652self-feeder,648separator,howtoset,642separator,careof,655–656sieves,646

strawrack,645tailingselevator,647–648waste,652–654windstacker,648–649

Theoryofsteampower,557–559Throttlingengines,583Throttle,459Throwofaneccentric,462Tractionengines

differentmakes,682howtohandleontheroad,528howtomanage,511

Twocyclegasengine,609–612

VValve

howtosetsimple,515setting,461steam,460

Valvegear,461–462Valveseat,460Valvestem,460

WWhistlesignals,codeof,679Woolfreversinggear,466

YYoungengineers,pointsfor,533,543,549

FARMCONVENIENCESANDHOWTOMAKETHEM

byByronD.Halsted

PREFACE

SKILL in the construction and use of simple laborsaving devices is of vastimportance to the farmer, and any aid to the development of this manualdexterityisalwaysverywelcome.

The volume, herewith presented, abounds in valuable hints and suggestionsfor the easy and rapid construction of a large number of home-madecontrivanceswithinthereachofall.Itisanevery-dayhand-bookoffarmwork,andcontainsthebest ideasgatheredfromtheexperienceofascoreofpracticalmen inalldepartmentsof farm labor.Everyoneof the twohundredand fortypages,andtwohundredandtwelveengravings,teachesavaluablelessoninruraleconomy. “FARM CONVENIENCES” is amanual of what to do, and how to do itquicklyandreadily.

CONTENTS

ACONVENIENTBINFOROATS

FASTENINGSFORCOWS

MOVABLENESTSFORHENS

HOWTOGETRIDOFSTRAW

THEMANAGEMENTOFYOUNGBULLS

ACONVENIENTICE-HOOK

HINTSFORTHEWORKSHOP

ANON-PATENTEDBARREL-HEADER

BUILDINGRIBLESSBOATS

TOMENDABROKENTUG

BUSINESSHABITS

HAY-RACKS

HOWTOEXTRICATEAMIREDANIMAL

HOWTOSAVEANDKEEPMANURE

GRINDINGTOOLS

AMETHODOFHANGINGHOGS

RELIEFFORBOG-SPAVINANDTHOROUGH-PIN

TOOL-BOXESFORWAGONS,ETC

MAKINGAHINGE

SHELTERFORTHEHEAD

HOWTOLEVELWITHSQUAREANDPLUMB-LINE

KEEPTHECATTLEUNDERCOVER

WATERINGPLACESFORSTOCKONLEVELLAND

ASHAVING-HORSE

AMILKING-STOOL

HOWTOTREATTHRUSH

AWESTERNLOCUSTTRAP

SPREADINGMANURE

PUTTINGAWAYTOOLS

SELF-CLOSINGDOORS

VENTILATORSFORFODDERSTACKS

CORN-MARKERFORUNEVENGROUND

AHOME-MADEHARROW

CLEARINGLANDBYBLASTING

PREVENTABLELOSSESONTHEFARM

ACRADLEFORDRAWINGABOAT

FEED-RACKFORSHEEP

HOWTOMANAGENIGHT-SOIL

THEUSEOFLIMEINBLASTING

AWATERANDFEEDTROUGH

THECONSTRUCTIONOFSTALLS

HOG-KILLINGIMPLEMENTS—RINGING

HOWTOMIXCEMENT

RINGINGANDHANDLINGBULLS

SLEDFORREMOVINGCORN-SHOCKS

ATAGGINGTROUGH

LIMEANDLIMEKILNS

FALLFALLOWING

UNLOADINGCORN

STONEBOATS

ADUMP-CART

TOPREVENTWASHINGOFHILL-SIDES

ALOGMINK-TRAP

PLOWINGFROMTHEINSIDEOFTHEFIELD

AWIRE-FENCETIGHTENER

PLANTINGCORN—AMARKER

FEEDTROUGHANDHALTER

THEHORSE-SHOEANDITSAPPLICATION

HOWTOMAKEAFISHINGSCOW

CROWSANDSCARECROWS

FLOODFENCE

CLEARINGSLOUGHLAND

HOWTODRESSABEEF

AFARMCART

BRACESFORAGATEPOST

WHIPPLE-TREESFORPLOWINGCORNSAFELY

WHATTREESTOPLANTFORFUELANDTIMBER

TOSTEADYPORTABLEMILLS

SPLITTINGRAILSANDPOSTS

AMIXTUREOFGRASSES

HITCHINGACRIB-BITER

HOWTOINCREASEVEGETABLEMATTERINTHESOIL

OPENLINKS

CAREOFTHEROOTCROPS

TRAPFORSHEEP-KILLINGDOGS

HOWTOUSEAFILEPROPERLY

AMITRE-BOX

THEMANUREHARVEST

FASTENINGCATTLEWITHBOWS

THEPRESERVATIONOFWOOD

ANESTFOREGG-EATINGHENS

PLOWINGGEARFORAKICKINGMULE

ALEAFFORK

PREPARATIONOFTHEWHEATGROUND

HOWTODRIVEAHORSE-SHOENAIL

SCREW-DRIVERS

TOPREVENTCOWSSUCKINGTHEMSELVES

ABUSEOFBARNCELLARS

HAY-RACKANDMANGER

ABARNBASKET

THETREATMENTOFKICKINGCOWS

HOWTOBUILDABOAT-HOUSE

WASTELANDS—MAKETHEMUSEFUL

ARAT-GUARD

ACRUPPER-PADFORHORSES

ADAMFORAFISHPOND

AWAGONJACK

WILLYOUFEEDHAYORWOOD?ABRACEFORAKICKINGHORSE

HOWTOSAVELIQUIDMANURE

ANOPENSHEDFORFEEDING

ASHADEFORHORSES’EYES

TESTALLSEEDS—IMPORTANT

AFIELDROLLER

APORTABLESLOPBARREL

WHEREANDHOWTOAPPLYFERTILIZERS

AMILLFORCRUSHINGBONES

LIMEANDLIMESTONE

AFARMWHEELBARROW

TOPREVENTTHEBALLINGOPHORSES

TOPREVENTCATTLETHROWINGFENCES

FEEDBOXES

ACATTLETIE

ABEEFRAISER

ACEDARSTEMSOIL-STIRRER

AHINTFORPIGKILLING

MENDINGBROKENTOOLS

ALARGEFEED-RACK

BARNDOORFASTENING

A“FORK”STABLESCRAPER

AMETHODOFCURINGHAY

GRANARYCONVENIENCES

ANON-SLIPPINGCHAINFORBOULDERS

APITCHFORKHOLDER

ACONVENIENTHOGLOADER

AHOME-MADEROLLER

ALANDSCRAPER

AHOME-MADEBAG-HOLDER

ASAFETYEGG-CARRIER

ABUSH-ROLLER

BROOD-SOWPENS

ARABBITTRAP

WOODENSTABLEFLOOR

ARAILHOLDEROR“GRIP”ACHEAPANDDURABLEGRINDSTONE-BOXANDHANGERS

A“LADDER”FORLOADINGCORN

PROTECTINGOUTLETOFDRAINS

ALOGBOAT

CHEAPANDDURABLEWAGONSEATS

ABAG-HOLDERONPLATFORMSCALES

MAKINGBOARDDRAINS

PUTTHINGSINTHEIRPLACES

WATER-SPOUTANDSTOCK-TROUGH

ADESIRABLEMILKINGSHED

WEARPLATEFORHARNESSTUGSANDCOLLARS

POTABLEWATERFENCE

DITCHCLEANERANDDEEPENER

HOWTOBUILDADAM

DRIVINGHOPANDOTHERPOLES

ACONVENIENTGRAINBOX

AROAD-SCRAPER

AIDSINDIGGINGROOTCROPS

THEWOOD-LOTINWINTER

SWINGING-STALLFRONTS

SAVEALLCORNFODDEREVERYWHERE

IMPROVEDBRUSHRAKE

DIGGINGMUCKANDPEAT

ACLEANERFORHORSES’HOOFS

COLDWEATHERSHELTERFORSTOCKPROFITABLE

GOODSTONETROUGHSORTANKS

ARTIFICIALFEEDINGOFLAMBS

ACONVENIENTBAILEDBOX

SAWDUSTFORBEDDING

ACHEAPENSILAGECART

MILKINGANDMILKINGTIME

AREVOLVINGSHEEPHURDLE

LIGHTSINTHEBARN

ANESTFORSITTINGHENS

BARN-YARDECONOMY

ACHEAPMANURESHED

ASHEEPRACK

AGOODPICKETPOINTER

STERILIZINGOVENANDBOTTLETRUCK

INEXPENSIVEBUILDINGCONSTRUCTION

COVERFORSAPBUCKETS

AHANDYTROUGH

SUBSTITUTEFORFLOODGATE

HOOKSFORSHOPORSTOREHOUSE

IMPROVINGAPASTURESPRING

AGENERALFARMBARN

HANDYCLODCRUSHERANDLEVELER

GIVINGSEEDSANEARLYSTARTINTHEGARDEN

APOSTANCHOR

STONEBOATFROMTWOBOARDS

AHANDYGARDENBARROW

HOMEMADETRUCKSANDWHEELS

AROLLERFROMMOWINGMACHINEWHEELS

MAKINGAPICKETFENCEHEN-TIGHT

BARRELSTRAWBERRYCULTURE

ACONVENIENTBINFOROATS

THEusual receptacle foroats, corn,ormill feed,orothergrain fordomesticanimals,isacommonbinorboxaboutfourfeetinheight.Itisdifficulttogetthegrainoutofsuchaplacewhenthequantityishalformoreexhausted.Toobviatethisinconvenience,theremaybeaffixed,aboutonefootfromthebottomononesideofthebin,aboard,(B)figure1.Thisisnailedsoastoprojectintothebinatan angle sufficient to allow the filling of ameasure between the lower edge ofboardBandtopedgeoftheopeningatM.Theoppositelowersideofthebiniscovered with boards, as indicated by the dotted line at R, for the purpose ofplacing the contentswithin easy reach.The top canbe completedwithhingedcoveraswellasthedeliveryspace.Byusingabinofthisform,thelastbushelisaseasilyremovedasthefirstone.

FIG.1.Abinforoatsorotherfeed.

FASTENINGSFORCOWS

FIG.2.Fasteningbyslidingkingonapolf.

Althoughstanchionsarereallythesafestfasteningforcows,yetsomepersonsobjecttothembecausetheanimalsareheldinatooconfinedposition,andonewhich is supposed to be painful, or otherwise objectionable to the cows.Mostowners of valuable cows consider safety to be the first requisite in theirmanagement, and the question as to what the cow would like as of minorimportance.Stanchionshavethevaluablerecommendationthatonealwaysfindshis cows in themorning just where they were left at night, if they have beenproperlysecured.Nevertheless,forthosewhodislikestanchions,thereareothersafewaysoffasteningcows.Forsomeyearsweusedthemethodshowninfigures2 and 3. In the first a strong smooth polewas inserted through the floor and“stepped”intothebeambeneathandintothefloorabove.Itwasalsofastenedbyanironstrapboltedthroughthefrontofthetrough.Asteelringtowhichasteelchainwasattachedwasmadetoslideupanddownuponthepost,andaleatherneckstrap,or,insomecases,aleatherheadstall,wasattachedtothechainbyasuitableringorloop.Theringcouldnotfallsolowasthefloor,beingheldbytheedgeofthefeed-trough,andthecow’sfeetcouldnot,therefore,beentangledinthechainbygettingoverit.Thisisthechiefdangerintheuseofneckstrapsandchains,but itmaybeavoided in thisway.Anotherplan is tohavean ironrodboltedtothefeed-trough,uponwhichtheringmayslide.Thisisequallysecure,andgivesmoreroomformovementtothecow.Withthesering-tiesitisbesttohaveshortstallstopreventthecowsinterferingwitheachother,elseoneofthemmaystepontoanotherasitislyingdown.Theteatsaresometimesinjuredevenwhenstanchionsareused,butthedangerofthisisgreaterwithchainties.

FIG.3.Fasteningattachedtofeed-trough.

MOVABLENESTSFORHENS

Hens,asageneralthing,areremarkablyself-willedandobstinate.PerhapsanexceptionmaybemadeasregardstheBrahmas,whichareverydocileandeasilymanaged. On account of this general peculiarity of fowls, many people whopossessasomewhatsimilardisposition, findnosuccess inkeepingthem.Theirhenswillnotlayinthenestsprovidedforthem,oraftersittingafewdaysuponanestofeggs,leavethemandneverreturn.Theconsequencesare,eithernoeggsatall,ornestshiddenwheretheycannotbereached;nochickens,andtimeandlabor lost.Thismayallbeavoided if theownerswillonlystudy thehabitsandinstinctsoftheirpoultryreasonably.Oneofthemostinveteratehabitsofhensisthatofhidingtheirnests,orseekingtheminretired,shadedplaces.Thosewhowould have plenty of eggsmustmake their arrangements accordingly. A verycheap and convenient nest is shown in figure 4. It ismade of pieces of boardeighteenincheslong,nailedendwisetothree-sidedcleatsatthetopandbottom.Theboxneednotbemorethaneighteenortwentyinchesinlength.Somecornerpieces are nailed at the front tomake it firm, and the back should be closed.Thesenestsmaybeplacedinsecludedcorners,behindsheds,orbeneathbushesinthebackyard,orbehindabarrelorabundleofstraw.Thenesteggshouldbeofglassorporcelain,andeveryeveningtheeggsthathavebeenlaidduringtheday shouldbe removed.A little cut strawmixedwith clean earthor sand,willmakethebestmaterialforthenest.Thisshouldberenewedoccasionally,forthesakeofcleanliness.Whenahenhastakenpossessionofoneofthesenests,itmaybe removed at night to thehatching-house,without disturbingher.Before the

nestsareused,theyshouldbethoroughlywelllime-washedaroundthejoints,tokeepawaylice.

FIG.4.Amovablehen’snest.

HOWTOGETRIDOFSTRAW

Manyfarmersin“theWest,”andsomeinwhatwecall“theEast,”aretroubledastowhattheyshalldowiththepilesofstrawwhichlieabouttheirfields.Uponthesamefarmswiththesenearlyuselessstrawpiles,manyheadofstockarekept,andmanymoremightbekept,whichcouldbemadeusefulinreducingthestrawtoaconditioninwhichitwouldserveasmanure.Ifthealreadyurgentnecessityformanureuponthewesternandsouthernfieldswererealized,therewouldbelittlehesitationintakingmeasurestoremovethedifficulty.Thechiefobstacleis,that these involve either personal or hired labor; the first is objectionable tomany,andthesecondcannotbehadforwantofthemoneynecessarytopayforit.Theleastlaboriousmethodofusingthisstrawandmakingitservethedoublepurposeofashelterforstockandafertilizerforthefielduponwhichithasbeengrown,isasfollows:Somepolesaresetintheground,andrailsorotherpolesarelaidupon them so as to forma sloping roof.This ismadenearor around theplace chosen for thrashing thegrain.The straw from the thrashing-machine isheapedupontherails,makingalongstack,whichformsthreesidesofasquare,with theopen side towards the south, and leaving a spacebeneath it inwhichcattlemay be sheltered from storms. In this enclosure some rough troughs orracksmaybeplaced,fromwhichtofeedcorn.Herethecattlewillfeedandlie,or

will lie at nights under shelter,while feeding during the day upon corn in thefield. As the straw that is given them becomes trampled and mixed with thedroppings, a further supply is throwndown from the stack.The accumulationmay be removed and spread upon the field to be plowed in when it is sorequired,andthestakespulledupandcarriedtoanotherplace,wheretheymaybeneededforthesamepurpose.Suchashelterasthiswouldbeveryserviceableforthepurposeofmakingmanure,evenwherestrawisscarce,asinpartsoftheSouthern States. There pine boughsmay bemade to serve as a covering, andleaves,pinestraw,drypondmuck,swampmuck,“trash”fromcottonfields,cornstalks,orpeavines,andanyothersuchmaterialsmaybegatheredand thrownfrom time to time beneath the cattle.Cotton-seedmeal, straw, and coarse haywouldkeepstockinexcellentorder,andalthoughtheremaybelittlesnoworiceduring the winter months in those States, yet the animals will be very muchbetter for even this rude but comfortable shelter. Inmany other places such atemporary arrangement will be found useful in saving the hauling of straw,stalks,orhayfromdistantfields,andthecartingofmanurebackagaintothem.Itwillbe foundvastlyeasier tokeepa fewyoungcattle in sucha field, andgothitherdailytoattendtothemduringthewinterwhenworkisnotpressing,thantohaulmanyloadsofhayorstrawtothebarnatharvesttime,ormanyloadsofmanureinthebusyweeksofspring.

THEMANAGEMENTOFYOUNGBULLS

Manyfarmerswantamethodofdiscipliningbullssothattheymaybemademore docile andmanageable. To do this it would be advisable to work themoccasionally in a one-horse tread power. They should be used to this whenyoung,and thusbeingmadeamenable to restraint, therewillbeno“breaking”neededafterwardsandconsequentlynotrouble.WehaveusedaJerseybullinatread-powerinwhichheworkedwithmoresteadinessthanahorse,andtwiceaweekheservedaveryusefulpurposeincuttingthefodderforthestock.Nothingmorewasneededthantoleadhimbyaropefromthenose-ringintothetread-power,andtiehimshortsothathecouldnotget toofar forward.Hewasveryquiet,notatallmischievous,andwasaverysurestockbullandbesidesthis,thevalueofhisworkwas at least equal to the cost of his keep.Where there isnotread-power,asubstitutemaybefoundinthearrangementshowninfigure5.Set

apostinthebarnyard,boreaholeinthetop,anddriveatwo-inchironpinintothehole.Takethewheelofawagonthathasanironaxle,andsetituponthetopofthepostsothatitwillturnonthepinasonanaxle.Fastenastrongpole(suchasabindingpoleforahaywagon)byoneendtothewheel,andboretwoholesintheotherend,largeenoughtotakethearmsofanox-bowinthem.Fixalight-elasticrodtothewheel,sothattheendwillbeinadvanceoftheendofthelargerpole.Yokethebulltothepole,andtiethenose-ringtotheendoftheelasticrod,in such a way that a slight pull is exerted upon the ring. Then lead the bullaroundafewtimesuntilhegetsusedtoit;hewillthentravel intheringaloneuntilheistired,whenhewillstop.Twohoursofthisexerciseadaywillkeepabullingoodtemper,goodconditionandexcellenthealth.

FIG.5.Mannerofexercisingabull.

ACONVENIENTICE-HOOK

A very handy ice-hookmay bemade as shownm fig. are 6. The handle isfirmly fastened and keyed into a socket; at the end are two sharply-pointedspikes,oneofwhichservestopushpiecesofice,andtheothertodrawthemtotheshore,oroutofthewater,tobeloadedandremoved.Itmaybemadeoflightiron, horse-shoe bar will be heavy enough, and there is no need to have thepointssteeled;itwillbesufficientiftheyarechilled,aftertheyaresharpened,insaltandicepoundedtogether.

FIG.6.Ice-hook.

HINTSFORTHEWORKSHOP

Agrindstoneisveryseldomkeptingoodworkingorder;generallyitis“outoftrue,” as it is called, orworn out of a perfectly circular shape.A new stone isfrequentlyhungsothatitdoesnotrun“true,”andthelongeritisused,theworseit becomes.When this is the case, itmay be brought into a circular shape byturningitdownwithaworn-outmill-file.Itisverydifficulttodothisperfectlybyhand,butitiseasilydonebytheuseofthecontrivanceshowninfigure7.Apost,slottedintheupperpart,isboltedtotheframe.Apieceofhardwood,longenoughtoreachovertheframe,ispivotedintheslot.Thisshouldbemadetwoincheswiderthanthestone,andbepivoted,sothatanopeningcanbemadeinthe middle of it, of the same width as the stone. This opening is made withslopingends,sothatabroadmill-filemaybewedgedintoitinthesamemannerasaplane-ironissetinaplane.Attheoppositeendoftheframeasecondpostisboltedtoit.Alongslot,oraseriesofholes,ismadeinthelowerpartofthispost,sothatitmayberaisedorloweredatpleasurebyslidingitupordownuponthebolt.Ifaslotismade,awasherisusedwiththebolt;thiswillmakeiteasytosetthe post at any desired height. It should be placed so that the upper piece ofwoodmay rest upon it, exactly in the same position in which the file will bebrought into contactwith the stone.Aweight is laid upon the upper piece tokeep it down, and hold the cutter upon the stone.When the stone is turnedaroundslowly,theunevenpartsarecutaway,whilethosewhichdonotprojectbeyondtheproperlineofthecircumferencearenottouched.

FIG.7.Trueingagrindstone.

AGrindingFrametoholdtoolsisshowninfigure8.Itismadeoflightpiecesofpine, orhardwood.The tool tobe ground is fastened to the cross-piece.Asharppoint,anail,orascrew, is fastenedtothenarrowendoftheframe,and,wheninuse,thepointisstuckintothewalloftheshed,whichformsarest.

FIG.8.Holderfortools.

ANON-PATENTEDBARREL-HEADER

Notlongsincewesawinoperationausefulcontrivanceforpressingtheheads

ofappleoreggbarrelsintoplace.Bothapplesandeggsrequiretobepackedveryfirmly to enable them to be transported in barrels with safety. Apples looselypackedinabarrelwillcometomarketinaverybadlybruisedcondition,andifthe packing around eggs is not very firmly compressed, the eggs and packingchangeplacesorgetmixedup,anditistheeggs,andnotthepacking,whichthensuffers. A barrel of eggs properly packed, with layers of chaff or oats an inchthickbetweenthelayersofeggs,andthreeinchesateachendofthebarrel,willbear to be com pressed as much as three inches with safety; without thiscompression,eggsarealmostsuretobegreatlydamaged.Abarrelofapplesmayfillthebarreltoabouttwoinchesabovethechime,andwillbeartohavetheheadbroughtdowntoitsplace.Whenbarrelscontainingtheseperishablearticlesarethuspacked theymay receivevery roughusagewithout injury to thecontents.Theheaderreferredtoconsistsofabarofhalf-inchsquareironrod,withalargeeyeorloopatoneend,andattheotherendtwodiverginghookswhichgraspthebottomofthebarrel.Thebarisbenttofitthecurveofthebarrel.Wheninuse,thehooksareplacedbeneath the lowerchimeof thebarrel,oneendofashortleverisplacedintheeye,andtheleverrestsuponablock,whichissetuponthehead of a barrel properly placed in position. A strap or cord, with a loop orstirrupatoneend,isfastenedtotheotherendofthelever.Thefootisplacedinthelooporstirrup,andtheweightofthebodythrownuponitbringstheheadofthe barrel into its place; the hands being free, the hoops can be driven downtightlywithoutthehelpofanassistant.Withouttheuseofthecordandstirrup,twopersonsarerequiredtoheadbarrels,butwiththeaidofthesetheservicesofonecanbedispensedwith.

FIG.9.Barrel-header.

BUILDINGRIBLESSBOATS

Amethod of building boats, bywhich ribs are dispensedwith, has recentlybeenbroughtintouseforcoast,lake,andrivercrafts.Theseboatsarelight,swift,strong,andcheap.Theyhavebeenfoundtoberemarkablygoodseaboats,andtostand rough weather without shipping water. By this method of building,fishermenandotherswhouseboatscanconstructtheirownattheirleisure,andinmanycasesbecomeindependentoftheskilloftheprofessionalboatbuilder.Thematerialsneededareclearpineboards,oneinchthick,akeelofoakorelm,astem and stern-post of the same timber, and some galvanized iron nails. Forsmallboatstheboardsandkeelshouldbethewholelengthoftheboatintendedto be built; for boats over sixteen feet in length, splicesmay bemadewithoutinjuring the strength, if they are properly put together. The materials havingbeenprocured,aframeorasetoftresselsaremade,andthekeelisfittedtothemintheusualmanner,bymeansofcleatsoneachside,andwedges.Thestemandstern-postarethenfittedtothekeelintheusualmanner,thejointsbeingmadewater-tight bymeans of layers of freshly-tarred brown paper laid between thepieces,orbytheuseofacoatingofthickwhiteleadandoilPreviouslytobeingfittedtogether,thesidesofthekeel,stem,andstern-postaredeeplygroovedtoreceive the first strip of planking. The boards are then ripped into strips oneinch,oran inchandahalfwide,according to thedesiredstrengthof theboat.Forroughwork,suchasfishingwithnets,ordredging,aninchandahalfwouldbeaproperwidthforthestrips.Therippingmaybedonewithoneofthehandcircularsawingmachines,oratasaw-mill,withgreatrapidity.Thefirststripisthennailedtothekeel,acoatingof tarorwhite leadhavingfirstbeengiventothegrooveinthekeelalreadypreparedforit.Thebroadsideofthestripislaidnexttothekeel.Asetofmolds,correspondingtothelinesorformoftheboat,arecutoutofinchboards,andtackedtothekeelinthemannershowninfigure10,withthehelpofcleatsuponeachside.Thenonestripafteranotherisnailedtoeachprecedingone,andtheshelloftheboatisbuiltupofthesestrips.Eachstripistrimmeddownattheendsinapropermanner,withadrawnknife,oraplane,andaseachone isnailed to theprecedingone, someof the tarorwhiteleadisbrushedoverit,tomakethejointtightandclose.Asufficientnumberofnails isused tohold the strips firmly together, and theheads aredrivendownlevelwiththesurfaceofeachstrip.Theworkproceedsinthismanner,formingthestripsaseachisfitted,bendingthemtotheshapeofthemolds,andnailing

onealternatelyuponeachside,sothatthemoldsarenotdisplacedbythespringofthetimber.Whenthesidesoftheboatarecompleted,thefenderandgunwalesarefitted,andboltedtothemtostrengthenthem,andcleatsareboltedinsideforthe seats to restupon.Themoldsarenowremoved,and theboatconsistsofasolidshellan inchandahalf thick,withnotanailvisibleexceptingonthetopstrip,andconformingexactlyinshapetothemodel.Togiveextrastrength,shortpiecesofthestripsarenaileddiagonallyacrosstheinside,fromsidetoside,andacrossthekeel.Inthismanneragreatdealofadditionalstiffnessandstrengthisgiventotheboat.Aboatofthiskindiseasilyrepairedwheninjured,bycuttingout thebrokenpart and insertingpiecesof the strips.For a largerboat,whichrequiresadeck,thestripsarewiderandthicker,oradiagonalliningmaybeputintoit;kneesareboltedtothesides,andthebeamstotheknees,thedeckbeinglaidupon the beams.Themethod is applicable to boats of all sizes and for allpurposes,anditscheapnessandconveniencearerapidlybringingitintofavor.Ifthematerialisreadyforuse,twomencanfinishalargeboatintwoweeks,andasmallone inoneweek.Theseboatsbeingvery lightandbuoyant, considerableballastwillbenecessarytomakethemsteadyenoughincasesailsareused.

FIG.10.Buildingariblessboat.

TOMENDABROKENTUG

Nooneshouldgofromhomewithabuggyorawagonwithoutasmallcoilofcopper wire and a “multum in parvo” pocket-knife. This knife, as its nameimplies,hasmanyparts ina little space, and, amongotheruseful things,hasacontrivance forboringholes in leather straps. Incasea strapora leather tracebreaks,whileoneisonajourney,andatadistancefromanyhouse,onewouldbeinanawkward“fix”ifwithoutanymeansofrepairingdamages.Withthecopperwireandanimplementforboringsomeholes,repairscanbemadeinaveryfewminutes. The ends of the broken strap or tugmay be laid over each other orspliced;afewholesboredinthemannershowninfigure11,andsomestitchesofwirepassedthroughinthewayknownamongtheladiesas“backstitching.”Theends of the wire are twisted together, and the job will be finished almost asquickly as thismay be read. If it is a chain that breaks, the next linksmay bebrought together and wire wound around them in place of the broken link,whichwillmakethechainserviceableuntilhomeisreached.Infact,theusesofapiece of wire are almost endless. Nothing holds a button upon one’s workingclothes so securelyasapieceofwire,andonceputon in thismanner, there isneveranycalluponthewomenofthehouseatinconvenienttimesforthreadandneedletoreplaceit.Thewirewillpiercetheclothwithoutanyhelp,andnothingmoreisneededthantopassitthrougheachholeofthebuttonandtwisttheendsto secure them, cutting themoff closewith a knife.There is scarcely any littlethingthatwillbefoundofsogreatuseaboutafarm,oraworkshop,orinamill,oreveninahouse,asasmallstockofsoftcopperwire.

FIG.11.Repairingtug.

BUSINESSHABITS

Thereisprobablynotonefarmerintenthousandwhokeepsasetofaccountsfrom which he can at any moment learn the cost of anything he may have

produced, or even the cost of his real property.A very few farmerswho havebeenbroughtuptobusinesshabitskeepsuchaccounts,andareabletotellhowtheiraffairsprogress,whateachcrop,eachkindofstock,oreachanimalhascost,and what each produces. Knowing these points, a farmer can, to a very greatextent,properlydecidewhatcropshewillgrow,andwhatkindofstockhewillkeep.Hewillthusbeabletoapplyhislaborandmoneywhereitwilldothemostgood.He canweedouthis stock and retainonly suchanimals asmaybekeptwithprofit.Forthewant,ofsuchknowledge,farmerscontinue,yearafteryear,tofeed cows that areunprofitable, and frequently sell for less thanher value onethat is thebestof theherd,becauseshe isnotknowntobeanybetter thantherest.Feedisalsowasteduponill-bredstock,thekeepofwhichcoststhreeorfourtimesthatofwell-bredanimals,which,ashasbeenprovedbyfiguresthatcannotbemistaken,payalargeprofitontheirkeeping.Forwantofknowingwhattheycost,poorcropsareraisedyearbyyearatanactual loss,provided the farmer’slabor, at the rates current for common labor, were charged against them. Tolearn thathehasbeenworking for fiftycentsaday,duringanumberofyears,whilehehasbeenpayinghishelptwiceasmuch,wouldopentheeyesofmanyafarmerwhohasactuallybeendoingthis,anditwouldconvincehimthatthereissomevalue in figures andbook accounts. It isnot generallyunderstood that aman who raises twenty bushels of corn per acre, pays twice as much for hisplowingandharrowing,twiceasmuchforlabor,andtwiceasgreatinterestuponthe cost of his farm, as a neighborwho raises forty bushels per acre.Nor is itunderstoodthatwhenheraisesapigthatmakesonehundredandfiftypoundsofporkinayear,thathisporkcostshimtwiceasmuch,orthecornhefeedsbringshimbuthalfasmuchas thatofhisneighbor,whosepigweighs threehundredpoundsatayearold.Ifall thesethingswereclearlysetdowninfiguresuponapage in an accountbook, andwere studied, therewouldbenotonly a suddenawakening to the unprofitableness of such farming, but an immediate remedywouldbesought.Fornopersoncouldresistevidenceofthiskindifitwereoncebroughtplainlyhometohim.Ifstorekeepers,merchants,ormanufacturerskeptno accounts, they could not possibly carry on their business, and it is onlybecause the farmer’s business is one of the most safe that he can still go onworkinginthedark,andthrowingawayopportunitiesofbetteringhisconditionandincreasinghisprofits.

HAY-RACKS

We here illustrate two kinds of hay-racks, which have been found moreconvenientinusethansomeoftheoldKinds.Thatshowninfigure12consistsof a framemade of scantlings,mortised together, and fitting upon thewagonaftertheboxhasbeenremoved.Cross-pieces,whichprojectoverthewheels,areboltedtotheframe,andtotheseoneortwoside-boardsarebolted.Afewshort,sharpened stakes are fixed into the sides of the frame,which help to hold theload,andpreventitfromslippingofffromtherackduringtheloading.Astrongrackof thiskindmaybemade tocarryavery large loadofhay.Wehaveseenoverthirtyhundred-weightloadedupononeofthem,andmoremighthavebeeneasilyaddedtotheload.Theplanofbuildingthisrackisreadilyseenbystudyingthe engraving. At figure 13 is shown a rackmade to fit upon a wagon body.Whengrainishauled,muchissometimeslostthroughtherack,byshelling.Thisisalmostalwaysthecaseinhaulingripeoats,andalwaysindrawingbuckwheat.Toavoidthisloss,wehaveusedastrongwagon-boxofroughplanks,fittedwithironsockets,boltedsecurelytothesides.Intothesesocketswerefittedheadandtailracks,asshownintheengraving.Forthesidesweprocurednaturalcrooks,showninfigure14.

FIG.12.Hay-rack.

FIG.13.Rackforgrain.

FIG.15.Extricatingamirredcow.

FIG.14.Supportforrack.

HOWTOEXTRICATEAMIREDANIMAL

An animal mired in a swamp gets into a worse predicament the longer itstruggles.Theefforttoextricateitshouldbemadeinaneffectivemanner,sothattheanimalmaynotbeencouragedtoexhaustitselfinrepeatedexertions,whichareuseless,andonlysinkitdeeperinthemire.Theusualmethodistofastenaropearoundtheanimal’shornsorneck,andwhilethisispulledbysomeoftheassistants, othersplace railsbeneath thebodyof the animal for thepurposeofliftingitoutofthehole.Thisplanissometimeseffective,butitoftenisnot,andatbestitisaslow,clumsy,andlaboriousmethod.Thematerialsneededforthemethodherereferredtoareallthatarerequiredforamuchbetterone,whichisillustratedinFigure15.Thisisverysimple,andtwomencanoperateit,and,atapinch,evenonemanalonemaysucceedwithit.Astrongstakeoranironbarisdriven into thesolidgroundatadistanceof twenty-five feetormore fromthemired animal.Two short rails, aboutnine feet long, are tied togethernear theends,sothattheycanbespreadapartintheformofapairofshears,forhoisting.Alongropeisfastenedaroundthehornsorneckoftheanimal,withsuchaknotthat the loop cannotbedrawn tight enough todo any injury.The rope is castover theendsof therailsas theyaresetupupontheedgeof thesolidground,andcarriedtothestakeorcrow-barbeyond.Theendoftheropeisfastenedtoastouthand-spike,leavingaboutafootoftheendofitfree.Thisendislaidagainstthebarorstake,andtheotherendismovedarounditsothattheropeiswounduponit,drawingitupandwithitdrawingtheanimaloutofthemire.Theropebeingheldupbythetiedrails, tendsto lift theanimalandmakeitsextricationveryeasy.

HOWTOSAVEANDKEEPMANURE

There isnoquestionmore frequentlyor seriously consideredby the farmer,than how he shall get, keep, and spend an adequate supply ofmanure; nor isthere anything about the farmwhich is of greater importance to its successfulmanagementthanthemanureheapTherearefewfarmersnowleftwhopretendto ignore this feed for the land; and few localities, even in the newerWesternStates,wheremanurenowisthoughttobeanuisance.Wehavegraduallycome

totheinevitablefinalendofour“virginfarms,”andhavenoweithertosavewhatis left of their wonderful natural fertility, or to restore them slowly andlaboriouslytoaprofitablecondition.Wehavereachedtheendofourtether,andare obliged to confess thatwe have trespassed over the linewhich bounds theterritoryofthelocust,orhaveimprovedthefaceofthecountrysomuchthat,theprotectingtimberbeingremoved,thewatersupplyisbecomingprecarious,andsprings,brooks,andriversnolongerflowastheydidheretofore.Tosomeextentthetideofemigration,whichhasflowedwestwardsomanyyears,isnoweddyingor even ebbing, and the cheap,worn lands of the East are finding purchasers,whoundertaketobringthembacktotheirformercondition.AtthesametimeEasternfarmersarediscoveringmoreandmorecertainlythattheymustincreasetheircrops,andmakeoneacreproduceasmuchastwohaveheretoforedone.Theonlywayinwhicheitheroftheseclassescansucceed,isbykeepingsufficientstocktomanuretheirfarmsliberally;tofeedtheseanimalssoskillfullyandwellthattheyshallpayfortheirfeedwithaprofit,andinadditionleaveasupplyofrichmanure,withwhich thesoilcanbekept inaproductivestate,andtosaveanduse themanurewithsuchcare thatnoparticleof itbe lost. It isnoteveryfarmerwhocanprocureallthemanureheneeds;butverymanycansavewhattheyhave,withfargreatereconomythantheynowdo;andthis,althoughitmayseem a question secondary to that of getting manure, is really of primaryimportance; for by using what one has to better purpose, he opens a way toincreasehis supply.Wehave found this tobe the case inourown experience,andby strict attention to savingandpreservingeveryparticleofmanure in itsbestcondition,wehavesucceededinsoenlargingoursupplyoffodderthatthenumberofstockthatcouldbefedwaslargelyincreasedeachyear,andverysoonitwasnecessarytogooutandbuyanimalstoconsumethesurplus.Tobringafarmintoimprovedcondition,thereisnocheaperormoreeffectivemethodthanthis.

Theordinarymanagementofmanure,inopenbarnyards,whereitiswashedbyrains,driedbythesun’sscorchingheat,andwastedbyeverywindthatblows,istheworstthatispossible.Inthiswayhalformoreofthevalueofthemanureislost.Byfiguringupwhatitwouldcosttopurchaseaquantityofmanureequaltowhat is thus lost, the costliness of this commonmethodwould be discovered,andthequestionhowmuchcouldbeaffordedtotakecareofthemanurewouldbe settled.When properly littered, one cow or ox willmake a ton ofmanureeverymonth, if the liquidaswellasthesolidportionissaved.Tenheadwouldthusmake one hundred and twenty tons, or sixty two-horsewagon loads in a

year.Apairofhorseswillmakeasmuchmanureasonecow,ortwelvetonsintheyear.Ahundredsheep,ifyardedeverynightandwelllittered,willmakeonehundredtonsofmanureintheyear,andtenpigswillworkupawagonloadinamonth, if suppliedwith sufficient coarsematerial.The stockof aonehundredacre farm,whichshouldconsistofat least tencows, tenheadofsteers,heifers,andcalves,apairofhorses,onehundredsheep,andtenpigs,wouldthenmake,in the aggregate, three hundred and sixteen tons of manure every year, orsufficient togive twelve tonsperacreevery fourthyear. If thiswerewell caredfor,itwouldbe,ineffect,equaltodoublethequantityofordinaryyardmanure;and ifaplentyofswampmuckcouldbeprocured,at leastsixhundredtonsofthebestmanurecouldbemadeuponaonehundredacrefarm.Ifthisweretheruleinsteadofarareexception,oronlyapossibilitywhatachangewouldappearuponthefaceofthecountry,andwhatanadditionwouldbemadetothewealthofthenation!

GRINDINGTOOLS

The useful effect ofmany tools depends greatly upon the exact grinding oftheir edges to aproperbevel.A cold chisel, for instance, requires an edgeof acertainbeveltocuthardmetal,andoneofadifferentangleforsoftermetal;theharder thework tobecut, thegreater shouldbe theangle formedby theedge,and the softer the material, the more acute the edge. The same rule is to beobservedinwood-cuttingtools.Buttherearenotoolswhichrequiremoreexactandcarefulgrindingthanmill-picks,andthefirstbusinessofamilleristoknowhowtogrindhispicks.Uponthisdependsthedressofthestones,andthequalityof work turned out by them. Figure 16 represents a small grindstone forsharpeningpicks,whichisrunbymeansoffrictionwheelscoveredwithleather,andprovidedwithagauge for setting thepickat avariableangle to the stone.Thisgauge,shownintheengraving,issoserviceableastobewellworthaplaceinanyfarmworkshop.Itconsistsofaseriesofstepsraiseduponaslottedplank,whichisscrewedupontheframeofthegrindstone.Bymeansoftheslotandasetscrew,seenbelowthepick,thegaugecanbesetfortoolsofdifferentlengths,andeachstepcausesthetoolsetinittobegroundatadifferentangle.

FIG.16.Deviceforgrindingmill-picks.

AMETHODOFHANGINGHOGS

Aneasymethodofhangingahogorabeef,isbytheuseofthetripodshowninfigure17.Itismadeofthreebythreeoakscantling,sixfeetlong,connectedatoneend, inthemannershown,bymeansofanironbaroneinchthick,passedthroughaholeboredineachpiece.Thetwooutsidepiecesarefastenedtogetherby two cross-pieces, bolted to them, so that they are spread at the bottomsufficiently, whichwould be about three feet. A hook is fastened to the lowercross-piece,uponwhichthehogissuspended.Tohangthehogtheframeislaidupon the ground with the hog between the outside legs, the third leg beingdrawnbackwards.Thehogishookedbythegambrelsticktothecross-piece,theframeisliftedup,andthehinderlegisspreadoutsoastosupportit,asshowninfigure17.Theframemaybeloweredeasilywhenthehoghastobetakendown,and as the frames are cheaplymade, and occupy little room, itwill bewell tohaveseveralofthem.Theymaybemadetoserveotherusefulpurposes.

FIG.17.Tripodsetup.

RELIEFFORBOG-SPAVINANDTHOROUGH-PIN

Bog-spavin,andthorough-pin,whichareinrealitythesamedisease,differinginpositiononly,andthatveryslightly,maybeconsideredasincurable.Butlikemany chronic disorders, theymay be verymuch relieved by propermethods.Theyarecausedbyaninflammatoryconditionofthesynovialmembraneofthehockjoint,andarechieflylocatedinthevicinityofthejunctionofthebonesofthe leg,or the capsulebetween the tibia and the astragalus.This inflammationmaybeprimarily causedby sudden shocks,orby continued strains fromhardwork, and the troubles are common among those horses which are of alymphatic constitution, soft boned, or hereditarily subject to scrofulous orinflammatoryconditions.Theyarealsofoundlowerdowntheleg,inwhichcasethey are the result of inflammation of the sheath of the tendons. They do notalways cause lameness, exceptwhen the horse is first brought from the stable,andafterashorttimethestiffnessmaypassaway.Atothertimesthereisgreatheat and tenderness in the parts, and the animal is decidedly lame. The besttreatmentisbycoldapplicationsandpressureuponthepart.Blistering,whichissometimes resorted to generally increases the trouble, and may cause apermanentthickeningofthetissues,andastiffjoint.Pressureisbestappliedbyasortoftruss,orstrap,providedwithasinglepadincaseofspavinorwind-gall,ordoublepadsincaseofthorough-pin,whichissimplyaspavinorwind-gall,soplaced that the liquid which is gathered in the sac or puff may be pressedbetweenthetendonsorjoint,andmadtoappearontheoppositesideoftheleg.Inthiscaseitisobviouslynecessarytoapplythepressureuponbothsidesofthe

leg, and a double pad strapwill beneeded, of the form shown in figure 18.Acommonbroad leather strap, linedwith flannel,orchamois leather, topreventchafing,isused;padsofsoftleather,stuffedwithwool,aresewntothestrap,andtheexactspotswherethepressureistobear,disksofseveralthicknessesofsoftleather or rubber are affixed. The pads must necessarily be made to fit eachindividualcase,assuccesswilldependupontheirproperlyfittingthelimb.Thepadsshouldbeworncontinuallyuntiltheswellingdisappears,andmeanwhile,atleasttwicedaily,thepartsshouldbebathedforsometimewithcoldwater,andcloths wetted with cold water, with which a small quantity of ether has beenmixed, shouldbebound around theparts, and thepadsbuckledover them sotightly as to exert a considerable pressure.Absolute rest is necessarywhile theanimalisunderthistreatment.

FIG.18.Spavinpad.

TOOL-BOXESFORWAGONS,ETC

Togofromhomewithawagonwithouttakingafewtools,istoriskabreak-down from some unforeseen accident, without themeans of repairing it, andperhaps a consequent seriousor costlydelay.Thosewhodobusiness regularlyupontheroads,asthosewhohaullumber,wood,coal,ororesofdifferentkinds,shouldespeciallybeprovidedwithasetoftools,asaregularappurtenancetothewagon,andthecarefulfarmeringoingtomarketorthemill,oreventoandfroupon the farm, shouldbe equallywellprovided.Wehave foundbyexperiencethatabreak-downgenerallyhappensintheworstpossibleplace,andwhereitis

mostdifficult tohelpone’sself.Thelossofsosimpleathingasanutoraboltmaywrecka loadedwagon,orrender it impossible tocontinuethe journey,orsomebreakagebyasuddenjerkuponaroughroadmaydothesame.Itissafetobeprovidedforanyevent,andthecomfortofknowingthatheisthusprovidedgreatly lightens aman’s labor. At one time, whenwe had several wagons andteamsatworkupontheroad,weprovidedtheforeman’swagonwithaboxsuchasisheredescribed,anditwasinfrequentuse,savingaconsiderableoutlaythatwouldotherwisehavebeennecessary forrepairs,besidesmuch lossofvaluabletime.Itwasaboxabouteighteenincheslong,sixteenincheswide,andsixinchesdeep,dividedintoseveralcompartments.Itwassuppliedwithaspareking-bolt,a hammer-strap, wrench, some staples, bolts, nuts, screws, a screw-driver, ahammer, cold-chisel,wood-chisel,punch,pincers, ahoof-pick, copper rivets, arollofcopperwire,aknifeheavyandstrongenoughtocutdownasmallsapling,arollofnarrowhoop-iron,somecutandwroughtnails,andsuchotherthingsasexperienceproved tobe convenient tohave.The shapeof thebox is shown infigure19.Themiddleofthetopisfixed,andoneachsideofitisalidhingedtoit,andwhichisfastenedbyahaspandstaple,andapadlockoraspringkey.Thebox is suspended to thewagon reach, beneath the box or load, by two strongleatherstrapswithcommonbuckles.Beingonlysixinchesdeep,itisnotinthewayofanything,andisreadilyaccessiblewhenwanted.

FIG.19.Wagonbox.

MAKINGAHINGE

Agatewithabrokenhinge isavery forlornobject,andone thatdeclares toevery passer-by, “here lives a poor farmer.” If there is one thing more thananotherworthyofnoteandacauseofcongratulationinthisonehundredthyearof the existence of the United States, it is the infinite number of smallconvenienceswithwhichwearesupplied,everyoneofwhichaddstothesumofourdailycomfort.Morethanthis,themajorityoftheselittlethings,whicharein

use all over the world, are the inventions and productions of Americans. Soplentifully arewe suppliedwith these small conveniences, thatwe cannot turnoureyesinanydirectionwithoutcomingacrosssomeofthem.Itisthesesmallmatters which enable us to have somany neat and pleasant things about ourhomes,atsolittlecostofmoney,time,orlabor.Oneofthegreatestofthesmallconveniencesaroundthefarm,orthemechanic’sruralhome,isthesmallforge.Tomakeagate-hingewiththehelpofthisportableforgeisaveryeasything.Wetakeapieceofhalf-inchsquarebar-iron,aslongasmaybeneeded,andheatingoneend,roundit foraninchortwo;then,heatingtheotherend, flattenitoutgraduallytoapointforthesamelength,andbenditoveramandrel,orthenoseofananvil,intotheshapeshowninfigure20.Wethencutoffapieceofroundhalf-inchbar, about two inches long, anddrive it into the loop, tightening thelooparound itasmuchaspossible.The loop-end is thenbrought toaweldingheat, and the joint closed around the pin, andneatlyworked smoothwith thehammer.Anotherpieceofsquareironisthentaken,andworkedateachendthesameasthefirstone,theloop,however,isworkedopenuponapieceofcold5/8-inchroundbar,sothatitwillbelargeenoughtoworkeasilyuponthepinofthefirstpiece.Athreadmaynowbecutupontheroundends,ortheymayberivetedoverapieceof ironplate,ora largewasher,when theyaredriven through thegate-postandtheheel-postofthegate.Itisbest,however,tohaveascrew-threadand a nut, using a washer under each nut, to prevent the wood from beingcrushed.Thewholethenappearsasatfigure21,andisahingethatcannoteasilybebrokenorwornout.Inboringtheholesforahingeofthiskind,abitoranaugerofonlyhalf-an-inchdiametershouldbeused,sothattheedgesoftheironshouldcuttheirownwayintothewood,andwhenthehingesaredriven,apieceofhardwoodshouldbelaidupontheendsthatarestruck,sothattheywillnotbe battered by the hammer. Care must be exercised to have them driven insquarely,sothatthegatemayswingwithoutbindingonthehinges.For lighterhinges,thesamesizedironmaybeused,buttheendsshouldbehammeredoutto a point, and the edges should be notched or beardedwith a cold-chisel, asshownatfigure22.Thesemaybedrivenintoapostveryreadily,ifaholesmallerthan the ironbebored to lead theway, andwhendriven in,will not be easilydrawnout.Whenit isnecessarytodrawahingeoutofapostorgate, thathasbecomerustedin,orthathasbeenverytightlydriven,itmayeasilybedonebyboringaholeaboveit,orononesideofit,orbeneathit,alittlelargerthantheiron,andthenforcingitintotheholebymeansofawoodenwedgedrivenclosetoit.Itwillthenbeloose,andmayeasilybetakenoutwithoutdifficulty.

FIG.20.

FIG.21.

FIG.22.

SHELTERFORTHEHEAD

Manyasevereheadache,andarestlessnightafteranexhaustingday’sworkintheharvestfield,mightbepreventedbytheuseofsomesimpleprecautions.Thesunbeatsdownupontheheadandneckwithgreatforce,whenthethermometermarksninetydegreesandoverintheshade,andthescorchingeffectofaheatofonehundred and twenty degrees in the direct sunshine is bothuncomfortableand dangerous to the health. The head should be protected in such cases bywearinga strawhat,oroneof someopenmaterial,withabroadbrim, andbyplacing a leaf of cabbage or lettuce, or a wetted cambric handkerchief in thecrownof it. The very sensitive back of the head andneck is best protected bymeansofawhitehandkerchieffastenedbyonebordertothehat-band,figure23,andtherestmadetohangdownlooselyovertheneckandshoulders.Theneckisthusshadedfromthesun’srays,andthelooselyflappinghandkerchiefcausesaconstant current of air to pass around and cool the neck and head.We havefoundthistobeamostcomfortablethingtowear,anditsvalueasaprotectortothebaseof thebrainandthespinalmarrowis sowellknowninhotcountries,that theuseof a similarprotection ismade inoperative inarmieswhenon themarch.

FIG.23.Neck-protector.

HOWTOLEVELWITHSQUAREANDPLUMB-LINE

Thecommoncarpenter’ssquareandaplumb-linemaybemadetoserveasasubstituteforthespiritlevelformanypurposesonthefarmorelsewhere,whenalevelisnotathand.Themannerofgettingthesquareinpositiontolevelawall,forinstance,isshowninfigure24.Apieceofboard,threefeetinlength,havingoneendsharpened, isdrivenintothegroundforarest;anotchismadeinthetopofthesticklargeenoughtoholdthesquarefirmlyinposition,asshownintheengraving,Alineandweight,heldneartheshortarm,andparalleltoit,willleavethelongarmofthesquarelevel.Bysightingoverthetopofthesquare,anyirregularitiesintheobjecttobelevelledarereadilydiscovered.Amethodtofindthe number of feet in a descent in the ground is illustrated by figure 25. Thesquareisplacedasbeforedirected;thenasightistakenoverandalongtheupperedgeof thesquare toapoleorrodplacedatadesiredpoint.Thepointon thepolewhichisstruckbythelineofsightshowsthedifferencebetweenthelevelsofthetwoplaces.Thismethodwillbefoundapplicableinlayingoutdrains,whereacertaindesiredfallistobegiventotheditch.

FIG.24.Manneroflevellingawall.

FIG.25.Measuringaslopewithasquare.

KEEPTHECATTLEUNDERCOVER

Evennow,insomeofthenewerregionsoftheWest,theeasiestwaytogetridofthemanureisconsideredthebest.TheEnglishfarmershavelongbeenobligedtofeedfarmanimalslargelyforthefertilizerstheyyield,andthishasprovedthatcovered yards are themost economical. These covers are not so expensive asmight be supposed at first thought. Substantial sheds, large enough toaccommodateahundredheadofcattle,maybebuiltatacostall thewayfrom$1,000 to $1,500, according to the locality andprice of labor and lumber.Theroofmay bemadewith three ridge poles resting upon outside walls, and tworowsofpillars.Thereshouldbeampleprovisionforventilationandtheescapeofthewater fallingupon the roof.Theoriginal costwillnotbemanydollarsperhead, and the interest on this will represent the yearly cost. If this should beplacedattwodollarsforeachanimal,itwillbeseenthatthisoutlayismorethan

repaidbytheincreasedvalueofthehousedmanureoverthatmadeintheopenyard,andexposedtothesunanddrenchingrains.Thesavinginfoodconsequentupon thewarmprotectionof theanimalshasbeencarefully estimated tobeatleast one-tenth thewhole amount consumed. In the saving alone, the coveredyardgivesahandsomereturnupontheinvestment.

WATERINGPLACESFORSTOCKONLEVELLAND

It is frequently the case that there are underdrains of living water passingthroughlevelfields,inwhichthereisnowateravailableforstock.Insuchacase,asimpleplanforbringingthewatertothesurfaceisshowninfigures26and27,inwhich is indicatedanunderdrainofstoneor tile;apipeof two-inchboreofwood or tile, and about 15 feet in length, is laid level with the bottom of thedrain,andconnectingwithaboxonefootormoresquaresunkintotheground.If the soilbe soft, thebox is surroundedwith stonesas shown.A lowplaceorsmallhollowatsomepointalongthedrainisselectedforthewateringbox,or,shouldthelandbenearlylevel,thenwithplowandscraperanartificialhollowissoonmadeatanypointdesired.Twofieldsmaybethuseasilywateredbymakingtheboxtwofeetinlength,andplacingitsothatthefencewilldivideit.

FIG.26.Takingwaterfromunderdrain.

FIG.27.Thewateringplace.

ASHAVING-HORSE

The shingle-horse, shown in figure 28, ismade of a plank ten feet long, sixincheswide,andaninchandahalfthick.Aslotiscutthroughthisplank,andalever,madeofanaturalcrook,ishingedintoit.Awoodenspringisfixedbehindthelever,andisfastenedtoitbyacord.Thispullsbacktheleverwhenthefootisremoved fromthe stepbeneath.Thehorsemayhave four legs,but twowillbesufficient,iftherearendismadetorestupontheground.Figure29ismadeofaplank, six feet long, ten incheswide, and two inches thick. Four legs, two feetlong,arefixedininchandahalfholes,asshownbelow.Abench,eighteenincheslong,eightandahalfincheswide,andaninchandahalfthick,isfixeduponthehorse.A slot, eightbyoneandahalf inches, is cut through thebenchand theplank,andthelever,twofeeteightincheslong,isfixedinthisbymeansofapinpassingthroughthebench.Someextraholesaremadeinthelever,bywhichtheheight of the head above the benchmay be changed to suit different sizes ofwork.Aheadisputuponthelever,sixinchessquareeachway,butbevelledoffatthe front. The foot-board, five by ten inches, is fastened to the bottom of theleverbyastrongpin.

FIG.28.Shaying-horseforshingles.

FIG.29.Horseforgeneraluse.

AMILKING-STOOL

Thefrontofthestool(figure30)ishollowedtoreceivethepail,whichiskeptin its place by a wire, fixed as shown in the engraving. The front leg has aprojectingrestuponwhich thebottomof thepail isplaced tokeep it fromtheground, and also from breaking away the wire by its weight. Themilkermayeithersitastrideofthisstool,orsidewaysuponit.

FIG.30.Amilking-stool.

HOWTOTREATTHRUSH

Thrush is a disease of the horse’s hoof, quite common in this country. Itresults oftener from neglect in the stables than from any other cause. Thesymptomsarefetidodorandmorbidexudationfromthefrog,accompaniedwithsoftening of the same. A case recently came under our observation. A youngcarriagehorse,usedmostlyontheroad,andkeptinthestablethroughtheyear,showed lameness in the left fore foot one morning after standing idle in thestable all the previous day.On removing the shoe, and examining the hoof, afetid odorwas observed.The stablewas examined,when the sawdust used forbedding was found to be saturated with urine. The stable was cleanedimmediately.Drysawdustwasplacedinthestall,anda fewsodspackedinthespace where the horse usually rested his fore feet. The lameness diminishedwithoutmedicaltreatment,andintendaysdisappearedaltogether.Abeddingofsawdust or earth, covered with straw or leaves, promotes the comfort of thehorse,butitneedswatchingandsystematicrenewing.Thelimitoftheabsorbingpowerofthedriestsoil,orsawdust,issoonreached.Ifahorseiskeptmostofthe

timeinthestable,hisbeddingsoonbecomeswet,andunfit forhisuse.It isallthebetterforthecompostheap,andforthehorse,tohavefrequentrenewalsofabsorbmentsofsomekind,thatfermentationmaynotbeinprogressunderhishoofs.Theproperplaceforthisfermentationisinthecompostheap.Toooftenthecareofthehorseislefttoaservantwithoutexperienceinthestable,andtheresult is permanent disease in the hoofs and legs of the horse. This is mostcertainlyoneofthecasesinwhich“anounceofpreventionisworthapoundofcure.”

AWESTERNLOCUSTTRAP

AgreatmanydeviceshavebeenusedforthedestructionofthelocustsinthoseWestern States where they have done so muchmischief for a few years past.WhetherthelocustsaretoremainasapermanentpesttotheWesternfarmers,ornot,remainstobeproved.Itiscertain,however,thatthroughsomeeffectsofthe climate, the attacks of parasitic enemies, their consumption by birds andotheranimals,andby theeffortsof the farmers themselves, the locustshaveoflate been greatly reduced in numbers, and their depredations have becomealmost inconsiderable.Manymethodshavebeenadopted for theirdestruction.Rolling the ground; plowing furrows, and making pits in them in which theinsectsarecaught;burningtheminlongpilesofdrygrass;catchingtheminlargesacks, and upon frames smearedwith gas tar, and upon large sheet-iron panscontainingburning fuel; all thesehavebeen triedwithmoreor less success, aswellasthenegativemeansofdivertingthemfromtheircoursebymeansofthicksmoke from smothered fires of prairie hay. A most effective method is oneinventedbyawomaninMinnesota.Thisconsistsofa largestripofsheet-iron,figure31,fromtentothirtyfeetlong,turnedupafewinchesattheendsandoneside;awireisfixedtoeachend,oratproperplacesinthefront,bywhichitcanbedrawnover thegroundbyapairofhorsesoroxen.A lightchainorrope isfixedsoastodraguponthegroundafootinadvanceofthefrontofthesheet-iron,bywhichthelocustsaredisturbedandmadetojump,andasthemachineismovingonatthesametime,theydropuponit.Athickcoatofgas-tarissmearedoverthesurfaceoftheiron,inwhichthelocustsareimbeddedandstickfast.Thevigorous kicking of the trapped insects helps to keep themass stirred up, andpresentastickysurface.Whenthetrapisfull,thelocustsarerakedoffintoapile,

and set on fire and consumed. Thismachine can be drawn over youngwheatwithout injury, as it is not heavy enough to break it down, and being flexible,conformstothesurfaceofthegrounditispassingover.Theengravingshowsthemanner of preparing the sheet-iron for this purpose. The season when thelocustshaveformerlydamagedthenewlysproutedwheatisinthespring,anditwill be useful for manyWestern farmers to know of this cheap and effectivemethod,whichisnotpatented,andforwhichtheymaythankafarmer’swifeofmorethanusualingenuityandhabitsofobservation.

FIG.31.Trapforcatchinglocusts.

SPREADINGMANURE

Thewinter is a good season for spreadingmanure. It is immaterialwhetherthegroundiscoveredwithsnowornot,orwhetheritisfrozenorsoft,provideditisnottoosofttodrawloadsover,andthatthegroundisnotuponasteephill-side,fromwhichthemanuremaybewashedbyheavyrainsorbysuddenthaws.We have spread manure upon our fields several winters, and always withadvantage,notonlyinsavinglaborandtime,butalsotothecropsgrownafterit,moreespecially tooatsandpotatoes. In spreading themanure, it is thebest todropitinheaps,leavingittobespreadbyamanassoonaspossibleafterwards.Thismaybedonemostreadilybyusingamanurehook,withwhichthemanureisdrawnoutofthesledorwagon-box.Slopingwagon-bedsareusedforhaulingvariousheavymaterials,andwhyshouldtheynotbeusedfor this, theheaviestandmost bulky load a farmer has to handle?Awagon, having the box raised(figure 32), so that the forward wheels could pass beneath it, would be veryconvenient on a farm. It could be turned in its own length, and handledwithvastly’greaterfacilitythantheordinaryfarmwagon,whichneedsalargeyardtobeturnedin,Suchawagoncouldbeunloadedwithgreateaseandveryrapidly

by theuseof thehook,and incase itwasdesired to spread the loadbroadcastfromthewagon,thatcouldbedoneperfectlywell.Buttodothiskeepsthehorsesidle the greater part of the time, and is an unprofitable practice. Two teamshaulingwillkeeponemanbusyintheyardhelpingtoload,andanotherinthefieldspreading; theworkwill thengoonwithout lossof time. Indropping theheaps,theymaybeleftinrows,onerodapart,andonerodapartintheroweachloadbeingdivided intoeightheaps.Thiswillgive twenty loadsperacre. If tenloadsonlyaretobespread,therowsshouldbeonerodapart,andtheheapstworodsapart intherows.Inspreadingthemanure, itshouldbedoneevenly,andtheheapsshouldnotbemadetooverlap.Ifthereisoneheaptothesquarerod,itshould be thrown eight feet each way from the centre, covering a square ofsixteenandonehalffeet,asshowninfigure33.Oneheapthenismadetojoinuptoanother,andthewholegroundisequallymanured.Thereismoreinthispointthanisgenerallysupposedbyfarmers,manyofwhomarecarelessandwastefulin this respect, giving too much in some places, and too little in others. Theconsequenceisunevengrowthoverthefield,rustedgrain,orperhapslaidstrawin some places, and in others a half-starved crop.Another important point inspreading is, tobreakupthe lumps,andscatter the finemanure.Unless this isdone,thefieldcannotbeevenlyfertilized.Thereisworkaboutthis,whichwouldtemptsomehiredmentoneglectit,butitshouldnotonlybeinsistedupon,butlookedto,anditsperformanceinsured.

FIG.32.Wagonwithraisedbox.

FIG.33.Mannerofspreading.

PUTTINGAWAYTOOLS

Thewearingoutoffarmimplementsis,asarule,duemoretoneglectthantouse.If toolscanbewell takencareof, itwillpaytobuythosemadeof thebeststeel,andfinishedinthebestmanner;butincommonhands,andwithcommoncare,suchareoflittleadvantage.Ironandsteelpartsshouldbecleanedwithdrysand and a cob, or scraped with a piece of soft iron, washed and oiled ifnecessary, and in a day or two cleaned off with the corn-cob and dry sand.Finally,painttheironpartwithrosinandbeeswax,intheproportionoffourofrosintooneofwax,meltedtogetherandappliedhot.Thisisgoodfortheironorsteelpartsofeverysortoftool.

Woodwork shouldbepaintedwithgood,boiled, linseedoil,white leadandturpentine,coloredofanydesired tint; red isprobably thebestcolor.Keepthecattle awayuntil the paint is dry andhard, or theywill lick,withdeath as theresult. If it is not desired to use paint on hand tools, the boiled oil, withturpentine and “liquid drier,” does just as well. Many prefer to saturate thewood-workoffarmimplementswithcrudepetroleum.Thiscannotbeusedwithcolor,butisappliedbyitself,80longasanyisabsorbedbytheporesofthewood.

SELF-CLOSINGDOORS

Aself-opening,rollingdoorisshowninfigure34.Ahalf-inchrope,attachedtoastapledrivenintotheupperedgeofthedoor,passesparallelwiththetrack,andbeyond theboundaryof thedoorwhenopen,overa small groovedpulleyandthencedownward;aweightisattachedtoitsend.Thedoorisshownclosed,andtheweightdrawnup.Asthedoorisaself-fasteningone,whenthefasteningisdisengagedtheweightwilldrawthedooropen-Byastringorwireconnectedto the fastening, the door may be opened while standing at any part of thebuilding,or ifoneendbeattachedtoapostoutside,nearthecarriageway,thedoor may be opened without leaving the vehicle, a desirable plan, especiallyduring inclementweather.Theweightandpulleysshouldbe located inside thebuilding,butare shownoutside tomake theplanmorereadilyunderstood.Byattachingtheropetotheoppositesideofthedoor, itmaybemadeself-closinginstead of self-opening, as thoughtmost convenient. Themanner of closing aswing-door,asinfigure35,issoclearlyshownastoneednodescription.

FIG.34.Self-closingslidingdoor.

FIG.35.Swing-doork.

VENTILATORSFORFODDERSTACKS

Theperfectcuringoffoddercornisdifficult,evenwiththebestappliances;asusually done, the curing is very imperfect. The fodder corn crop is one thatmeritsnotonlythebestpreparationofthegroundandthebestculture,butitisworthyof specialcare inharvestingandcuring.TheFrench farmersaregivingmuchattentiontothiscrop,andbygoodcultureareraisingmostextraordinaryandveryprofitableyields.Seventytonsperacreisnotunfrequentlygrownbythebest farmers.Wedonotaveragemorethaneighttonsperacre,yetwithusthecorn crop may be grown under the most favorable circumstances. In a fewinstances,ayieldofthirtytonsperacrehasbeenreachedbyonefarmer,butthisis the highest within our knowledge. One of the most prominent defects inordinaryAmericanagriculture is, theneglectwithwhich thiseasilygrownandveryvaluable crop is treated; andoneof themostpromising improvements inouradvancingsystemofcultureis,theattentionnowbeinggiventofoddercorn.A drawback under which we labor is the difficulty of curing such heavy andsucculent herbage; this, however, will by and by be removed, both by theadoptionoftheFrenchsystemofensilage,andbybettermethodsofdryingthefodder.Onthewhole,thesystemofensilageoffersbyfarthegreatestadvantages;thefodderbeingpreservedina freshandsucculentcondition,andthe laborofpreparing the silos, cutting the stalks, and properly protecting them from theatmosphere, being actually nomore than that of drying the crop in the usualmanner,storingitinstacks,andcuttingitafterwardsforusewhenitisneeded.Itis impossible, however, that even the best improvements can be introduced

otherwisethanslowlyandwithcaution;theoldsystem,althoughitmaybelesseffectiveandprofitablethanthenew,willbelongretainedbymany;andeveninthe oldmethods improvements are beingmade from season to season by theingenuityoffarmers.Werecentlysawaverysimplebutusefularrangementfortheventilationofstacks,andmowsinbarns,whichisapplicabletothecuringofcornfodder.Itconsistsofaframe,figure36,madeofstripsofwood,puttogetherwithsmallcarriagebolts.Thestripsmaybemadeofchestnut,pine,orhemlock,the firstbeing themostdurable andbest, two incheswideandone inch thick.The illustration shows how these strips are put together. The length of thesectionshownmaybethreeorfourfeet.Infigure37isseenthemannerinwhichthe sections are put together. A small stack may have a column of theseventilatorsinthecentre;alargeonemayhavethreeorfourofthem;inamowinthebarn,theremaybeasmanyasareneedful,twoorthree,ormore,asthecasemaybe.Whenmadeinthisshape,theyaresoportable,andeasytouse,thatthegreatestobjectionsagainstventilatorsareremoved.Instackingfoddercorn,itissafest tomake the stacks small.Threeof these sections,placed together inonecolumn, are sufficient for a stack containing three tons, and which would beabout fourteenfeethigh.Thesheavesshouldbesmall,andthestacksomewhatopen at the bottom, so as to freely admit currents of air. The top of the stackshould bewell protected to keep out the rain; a hay cap fastenedover the topwould be very effective for this. If a quantity of dry straw could be thrown inbetweenthebundles,andonthetopofeachlayerofthem,theperfectcuringofthefodderwouldbethensecured.

FIG.36.Frame.

FIG.37.Ventilator.

CORN-MARKERFORUNEVENGROUND

The corn-marker, shown in figure 38, is so constructed that it will readilyaccommodate itself tounevenground. It consistsof twopiecesofplank, theseformthemiddlesetofrunners.Uponthesepintwostraightpiecesoftwobyfourscantlingwitheachendprojectingovertherunnersixinches;throughtheseendsareboredholesforafour-inchrod.Twootherpiecesofplank, liketheformer,areprocured, andone endof twootherpiecesof scantling arcpinned to eachrunner;thenthesebeamsareconnectedtothemiddlepairbythebolts,asseenintheengraving,sothat,whileonerunnelisonhighground,theothermaybeinthe landfurrow.Inturningaround, thetwooutsiderunnersmaybeturnedupagainsttheseat.

FIG.38.Flexiblecorn-marker.

AHOME-MADEHARROW

Theharrow, figure39, is a squareone.The teeth are set twelve inches fromcentre tocentre,eachway.Thereare fourbeams ineachhalf,andfive teeth ineachbeam.Thesebeamsarefourfeeteightincheslong,mortisedintothefrontpiece,whichis threefeetseveninches in length.Therearendsofthebeamaresecured by a piece of timber, two by one and a half inches, halved on to thebeamsandthenbolted.Theharrowismadeoftwoandahalfbytwoandahalf-inch scantling, using locustwood, because of its great durability and firmness.Thereisnothingparticularlynewaboutthisharrow,exceptthatitislargerthancommon,andthenovelwayofhitchingtoitbywhichitiskeptsteady.Theteethcanbemadetocutsixinchesoroneinchapart.Themannerofhitchingisshownin the engraving. The draw-bar is made of three-eighths by one and three-quarter iron, threefeet four inches in length.Thechain isattachedtothisbyahookatoneend,theotherbeingfastenedtotheharrowbyastaple.Thechainisabouttwofeetlong.Theentirecostisabouttwelvedollars.

FIG.39.Anexcellentharrow.

CLEARINGLANDBYBLASTING

The explosive used is dynamite or giant powder. It is a mixture of nitro-glycerine with some absorbents, by which this dangerously explosive liquid ismade intoaperfectlysafesolidsubstance,ofaconsistenceandappearancenotunlike light-brown sugar. It is not possible to explode dynamite by ordinary

accident,norevenbytheapplicationofalightedmatch.Aquantityofitplaceduponastumpandfiredwithalightedmatch,burnsawayverymuchasapieceofcamphor or resin would do, with little flame butmuch smoke, and boils andbubbles until only a crust is left. There is not the least danger, therefore ofigniting the powder dangerously, until properly placed for the blast. In thisrespectithasaverygreatadvantageoverordinaryblastingpowder,whichmaybe exploded by a spark. The powder, as it is manufactured, is made intocartridges about eight inches in length, and of any required diameter. Thecartridgesarewrapped instrongparchmentpaper,coveredwithparaffine,andthe true formisshownat figure40.Theyare firedbyacap(also in figure40),whichisinsertedintotheendofthecartridge.Thefuse,whichisofthecommonkind,isinsertedintotheopenendofthecap,whichispinchedcloseuponitwithasmallpairofpliers,soastoholditfirmly.Thecartridgeisthenopenedatoneend,thecapwiththefuseattachedinserted,andthepapertiedtightlyaroundthefuse,withapieceoftwine.Thecartridgereadyforfiringisshownatfigure41.

FIG.40.

FIG.41.

FIG.42.Thestumpbeforetheexplosion.

Our first operation was upon a green white-oak stump, thirty inches indiameter,withrootsdeeplybeddedintheground.Tohavecutanddugoutthisstumpwithaxeandspadeswouldhavebeenahardday’sworkfortwoormoregoodmen.The shapeof the stump is shownat figure42.Aholewaspunchedbeneaththestump,asshowninthefigure,withanironbar(figure43),soastoreachthecentreofit.Twoofthecartridgeswereplacedbeneaththestump,andwere tampedwith some earth; a pail of water was then poured into the hole,whichhadtheeffectofconsolidatingtheeartharoundthecharge.Thefusewasthen fired.The resultwas to split the stump intonumerous fragments, and tothrowitentirelyoutoftheground,leavingonlyafewshredsofrootslooseinthesoil. The result is shown in figure 44, on the next page; the fragments of thestumpintheengravingwerethrowntoadistanceofthirtytofiftyfeet,andmanysmalleroneswerecarriedoveronehundred feet.Thequantityofpowderusedwas less than two pounds. A portion of the useful effect produced by theexplosion,consistedinthetearingofthestumpintosuchpiecesascouldeasilybesawedupintofire-wood;bywhichmuchafter-laborinbreakingitup,whentaking itout in theusualmanner,wassaved.This testwasperfectlysuccessful,andprovednotonlythethorougheffectivenessofthismethod,butitseconomyincostandintime.Severalotherstumpsweretakenoutinthesamemanner;thetime occupiedwith each being from five to tenminutes. Smaller stumpswerethrownoutwith singlecartridges, and innotonecasewasanything left in thegroundthatmightnotbeturnedoutwiththeplow,orthatwouldinterferewiththe plowing of the ground. The explosive was then tried upon a fast rock, ofaboutonehundredandfiftycubicfeet,weighingabouttentons.Theshapeoftherockbeforetheexplosionisshowninfigure45.Aholewasmade,withthebar,inthegroundbeneath the rock, and three cartridgeswere insertedandexploded.

Tohaveproducedthisresult(showninfigure46),bytheordinarymethod,thatwasheredoneinafewminutesbyoneman,wouldhaveoccupied,atleast,twomen,withdrills,sledge,etc.,twoorthreedays.Theapplicationofthismethodisseentobeofgreatvaluewherethesavingoftimeisanobject.Anacreofstumpsor rocksmay be cleared in one day by one or twomen, and thematerial leftready for use as fire-wood, or as stones for fences or buildings. The cost inmoney is also reduced in some cases very considerably, and almost absolutesafetytothecarefuloperatorisinsured.Itwouldbegenerallyadvisabletosecuretheservicesofanexpert,andthatthepartieswhohaveworkofthischaractertobeperformed,shouldjointlyengagesuchaman,whocouldeitherdothewholework,ordoitinpart,andinstructaforemanorskilfulworkmansufficientlyinaday toperform the remainder.Themost favorable seasons foroperatinguponstumpsandrocksarefallandspring,whenthegroundissaturatedwithwater.Itshouldbeexplainedthatthisexplosiveisnotinjuredbywater,althoughalong-continuedexposuretoitwouldaffectsomequalitiesofit.

FIG.43.

FIG.44.Theeffectofblastingthestump.

FIG.45.Theruckasitwas.

FIG.46.Therockafterblasting.

PREVENTABLELOSSESONTHEFARM

It is a “penny wise and pound foolish” system, to breed from scrub stock.ThereisnotafarmerinthisregionwhohasnotaccesstoapedigreedShorthornbull,byapaymentofasmallfeeoftwotofivedollars,andyetwefindonlyoneanimal in ten with Shorthorn blood. It is a common practice to breed to ayearling,andasheisalmostsuretobecomebreechy,tosellhimforwhathewillbringthesecondsummer.Manyfarmersneglectcastratingtheircalvesuntiltheyare a year old.We think ten per cent, are thus permanently injured,must beclassedasstags,andsoldatareducedprice.Fullyhalfthecalvessostuntedneverrecover.

Withmany, thestarvingprocesscontinuesthroughtheentireyear.Theyarefirstfedaninsufficientquantityofskimmilk;theninJulyorAugust,justattheseasonwhen flies are at theirworst, andpastures driest, they areweaned, andturnedouttoshiftforthemselves,andleftonthepasturesuntilsnowsfall,longafter the fields yield them a good support. They are wintered without grain,spring finds them poor and hide-bound, and the best grazing season is overbeforetheyarefairlythrifty.

Thekeepingofoldcowslongpasttheirprimeisanotherthingwhichlargelyreducestheprofitsofthefarmer.Wehavefoundquitealargepercent.ofcows,whosewrinkled horns and generally run-down condition show that they havelongsincepassedthepointofprofit.Afewyearsago,thesecowswouldhavesoldatfullpricesforbeef,nowtheywillsellonlyforBolognaattwocentsperpound.Thus cows have, in a majority of cases, been kept, not because they werefavorites,orevenbecausetheywereprofitable,but fromsheercarelessnessandwantofforethought.Anotherfruitfulcauseoflosstothefarmeris,attemptingtowintermorestockthanhehasfeedfor.Insteadofestimatinghisresourcesinthefall, andknowing thathehasenough feedeven forahardwinter,hegives thematternothought,andMarchfindshimwiththechoiceof twoevils,either tosellstock,orbuyfeed.Ifhechoosestheformer,hewilloftensellformuchlessthantheanimalswouldhavebroughtfourmonthsearlier,andifthelatter,willusuallypayamuchhigherpriceforfeedthanif ithadbeenboughtinautumn.Toooftenhescrimpsthefeed,hopingforanearlyspring,andsosoonashecansee the grass showing a shade of green around the fence rows, or in some

shelteredravine,turnshisstockouttomaketheirownliving.Thisbringsoneofthemostpotentcausesofunprofitablecattleraising;namely,shortpastures.Thefarmer who is overstocked in winter, is almost sure to turn his cattle on hispastures too early in the spring, and this generally results in short pasture allsummer,andconsequentlythestockdonotthriveastheyought,andinaddition,the land which should be greatly benefited and enriched, is injured, for thedevelopmentoftherootsinthesoilmustcorrespondtothatofthetops,andifthe latterareconstantlycroppedshort, the rootsmustbe small.Thebenefitofshade is lost, and the land is trampled by the cattle in theirwanderings to fillthemselves, so that it is in aworse condition than if a crop of grain had beengrownon it.Fromall thosecausescombined, there isa largeaggregateof loss,and it is theexception to finda farmonwhichoneormoreof themdoesnotexist,andyetwithoutexceptiontheymaybeclassedas“preventable,”ifthoughtandpracticalcommonsensearebroughttobearinthemanagement.

ACRADLEFORDRAWINGABOAT

Whenitisnecessarytodrawaboatoutofthewater,acradleshouldbeused.This is very easily made out of some short boards and a piece of plank. Theboardsarecutsothatwhenthreethicknessesareboltedtogether,thejointsshallbebrokenandnotcomeoppositeeachother,asshowninfigure47.Thecradleshouldbemadeto fit theboat tightly,midwaybetweenstemandstern,sothatwhenitrestsuponit,theboatwillbeevenlybalancedandfirmlyheld.Thecradleismountedupontwowheels,whichmaybemadeofhardwoodplank.Apieceoftwo-inchplankmaybe sawnout for theaxle, and theupperpartof thecradlefirmly bolted to it. Such a cradle as this may be made light or heavy, and ifdesiredmaybefurnishedwithironwheels,sothatitwillsinkinthewater.Itcanthenberunclownundertheboat,andthatbedrawnuponit.Byhaulinguponthering-bolt in itsstern, theboatcanbedrawnupoutof thewater,andeasilymovedonland.

FIG.47.Cradleforaboat.

When it is desired to lift a boat out of thewater, and suspend it in a boat-house,allthatisnecessarytobedoneistofixtwostronghooks,orrings,inthetop of the house, and a ring-bolt at each end of the boat. A pair of double-sheavedblocksisprovidedforeachendoftheboat.Theblocksarehookedtotheringsinthehouseandtothoseintheboat,whichisthendrawnup,oneendatatime, alternately, until high enough. If two persons are in the boat, both endsmaybehauledupatonce.Thelooseendoftheropeisfastenedtotheringoftheboat,ortoaringoracleatatthesideoftheboat-house.Thentheboatremainssuspendedintheboat-house.

FEED-RACKFORSHEEP

Therack, figure48, ismadeofpoles for thebottomand top,andcross-barsfittedintothem.Thebottombarslideslooselyinbrackets,whicharefixedtothewall of the shed, and the upper bar is secured by a cord, which passes over asmallpulleyinaholeinthewallabovetherack;aweightbeingattachedtotheoutsideendoftherope,servestokeeptherackalwaysagainstthewall.Whenthehayisputintherackisdrawndown,and,whenfilled,ispushedbackagainstthewall,holdingthehayclosely,andbeingkeptinplacebytheweight.Thispreventsthe hay from being pulled out too freely by the sheep or cattle. It isrecommendedthatthegrain-troughbeplacedbeneatharackofthiskind,sothatthe chaff which falls from it may be caught in the trough and saved for use,insteadofbeingtrampledunderfoot.

FIG.48.Feed-rackforsheep.

HOWTOMANAGENIGHT-SOIL

The fertilizing properties of night-soil arewell known.The principal reasonwhy this valuable material is neglected and permitted to go to waste, is thedifficultyofhandlingit.Ifimproperlyhandled,itisdisagreeableanddifficulttoapply to theuses towhich it isbestadapted.Therearemanycases inwhich itcould bemade use of very conveniently, if rightlymanaged. In country townsandvillages it isdifficult todisposeof it, and itbecomesa seriousnuisance tohouseholders,andadetrimenttothepublichealth,whenitoughttobeturnedtoprofitableuses.Insomeothercountriesthisrefusematteriseagerlycollectedandcarefullyusedbythefarmers.ThemethodsemployedinEngland,Germany,andFrance might very well be adopted by us, and a large quantity of fertilizingmaterialbegathered.Bythemethodsthereinuse,thenight-soiliseasilyhandledand prepared for distribution upon the land, or for mixing in composts.Arrangementsaremadewithpersonsintownsandvillageswhowishtohavethesoil removed,and the timebeing fixed(this isalways in thenight, fromwhichcircumstance the name given to the material is derived), wagons with tightboxes,orcarts,aresenttotheplace.Cartsaremostlyused,asindeedtheyareinEuropeformostofthefarmwork.Thecarts,orwagons,carryoutaquantityofearth, chopped straw, ashes, or such other absorbent as may be convenientlyprocured,andsomesheavesof longstraw,orelse theashesorotherabsorbentused, which is frequently the sweepings and scrapings of streets, is preparedUponthegroundornearby.Thismaterialisthendisposedintheformofabankenclosingaspaceofsufficientsizetoholdthenight-soil,asshowninfigure49.Areserveheapiskepttobemixedwiththenight-soilasitisemptiedintotheplace

preparedforit.Wheelbarrowswithtightboxesaregenerallyusedtoconveythesoilfromthecesspool.Whenthewholehasbeenremovedfromthecesspool,thecutstrawismixedinandthebanksofearthareturnedoveruponthepile,whichcan then be handledwith shovels or forks, and is ready to be loaded into thewagon.Someofthelongstrawis laidinthebottomofthewagon-box,andthemixedmass is thrownupon it, layerafter layeralternatelywithstraw,until thetopofthewagon-boxisreached.Itismostconvenienttohavearack,orflaringside-boards,toconfinetheupperpartoftheload,butthisisnotnecessaryiftheloadingisproperlydone.Themannerofloadingthetopisasfollows:abundleofstraw is spread so that half of it projects over the side or end of the load. Aquantityofthemixedstuffisforkedontothestraw,thelooseprojectingendsofwhich are turnedbackon to the loadwhenmore is laidupon it.Thedoubledstrawholdstheloosestufftogether,whichmightelsebeshakenofftheloadasitiscarriedhome.Inthismannertheloadisbuiltupuntilitiscompleted,whenitappearsasshowninfigure50.Loadsthusmadearecarriedmanymileswithoutlosing anything on the journey, and themass, which would seem to have nocoherence,iskeptsolidlytogether.Cartsaresometimesloadedtoaheightoftwoorthreefeetabovetheside-boards,andaremadetocarryaloadforthreehorses.Bythismanagementthismaterialisnomoredisagreeablethanordinarymanure,andtheworkofmovingitisrenderedquiteeasy.

FIG.49.Preparingnightsoil.

FIG.50.Mannerofloadingnight-soil.

THEUSEOFLIMEINBLASTING

There are some forces, apparently insignificant, which act with irresistiblepowerthroughshortdistances.Theexpansionofwater infreezingisa forceofthiskind.Theincreaseinbulkinchangingfromtheliquidtothesolidstateoficeisonlyaboutone-tenth,yet itexercisesapowersufficient tobreak ironvesselsand rend thehardest rocks.Everyonewhohas slaked a lumpofquicklimebygraduallypouringwateruponit,hasobservedthatthefirsteffectofthecontactbetween the water and lime is to cause a swelling of the lump. It generallyexpandsandtakesupconsiderablemoreroomthanbefore.Thisexpansiveforcehas recently been successfully applied to coal mining in England. Powderedquicklimeisstronglycompressedintocartridgesaboutthreeinchesindiameter,andeachhasrunningthroughitaperforatedirontube,throughwhichwatercanbeforced.Thesecartridgeswereusedinacoalmineinplaceoftheusualblastingcharge,waterwasforcedintothem,andtheexpansionofthelimethrewdownamassofcoalweighingabouttentons,withlittleofthesmallcoalmadewiththeusual blast. The exemption from danger and the avoidance of smoke, havecaused coalmine owners to regard this newmethod with favor. Some of ouringeniousreapersmayfindausefulhintinthis.

AWATERANDFEEDTROUGH

A supply of water in the cow-stable is a great convenience; a simplearrangementforfurnishingittothecowsintheirstallsmaybemadeasfollows:Sheetsofgalvanizedironarebenttoformatrough,andfittedintothefloorjoistsunderthefeed-box,asindicatedinfigure51,makingatroughthreeinchesdeepandsixteenincheswide.Theflangesoneachsidearenailedtothejoists,andthesheetsofironrivetedtogetherattheends,andmadewater-tightbycement.Thetroughrunstheentirelengthofthefeedfloor,andissuppliedwithwaterfromapipe,pump,orhose;apipeattheotherendcarriesawaythesurpluswaterandpreventsoverflow,andanotherpipewitha faucet isprovidedforemptyingthe

trough.Thefeed-boxisbuiltoverthewatertrough,apartofitsfloorbeingatrap—indicatedbydottedlinesintheengraving—bywhichadmissiontothewaterisgained.Beforeopeningthistrap,themangerissweptclean;andiftherewerenoother advantage than this compulsory cleansing of the mangers after eachfeeding,itwouldbesufficienttopayforthecostofconstructingsuchawateringarrangement.

FIG.51.Waterandfeedtroughcombined.

THECONSTRUCTIONOFSTALLS

It is rare, even in these days of progress, to see a well-arranged stall in afarmer’sbarn.Nohorsestallshouldbelessthansixfeetinwidth,norofalengthless than nine feet. This affords room for the animal to lie down and risecomfortablywithoutbruisinghipsandlimbs,andalsofortheattendanttopassinandout.Thepartitionbetweenstallsshouldbeofsufficientheighttopreventplaying, biting, andkicking.Hacksof iron areneat and serviceable.Thehorseeatsitsfoodfromtheground,andbecausemanyfirstpulloutagreaterportionofthehayfromtherack,weshalldispensewiththerackascommonlyused,andsubstituteasinglemangerwhichservesforbothhayandgrain.

Whatevermaybethefoundationofthestall,whetherofbrick,stone,cement,clay,orwood,itshouldhaveinclinationenoughtocarryoffallfluid.Overthisplaceaflooringcomposedofstripsofplank,fourinchesinwidthbytwoinchesinthickness,withaninchinterveningbetweeneachstrip.Thisneednotextendmore than half the length of the stall, the upper portion being compact. The

essential point is that the horse shall standwith an equal weight upon all theextremities.Thiscustomofconfiningahorsetoaslopingstall, inonepositionsometimesfordays,isacruelone,andverydetrimentaltothelimbsandfeet,asitbringsabout,soonerorlater,seriousaffectionsintheseparts.Alooseboxisfarpreferable to the stall, wherever practicable. Every stable or barn should beprovidedwithoneatleast,incaseofsicknessoraccident.Bythearrangementofa floor as just described, the bedding is kept dry and the animal clean andcomfortable.Litter shouldbealwayskeptbeneath theanimal; itgivesanairofcomforttotheplaceandinvites toreposeofbodyandlimbsbydayandnight.Stallsforbothhorsesandcattleshouldbeofsufficientheightasalsoalldoorandpassagewaysaboutabarn.Formerly, itwas thecustomtobuild insuchawaythatnohorse,andnotevenamanofrespectableheightcouldenteradoor-waywith out danger of knocking his skull, and inflicting serious injury. There arestalls in country barns so low that a horse cannot throw up his headwithoutreceivingablowagainstthebeamsabove.Animalsundoubtedlyacquirethetrickofpullingback,orofmakinga sudden springwhenpassingadoor-way, fromhaving been obliged to run the gauntlet of some narrow, low, ill-contrivedpassage-way.Themanwhoshouldnowbeguiltyofbuildinginthiswaywoulddeserve tohavehis ownbrains knocked, every timehepasses in andout, as agentle reminder of his folly. All barn-doors should be high, wide, and, whenpracticable,alwaysslide.

The commonmodeof securing cattle in thebarn, especiallymilch cows, byplacingtheirnecksbetweenstanchions, isnot tobeadvocated,especiallywhentheyareconfinedinthiswayformanyhoursatatimewithoutrelief,asisoftennecessaryinthewinterseason.Asimplechainabouttheneckwitharinguponan upright post affords perfect security, while it gives the animal freedom ofmovement to head and limbs—and conduces to its comfort in various otherways.Animalsshouldnotbeovercrowded,asistoooftenthecaseinlargedairyestablishments—a fact which will make itself evident sooner or later in thesanitaryqualitiesofthemilk,ifinnoothermanner.Wecannotdenythefact,ifwewould,thateverything,howevertrifling,thatcontributestothewelfareofourdomesticanimalsisagaintotheownerofthempecuniarily,andwhattouchesaman’spocketisgenerallyconsideredtobeworthlookingafter,atalltimesandinallplaces.

HOG-KILLINGIMPLEMENTS—RINGING

Thestouttableonwhichthedeadporkersarelaintobescrapedanddressedafterbeingscalded,ismadewithitstopcurvingaboutfourinchesinawidthoffourfeet,andconsistingofstripsofoakplank,asrepresentedinfigure52.Thiscurved top conforms to the form of the carcass, and holds it in any desiredpositionbetter thana flatsurface.Forscrapers,old-fashioned ironcandlesticksareused;thecurvedandsufficientlysharpedgesateitherendservingaswellasascrapermadeforthepurpose,anditssmallendhasanadvantageoverthelatterfor working about the eyes and other sharp depressions, A cleaver for use incutting up the pork is shown in figure 53; it has a thirteen-inch blade, threeincheswideatthewidestpart,andone-quarterinchthickattheback.Thisisaconvenient implement, easily and cheaply made by a good blacksmith, if itcannot be had at the stores; anymechanic can put on thewooden handle. Infigure 54 is represented a home-made hog-ringing apparatus. The blacksmithmakes an instrument resembling a horse-shoe nail, of good iron, about threeinches long, three-sixteenthsofan inchwide,andone-thirty-secondofan inchthick,taperingtoapoint;the“head”ismerelythebroadflatendcurledup.Justbeforeusing, thisneedle-like instrumenthas its corners rubbedoffona file; ittheniseasilypushedthroughtheseptumofthepig’snose.Akeywithitstonguebrokenoffandaslotfiledintheend,isusedtocurluptheprojectingend,andtheringingisdone.The“rings”costaboutseventy-fivecentsahundred,andareeffectiveandeasilyapplied.

FIG.52.Adressingtable.

FIG.53.Handymeatcleaver.

FIG.54.Hog-ringerandkey.

HOWTOMIXCEMENT

Thearticle tobeused is theRosendalecement.This isnearlyasgoodas theimportedPortlandcement,andmuchcheaper.Thecementismadefromwhatisknownashydrauliclime-stone—thatisarockwhichcontains,besidesordinarylime-stone,someclay, silica,andmagnesia.Pure lime-stonecontainsonly limeandcarbonicacid,intheproportionsoffifty-sixpartsoftheformertoforty-fourof the latter in one hundred.When this stone is burned, the carbonic acid isdriven off by the heat, and pure or quicklime is left.When this is brought incontact with water, the two combine, forming hydrate of lime; during thecombination,heatisgivenout;theoperationiscalledslaking.Whenthewaterisjustsufficienttoformthecombination,afine,drypowderisproduced,whichwecall dry slaked-lime. When the water is in excess, the surplus is mixedmechanicallywiththelime,andformswhatiscalledthemilkoflime,orcreamoflime,accordingtoitsconsistence;itisthispastysubstancewhichwemixwithsand, to form building mortar. But when we have clay mixed in a certainproportion,eithernaturallyorartificially,withthelime-stone,andthisstoneormixture is burned in the samemanner as ordinary lime-stone,we getwhat isknownashydrauliclime,becauseitcombineswithamuchlargerproportionofwaterthanpurelime,andincombiningwithit,insteadoffallingtopowder,like

ordinarylime,ithardensintostoneagain.Thishardeningtakesplaceevenunderwater; the hydraulic lime combines with just somuch water as is required to“set”orharden,andleavestheremainder.Itpossessesthisproperty,also,whenmixed, with sand in proper proportions, andwhen somixed, the cement willadherevery firmly to thesurfaceofanystonetowhich itmaybeapplied.Thisproperty ismadeavailable inconstructingworksofconcrete,whichconsistsofbroken stone mixed with such a quantity of cement, that, when it is packedclosely, the surfacesofall thepiecesof stonearebrought intocontactwith thecement, and the spaces between the fragments of stone are filledwith it. Thatthere may be no more cement used than is actually needed, the mixture isrammeddownsolidly,untilthefragmentsofstonearebroughtintoclosecontactwitheachother.Thecompositionoftheimpureorhydrauliclime-stone,whichbehaves in thisusefulmanner, is, in thecaseofsomeof theKingstonstone,asfollows:Carbonicacid,34.20percent.;lime,25.50;magnesia,12.35;silica,15.37;alumina(clay),9.13;andperoxideof iron(whichisuselessorworse),225.Onaccount of this difference in character between lime and cement, a differenttreatment is necessary for each, and each is put to different uses. The cementmakes amuchharder andmore solid combinationwith sand, and is thereforechosenwhengreatstrengthisrequired.Itsrapidsetting,whenmixedwithwater,alsorequiresthatitbeusedassoonasit ismixed,andrendersarapidmixturenecessary.The cement and sand should, therefore, bemixed togetherdry, andvery thoroughly.Fourpartsof sand toonepartof cement are theproportionsgenerally used. Thesemay bemingled in a box of suitable character, and themassissospreadastohaveahollowinthecentre,intowhichwaterispoured.Thesidesoftheheaparegraduallyworkedintothewater,withacommonhoe,insuchawayastopreventthewaterfromspreadingabout,andasitisabsorbedmore water is poured in, until the whole is brought to a thin semi-liquidcondition.Aboxvery suitable for thisoperation is shown in figure55.This ismadeofpiecesofplank,preparedasfollows:Thesidepiecesareshownatfigure56.Theendpiecesaremadewithtenons,whichfitinmortisesinthesidepieces,andthe framethusmade isheld togetherbykeysdriven into theholesseen inthetenons.Thebottomplanksarefastenedtogetherwithcleats,soplacedastoreceive the frameand fit snugly. Ironbolts areput throughholes in thecleats,and through the holes in figure 56, and bymeans of nutswithwashers underthem, thewhole box is brought firmly together. Such a box, after havingbeenusedforthispurpose,willbefoundveryusefulformixingfeedinthebarn,orformanyother purposes, andmay, therefore, bewellmade at the first.When the

mortarismixed,thebrokenstonemaybethrownintoit,beginningatoneside,andthewholeisworkedupthoroughlywiththehoe,sothateverypieceofstoneiscoatedwiththecement.Amachine,thatiseasilymade,maybeusedforthismixing, and is also very useful for mixing ordinary mortar for building orplastering. It is shown in figure 57. It consists of a box set upon feet, with asmallerboxattachedattherearend,havinganopeningatthebottomwherethemortar is seen escaping, and a shaft, havingbroad, flat armson it, placed at asomewhat acute anglewith the line of the shaft, so that theywill operate as ascrew to force themass along the spout andout of it at the opening.A crankhandle is fitted to this shaft, and if a fly-wheel can be borrowed from a feed-cutter,oracorn-sheller,andattachedtotheshaftasshown,somuchthebetter.Thematerials tobemixedarethrownintothebox,andbyturningthehandle,thewholewillbethoroughlyincorporatedwithgreatrapidityandease.

FIG.55.Boxformixingcement.

FIG.56.Sideofcementbox.

FIG.57.Machineformakingcement.

RINGINGANDHANDLINGBULLS

Nowthatmoreattentionisgiventoimprovingfarmstock,abulliskeptuponnearly every large farm. The high-bred bulls are spirited animals, and areexceedinglydangerousiftheutmostcautionisnotexercisedinmanagingthem.Experienced breeders are not unfrequently caught unawares, andunceremoniouslyliftedoverthefence,orforcedtoescapeingloriouslyfromoneoftheirplayfulanimals,orevenseriouslyinjuredbytheviciousones.Itshouldbemadearule,whereverabull iskept, tohavehimringed,beforehe isayearold,andbroughtundersubjectionanddisciplineatanearlyage,whilehecanbesafelyandeasilyhandled.Sometimeagoweassistedattheringingofayearlingbull, which severely taxed the utmost exertions of six persons with ropes andstanchionstoholdhim.Aslipofthefootmighthavecausedthelossofalife,orsomeseriousinjuries.Toavoidsuchdangerousstruggles,astrongframe,similartothatinfigure58,inwhichtoconfinethebull,maybeused.Theframeconsistsof four or six stout posts set deeply in the ground,with side-bars bolted to it,formingastallinwhichthebullcanbeconfinedsothathecannotturnaround.Theframemaybeplacedinthebarnyardorastable,andmaybemadetoserveas a stall. At the front, a breast-bar should be bolted, and the upper side-barsshould project beyond this for eighteen or twenty inches. The forward postsprojectabove theside-barssome inches.Theendsof theseposts,and theside-bars,areboredwithone-inchholes,andattherearoftheframethereshouldbetenonsor iron straps to receivea strongcross-bar, toprevent theanimal fromescapingshouldthefasteningsbecomebrokenorloosened.Thebull,ledintotheframe, isplacedwithhisheadoyer thebreast-bar, and thehorns are tiedwithropesaninchindiametertotheholesinthebarsandposts.Heisthensecured,andhishead iselevatedso that the trocharandcannulacanbereadilyused topierce the cartilage of the nose, and the ring inserted and screwed together.Beforetheringisused,itshouldbetestedtoascertainthatitissoundandsafe.

FIG.58.Stallforbull.

FIG.59.Strap.

Whentheringisinserted,thestrapsshowninfigure59shouldbeused,forthepurpose of holding it up and out of the way, so as not to interfere with thefeedingoftheanimaluntilthenosehashealedandbecomecalloused.Thestrapsmaybeleftupontheheadpermanently,ifdesired,whenthefrontstrapwillofferaconvenientmeansofcatchinghimbythestaff,whennecessarytodosointhefield.Thestaffisamatterofthegreatestimportance.Thisshouldbemadeofthetoughest ash or hickory, and not less than five feet long.With a staff of thislength,theherdsmancancheckthewildestbull,andbyrestingthebutt-endofitupon the ground, can throw the animal’s head up, and prevent him fromapproachingtoonear.Thehookofthestaffisshownoftwokindsinfigures60and 61. One is furnished with a spring, by which it is closed. A metal barattachedtothespringandpassingthroughaholeinthestaff,preventstheringfromslippingalongthespring.Theotherisprovidedwithascrewbywhichitisclosed.

FIG.60.Staves.

FIG.61.

SLEDFORREMOVINGCORN-SHOCKS

A sled used formoving corn-shocks from a field which is to be sownwithwinter grain is shown in figure 62. It is simply a sled of the most ordinaryconstruction,andwhichanyfarmercanbuild.Itismadeoftwojoistsorplanksofhemlock,thoughoakmightbebetter;saythreeinchesthick,afootwide,andfourteentosixteenfeetlong,roundedatoneendandconnectedbythreestrongcross-pieces,beinginformjustsuchasledasafarmerboywouldmaketouseinthesnow,withtheadditionofcrossbracesbeforeandbehind.Theunderedgeoftherunnersshouldberoundedofftotheextentofoneandahalftotwoinches,toturnmoreeasily.Thereshouldbealsoshortstandardsbeforeandbehind.Therunnersmaybefourtofivefeetapart,accordingtothelengthofthecorn.Asideviewoftherunnerwiththestandardsisgiveninfigure62,andatopviewofthecompletesledinfigure63.First,cutoffthecornandputitinshocksintheusualway,making the shock smaller thanusual.Let it stand thus a fewdays todry,thenapairofhorsesarehitchedtothesled,whichisdrivenalongsidetheshock.Theshockispushedoverontothesled,andsooneshockafteranotheruntilthesledisfull.Theloadisthendriventoanadjoiningfield,wheretheshocksareset

uponendagain,andaboutfourofthemmadeintooneandtiedatthetop,orrearedagainstafence.

FIG.62.Sideofbled.

FIG.63.Topofsled.

Theparticular advantages of this plan are: First, that by use of the sled andmethod of loading and unloading the shocks, all actual lifting of the corn isavoided, and the labor and expense reduced more than one-half. Second, bypermitting it todrya fewdays, itsweight, isgreatlyreduced,and thehandlingmuch lighter. Third, the corn being partially dried, it can be put together inlargershocksthesecondtime,andwillkeepbetter.Bythismethodonemancancleartwoacresormoreinaday,accordingtotheweightofthecrop.

ATAGGINGTROUGH

Sheepshouldbetaggedinearlyspring,andatableforthispurposeisshowninfigure64.Thesheepisplacedonthistablefeetupwards,inwhichpositionitisperfectly helpless, and will not struggle. Then the soiled wool about the hindparts,thebelly,orthelegsisclippedoffwithgreatease,lessthanaminutebeingneededtotagasheep.Halftimewillserveforsomeshearerstodothis.Inlargeflocks these tables will be necessary, and those who have small ones will findthemveryuseful.

LIMEANDLIMEKILNS

Theperiodical useof lime as a fertilizer isnecessary to good culture. In thebest cultivatedparts of the country, lime is usedonce in every rotationof fivecrops,theusualrotationbeingtwoyears,grass,corn,oats,wheat,orrye,seededtograssorcloveragain.Thelimeisappliedtothelandwhenitisplowedforthefallgrain,andisharrowedinbeforetheseedisdrilled,oritisharrowedinwiththe seed, sown broadcast. The quantity used is from forty to fifty bushels peracre.The effectof lime is bothmechanical and chemical; it opens and loosensheavyclays, andconsolidates light, loose, sandy,orpeatyvegetable soils; ithasthe effect of liberatingpotash from the soil, andof decomposing inert organicmatter, and reducing it to an available condition. But while it is beneficial, itcannotbeusedalonewithoutexhaustingthesoilofitsfertileproperties.Thisisevident fromwhat has been said of its character; at least this is true, so far asregardsitseffectsbeyondaffordingdirectlytothecropsanylimethattheymayappropriatefromthesupplythusgiven.Allthebenefitsreceivedbeyondthisisadirect draft on the natural stores of the soil. It is therefore necessary, to goodagriculture,thateitherathriftycloversodshouldheplowedunder,atleastonceintherotation,orthataliberaldressingofmanurebegiven,orbothofthese.Inthose localitieswherethebenefits tobederivedfromtheskilfuluseof limearebestknownandappreciated,thismethodispractised;aheavysodbeingplowedunder,afterhavingbeenpasturedoneyear,forthecorn,andagoodcoatingofmanure being given when the land is plowed for fall grain. Under suchtreatment,thesoilisabletomaintainitselfandreturnprofitablecrops.Itisnotwhere this course is pursued that complaints are prevalent of theunprofitableness of farming. The use of lime is spreading gradually into theWestern States, where the competition of the still farther and fresher westernfields is being severely felt. The experience of Eastern farmers is now beingrepeatedinwhatwereoncetheWesternStates,andeveryapplianceofscientificand thorough agriculture is found to be needed to maintain those Westernfarmersintheclosecontestforaliving.Thiskiln,figure65,isintendedtostandupon level ground, and is furnished with a sloping track, upon which self-dumpingcarscontaining fuelor limemaybedrawnupbyhorse-powerwitharopeandpulleys.Thebodyofthekilnmaybetwentyfeetsquareatthebottom,andthirtyfeethigh,withaflueabovethestackoftentotwentyfeet.Thestackmaybebuiltofstoneorbrick,butshouldbe linedwithfire-brickorrefractorysandstone.Thearch isprotectedby the shedunder the track.AtB,B, are twobearingbarsofeast-iron,threebytwoinchesthick,whichsupportthedraw-bars,C.Thesearemadeofoneandahalfinchroundwroughtiron,havingringsatthe

outerend,andofwhichthereare fourtothe footacross thethroatof thekiln,which is fouror five feet indiameter.The rings serve to admit a crow-bar, bywhichthebars,orsomeofthem,aredrawnouttoletdownthechargeoflime.Theopenspace,D,isintendedfortheinsertionofthebartoloosenorbreakthelime, should the throatbecomegorged.A cast-iron frame,with an apertureofthreebytwenty-fourinches,isbuiltintothisopening.Italsoservestokindlethekiln,andisclosedbyanirondoor.Thecarshouldbemadeofwood,andlinedwith sheet-iron; it ishinged to the frontaxle, andhooked to thedraft-rope, sothatwhen the fore-wheels strike theblock,E, at themouthof thekiln, the cartips and dumps its load. The iron door, F, which closes the kiln, is raised orloweredbymeansoftheropeandring,G,whichpassesoverapulleyfixeduponthesideoftheflue.Acoveredshedwillbeneededtoprotectthetopofthestack,andagalleryshouldbemadearoundit,forapassage-wayfortheworkmen.Thiskind of kiln is suited only for the use of coal as fuel; when wood is used forburningthelime,commonpitsortemporarykilnsaretobeconstructed.

FIG.64.Troughfortaggingsheep.

FIG.65.Improvedlimekilnwithelevatedtrack.

FALLFALLOWING

Theoldpracticeofsummerfallowing,orworkingthesoilforoneyearwithoutacrop,forthepurposeofgainingadoublecropthesecondseason,isnow,veryproperly,obsolete.Whilesomemayquestiontheproprietyofthisopinion,therecan be no doubt as to the value of fall fallowing. The constant turning andworkingofthegroundduringthefallmonthscostnothingbuttimeandlabor,ata season when these cannot be otherwise employed, and so, in reality, costnothing.But thebenefits to thesoilareveryconsiderable.Especially is this thecasewithheavyclaysoils,andless,inadescendingratio,throughthegradationsfromheavyclaydowntolightloams—atleastitissoconsideredbymany;anditis reasonable to suppose that if the atmospheric effects upon the particles of aclaysoilserve,tosomeextent,todissolvethemineralparticles,theymayeasilydo the same service for a sandy soil, andhelp to set loose some of the potashcontainedinthegraniticorfeld-spathicparticlesofsuchasoil.Themechanicaleffectsofthefallworkingarecertainlymoreusefuluponclaythanalightloam;but there are other purposes to serve thanmerely to disintegrate the soil, andmellow and loosen it. There are weeds to destroy, and the forwarding of thespringworkbythepreparationofthegroundforearlysowing.Theseservicesareasusefulforalightsoilasaheavyone,andasitisreasonabletolookforsomeadvantage from the working in the way of gain in fertility on light as well asheavysoils, it isadvisablethatownersofeitherkindshouldavail themselvesofwhatever benefits the practice affords. Fall fallowing consists in plowing andworking the soil with the cultivator or the harrow. Thismay be done at suchintervals as may be convenient, or which will help to start some weeds intogrowth,when thesemaybedestroyedby theharrowor cultivator.Heavy soilsshouldbeleftinroughridgesatthelastplowing,withasdeepfurrowsbetweenthemaspossible,inordertoexposethelargestsurfacetotheeffectsoffrostandthaw. Light soils may be left in a less rough condition, but the last plowingshouldbesodoneastothrowthefurrowsonedge,andnotflat,leavingthefieldsomewhat ridged. A very little work in the spring will put the ground intoexcellent order for the early crops, and for springwheat, especially, this betterconditionofthesoilwillbeofthegreatestbenefit.Whenthustreatedinthefall,thesoilisremarkablymellow,andisdryenoughtoworkmuchearlierthanthe

compactstubblelandwhichremainsasitwasleftaftertheharvest.Astothetimefor doing thiswork, the sooner it is begun, and the oftener it is repeated, thebetter.Itisnottoolatetofinishwhenthegroundisfrozenorthereisaninchofsnowontheground

UNLOADINGCORN

Every littlehelp thatwillease the troublesome laborof transferring thecorncropfromthe field to thecrib isgratefullyaccepted.Wehaveusedbothof thecontrivanceshereshown(figures66and67),tohelpingettingtheearsoutofthewagon-box.Atthestartitisdifficulttoshovelupthecorn,anduntilthebottomof thewagon-box is reached, the shovel or scoop cannotbemade to enter theload.Butifapieceofwideboardisplacedinaslopingposition,restinguponthetail-board of the wagon (figure 66), the shovel can be used with ease at thecommencement of the unloading. Another plan is to make the box two feetlonger than usual, and place the tail-board two feet from the end, figure 67.When the tail-board is lifted, the ears slide down into this recess, fromwhichtheycanbescoopedwithease.

FIG.66.Boardforunloading.

FIG.67.Unloadingarrangement.

STONEBOATS

Formovingplows,harrows,etc., toand fromthe fields,and formanyotherpurposes, a stone boat is far better than a sled or wagon, and is many timescheaperthaneither.Twoplansofconstructionareillustrated.Theboatshowninfigure68 isofplank, six feet in length,one footatoneendbeingsawedat theangleshown.Threeplanks,eachonefootinwidth,willmakeitofabouttherightproportion. A railing two by three inches is pinned upon three sides, while aplankisfirmlypinnedatthefrontend,throughwhichthedraw-boltpasses.Thatshown in figure 69 has some advantage over the former, a cheaper quality ofwoodandof shorter length canbeused, andwhenone setof runners iswornout,otherscanbereadilyattachedwithoutdestroyingtheframe.Oakormapleplankshouldbeusedforthebestboats,andwhenrunnersareused,thetoughestwoodathandshouldbeselected.Don’tthinkbecauseitisonlyastoneboatitisnotworthyofbeingtakencareof.

FIG.68.Plankstoneboat.

FIG.69.Stoneboatwithrunners.

ADUMP-CART

Thedump-cart, figure70, is ahandy contrivance, a gooddealused in somepartsofthisState,andissimplyanordinaryox-cart, thetongueshortenedandfastenedbyakingbolttotheforwardaxleofawagon,asshownintheengraving,It can be turned very short, as the wheels have a clear swing up to the cart-tongue,andisveryconvenientforhaulinganythingthatistobedumped:suchas

stones,earth,wood,manure,etc.Theseatofanoldmowingmachineisfastenedtothecart-tongue,onwhichthedriversits.Horsesoroxenmaybeused.

FIG.70.Improveddump-cart.

TOPREVENTWASHINGOFHILL-SIDES

Muchdamageisdonebythewashingofhill-sidesintodeepgulliesbyheavyrains.Whereslopinggroundiscultivatedthisisunavoidable,unlesssomethingisdonetopreventit.Insomecasesdeepplowingandlooseningthesubsoilwillgofartopreventwashing,asitenablesthewatertosinkintotheground,andpassaway without damage, by slow filtration. But where the subsoil is not veryporous,andwhentherainfallscopiouslyandsuddenly,thewatersaturatesthesurfacesoilinafewminutes,andthesurplusthenflowsdowntheslope,cuttingthesoftenedearthintomanychannels,whichbyandbyruntogether.Thenthelargebodyofwaterpossessesaforcewhichthesoilcannotresist,andcarriestheearth downwith it, often doing serious and irreparable damage in an hour orless. Of the many plans which have been suggested and tried to prevent thiswashing, the most successful is the terracing of the slope. This is done byplowing, with a swivel plow, around the hill, or back and forth on the slope,commencingatthebottomandthrowingtheearthdownwardsinsuchamannerthataflatterraceisformed,whichhasasmallslopebackwardsfromthefrontofthehill.When this terracehasbeen formed, theplowing is commenced tenor

twelve feet above, and another terrace is made in the same manner. This iscontinuedtothetopoftheslope.Ifthoughtdesirable,theinnerfurrowsoneachterracemaybemadetoformawaterchannel,andthismaybeconnectedwiththechannelonthenextslopelowerdown,insomesafemanner,eitherbyashuteofboardsorofstone,topreventwashingofthesoilatthesepointswherethefallwill be considerable. This, however, is a side issue,which does not necessarilybelongtothemainwork.Thearrangementofthehill-sideisshowninfigure71,in which the original outline of the hill, and the arrangement of the terraces,whicharecutoutofit,aregiven.Whenaheavyrainfallsupontheterracedhill,the effectwill be to throw thewater backwards from the outer slope, into thechannelsattherearoftheterraces;andthere,aswellasuponthebroadsurfaceoftheterraces,thereisabundantmeansofescapebysinkingintothesoil.Ifnot,and the amountofwater is toogreat tobe thusdisposedof, itmaybe carrieddown the slope, by arranging the furrows as drains in the way previouslyindicated.Hill-sidesofthischaractershouldbekept ingrass,whentheslopeistoosteepforcomfortableplowing,afterithasbeenthusarranged;oritmaybeplantedwithfruittrees,vines,ortimber,upontheslopes,leavingtheterracestobecultivated,ortheslopesmaybekeptingrass,andtheterracescultivated.Butinwhatevermanner the groundmaybe disposed of, itwould be preferable toleavingittobegulliedbyrains,barren,useless,andobjectionableineveryway.

FIG.71.Profileofaterracedhill.

ALOGMINK-TRAP

Amink-trapismadebyboringatwo-inchortwoandahalfinchholeinalog,fouror five inchesdeep, and into the edgesof thisholedrive three sharpenednails,sothattheywillprojecthalfaninchorsoinside,asshowninfigure72.Thebaitbeingatthebottom,theminkpusheshisheadintogetit,butonattemptingtowithdrawitiscaughtbythenails.Musk-ratisgoodbaitforthem,andahighly

praisedbaitismadebycuttinganeelintosmallbits,whichareplacedinabottleandhunginthesun,andafteratimebecomeanoilyandveryodorousmass.Afewdropsof thisareused.Theabovesimplemink-trapmaybemadebyusinganyblockofwood,orastumpofatree,largeorsmall,andthesameplanmaybemadeuseoftotrapskunks,or,byusingasmallholeandsomestraightenedfish-hooks, itwill serve to catch rats orweasels, enemies of the rural poultry yard,whichmaybethinnedoffbytheuseofthistrap.

FIG.72.Mink-trap.

PLOWINGFROMTHEINSIDEOFTHEFIELD

There isbutonereasonwhyplowingshouldnotbedone fromthe insideofthe field, and that is, the imaginarydifficulty in “comingout right.”There areseveralpointsinfavorofthismethod:Whenafieldisplowed,beginningattheoutside, there is alwaysadead furrowrunning fromeachcorner to thecentre;besides this, the team isobliged to runout, and turnupon theplowed landatevery corner, making a broad strip which is much injured by the treading,especially if the landisclayeyandrathermoist.Bybeginningat themiddle,allthisisavoided;thehorsesturnuponunplowedland,andthesoilateachplowingisthrowntowardsthecentreofthefield,asitshouldbe.Thereisnodifficultyinfindingthecentreofthefieldfromwhichtobegintheplowing.Supposewehavearectangularfieldliketheoneshowninfigure73;anypersonwhocanmeasurebypacing,isabletofindthemiddleoftheends,ADandBC;thepointsKandL.FromK,pacetowardsL,adistanceequaltoone-halfAD,whichgivesthepointE.AlsothesamedistancefromL,towardsK,givingF,andtheworkoffixingthe

centralpointisdone.RunafurrowfromAandDtoE,andfromBand0toF;thesedefinethecornersandassistintheturningoftheplow.Theplowingthenbeginsbyback-furrowingfromEtoF;plowingontheendsassoonaspossible.Aftertheworkhasprogressedforatime,asfarasindicated,forexample,bythedottedlines,G,H,I,J,pacefromthefurrowtotheoutside(seedottedlines),atorneareachendofthefurrow,asacorrection,and,ifnecessary,gaugetheplowuntilthefurrowonallsidesisequallydistantfromtheboundary.Whenthefieldisofirregularshape,itisnotdifficulttobegininthecentreandplowoutward—infact, thissystemisofmost importancehere,becauseall theshort turning inthe middle of the field, incident to the irregularity of the field, comes onunplowedground.

FIG.73.Planforrectangularfield.

FIG.74.Planforirregularfield.

Infigure74wehaveapieceofveryirregularshape.FromapointonAD,atrightanglestoB,pacethedistancetoB,andplaceastakeatthemiddlepoint,E.In the sameway, determine the pointF on the lineND. In a line withE, F,measure fromK a distance equal toME (one-half the perpendicular distanceacross theendof field),andalso in likemannerdetermine thepointF—whichgivesthecentral line,EF.Theplowshouldberunfromthefourcorners,as in

thefirstcase,tomakethecornerlines.Theplowmanwillusehisjudgment,andplowonlyuponthelowerportionatfirst,untiltheplowedlandtakestheshapeG, H, I, J, when the correction is made. From this time on the furrow runsparallelwiththeboundary,andtheworkcontinuessmoothlytotheend.

AWIRE-FENCETIGHTENER

Havingoccasionrecentlytotightensomewiresinatrellis,wemadeuseofthefollowingcontrivance.Intoasmallpieceofwoodafewincheslongweputtwoscrewsaboutthreeinchesapart,andneartooneendoneotherscrew,leavingtheheadsprojectingabouthalfaninch.Byplacingthewirebetweenthetwoscrews,and turning the piece of wood around, the wire was drawn tight; and byengagingtheheadofthesinglescrewuponit,thetensionwasmaintained.Theoperation of the contrivance is shown at 1, and the method of arranging thescrewsorpinsappearsas2.Byusingastrongpieceofwoodtwofeetlong,andstrongironbolts,fastenedwithnutsuponthebackside,thisdevicemaybeusedtotightenfencewires.

FIG.75.Wiretightener.

PLANTINGCORN—AMARKER

Whatwouldbethoughtofamechanicwhoshouldriphisboardsfromalogwiththeold-fashionedwhipsawandplanethemormatchthembyhand,orwhoshouldworkouthisnailson theanviloneat a timebyhand labor?Hewouldhardly earn enough to find himself in bread alone. Yet in an equally old-fashioned, costly, and unprofitable way do thousands of farmers plant andcultivatetheircorncrops.Thegroundisplowed,harrowedandmarkedoutbothways, either with the plow, or sometimes by a quicker method, with a corn

marker.Theseedisdroppedbyhandandcoveredbyhandwithahoe;thecropishoedbyhandorplowedintheoldmethod,leavingthegroundridgedanddeeplyfurrowed,sothatinadryseasonthecornsuffersforwantofmoisture.Allthiscostsgomuch that the farmer’s laborbringshimabout fiftycentsaday,uponwhichhe lives, grumbling that “farmingdoesnotpay.”ThismethodwouldberuinousintheWestwherecornisastaplecrop,andthatitisnotsointheEastissimplybecauseitisnotgrowntoalargeextent.ButthereisnocropthatmaybegrownsocheaplyandeasilyintheEastthatproducessomuchfeedascorn.Fiftybushels of corn and four tons of fodder per acre containmore dry nutrimentthanthirtytonsofturnipsormangels,andmaybegrownwithlesslaborandlesscost,ifonlythebestmethodsareemployed.Now,withtheexcellentimplementsandmachines that are in use for planting and cultivating corn, no farmer canafford towork this crop in the old-fashionedmethod. There is no longer anyneedtoplantinsquares,forthecropmaybekeptperfectlycleanwhenplantedindrills, if the proper implements are used. There are several corn planters bywhichtheseedmaybedroppedandcoveredatthesametimeinsingleordoubledrills,attherateofeighttotwentyacresperday.ByusingtheThomasharrowafewdaysafterplanting,everyyoungweedwillbekilled,andthecrust,whichsooftengathersuponthesurface,willbebrokenupandthesurfacemellowed.Theharrowmaybeusedwithoutdamageuntilthecornisseveralincheshigh.Thenanyoneofthemanyexcellenthorsehoesmaybeusedbywhichtheweedsmaybecutoutoftherowsclosetothecornuntilthecropissohighthatfartherworkingisuseless.Thismethodofcultivationmaycosttwodollarsperacre,orless,asthegroundmayhavebeenkeptfreefromweedsinpreviousyears,whileontheold-fashionedsystemitmaycosttendollarsperacre,ormore,astheweedsmayhavebeenallowedtogetfurtherahead.

FIG.76Runnerandtoothformarker.

FIG.77.Themarkeratwork.

Nevertheless,therearefarmerswhowillstillworkonthehand-to-mouthplan,andwillstillmarkout theircropsbyamarkeranddroptheseedbyhand.Fortheseitwillbeconvenienttohaveatleastagoodmarker.Itwillmarkunevenaswellaslevelground;itcanbesettoanywidthbetweenrows;anyfarmerorsmartboycanmakeit,andtheinventor,whoisafarmerinCanada,doesnotproposetopatentit.Themarkerismadeoftwobyfourscantling,onepiecebeingeightfeetlong.Inthisfiveholesarebored,oneforeachoftherunners,oneandone-eighthinchindiameter.Therunnersarealsooftwobyfourtimber,andeighteeninches long.Holesoneandone-eighth inch indiameterarebored through therunners, in which are placed hard wood pins fourteen inches long. These aredriveninfromthebottom,theendsbeingleftbroad,sothattheymaynotpassthroughtheholes,andprojectinganinchandahalf.Thisisshowninfigure76.Thesmallpinwhichpassesthroughthelargeroneservestoconnecttherunnerwiththeprincipaltimber,andbyshiftingthelargepinfromoneholetoanother,therunnersmaybebroughtfromfourfeettoonefoot,orevensixinchesapart,andmadetomarkrowsofwidths increasingbyspacesofsix inchesuptofourfeet.Whenoneofthemarkersmeetswithanobstructionitisliftedbyit,asseeninfigure77,andpassesoverit.Aguidemarkerisfixedbyahingetooneoftheoutsiderunners,andcarriesascraperwhichisheldinplacebyapin,bymovingwhichthedistanceofthenextrowmayberegulated.Apairoflightshaftsmaybeattachedtothemarker,andapairofhandlesbywhichitmaybeguided.

FEEDTROUGHANDHALTER

Thetroughrestsonthefloorandisfourfeetlong.A,A,areinchaugerholes;arope, four feet long, isput throughthemandtied.Anotherrope,D,hasaringspliced on one end, and a “snap hook” on the other. The longer rope passesthroughthering,B,andwhentherope,D, isputovertheneckofthecow,the“snap,”C,hooksintothering.Thisallowstheanimaltostandorliedownwith

comfort.

FIG.78.Feedthoughandhalter.

THEHORSE-SHOEANDITSAPPLICATION

Anyexcessofgrowthat thetoerendersthepasternsmoreoblique,and,asaconsequence, throwsundueweightupon the “back sinews,”whereas, toogreatheight of heels has a similar effect upon the joints of the extremities, byrenderingthemtooupright.Takingasourguidethefootoftheanimalthathasneverbeenbroughttotheforge,andwhich,inconsequence,mustbeconsideredasacorrectmodel,lettheexternalwallofthehoofbereducedbymeansoftherasp toa levelwith the firmunparedsole. If there isnogrowthof theexternalwallbeyondthislevel,thenthereisnothingtoberemoved.

Intheselectionofashoeforthehealthyfoot,wemustbearinmindtheobjectinview,whichistoprotectthepartsfromexcessivewear.Thisprotectionistobefoundinametallicrimofpropersizeandshape,securelyadjusted.Almosteveryshoe in common use meets this end more or less satisfactorily, and we havealreadyremarkedthattheproperpreparationofthefootthathasbeenpreviouslyshodisofvastlymereimportancethantheparticularkindofshoetobeadopted.Atthesametime,therearefaultsintheshoemostcommonlyemployed,whichhadtheirorigininitsparticularadaptationtothefootafterthishadundergonemoreor lessseveremutilationatthehandsofthefarrier,andwhichhavebeenretainedmorethroughcustomthanthroughactualnecessity,aswehavereasontohope.Themostprominentof these faultsconsists inextremenarrownessofrimwithaconcavityupontheupperorfootsurface,inordertopreventthesolefromsustainingleastweightorpressure,whichitisperfectlyunfittedtodoafterbeingpareddowntoapointofsensitiveness.Inastateofnatureweknowthat

everyportionof the footcomes to thegroundandsustains its shareofweight,andintheshodstateitshoulddothesame,asfaraspracticable.Hence,theshoeshould be constructedwith its upper surface perfectly flat, andwith a breadthsufficient to protect a portion of the sole, and to sustain weight. It should bebevelleduponthegroundsurface, inimitationoftheconcavityofthesole,andnotuponitsuppersurface,wherethespacethusformedservesasalodgingplacefor small stones and other foreign bodies. In shape it should follow the exactoutlineoftheouterwall,beingnarrowedattheheels,butcontinuedofthesamethickness throughout. The lateral projection at the quarters, and the posterioroneattheheelsareunsightly,ofnobenefit,andshouldneverbeallowedwherespeedisrequired.

HOWTOMAKEAFISHINGSCOW

Boat-buildingshouldbedoneduringthewinter,whenin-doorworkismoreagreeable,andleisureismoreample,thaninthesummer.Aboywhocanhandletools,maymakeaveryhandsomeboatorscow,suchasisshownatfigure79,atacostoffivedollarsorless,inthefollowingmanner.Procurefivethree-quarterorhalf-inch clear pine boards, twelve feet in length and eight inches wide; fourboardstenfeetlong,oneinchthick,andonefootwide,andthreestripstenfeetlong, one and a quarter-inch thick, and three inches wide Plane all thesesmoothlyonbothsides,andhavethemallfreefromlooseknotsorshakes.Cuttwooftheone-inchboardsslopingateachendtoastraightlinefortwofeet,andthenslightlyroundingthemiddleoftheboard.Cuttwopiecesoftheoneandaquarter-inchstripsintolengthsoftwofeetteninches,andnailthemtotheendsoftheside-boards,asshowninfigure80.Ifstripsofsoftbrownpaperaredippedintotarandplacedbetweenthejoints,theywillbemadecloserandmorewater-tight.Cuttheeight-inchboardsintothreefeetlengths,andnailthemacrossthebottom,asshowninfigure80;wherethebevelends,thetwobottomboardsmustbebevelledslightlyupononeoftheiredges,soastomakeaclosejoint.Thentaketwooftheoneandaquarter-inchstrips,andmakecutsineachononesidewiththesaw,oneinchdeep,asfollows:measuringfromoneend,markwithapencilacrossthestripthreefeetixinchesfromtheend;thenmarkagainacrossthestriponeinchandahalffromthefirstmark,andscorebetweenthesemarkswithanx.Thenmeasurethreeinchesandmakeanothermark,andthenaninchandahalf

andmakestillanothermark,andscoreasbeforebetweentheselasttwowithanx.Thendopreciselythesameonthesamesideofthestrip,measuringfromtheotherend.Thenontheedgesoftheboardscorewithgaugeormakealinewithapencilexactlyoneinchfromthemarkedside.Thenmakethecutsonthepencillinesdowntothescoreontheedge,justoneinchdeep,butnomore.Cutawaythewood in theplaces thatweremarkedwithanx, leaving fourslotsone inchandahalfwide,oneinchdeep,andwiththreeinchesbetweenthemuponeachstrip.Nail thesestripswith thecutside inwards, to theupperedgeof theside-board, on the outside of the boat, as seen in figure 81. The spaces left in thegunwales are for the rowlocks. The strips should be well nailed near therowlocks, and if a quarter-inch, flat-headed, counter-sunk carriage-bolt wereusedoneachsideofthem,itwouldbeverymuchbetterthansomanynails.Athinwasher,orburr,shouldbeusedbeneaththenutofeachbolt.Therowlockpinsshouldbemadeofhardmapleoroak, in theshapeshownata, figure81.Theyareone inch thick,oneandahalf inchwideat the lowerpart,which fitsintotheslot,withashoulderofhalfaninch,andthetopisbevelledoffneatlyasshown.Theseats,ofwhichtherearetwo,aremadeten incheswide.Thecleatsfortheseats,oneinchthick,oneandahalf inchwide,andtenincheslong,arenailedthreeinchesbelowtheupperedgeoftheside-board.Themiddleseatgoesexactlyinthecentreoftheboat,witheachedgefourfeetseveninchesfromtheendoftheboat.Theendseatsareplacedwiththebackstwofeetfromtheendsofthe boat, leaving eight inches between each seat and the edge of the rowlocknearesttoit.Therearecleatsforthreeseats,butonlytwoseatsareusedatonce.Whenoneseatisused,therowersitsinthecentre,andhecanuseeitheroftherowlocks, the boat being double-bowed.When two seats are used, one persononlyrowsatonetime,buteithercanrowwithoutchangingseats,andonealwaysfacestothedirectioninwhichtheboatmoves.Thisarrangementofseatsisveryconvenient. Eighteen inches of each end is closed in, and makes a locker forholdingfish-lines,hooks,orthe“painter,”whichisalightropefortyinguptheboatwhennotinuse.Thismaybefastenedtoaring-boltoraholeboredinoneofthelockercovers.Thelongbottom-board,seeninfigure81,eightincheswideand half an inch thick, is nailed as shown, by wrought nails driven from theoutsideandclinchedontheinside.Theseatcleatsarenailedinthesamemanner,asarealsothesidestrips.Everynailiscounter-sunkandtheholefilledupwithputty.Theseamsareputtiedor filledwitha stripofcottonsheetingpushed inwiththebladeofadinnerknife.Ifthejointsaremadeaswellastheymaybe,thisis notneeded, but two coats of paintwillmake all tight.The inside should be

painted lead-color, made by mixing lampblack with white paint to a propershade.Theoutsidemaybepaintedwhiteoralight-green,withthegunwaleofalight-blue.Afewdayswillberequiredtohardenthepaintbeforeusingtheboat.Nonebutseasonedboardsshouldbeused.

FIG.79.Viewoffishingscow.

FIG.80.Puttingonthebottom.

FIG.81.Interiorofboat.

CROWSANDSCARECROWS

Probablythereisnopointuponwhichagatheringofhalfadozenfarmerswillhavemorepositiveopinionsthanastotherelationsofthecrowtoagriculture.It

islikelythatfiveofthesewillregardthebirdastotallybad,whiletheminorityofonewillclaimthatheisallgood.Asusual,thetruthliesbetweentheextremes.There is nodoubt that the crow loves corn, andknows that at the base of thetender shoot there is a soft, sweet kernel. But the black-coated bird is notaltogetheravegetarian.Thedays inwhichhecanpullyoungcornare few,butthelargerpartoftheyearheisreallythefriendofthefarmer.Oneoftheworstinsect pests with which the farmer, fruit-grower, or other cultivator has tocontendis,the“WhiteGrub,”thelarvaofthe“MayBeetle,”“JuneBug,”or“Dor-Bug.”Itisaswellestablishedasanyfactcanbe,thatthecrowisabletodetectthisgrubwhileitisatworkupontherootsofgrassinmeadowsandlawns,andwillfindandgrub itout.For this servicealone thecrowshouldbeeverywherenotonly spared, but encouraged.We are too apt to judge by appearances;when acrow is seen busy in a field, it is assumed that it is doingmischief, and by aconstantwarfareagainst,notonlycrows,but skunks,owls, andothers thatarehastily assumed to bewholly bad, the injurious insects,mice, etc., that do thefarmerrealharmhavegreatlyincreased.Shortlyaftercornisplanted,thecrowsappear,andaredestructivetoyoungcorn.Someassertthatthecrowpullsupthecornplantmerelytogetat thegrubwhichwoulddestroyit if thebirddidnot.Howtruethismaybewedonotknow,butasthecornisdestroyedineithercase,itmaybeaswelltoletitgowithouthelpfromthecrow.Thefirstimpulseofthefarmer,whenhefindshiscornpulledup, is toshootthecrow.Thisweprotestagainst. Even admitting that the crow doesmischief for a short time, it is toousefulfortherestoftheyeartobethuscutdowninactivelife.Lethimliveforthe good he has done andmay do. It is vastly better to keep the crown frompullingtheyoungcorn,fortwoorthreeweeks,andallowthemalltherestoftheyear to destroy bugs and beetles in astonishing numbers. The corn may beprotected by means of “scarecrows,” of which there are several very effectivekinds.Crowsareverykeen, andarenot easily fooled; theyquicklyunderstandthe ordinary “dummy,” or strawman,which soon fails to be of service in thecorn-field. It has no life, nomotion, andmakes no noise, and the crow soonlearns this and comes and sits upon its outstretched arm, or pulls the cornvigorously at its feet.Adead crow,hungby a swinging cord to a long slenderpole, is recommended as far better than a straw man—as it, in its apparentstrugglestogetaway,appealsimpressivelytothelivingcrow’sserveofcaution.Butthecrowmaynotbeathandtobethusemployed,andifitwere,thefarmercannotaffordtokillit.Betterthanadeadcrowisaglassbottlewiththebottomknockedout,whichmaybedonewithanironrod.Thebottleissuspendedtoan

elastic pole by a cord tied around its neck; the end of the cord should extenddownwardintothebottle,andhaveanailfastenedtoitandwithinthebottle,toserveasaclapper.Ifapieceofbrighttinbeattachedtothecordextendingbelowthebottomlessendofthebottle,allthebetter.Aslightbreezewillcausethetintowhirl, and, in themotion,castbright reflections rapidly inalldirections,whilethenailkeepsuparattlingagainsttheinsideofthebottle.Anartificial“bird,”tobehunginthesamemanner,maybemadefromapieceofcork—oneusedinapickle-jar—intowhichanumberoflargegooseorchickenfeathersarefastenedsoastoroughlyimitateadilapidatedbird.Aroughheadmaybecarvedandputon,tomakethedeceptionmorecomplete.Asthis“bird”catchesthewind,itwill“fly”hereand there inapeculiarmannernotatall enticing to thecorn-lovingcrows.

FLOODFENCE

Theweakpointofafenceiswhereitcrossesastream;asuddenfreshetwashesaway loose rails, and a gap is left throughwhich trespassing cattle soon find apassage.Manydeviceshavebeenused.Theoneshowninfigure82isself-acting:whenwaterriseshighenough,itopens,andwhenthefloodfallsitclosesagain.Itmaybemadeofrails,bars,orfencestrips.

FIG.82.Afloodgate.

CLEARINGSLOUGHLAND

Inclearingup landthat iscoveredwithtussocksofcoarsegrassandatoughsod,anddiggingoutditchestodrainsuchland,muchuselesslabormaybegiventhat could be spared by skilful work. The spade is commonly used for thispurpose, but, as indiggingdry ground, this slow toolmaybe replaced to verygreatadvantagebytheplowandthehorse-shovel. Inworking inswampsthesemoreeffectivetoolsmaybemadeavailableinmanycases.Tocutoffthetussockswithgrub-hoes,whiletheyaretoughinthesummertime,isveryhardandslowwork;butifacommonhorse-scraperisusedtheycanbetornup,orcutoff,withthe greatest ease. The scraper should be furnished with a sharp steel-cuttingbladeinthefront,whichmayberivetedon,orfastenedwithbolts,sothatitmaybetakenoffandgroundsharp.Iftherearewetandsoftplacesthescrapermaybedrawn by a chain of sufficient length to keep the horse upon dry ground, asshowninfigure83.Thisplanhasbeentriedbythewriterwithsuccess,andwithagreatsavingoftimeandexpense;thediggingofapondtwentyfeetwidealongtheedgeofaswamp,wasperformedwithoneman,aboy,ateam,andahorse-shovel, asquicklyas tenmencouldhavedone itwith spades. Incutting toughswamp,theplowmaybeusedtobreakupthesurfacewhenthehorse-shovelwillremove the muck very fast. If the swamp is wet, and water flows in theexcavation,thediggingmaystillbedonewiththehorse-scraperbyaddingtothelengthofthehandlesandusingplanksuponeachsideforthemantostandupon,andplanksupon the inner sideof the excavation for the scraper to slideuponwithitsloadofmuck.Themuckmaybethrowninheapsonthesideofthepondorditches,anditwillbefoundconvenienttoleaveitupononesideinsteadofinacontinuousheap,asthiswillgreatlyfacilitateitsfinaldisposalinwhateverwaythatmaybe.

FIG.83.Thehorse-shovelatwork.

HOWTODRESSABEEF

There is a way of slaughtering that is not butchering, and it may be donepainlessly by taking the right course. The barn floor or a clean grass-plot in aconvenientspotwillbeasuitableplaceforthework.Tofastentheanimal,putastrongropearoundthehorns,andsecuretheheadinsuchawaythatitcannotbemoved to anygreatdistance, and in aposition to allowadirect blow tobeeasilygiven.Theeyesmaybeblindedby tyingaclotharoundtheheadso thattherewillbenododgingtoavoidthestroke.Theplaceforthestunningblowisthecentreof the forehead,between the eyesanda little above them.The rightplaceisshownata,figure84.Thebestmethodistofireaballfromarifleintheexactspot,andthismaybedonesafelywhentheanimal isblinded,byholdingtheweaponnear to thehead, so thatamisscannotbemade;otherwiseablowwiththebackofanaxemadewhenthestrikerisontherightsideoftheanimal,andtheheadisfasteneddownneartheground,willbeequallyeffective.Sosoonastheanimalfalls, thethroat isdividedwithacutfromalong,sharpknife;nojack-knifeshouldbeused,butalong,deep,sweepingstrokewhichreachestothevertebræastheheadisheldbackThisdividesalltheblood-vessels,anddeathisalmostinstantaneous,butatanyratepainless.Whenthecarcasshasbeenfreedfromblood,itshouldbeturnedonitsback,andtheskindividedfromthethroatupthebrisket,alongthebellytothelegs,andupthelegstotheknees,wherethejointsshouldbesevered,takingcare,however,tocutoffthehindfeetbelowthehockjointsabouttwoorthreeinches.Theskinisthenstrippedfromthelegsandbelly,andasneartothebackasmaybebyturningthecarcass.Thebellyisthenopened, and the intestines takenout; the brisket is cut through, and the lungsandgulletremoved.Itisnownecessarytoraisethecarcass.Thisisdoneontherack, the forward legsofwhichareplacedoneach sideof the carcass, and thegambrelsareplaceduponthehooksshowninfigure85.Thelegsoftherackarethenraisedasfaraspossible,andasthecarcassislifted,thehinderlegisbroughtuptoholdwhatisgaineduntilthecarcassisclearoftheground;thehideisthenwholly removed, the carcasswashed and scraped fromanything adhering, andthendivideddownthroughthebackbone,leavingthesideshanging.Asamatterofsafetyfromdogsorotherdishonestanimals,itiswelltohavetheworkdoneinthe barn, laying down a quantity of straw to protect the floor, if thoughtnecessary,asthebeefshouldremainatleasttwelvehourstocoolandset.

FIG.84.Theproperplacetostrike.

FIG.85.Rackforacarcassofbeef.

AFARMCART

Whiletherearedifferentkindsoffarmcarts,wehavenotyethituponthecart—i.e.,onethatmeetswithgeneralapprobation.Thewriter,havingmuchworkforacart,hasdesignedonewhichisintendedtodoalltheworkofthefarmmoreeasilythanawagonoranyothercart.Forthecarriageofmanure,offodder-corn,greenclover,orothersoilingfodder, forhaulingrootsandsuchwork,acart isneededwithalowbody,thatcanbeturnedaroundinitsownlengthtoback,oreven turn inamanurecellaroronabarn floor.All thiscanbedonewith thiscart, andwhen hay, straw, or green fodder is to be loaded, the fore and hindracksmay be put on, and greatly increase its capacity.With four-inchwheels,thiscartcanbedrawn,whenloaded,overplowedgroundormuddyroads,andscarcelysinkbelowthesurface.Thecartbodyconsistsofaframeeightfeetlong,threeandahalffeetwide,andfourteeninchesdeep,thusholding,whenheaped,

about a cubic yard and a half ofmanure, or as near as possible one ton. Theframe is made of three by four timber for the top, and two by three for thebottom, sides, andcross-bars, and is coveredwithbass-woodorwillowboardson thebottom, the front,and the sidesnear thewheels.Therearend isclosedwhendesiredbyaslidingtail-board.Theaxlesarefixedtotheframe,asshowninfigure86,andpassthroughthemiddlesidepostsundertheupperslidebarandawide iron strap, which embraces the top of the frame, and passes under thebottom,as shown in theengraving,beingscrewedbybolts to the timbers.Thewheelisthesamesizeasarordinarywagonwheel,viz.,fourfeet;thisbringsthebottomofthecartbodytowithinonefootoftheground,andinloading,theliftisonlyalittlemorethantwofeetfromtheground.Thesavingoflaborandtheeffectofworkarethusgreatlyincreased,amanbeingabletoloadtwiceasmuchwiththesameforce,intoacartofthiskind,asintoawagon-boxfourfeethigh.Therearendofthecartmaybeprovidedwitharoller,fittedintotherearposts,whichservestoeasetheunloadingofthecartwhenitistipped,therearendtheneasilymovingoverthegroundasthecartisdrawnoverthefieldwhenunloadingmanure.Butasthecartbodyissolowtherewillrarelybeanyneedfortippingthecart.Toenlargeitscapacity,therearemovableracksfittedbeforeandbehind,asshowninfigure87.Thecostof twoofthesecarts isnotmorethanthatofawagon,andmaybeless,ifeconomyisexercisedinmakingthem.Theshaftsmaybeboltedtothesidesandsoarrangedthatthecartcanbetippedoverwhentheloadrequiresit.

FIG.86.Axlefastening.

FIG.87.Thecartwithmovableracks.

BRACESFORAGATEPOST

Onthesideofthepost,andnearthesurfaceoftheground,spikeaninvertedbracket,madeofatwo-inchplankofwhiteoak,orotherhardwood.Thebracketshouldbenotlessthansixincheswide,andafootlong.Thereshouldbetwoofthesebraces,oneonthegatesideofthepostwhenthegateisshut,andoneonthegatesidewhenopen.Underthebracketplaceaflatstonefirmlysettledintheground,onwhichthebottomofthebracketistorest;apieceofplank,aslongasitlasts,willdoinsteadofthestone.

FIG.88.Bracingagatepost.

Thehangof thegatecan thenbeexactlyadjustedbyputtinga thinstoneorpieceofwoodbetweenthebottomofthebracketandtheflatstoneorplank.Thisis a simple and effectivemethodof supporting apost,where there isnootherconvenient way of bracing, and even in almost all cases, it gives additionalfirmness. If the lower end of the post is of good size, and is well put in, thismethodofbracingwillholdaveryheavygate.

WHIPPLE-TREESFORPLOWINGCORNSAFELY

Wehavefounditbeneficialtocultivateourcorncropuntiltherowsbecomeimpassableforahorse,oruntilitwasfourfeetormorehigh.Buttodothiswiththewidewhipple-tree, the ends ofwhichproject beyond the traces, and breakdownthestalks,isimpossible.Itmay,however,bedonebyusingawhipple-treespecially provided for it. This is made as follows: a piece of oak timber, two

inchesthick,threewide,andtwentyincheslong,isroundedatthecorners,anddeeplygroovedattheends,sothatthetrace-chainsmaybeentirelyimbeddedinthegrooves.Asmallholeisboredthrougheachend,intowhichasmallcarriagebolt is inserted,beingmade topass througha linkof the trace-chain, and it isthen fastened beneath with a nut. The trace-chains should be covered withleatherwherethey,willrubagainstthecorn,andaflapofleathershouldbelefttocoverthefrontcornersofthewhipple-tree,asshowninfigure89.Aringoranopenlinkisfastenedatthepartofthechainwhichisattachedtotheclevis,andoneateachendbywhichitishookedtothetraces.Withthisarrangementonemaycultivatehiscornwithout injury,andthesamemethodmaybeapplied tothe whipple-trees, for plowing or cultivating amongst trees in the orchard orgarden.

FIG.89.Whipple-tree.

WHATTREESTOPLANTFORFUELANDTIMBER

TheattentionofourpeopleintheolderStatesisbeingveryproperlyturnedtoplantingrockyridgesandworn-outpastureswithforesttrees.Thisworkisdoneby thosewhohavenoexpectationofcutting the timber themselves,butwithaview to improve their property for future sale, or for their heirs. These oldpasturesnowareworth$10,orless,peracre.Fortyorfiftyyearshence,coveredwithheavytimber,theywouldbeworththreehundreddollars,ormore,peracre.Twoelementsmaysafelyenterintothiscalculationoftheprofitoftreeplantingthesteadygrowthofthetrees,andtheconstantincreaseinthepriceoffuelandtimber.There is great difference in the price of the varieties ofwood, but stillmoreintherapidityoftheirgrowth.Hickorygrowsmorerapidlythanwhiteoak,and inmostmarkets is worth a quartermore for fuel. Chestnut grows about

threetimesasfastasthewhiteoak,andformanypurposesmakesquiteasgoodtimber.Itisingreatdemandbyship-builders,andcabinet-makers.Thechestnut,thetuliptree,andthehickoryattainagoodsizefortimberintwentytotwenty-fiveyears,andthespruceandpineneedaboutfiftyyears.Themaplesgrowquiterapidly,andarehighlyprized,both for fueland forcabinetpurposes.On lightsandy land, the white pine will grow rapidly, and cannot fail to be a goodinvestmentforthenextgeneration.Asarule,themorerapidgrowingtrees,ifthewoodisvaluable,willpaybetterthantheoaks.

TOSTEADYPORTABLEMILLS

Figure 90 shows a contrivance for steadying portablemills, which has beenusedforseveralyears.Itisanironrodofsuitablesize,aboutafootlong,fastenedbyironbracketstotheleg,orpostofthemill.Threeorfourinchesoftherodisascrew,andfitsoneofthebracketsthroughwhichitruns,andcanbeturnedupordown.Thelowerendoftherodispointed,andtheupperendsquared,thatitmaybeturnedwithawrench.Therodisfastenedfirmlytothesideofthepost(oneoneachoftheforwardposts),andturneddownsothatthepointshallenterthefloorsufficientlytoholditfirmly.

FIG.90.Legofmill.

SPLITTINGRAILSANDPOSTS

Autumnisthebestseasonforcuttingtimber,asmanyfarmershavelearnedby

experience. The seasoning process is much more perfect, because there is nolayerofgrowingsapwood.Insectsdonotworkinautumncuttimber,asinthatcutinthespringorsummer,andthewooddoesnot“powderpost.”Itisbesttosplitthelogsintorailsorpostsatonce,andnotwaituntilthetimberhasbecomeseasonedinthelog.Thelogswillspliteasier,therailswillseasonquicker,andbemore durable. The splitting of rails is a work that requires good judgment,otherwise much timber will be wasted. Some persons will make rails that arelargeatoneend,andgraduallytaperingtoasliverattheother,andareworthlessfor fencing purposes. Set the wedge at the top end of the log, after first“checking”with theaxe,bydrivingwith thebeetle, soas todivide the log intotwo equal parts.Now drive in twowedges, as shown in figure 91, both at thesametime.Nextuseawoodenwedgeor“glut,”eitherintheendofthelog,oronthe top a little back from the end. After halving the log, quarter it, and thenproceedon theprinciple thata rail shouldbeabout threeby three inches.Thesizeof the logwill determine thenumberof rails tobemade.For example, infigure 92, six rails aremade by first halving the quarter, then splitting off theinner part half-way from the centre, and afterwards halving the outer part.Shouldthe logsbelarger, twelverailsaremadefromeachquarter,asshowninfigure93,—orforty-eightrailsfromthelog.Insplittinglogsintoposts,abroadandsmoothsideistobesought.Supposewehavethesamesizedlogastheonesplit into forty-eight rails, or twelve rails per quarter, figure 93—the splittingwouldbe, ineachcase, fromthecentre tooutsidewithcross splittingmidway.Thenumberofpostswouldbedeterminedbythesizeofthepostsdesired.Ifthelogsareofthesizeofthequarter,showninfigure92,thereisnocrosssplitting,unlessasmallpieceforastakeistakenfromthecentre.Whenthelogsareonlylargeenoughforfourposts,andabroadsurfaceisdesired,asinbarposts,theymaybesplitby first “slabbing,”andafterwards splitting through thecentre;allthe split surfaces to be parallel. If still smaller, three posts can be made, bysplittingofftwoslabsonoppositesides,asinthecaseabove,andnotdividetheheart,andfinallywhenthelogwillmakeonlytwo,itcanbehalved.

FIG.91.Positionofwedge.

FIG.92.

FIG.93.

AMIXTUREOFGRASSES

Itisawell-knownfactthatmixedcropsaremoreproductivethanthosesownsingly. Thus one acre sown to oats and barley, or oats and peas, will yield asmuch, or nearly asmuch, as two acres sown singly to either crop. So in grasslands,CloverandTimothy,mixed,willproducenearly twiceasmuchas if thegroundwereseeded tooneof thesealone. It isalsoawell-knownfact thatourgrasslandsarenotsoproductiveaswecouldwish,andthereasonofthismaybe,and probably is, thatwe have but one or two kinds of herbage in them. Ifweexamineanold,thick,luxuriantsod,inapastureorameadow,itwillbefoundtoconsistofavarietyofgrassesandotherplants,eachofwhichseemstoviewiththeotherinoccupyingthesoilforitself.Thisistheresultofnaturalseeding,andgives us a lesson which we may well profit by. There is another reason whygrasses should bemixed; this is that the periods of greatest vigor of differentvarieties occur at different times. We can therefore secure a succession ofherbageforalongseasonbysowingavarietyofgrassseeds.

To give examples,wemightmention that amixture ofOrchardGrass, RedClover,Timothy,andKentuckyBlue-Grasswillproduceapasturewhichwillbeingoodcondition forgrazing fromApril,when the firstmentionedgrass is infine condition, up to October, when the last is in itsmost vigorous state; theCloverandTimothyservingtofilluptheinterval.Withoneofthesealonetherewould be but onemonth of goodherbage, and that coarse, if given thewholefieldtoitself.Inlikemanner,aquantityofRyeGrassaddedtoameadowwould

help to furnish a quick growing herbage which rapidly and constantlyrecuperatesaftercuttingoreatingdown.

The fact is, that we make much less of our advantages in regard to ourmeadowsandpasturesthanwemight.Ontheaverage,sevenacresofpasturearerequired to keep one cow through the pasturing season, when by the bestmanagementoneacre,oratthemosttwo,oughttobesufficient.Thisisdueingreatmeasuretotheprevalentfashionofseedingdownwithbutonevarietyofgrass, with clover added sometimes, a fashion which, hereafter, experienceteachesusshouldbemorehonoredinthebreachthanintheobservance.

HITCHINGACRIB-BITER

Those persons who have a horse that is a crib-biter and windsucker, andwhichpracticeshisvicewhenhitchedtoapostinthestreet,isrecommendedtotryahitching-rod, suchas shown in figure94 Itconsistsofapieceofhickory,whiteoak,ortoughash,abouttwenty-fourorthirtyincheslong,thickestinthemiddle,whereitmaybeaninchindiameter.Aferulewitharingisfastenedtoeachend;inoneringacommonsnap-hookisfixed,andashortleatherstrapispassed through theother,bywhich the stick is fastened to thepost.Thehorsethushitchedcannotpossiblyreachthetopofthepost,toseizeitwithitsteeth.Inthestallsuchahorseshouldbehitchedwithtwostraps,oneateachsideofthestall,andofsuchalengththathecannotreacheithersidetotakeholdoftherailor partition of the stall. If a swinging feed-box is used, the crib-biter will beforcedtosuspendoperations,ashecannotdrawintheairor“suckwind,”unlesshehassomeprojectingobjectthathecanlayholdofwiththeteeth.

FIG.94.

HOWTOINCREASEVEGETABLEMATTERINTHESOIL

The amount of vegetable matter in the soil may be increased by variousmethods;oneisbylargeapplicationsofbarnyardmanure,sayfiftycordstotheacre.But thiswould be very expensive, and is out of the question in commonfarming.Itmaybedonebyputtingonpeatormuck,whentheseareneartothefields.Butthisinvolvesaconsiderableoutlayforlaborindiggingthepeat,andastill larger expense in carting it, whether it first pass through the yards andstables,orbecartedtothefieldsforcompostingorspreadinguponthesurfacetobe plowed in. On some farms this may be the cheaper method of supplyingvegetablematter to the soil.But onothers themost economicalmethod is theraisingofclover,tobefedoffupontheland,ortobeturnedin.Ifatonofclovermay be worth nine dollars, as a fertilizer, the growing of the plant is a cheapmethod of improving the land. Two tons for the first crop and a ton for thesecondisnotanuncommonyieldforlandingoodheart.Therootsofcloveralso

add largely to thevegetablematter in the soil.The first cropmaybepastured,waitinguntilthecropisinblossom,andthenturningincattleenoughtofeeditoffinthreeorfourweeks.Theyshouldbekeptconstantlyuponthefield,thatthewholecropmaybereturnedtothesoil.Thiswill,ofcourse,helpthesecondcrop,whichmaybeturnedinwiththeplowsoonafteritisinblossom.Iftheequivalentof three tonsofdriedcloverhay,andone tonof rootshavebeengrownto theacre,aboutthirty-sixdollars’worthofmanurehavebeenaddedtothesoil,andithas been distributed more evenly than would have been possible by anymechanicalprocess.Therehasbeennoexpenseforcartingandspreadingpeat,orforcomposting.Onthecontrary,therehasbeentheequivalentoftwotonsofclover-hayconsumeduponthefield,worth,asfodder,twenty-fourdollars.Thiswillmore than pay the cost of seed, of plowing twice and other labor. This isgenerallyadmittedtobethecheapestmethodofincreasingthevegetablematterand the fertilityof soils incommon farming.And this, itwillbe seen, requiressomelittlecapital.

OPENLINKS

Anopenlink,showninfigure95,ismadeofthree-eighthinchironrod,andwhenusedtoconnectabrokenchain,issimplyclosedbyablowfromahammerorastone.Therebeingnorivet,thelinkisnotweakenedinanyway.Figure96showsanotherlink,madeofmalleablecast-iron,intwoparts,whicharefastenedtogether by a rivet in the centre. A few of these links may be carried in thepocket, and are ready for instant use in case of an emergency. The last-mentionedlinksarekeptforsaleatthehardwarestores;thefirstnamedmaybemadeinashorttimebyablacksmith,oranyfarmerwhohasaworkshopandaportableforge.

FIG.95.Commonlink.

FIG.96.

CAREOFTHEROOTCROPS

Sugarbeetsandmangels,ifearlysowed,willneedlittlecare.Theyoughtnottostand too thick, however, and it would certainly pay to go through the rows,thinningoutallsuperfluousplants,whetherbeetsorweeds,leavingtheplantssixtoeightinchesapart.Iftheleavesarenotsolargeastoforbidhorse-hoeing,thisshould be done and the crop “laid-by.”No root crop should ever be left afterhorse-hoeing, without a man going through it immediately after, to lift andstraighten up any plants which may have been trodden Upon, covered withearth,orinjuredinanyway.Rutabagas,andanyturnipsindrills,needthesamegeneralculture.Oneofthegreatadvantagesoftheintroductionofrootsintotherotationisthat,whenproperlytreated,noweedsripenseeds.Evenredsorrelandsnapdragon succumb to twoor three years’ croppingwithmangels or Swedes.This advantage is often lost by careless cultivators, and nothing offers surerevidenceofheedlessfarming.Thecropitselfmaybeveryfine,butifkeptclearofweedsitwouldbeenoughbettertopayforthetrouble,andtheweedswouldthen

bewheretheywillmakenomoretroubleforever.TurnipsmaybesownaslateasthemiddleofAugust,butthelandshouldbein

goodheart,andgoodtilth.Swedishturnips(rutabagas)sowedaslateasthefirstofAugust,will usuallymake a crop delicious for the table, and, though small,bringagoodprice.Thustheyareoftenusedtofollowearlypotatoesbymarketgardeners,thoughbythemusuallyregardedasafarmcrop.

TRAPFORSHEEP-KILLINGDOGS

Inmany places the losses by dogs are so great as to prevent the keeping ofsheep altogether; thus this profitable and agreeable industry is madeimpracticable over the greater portion of the country; unless such precautionsaretakenaswilladdgreatlytoitstroubleandcost.Withsmallflocksonly,thisextra cost and trouble are too onerous, and it is onlywhere sheep are kept inlarge flocks that itwill pay to employ shepherds to constantlywatch them, ortake other necessary precautions. In several of the States—West Virginia andTennesseemoreparticularly—verystringentlawshaverecentlybeenenactedfortheprotectionofsheepagainstdogs,whichwillgofartoencouragetheraisingofflocks. In other States, where the influence of the owners of dogs is of moreweight than that of sheep-owners, these latter are obliged to look out forthemselves,andprotecttheirsheepastheymaybeable.Forsuchthecontrivancehere described and illustrated, may be useful. It is made as follows: In themeadoworfield,wheresheeparepasturedduringtheday,asmallpen,eightfeetsquare,ismade,andfencedstronglywithpicketsorboards.Thispenisdividedintotwoparts(A,B,figure97)byacross-fence.Thepeniswhollycoveredoveron the topwith strong lath.Twogates (a, b) aremade so that theywill swingopen of their own accord, and remain so, unless held closed or fastened. Thegate,a,isfurnishedwithalatch,bywhichitisfastenedwhenclosed.Thisgateisintendedtoadmitthedogintothepartofthepen,A,whenheisattractedtoitbyasheepconfinedforthepurposeintheotherpartofthepen(B).Inthepartofthepen,A,isaheavyboard,reachingacrossit.Oneedgeofthisboardrestsuponthegroundagainsttwopegs,whichkeepitfromslippingbackwards.Theotheredgeiskeptupbymeansoftwoshakyslendersupports.Aropeisfastenedtotheupperedgeofthisboard,andtothegates,sothatonehalfofit,whentheboardisproppedup,allowsthegate,a,toswingopen,andtheotherhalfholdsthegate,

b,shut,andthuskeepsthesheepconfined.Thetrapisnowset.Adog,prowlinginsearchofmutton, finds thesheep,andseeksanentry into thepen.Hefindstheopengate,andrushes in,over theboardsetuponitsedge,andknocksthisdown.Thisclosesthegate,a,whichisatoncelatchedandfastened.Thegate,b,is allowed to swing open, and the sheep is liberated, and, of course, proceedshomewardwithoutdelay,whilethedogisimprisoned.Weneednotsuggestanymethodofdealingwith theprisoner, as there aremany,moreor less effective,whichwillsuggestthemselves.Wethinkitwouldbeanimprovementuponthisplan,ifthesheepbeconfinedinthepen,whereitcanbeseenbythedogs,andanadditionalapartment,ifnotmorethanone,made,inwhichotherdogscouldbetrapped. Sheep-hunting dogs usually go in couples, and if only one dog weretrapped,thesheepescapingfromthepenwouldbecaughtbytheotherbeforeitcouldreachhome.Withtwoorthreetrapsallthedogscouldbecaught,andinashort time the localitywouldbe ridof them,or, being identified, their ownerscouldbemaderesponsiblefortheirtrespasses.Itwouldbenecessarytohavethepenmadeverystrong,sothatthedogsshouldnotteartheirwayoutofthetrap,orintothepeninwhichthesheepisconfined.Stoutwire-nettingwouldmakeasafe fence. So far as regardswhat are calleddog-laws, itwouldbewell if theseshouldprovide,amongstotherthings,thateverydogmustwearacollar,bearingitsowner’sname;thattheownerofanydogwhichiscaughtinpursuitofsheepuponthepropertyofanypersonotherthantheownerofthedog,shouldbeheldliable for damages for the trespass, and that any dog caught trespassing, andbeing without a collar bearing its owner’s name, should be destroyed by thepersoncapturingit.Asanycitizenhasasmuchrighttokeepadogasanotherhastokeepasheep,withoutbeingtaxedforit,andcanonlybeheldliableforwhatdamagehisdogmaydo,itdoesnotseemjustthatanytaxshouldbeleviedupondogs.Theonlyjustclaimthatcanbemadebyasheep-owneristhatheshallbeprotected in the enjoymentofhisproperty, and that thepersonbyor throughwhomheisinjuredshouldrecompensehim.Inthecaseofirresponsibleownersofdogs,fromwhomnorecoverycanbemade,thedogsshouldbedestroyedbyaproper officer. If the right of persons to keep dogs, when they wish to do so,withoutbeingtaxed,isrecognizedinthismanner,muchoftheoppositiontotheenactmentofwhatarecalled“dog-laws,”wouldberemoved,andtheprotectionofsheepmademuchlessdifficult,andproductiveofmuchgreaterprofit.

FIG.97.Trapforsheep-killingdogs.

HOWTOUSEAFILEPROPERLY

The file is very frequently used in such an imperfect manner as to greatlyreduce its value as amechanical tool. The chief difficulty in using a file is inkeepingitinaperfectlyhorizontalpositionasitismovedoverthework,andinmaintaining an equable pressure upon theworkmeanwhile. Perhaps themostdifficult work in filing, and that which is most frequently ill-done, is insharpening saws. The bearing of the file upon the work is very narrow, andunable to guide its direction, and unless the file is held very carefully thedirectionvariescontinually,sothatthesawtoothisfiledroundinginsteadofflat,orslopinginsteadofhorizontal,oratexactrightangleswiththelineofthesaw,asitshouldbeinamill-saworarip-saw.Whenthefileisheldasshowninfigure98 (a very commonmanner of holding it), it is almost impossible to do goodworkuponasaw.Whenthefileispushedontothetooth,theweightorpressureoftherighthandisexerteduponthelongerportionofthetool,makingitactasifit were the longer arm of a lever, and thus depresses that portion below thehorizontal,asata.Whenpushedforward,thepressureisthenexerteduponthelongerportionof the file,which is carried from thehorizontal in the contrary

direction.Thework is thusmade round.Or if the pressure of the left hand isguardedagainst, thatof therighthandisseldomaltogethercontrolled,andthework is left sloping, as in figure 99; the position at the commencement beingshownata,andthatatthefinishofthestrokeatb.Thisisaverycommonerrorwith sawyers inmills, aswell aswithmanygoodcarpenters in filing their rip-saws.

FIG.98.Improperuseofthefile.

FIG.99.Anotherwrongwayoffiling.

Toavoideitherformofthiserror,thefileshouldnotbeheldwiththeballofthethumbpressinguponthehandleofthefile,asinfigures98and99;buttheendofthefileshouldbetakenlightlybetweenthethumbandfore-finger,asinfigure100.Thereisnounevenpressureinthiscase,andthedirectionofthefilemay easily be kept perfectly level. In filing the base of the tooth, or the underportionofanyworkwhichcannotbeturnedover,theendofthefileshouldbesupportedupontheendsofthefingers,asinfigure101,orbeheldbytheendofthethumb,inaneasygentlemanner.Ifheldlightly,andnotgraspedtoofirmly,the arm or wrist will not be tired so soon as when it is held rigidly; and themotionofthefilewillbemoreevenandregular.

FIG.100.Proper.methodoffiling.

FIG.101.Filingunderneath.

When the arm is wearied byworking in one direction, itmay be rested byreversingthepositionofthefile,takingthehandleinthelefthand,graspingtheend between the fingers and thumb of the right hand, and drawing the filetowardsthebody,insteadofthrustingitawayfromit.Thefileisthenheldasinfigure102.Thisisanexcellentpositioninwhichtoholdthefilewhenfinishingoffasawtooth,orwhentouchingitupatnoon.

FIG.102.Torestthehandinfiling.

AMITRE-BOX

A mitre-box of an improved form is shown in figure 103. The greatlyincreaseduseofmouldinginhousebuildingrendersamitre-boxverynecessaryintheworkshop.Intheoneheredescribed,abevelofanyanglemaybecut.Attherearoftheboxisaslottedpost,whichworksinasocket,sothatitwillturnreadily in any direction. From the post, lines are laid out upon the bottom atvariousangles.Attheterminationofeachlineisaroundhole,intowhichapinmaybefitted.Thepinisusedasaguideforthesawincuttingamitre-joint,asshownintheillustration.

FIG.103.Mitre-box.

THEMANUREHARVEST

Inthemidstoftheharvestofgrain,andgrass,andtubers,wemustnotforgetthecompostheap, inwhichwegarnerandstoretheunsowedcropsofafutureseason.Thesayingthat“anythingthatgrowsinonesummerwillrotbeforethenext,”isasafeguideincollectingvegetablematterforthecompostheap.Whensods,muck,andweedsformapartoftheheap,itisnotalonethematerialwhichweareassiduous incollecting,andput intotheheap, thatconstitutes itswholevalue.Thefermentationinducedbythedungandliquidmanure,andtheactionof the lime or ashes added,work upon the earth, adhering to the roots of theweeds,andformingaconsiderablepartofbothsodsandmuck,anddevelopanadmirablequalityofplantfood.Hencethiselementofthecompostheap,whichisgenerallyoverlookedaspossessinganyspecialvalue,shouldneverbewanting.It has, moreover, its own offices to perform, in promoting decay, in theformationofhumus,andinpreserving, lockingup,andholdingontovaluableingredientsofplantfood.

Thecompostheapshouldalwaysbelaidinevenlayers,andeachlayershouldgo over the entire heap for thus only can final uniformity be had.We do notmeanspecial-purposecomposts,butthosemadeforgeneralfarmcrops.Itwouldbewell ifeveryparticleofdung, liquidmanure,straw,litter, leaves,weeds,etc.,could be worked together into uniform fine compost, and there is really nosubstantial reasonwhy this shouldnotbedone.Thegardenerwouldplead forcertain special composts. It might, perhaps, be well to make a special hen-manurecompostforcorninthehill,andtakingthegeneralcompostasabasis,tomakeoneforturnips,bytheadditionofalargepercentageofbone-dust.Allthismay be done—establish once the rule to compost everything ofmanurial

value,andwehaveinprospectanabundanceoffarm-madefertilizersatalltimesandforallcrops—victoryoverweeds,agoodplacefordecomposabletrashofallkinds,asacredburialgroundforallminoranimalsandpoultry,whoseprecinctsneedneverbeinvaded.Therewillbesidesbenostagnatingpoolinthebarnyard,for all liquids will go to the tank, to be pumped over the compost heaps—nonasty, slumpy barnyard, for everything will be daily gathered for the growingcompostheap,and theharvestingof themanurecrop,and its increasedaybyday,ailtheyearround,willbeasourceofconstantpleasuretomasterandmen.

FASTENINGCATTLEWITHBOWS

Everything connected with this method of fastening cattle in the stable, bymeansofbows, issosimpleinconstruction,that it iswithinthereachofeveryfarmer.Itrequiresnooutlay,aseachonecanmakeallthepartsforhimself.Thebow,figure104,passesaroundtheanimal’sneckinthesamemannerasanox-bow, and ismade of a, good piece of hickory, by bending a strip of the rightlength, and three-quarter inch in diameter into the bow form.After the bow-piece,A, ismadeof theright sizeandshape,withoneend leftwithaknob, topreventtheclaspfromslippingoff,andtheotheroutasshowninfrontviewinfigure104,G, andsideviewatF, to fit into theslot, in theclasp, it iscarefullybentuntil itsendsarebroughttogether, fastened,andleftsoforaconsiderabletime,whenitwilltakeitsformandbereadyforuse.TheclaspisshownatB,D,andconsistsofapieceofhard-wood—hickoryisbest—three-quartersofaninchinthickness,andlongenoughtoholdthetopofthebowwelltogether.Aroundholeisboredinoneend,E,throughwhichthebowpassesasfarastheknob,theotherend iscutwithahole for thepassageof theotherendof thebow,andaslot,C, intowhich itsnarrowneck springswhen thebow is securedabout thecreature’sneck.Asmooth,stouthickorypole,twoandahalfinchesindiameter,reachingfromthefloortothebeamoverhead,servesasastanchiontowhichtoattachtheanimal,bymeansofasmallbow,andstationaryclasp,figure105,oranironring,A.Ifalittlemoreroomisdesiredforyoungstock,alinkortwoofchain,B, canbe insertedbetween thebowandstanchionring. In fastening thecattle,thebowisraisedwhenitpassesaroundtheneck,andtheclaspisbroughton,andtheendofthebowissprunginplace.Whentheanimalistobeletloose,theendofthebowispressedin,theclaspslipsoff,thebowfalls,andtheworkis

done in less time than it takes todescribe it, andeverything isoutof theway.Figure106showsastablearrangedforthismethodoffastening;asidefromthemanger,thereisbutthestanchionpoles,oneforeachanimal.Thereissufficientfreedomofmovementofthehead,butnotanexcess;theanimalcanstandorlitdownwithperfectcomfort,asthebowmoveswitheasethewholelengthofthestanchion. After a week’s practice, the animals will take their place with theirheadsby the sideof the stanchion,withaprecision that is remarkable.Hayingused the method, here illustrated, for several years, the writer has found itinexpensive,easyinapplication,andsafe.

FIG.104.Bowandclasp.

FIG.105.Bowandattachment.

FIG.106.Stableshowingbowandstanchions.

THEPRESERVATIONOFWOOD

It isknownthatthedecayoftimberfirstbeginsthroughthefermentationofsap within the pores, and that it is continued after this by the absorption ofwater.Theneutralizationoftheacidsinthetimberbytheuseoflime,hasbeenmade use of to preserve it from decay with success; but the most effectivemethodshavebeentosaturatetheporeswithoilsormineralsalts.Creosoteandpetroleum have been used successfully, but few persons are aware of theenormous absorptive capacityof timber for these liquids.Cypresswood,whendry, will absorb thirty-nine pounds, or five gallons of oil per cubic foot, andCaliforniaredwoodandpineabsorbtwicetheirweightwhenperfectlydry.Butitis not necessary for perfect preservation that timber should be fully saturated.Onegallonpercubicfoot,forthemostporouswoods,willbefullyeffective,andacoatingofoneandthree-quartersofapintpersquarefootforweatherboards,or half asmuch for shingles, will render them perfectly water-proof. In somecareful experiments recently made, dry spruce absorbed, during two days’soaking,nearlytwopercent,of itsweightofwater,andbutone-tenthasmuchwhentreatedwithoil;drypineabsorbedsixteenpercentofitsweight,andoiledpine absorbed none that could be ascertained by careful weighing. Pine hasproved to be themost easilywater-proofed of any timber. Thosewhowish topreserve shingle roofs, will be able to draw their own inferences as to the

usefulnessofcoatingthemwithcrudepetroleum.

ANESTFOREGG-EATINGHENS

In the winter season hens frequently acquire the habit of eating eggs.Sometimesthisvicebecomessoconfirmedthatseveralhensmaybeseenwaitingfor another one to leave her nest, or to even drive her off, so that they maypounceupontheegg,theonethatdropsitbeingamongthefirsttobreakit.Inthisstateofaffairsthereisnoremedy,excepttofindsomemethodofprotectingtheeggfromthedepredators.Theeasiestwayofdoingthisistocontriveanestinwhich the egg will drop out of reach. Such a nest is shown in figure 107. Itconsistsofaboxwithtwoslopingfalsehalf-floors;oneofthesebeingdepressedbelowtheothersufficientlytomakeaspacethroughwhichtheeggcanrolldowntothebottomfloor.Adoorisseeninthesideofthenest,throughwhichtheeggscan be removed. The sloping half-floors are shown by dotted lines. Upon thebackone,closetothebackofthenest,aglassorothernest-eggisfastenedbyascreworbycement.Thefalsefloorsmaybecoveredwithsomecoarsecarpetorcloth,andthebottomfloorwithsomechafformoss,uponwhichtheeggsmayrollwithoutdangerofbreaking.Iftheeggsdonotrolldownatonce,theywillbepusheddownbythefirstattemptofahentoattackthem.

FIG.107.Safety-nest.

PLOWINGGEARFORAKICKINGMULE

Below is presented a plan for hitching amulewhich has a habit of kicking

whenharnessedtoaplow,butwhichgoesverywell inshafts.Kicking isavicewhichsometimesbelongstohorsesaswellasmules,andthefollowingexpedienthasbeenfoundeffectiveincuringit.Takeapairoflightshaftsfromawagon,ormakeapair,andfittotheendofitabentstrapofiron,asshowninfigure108.When the mule or horse is hitched into the shafts the end may trail on theground, and the beast may be exercised with the shafts alone.When used tothese,thebentbarisfastenedtoaplowbymeansofaclevis,andanydifficultytherewillsoonbeovercome.Thisdevicehasbeenused,notonlyforplowing,butfordrawingastoneboat,railroadcars,andothersimilarvehicles.

FIG.108.Plowinggearforkickinganimals.

ALEAFFORK

Ausefulplan formakinga fork togather leaves is shown in figure109.Theforkismadeoftoughash,withtenteeth,similartothefingersofacradle,threefeetlong,andslightlyturnedup.Theheadintowhichthebuttsoftheteethareinserted,isthirtyincheslong.Alightcross-baroftoughwoodisfastenedtotheteeth, about eight inches from the head, bymeans of copper wire and a lightscrew to each finger.Ahandle isprovided and fixed in its properplace, beingflattenedsomewhat tokeep it fromturning in thehand.Thehandle shouldbebracedby two strongwires.With sucha fork leavesmaybe loadedvery easilyandrapidly.

FIG.109.Forkforgatheringleaves.

PREPARATIONOFTHEWHEATGROUND

Wheat demands for its perfect development, among other favorableconditions,besidesshowersandsunshine,depthandrichnessofsoil, thoroughtilth,and freedomfromexcessofmoisture.Soil thatwillyieldgoodcloverwillbear good wheat. Wheat follows corn very well, but this involves rather latesowing.Where there isamarket fornewpotatoes,which,as theyare intendedforimmediateuse,maybefreelymanured,thepotatoground—wellplowedandharrowed with a dressing of bone-dust, superphosphate, or, if there is muchorganicmatterinthesoil,withadressingoflime—formsanadmirableseed-bedforwheat.Oneofthebestrotations,includingwinterwheat,iscornonsod,earlypotatoes, wheat, clover and timothy, the grass to be mowed as long as it isprofitable—themanurebeingappliedinthehillforcorn,andputonbroadcastveryliberallyforthepotatoes.Winterwheatfollowsnoneoftheusualrootcropswell,foritoughttobesowedandupbeforethemiddleofSeptember,althoughitoftendocswellsowednearlyamonthlater.

Whenwheatfollowsclover,acropofclover-hayisoftentakenoffearly,andasecondcropallowedtogrow,whichisturnedunderaboutthefirstofAugustforwheat. In case we have very dry weather in July, the growth of clover will bemeagre. If, however, the clover stubble be top-dressed at once, as soon as theearly crop is cut, with a muck and manure compost, or any fine compost,“draggedin”withasmoothingharrow,thesecondcropwillbesuretostartwell,whilenoneofthemanurewillbelost.Lime,orashes,iftheycanbeobtained,areto be spread after plowing under the clover and manure, and thoroughlyharrowedin.Fortybushelsofashestotheacreisaboutright,andwherehearthsofoldcharcoalpitsareaccessible—ashes,charcoal-dust,andbakedearth,areallexcellent—they form a good substitute for ashes and for lime. Sixty to onehundred bushels of evenly dry-slaked lime is a usual application, which, if itcouldhavebeenmixedwithanequalquantityofsoilorsodsduringtheslaking,wouldbeallthebetter.

The soil, and particularly wheat ground, is not well enough tilled in thiscountry.We plow fourteen to sixteen-inch furrows, and use a skim-plow; this

leaves the surface somellow, and covers the sod so perfectly, that we think ithardlyneedsharrowingatall,andonlysmoothitoverwithaharrow,andletitgo.Theskimplowisagreatadvantage,butweshouldtakenarrowfurrows.

Thefollowingpractice,onheavylandespecially, isexcellent:Turnunderthefirstcropofcloverasdeepaspossible,justbeforeitisinfullblossom;cross-plowthefirstorsecondweekinAugust;thenputonseventy-fivebushelsof lime,ormore, andharrow it in lightly.Sowearlyaftera soaking rain, andapplyat thetimeofsowingtwohundredandfiftypoundsormoreofsuperphosphatetotheacre.

HOWTODRIVEAHORSE-SHOENAIL

Mostfarmershesitatetoattempttofastenonalooseshoeforfearofinjuringthefootbydrivingthenailinawrongdirection.Itissuchasavingoftimeandmoneytobeabletoputashoeuponahorseinahurriedbusytime,thateveryfarmerought to learnhow todo it.Hemaypracticeuponapieceof softpinewoodinaroughway,whenhewillfindhoweasyitis,byproperlypreparingthenails,tomakethepointcomeoutinexactlytheproperplace.Topreparethenailit should be laid upon the anvil (which everyworkshop should have for suchworkasthis),orasmoothironblock,andbeatenoutstraight.Thepointshouldthenbebevelled,slightlyupononeoftheflatsides,andthepointalsobentaverylittlefromthesidewhichisbevelled.Itwillthenbeoftheshapeshowninfigure110.Indrivingsuchanail intoapieceofsoftwood,orahorse’shoofwhichispenetratedeasilyinanydirection,ifthebevelledsideisplacedtowardsthecentreof thehoofandaway from thecrust, thepointwillbebentoutwards, andwillcomeoutlowerorhigheronthecrustasthebevelandcurveismuchorlittle.Alittlepracticewillenableonetocausethepointtoprotrudepreciselyattherightplace. By turning the bevel outwards, in driving the nail, the course will betowardsthecentreof thefootasshownbythe lineb, in figure111.Thenail issometimesstartedinthewrongdirectionbycarelessblacksmiths,andthehorseis lamed inconsequence. If themistake isdiscovered, andanattemptmade todrawoutthenail,apieceofitmaybebrokenoff,andateveryconcussionofthefootthefragmentwillpenetratefurther,until itreachesthesensitiveparts,andgreat sufferingwill follow.Manyahorse is supposed tohavenaviculardisease(becausethathappenstobeoneofthoseobscureaffectionsofthefootwhichhas

nooutwardsign),whenthetroubleisafragmentofnailbrokenoffbyabunglingshoer.We have examined the foot of a horse which was killed because of anincurable lameness, and foundapieceofnail thusbedded in the centreof thefoot, surrounded with an abscess which had eaten into the bone. The torturesufferedbythishorsemusthavebeenintense,anditwassupposedtobeacaseofnaviculardisease,whiletherealcausewasunsuspected.Indrivingnailsintothehoof,greatcautionshouldbeexercised.Thehand,orthethumb,shouldbeheldoverthespotwherethepointofthenailisexpectedtocomeout,andifitdoesnot appearwhen it shoulddo so, thenailmust bewithdrawn.Useno split orimperfectnail,andhavethepointverycarefullyprepared.Thecoursetakenbyanailproperlypointedanddrivenisshownbythelinescurvedoutwardsata,a,infigure111.

FIG.110.Nail.

FIG.111.Drivingnails.

SCREW-DRIVERS

Todriveascrewwithascrew-driver,asitisusuallypointedandhandled,isa

disagreeable task. If thescrewgoes inwithdifficulty, thedriverslipsoutof thegroove, or it cuts the edges of the groove so that the screw is useless. This isbecausethepointofthetoolisnotgroundproperly.Itshouldbegroundwithanevenandlongbevel,atleastaninchlonginsmalltools,andtwoinchesinlargeones.The sides of the bit should be kept straight, andnot tapered off nor thecornersgroundofforfounded.Thereshouldbenosharpedgegroundupontheendofthetool,andthegrindingshouldbelengthwise,orfromhandletopoint,andnotcrosswise.Theedgeshouldbeslightlyrounded.Thedegreeofroundnessgivenmay be such as wouldmake it equal to an arc of a circle ten to twelveinchesindiameter;forsmalltoolsthismaybelessenedconsiderably.Theshapeof a well-pointed screw-driver is shown in figure 112. Flat handles should beabolishedasanuisance; afteranhour’suseofadriverwith suchahandle, thehandwillbestiffandsore.Thehandleshouldberound.Screw-driversareusedmorefrequentlythannecessary.Wehavedrivenhundredsofscrewsinallsortsof timber, hard white oak even, with the hammer, just as nails are driven,withouttheuseofascrew-driver,andfoundthemtoholdperfectlywell.This,ofcourse,canbedoneonlywiththesharptaper-pointedscrews,andifanyoneusesthe old blunt-pointed kind, he is too far behind the times to be much of amechanicorfarmereither.

FIG.112.Screw-drive.

TOPREVENTCOWSSUCKINGTHEMSELVES

There aremanydevices to prevent cows from sucking themselves.A spikedhalterisshowninfigure113.Abuckleattheupperpart,behindtheears,makesitquiteeasytodetachit.Figure114showshowthespikesaresecured.Thespikesshouldnotbeover two inches in length.Theyarebestmadeofwroughtnails,whichare sold at thehardware stores.They areplaced in an ironvise and theheadsflattenedasmuchaspossiblebypoundingwithahammer;theyarethendriven into a piece of thick leather, and secured by sewing or riveting it uponanotherpieceofleather,asshownatBinfigure114.

FIG.113.Spikedhalter.

FIG.114.Makingthehalter.

ABUSEOFBARNCELLARS

Agreatchangehascomeoverthefarmduringthelastthirtyyears,inallourthrifty farming districts, in the general use of barn cellars. Formerly such anarrangementofthebarnwasanovelty,andfarmershaveslowlylearneditsgreat

advantages—the greater comfort of cattle, the cheaper cleaning of stables, themoreconvenientwateringofstock,thelargeruseofpeat.muck,andheadlandsin the compost heap, and the greater value of themanuremade under cover.Nowthecryisraisedofdamagetofodderandstockfromthebarncellar.Almostanygoodthingcanbepervertedandbecomeanuisance,anditwerestrange ifmen who do not readmuch, and think less, could not abuse the barn cellar,whichisthestomachofthefarm.Thesamekindofmennotinfrequentlyabusetheir own stomachs, and suffer grievously in consequence. “If youmake yourbarncellar tight,carbonicacidgasandammoniaarethrownoffandinjurethequality of hay stored in the rooms above, and the health of the cattle in thestables. If you turn your pigs into the cellar tomake compost, and keep themfromtheairandthelight,theybecomediseased,andyouputbadmeatintoyourbarrel to breed disease in your family.” These are not uncommon complaints,circulating inouragricultural journals.Well, supposeweadmit these things tobe true, what of it? Is there any necessity for having a barn cellar withoutventilation? If you leave one end open towards the south, you certainly haveventilationenough—andthegasesthatareevolvedfromfermentingmanurearenotgoing throughtwo-inchstableplankandthe tightsidingof thebarnwhentheyhavethewindtocarrythemoff. Ifabarncellar isproperlymanaged,andseasonablyfurnishedwithabsorbents,theammoniawillbeabsorbedasfastasitisformed.Therewillbenoodorofammoniathatthenostrilscandetect.Ifthepigsdonotdothemixingfastenough,theshovelandthefork,theplowandtheharrow,canbeadded.Themakingofcompostunderthebarnisniceworkforrainy days in winter, and ismore likely to pay than anywork exposed to thestorm. The keeping of pigs under the barn is a question of two sides, andhoweverwemaydecide it, barn cellarswill standupon their ownmerits.Anyfarmer whomakes a business of raising pork for themarket will find a well-appointed pig-sty, with conveniences for storing and cooking food, a payinginvestmentIfheseesfit toutilizethe laborofhispigsbymakingcompost inawell-ventilatedbarncellar,theirhealthisnotlikelytosufferfromthewholesomeexercise,orthatofhisfamilyfromtheuseoftheflesh.Swine,furnishedwithadrysleeping-apartmentandplentyoflitterforabed,willkeepcomfortablyclean,andnotsufferfromoverworkinthecompostheap.Ifanythingissettledintheexperienceofthelastthirtyyears,itistheeconomyofthebarncellar.Ourmostintelligent farmers, who can command the capital, invest in them. A niceappendagetothemisawateringtroughfedbyaspringoralargecisternintheembankment,tocatchallthewater,andbringitoutbyafaucetuponthestable

floorabove.Thisworksadmirably.

FIG.115.Hayrackandmanger.

HAY-RACKANDMANGER

A cheap and convenient hay-rack andmanger is shown in figure 115. Thefrontofthemangershouldbeofoakorotherhardwoodplank,twoinchesthick,andone footwide, the loweredgeofwhich isplacedabout twoandahalf feetfromthefloor;thebottomshouldbeonefootwide.Thesideofthehay-rackisonefootwide,thefrontiseighteenincheswide;thetopandbottombeingofthesamewidth,sothathaywillnotlodge.Thebottomismadefromoneandahalfinchhardboard,andisplacedonefootabovethetopofthemanger.Twoguards,one inch indiameter,andone foot in length,areplaced inanuprightpositionacross the opening. At the front of the manger is a swinging door, which isshownpartlyopen.Thisopensintothefeed-passage.Themangermayhaveoneendpartitionedforfeedinggrain.Allcornersshouldbesmoothedandroundedoff,andtomakeitdurable,attachathin,flatbarofirontotheupperedgeofthemangerbyscrewsorrivets.

ABARNBASKET

Figure 116 shows a home-made basket or box for use in the barn or ingatheringcrops.Itismadeoftwopiecesoflightboard,twelveinchessquare,fortheends,fastenedtogetherbylathssixteen,eighteen,ortwentyincheslong,forbottomandsides.Thesearesecurelynailed.Thehandleconsistsofapiecenailedtoeachend,andconnectedbyalightbar.Thisboxisquicklymade,andwillbefound veryhandy for gatheringmany crops in the field, as itmaybemade toholdexactlyonebushel,halfabushel,oranyotherdefinitequantity,bychangingthesize.Toholdabushel,which is twothousand,onehundredandfiftycubicinches, theboxmaybe scant twenty inches long, twelve incheswide, andninedeep,orscanteighteenincheslong,twelveincheswide,andeleveninchesdeep.Forhalfabushel, scanteighteen inches long, ten incheswide,andsixdeep;orfifteen inches long, nine inches wide, and eight inches deep. For a peck, tenincheslong,ninewide,andsixdeep;oreightinchessquare,andscanteightandahalfinchesdeep.

FIG.116.Convenientbarnbasket.

THETREATMENTOFKICKINGCOWS

Itissafetosaythatakickingcowisnotnaturallydisposedtothisvice,buthasbeenmadeviciousbysomefaultofherowner.Therearefewmenwhopossesssufficient patience and kindness to somanage a cow, from calfhood until shecomestothepail,thatshewillbekindandgentleunderallcircumstances.Therearenervous, irritablecows, thatare impatientofrestraint,whichareeasilyandquicklyspoiledwhentheyfallintothehandsofanownerofasimilardisposition.Onewhoiskindandpatient,andwhohasanaffectionforhisanimals,isnever

troubledwithkickingcows,unlesshehaspurchasedonealreadymadevicious.Unfortunately, few persons are gifted with these rare virtues, and, therefore,there are always cows thathave tobewatched carefully atmilking time.Cowssometimessuffer fromcrackedteats,or theiruddersmaybe tender fromsomeconcealed inflammation, and they are restless whenmilked; so that, now andthen,inthebestregulateddairies,therewillbecowsthatwillkick.Manydeviceshavebeenrecommendedtopreventsuchcowsfromexercisingthisdisagreeablehabit.Differentmethodsofsecuringthelegshavebeentried.Thebestplanthatwehaveheardof,orhavetried,isshowninfigure117.Thisfetterisfastenedtothe cow’s near leg, by means of the strap in the centre, the curved portionsembracing the front of the leg above and below the hock. Itwill be perceivedthat,whilethecowcanmoveherlegtosomeextent,andisnothobbled,aswhenthelegsaretiedtogether,yetshecannot lift it tokick,ortoputherfootinthepail.Wehaveseenthis“fetter”trieduponacowthathadverysorecrackedteats,andthatkickedfuriouslywhenmilked,butwiththefettershewasunabletokickorhindermilking.

FIG.117.Cow-fetter.

HOWTOBUILDABOAT-HOUSE

Anykindof ahouse that is large enoughmaybeused, if providedwith theneeded fittings named below. Where the level of the water is liable to littlechange, thehouseneednotberaisedmuchabove thesurfaceof thewater,butthefloormaybemadesolowthatonecaneasilystepoutoftheboattothefloor.

Of course there should be a channel made in the centre of the house, deepenough to float theboatwhen loaded.Theplanof the floor is shown in figure118,withtheboatinthecentre.Thefloorshouldbeprotectedbyalightrailingaround it (see figure119), topreventaccidents fromslippingwhenthe floor iswetWherethewaterlevelchanges,thehouseshouldberaisedonposts,orbents,asmaybenecessarytokeepitabovehighwater.Ahangingladder,thatmaybedrawnup,isprovidedforuseatlowwater.

FIG.118.Planofhouse.

FIG.119.Sectionofboat-house.

WASTELANDS—MAKETHEMUSEFUL

Wastelandaboundseverywhere.Itisfenced,andhastheappearanceoffarm-land,buttheowner,ifafarmer,wouldbebetteroffwithoutitthanheiswithit.Noonelocalityseemstobebetterorworsethananotherinthisrespect,unlessitbe that the Southern States have the most waste land, and the Eastern States

comenext in this respect.Thereare rocky fields, and fieldscoveredwith loosestones; swamps and wet ground, and land covered with wretched brush andsmalltimber,andintheSouth,especially,barrenandgulliedhill-sides.Itistrue,thattoclearuptheselands,andmakethemfruitful,willcostinlabor,ifthelaborisvaluedatthecurrentrates,morethanthelandwouldbringifofferedforsale.Butthisisnottherightwaytolookatthismatter.Inreality,itwillcostnothingtocleartheselands,becausetheirownersmaydoitbyworkingwhentheywouldotherwisebeidle.Thewaytodoitistosetaboutit.Toclearanacreortwoatatime, of those fields that can be cleared; and to plant with timber, of somevaluablesort,thatgroundwhichistooroughfortheplow,insteadofpermittingit togrowupwithuselessbrush. Inmanycases, theworst trouble that farmerssuffer is, that they havemore land than they can care for, under their presentsystemofmanagement.Hundredsof farmsareworkedasgrain farms, thatarenotwell suited for any other use thandairy farms, and ground is plowed thatshould be kept in permanent grass. In some cases, the owners of land havediscoveredtheirpropervocation,asinthedairydistrictofCentralNewYork,inthefruitandgrainfarmsofthewesternpartofthatState,inthepasturefarmsofthe blue-grass region of Kentucky, and in the corn-growing and pork-raisingprairiesof theWest. If the systemof culture in theseplaceswere changed, thefarmerswouldhepoorinsteadofbeingrich,andoneseesverylittlewastelandinthese localities. There are districts where the surface is hilly, and not so wellsuited forarablepurposesas forpasture,butwhere, insteadofgrassandcows,side-hillplowsandpoorcornfields,washedandgulliedbyrains,aretobeseen.Herearewastelandsinplenty;andtheirownersshoweverysignofpovertyandwantofthrift.Itisnoteasytochangethesecircumstancesquickly,butitiseasytobegin—justasitiseasiertostartastonerollingdownahill,thantothrowitdownbodily; andwhen it isonce started, it goes slowlyat first, andmayneedhelp,butitcansoontakecareofitself,andspeedilyreachesthebottom.Itisjustsowith such improvementsasarehere referred to.Theyarenecessarilybegunslowly, but when one or two acres of these waste places are reclaimed, theproductoftheseaddstothefarmer’sresources.Heisricherthanbeforebytheincreasedvalueoftheseacres,andheisbetterabletoreclaimmore.Whenthesein their turn are improved, the means for further improvements are greatlyenlarged; the ambition of the man to excel in his vocation is excited, and hespeedilybecomesaneater,better farmer, andnecessarilyhis circumstancesareimproved.Thustheroughwastelands,whichgiveadisagreeableappearancetothelandscape,andareastigmauponitscharacterandthatofourfarmers,inthe

eyesof ourown citizens andof foreigners,might in a short timebe improvedandasourceofprofit.

ARAT-GUARD

Tokeepratsawayfromanythingthatishungup,thefollowingsimplemethodmaybeused.Procurethebottomsofsomeoldfruit-cans,bymeltingthesolderwhichholdsthemuponahotstove.Boreholesinthecentreofthesedisks,andstring a few of themupon the cord,wire, or rope uponwhich the articles arehung.Whenaratormouseattemptstopassupontheropebyclimbingoverthetindisks, they turn and throw the animal upon the floor.This plan, shown infigure120,willbefoundveryeffective.

FIG.120.Guardagainstrats.

ACRUPPER-PADFORHORSES

Manyhorsemendesireamethodbywhichtopreventahorsefromcarryingitstailupononeside,andfromclaspingthereinsbeneaththetail.Wecannotadvisetheoperationof“nicking,”whichconsistsincuttingtheskinandmusclesupononesideofthetail,andtyingitovertothecutside,untilthecutsheal,whentheskin, being drawn together, pulls the tail permanently over to that side. Adifferent formof theoperationcauses thetail tobecarriedup inastyle that issupposed to bemore graceful, and prevents the horse from clasping the reinswhendriven.Asapreventiveofbothofthesehabits,thepadshowninfigure121is often used by horsemen, instead of the cruel and unnecessary operation of“nicking.”Thisapplianceismadeofleather,isstuffedwithhairorwool,andisabout three inches in diameter at the thickest part, gradually tapering towardeachend,whereitisfastenedtothecrupperstraps.Itshouldbedrawnupclose

totherootsofthetail,andbyexertingapressurebeneathit,thetailiscarriedinaraisedposition,and isnot thrownover tooneside. If it is, a fewsharp tacksmaybedrivenintotheinsideofthepad.

FIG.121.Crupper-pad.

ADAMFORAFISHPOND

Inmakingafishpond,byplacingadamacrossastream,itshouldbeborneinmindthatsuccessdependsupontheproperconstructionofthedam,whetheritbelargeorsmall.Anydefectherewillmakethewholeuseless.Themainpointintheconstructionofadamis,tohaveacompleteunionbetweentheearthofthebedandthatofthedam.Thiscannotbedonebythrowingtheearthuponanoldsurface.Anewsurfacemustbemade,solidandfirm,toreceivethenewearth.Inaddition,thereshouldbeacentralcoreofsomestrongmaterial,thatwillservetostrengthenandbindthenewconstruction.Inmakingadamorembankmenttoretainorexcludewater,thebeginningshouldbetodigashallowditch,removingsodorunevenground,or if theearth isbare, todisturb it thoroughlywith thepick,soas toprovidebindingmaterial tounitewith thebottomof thedam.Aline of stakes is driven into the ground, and filled with brush woven in, orwattled,asinfigure122.Inbuildingthedam,allthesodsandvegetablemattershould be placed on the outside, where these will root, and bind the surfacetogether; therestof theearthshouldbewell trodden,orrammeddownfirmly,anditthesoilispuddledbyadmixtureofwaterintheprocessoframming,theworkwillbebetterforit.Thewater-wayinthestreamshouldbetightlyboarded

orplanked.Threepostsmaybedrivenor setoneachbankof the stream, andboardsnailed,orplanksspikedforalargerstructure,soastoretaintheearthoftheembankmentsoneachside,figure123.Atimberisfittedasamudsill,tothefrontandrearposts,andone to thecentralposts; the latterat suchaheightaswill raise thewater to thedesireddepth.The spacesbetween these timbersareboardedandplanked,andmaybefilledinwithearth,wellrammed,andmixedwithstrawandfinecedarbrush,underthecovering.If it isdesiredtoraisethewater to a greater depth, loose flash-boards may be fitted with cleats, on thecentreof thewaste-way,orawire-gauze fencemaybeplaced there, topreventthe escapeof the fish. If freshets are apt tooccur, a sufficientnumberof thesewaste-ways should be provided to carry off the surplus water, and preventoverflowingandwastingof thedam.Thedamofa fishpondshouldalwaysbemadehighenoughforsafetyagainstoverflow,andtoguardagainstpercolation,andwashingawaybyundermining,itshouldbemadethreetimesaswideasitishigh,withslopesofoneandahalf foothorizontaloneachside, toone foot inperpendicular height, if any plants are set upon a dam or embankment, theyshouldbeofasmall,bushygrowth,suchasosierwillow,elders,etc.,butnothinglarger,lesttheswayingcausedbyhighwindsshouldloosenanddestroythebank.

FIG.122.Stakesandbrush.

FIG.123.Waste-gateforpond.

AWAGONJACK

Infigures124and125isshownamostconvenienthome-madewagonjack,inconstantusefortenyears,andhasprovedmostsatisfactory.Thedrawingsweremade with such care, the measurement being placed upon them, that theengravings tell nearly the whole story. Figure 124 shows the jack when inpositiontoholdtheaxle,ata.Whennot inuse, the leverfallsdownoutoftheway,andtheaffaircanbehungupinahandyplace.Figure125showsthe“catch-board,”andthedimensionsproperforajack,foranordinarywagon,buggy,etc.Itissoshapedandfastenedbyadinbetweentheuprightpartsofthejack,thatitispushedinposition,d.bythefootatc,whentheaxleisraised;andfallsbackofitsownaccordwhentheleverisraisedatrifletoletthewheeldown.Allthepartsaremadeofinchstuff,thefootboard,catch,andlevershouldbeofhardwood;theuprightboardsbetweenwhich they areplaced canbeofpineorother softwood. Personswho see this simple and convenientwagon jack frequently say,“Whydon’tyougetitpatented?”buttheinventorthinksthatsuchsimplethings,whichanyonecanmake,oughttobecontributedforthecommongood,andinthesamespiritwecommendittoanywhomaybeinneedofagoodwagonjack.

FIG.124.Michiganwagonjack.

FIG.125.Catch-board.

WILLYOUFEEDHAYORWOOD?

Agreatdealhasbeensaidandwrittenabout theproper timeofcuttinghay.Thebesttime,allthingsconsidered,istocutthegrassjustafterithascomeintofullbloom,thoughmanythinkthepreferabletimeisjustwhenitiscomingintofull blossom. As it is impossible to always mow every field just at the rightmoment,thegeneralsaferuleis,wethink,tobeallreadytobeginatfullbloom,andfinishbeforeitisentirelypast.

There is this important fact tobekept inmind,viz., thatas soonasgrassofanykindhasattained itsgrowth,and is fullof juices, itbegins tochangemoreandmoreintowoodyfibre,andthatwhenfullyripealargepartofthestemsorstalksdifferverylittleincompositionfromdrywood.Andeveryoneknowsthatdrywoodisneithereasilydigestednornutritious.Itstandstoreasonthatastalkof grass cut when it is full of juice containing sugar, gum, and proteincompounds,andcuredthus,mustbemorenutritiousthanifleftstandinguntilapart of these constituents have changed intowoody fibre. Feedinghaynot cutuntil it is thoroughly ripe, is giving the animals that which is in part only somuchwood.The practical lesson is,make a good readywell in advance, now,andhave the barns,mows, stacking arrangements,mowers, scythes, horse andother rakes, forks, wagon racks, in short, all things, in perfect order—and thework planned, so as not to let any hay-field get into the fully ripe condition.Headworkbeforehandwillsavehardworkandworry,andsecurebetterhay.

ABRACEFORAKICKINGHORSE

Those so unfortunate as to own a kicking horse know something of thepatiencethatitrequirestogetalongwithit—andwillwelcomeanythingwhichwillpreventthekickingandfinallyeffectacure.Thewriterknewahorse,whichwas so bad a kicker that after various trials, and after passing through manyhands,andgettingworseallthetime,tobeperfectlycuredinthecourseofthreemonthsby theuseof thedevicehere given.This is a simplebrace,which actsuponthefactthatiftheheadbekeptup,thehorsecannotkick.Akickinghorseis likeabalance,whenoneendgoesup, theothermustgodown.Thebrace isshown in figure 126, and consists of a one-half inch iron rod, whichmay bestraight,or,forthelooks,bentintoagracefulcurve.Itisforkedatbothends;thetwodivisionsoftheupperendarefastenedtothetworingsofthebit,whilethelowerendsfituponthe lowerportionof thecollarandhames.Theupperendscan best be fastened to the bit by winding with wire, which should be donesmoothly,soasnottowearuponthemouth.Thelowerendissecuredbymeansofa strap fastened to theupper loop, andpassingaround thecollar isbuckledthroughtheholeinthelowerpartoftheendofthebrace.Thebraceneednotbetaken from the bit in unharnessing. Any blacksmith can make such a brace,taking care to have it of the proper length to fit the particular horse.Keep itsheadatabouttheheightaswhen“checkedup,”andthehorsewillsoonbecured.

FIG.126.Thebrace.

HOWTOSAVELIQUIDMANURE

Inordinary farmpractice, by far the largerpart of the liquidmanureof thestockkeptislost.Noeffortismadetosaveit.Thereisnobarncellar,nogutterbehind the stabled animals, no absorbents. Analysis shows that the liquidmanure is quite as valuable as the solid, or evenmore so. In 1,000 pounds offresh horse dung there are 4.4 pounds of nitrogen, 3.5 of potash, and 3.5 ofphosphoric acid. Inhorseurine thereare15.5poundsofnitrogen, and15.0ofpotash.In1,000poundsoffreshcattledungthereare2.9poundsofnitrogen,1.0of potash, 1.7 of phosphoric acid. In the urine, 5.8 pounds of nitrogen, 4.9 ofpotash.Thesearethemostvaluableconstituentsofmanure,andnofarmercanaffordtohavethemsogenerallyruntowaste.Thereisverylittlelosswherethereisagutterwellsuppliedwithabsorbents,andabarncellarwellcoatedwithdriedpeat,muck,orheadlands,toabsorbtheliquidsasfastastheyfall.Butbarncellarsare still in the minority. Mr. Mechi had a very expensive apparatus fordistributingtheliquidmanureoverhisfarm,bymeansoftanksandpipes,andthought itpaid,but failed toconvincehiscontemporariesof the fact.Howeverthatmay be, it is out of the question to apply liquidmanure in thismanner,economically,upontheaveragefarm.Ittakestoomuchcapital,andrequirestoomuchlabor.Bytheuseofabsorbents,itcanbedoneeconomicallyonasmallorlarge scale, “with very little waste. Some use a water-tight box,made of thickplank,coveringthefloorofthestall.Thisisaverysurewaytosaveeverything,andtheonlyobjectiontoitistheexpenseofthebox,andtheincreasedlaborofkeeping the stalls clean.Weused for several yearsdried salt-marsh sod, cut inblocks eight or ten inches square, taken from the surface of the marsh inditching. This had an enormous capacity for absorbing liquids, and a layer ofthesesodswouldkeepahorseorcowcomfortablydryforafortnight.Refusehayor straw was used on top for purposes of cleanliness. The saturated sod wasthrown into the compost heapwith othermanure,where itmade an excellentfertilizer.Laterweusedsawdust,purchasedforthepurposeattwocentsabushel,asbeddingforacowkeptuponacementedfloor.Abedafootthickwouldlastnearly amonth,when itwas thrown out into the compost heap. The sawdustrequires a longer time for decomposition, but saves the liquid manure. Ourpresent experiment, covering several months, is with forest leaves, principallyhickory,maple,whiteash,andelm.Abushelofdriedleaves,keptunderashedforthepurpose,isaddedtothebeddingofeachanimal,andthesaturatedleaves

areremovedwiththesolidmanureasfastastheyaccumulate.Theleavesbecomeveryfinebytheconstanttreadingoftheanimals,andbytheheatoftheirbodies,and the manure pile grows rapidly. It is but a little additional labor to theordinary task of keeping animals clean in their stalls, to use some goodabsorbent,andenoughof it, tosaveall the liquidmanure.What theabsorbentshallbeisaquestionofminorimportance.Conveniencewillgenerallydeterminethismatter.Nolaboruponthefarmpaysbetterthantosavetheurineofallfarmstockbymeansofabsorbents.Theseareingreatvariety,and,insomeform,arewithinthereachofeverymanthatkeepscattleorrunsafarm.Stopthisleak,andliftyourmortgage.

ANOPENSHEDFORFEEDING

Afeeding-troughinayard,whichcanbecoveredtokeepoutsnoworrain,isadesirablething,andmanydeviceshavebeencontrivedforthepurpose,mostofwhich are too costly. We give herewith a method of constructing a coveredfeeding-trough,whichmaybemade very cheaply of the roughmaterials to behad on every farm. A sufficient number of stout posts are set firmly in theground,extendingabouttenfeelabovethesurface.Theyshouldbeaboutsixfeetapartand ina straight line, andaplate fastened to their tops.Apairof rafterssupportedbybraces,asshowninfigure127,isfittedtoeachpost.Alightroofoflaths is laid,andcoveredwithbark,straw,corn-stalks,orcoarsehay.Stripsarefastenedfromonebracetoanother,andlathsorsplitpolesnailedtothem,aboutsix inches apart, tomake a feed-rack.A feed-trough for grain or roots is builtuponeachside.Forsheep,theshedandrackmaybemadeonlyeightfeethighatthepeak,andtheeavesfourfeetfromtheground;givingbettershelter.

FIG.127.Anopenfeeding-shed.

ASHADEFORHORSES’EYES

Themost frequent cause of weak eyes in horses is a badly-arranged stable.Foulgases irritateand inflamethetendermembranesof theeyeandhead,andhorses brought fromdark stables into bright sunlight, or onto glittering snow,aredazzled andblinded.The existingweakness or irritation is intensified, andthepooranimalsuffersunsuspectedtorments.Theremedyistopurifythestableandgiveitsufficientlight,shadedbyblinds,frombeforeandbehindthehorse,orfrombothsides,avoidingalightfromonlythefront,rear,oronesidelight.Ashade forweak or inflamed eyesmay be constructed by fasteningwires to thebridleandcoveringitwithoiledclothinthemannerrepresentedinfigure128.Thus a soft, subdued light reaches the eyes, while the horse can still see thegroundimmediatelybeforehim.Itwillbeatimely jobtopreparesuchashadeforusebeforethesnowofwintercomes.

FIG.128.Toprotecttheeyes.

TESTALLSEEDS—IMPORTANT

Noonecan,bymerelylookingatthem,positivelytellwhetheranyparticularlotsoffield,garden,orflowerseedshaveorhavenotsufficientvitalityofgermtostart into vigorous growth.Yet it is a severe loss, often adisastrousone, to go

throughwith all the labor and expenseofpreparation andplantingor sowing,andfindtoolatethatthecropislostbecausetheseedsaredefective.Allthisriskcanbesavedbyafewminutes’timealltold,inmakingapreliminarytest,anditshould be done before the seed is wanted, and in time to get other seed ifnecessary.Seedsmaynothavematuredthegerm;itmayhavebeendestroyedbyheatormoisture;minuteinsectsmayhave,unobserved,puncturedoreatenoutthevitalpartofaconsiderablepercentage.

Select from the whole mass of the seed, one hundred, or fifty, or even tenseeds,thatwillbeafairsampleofall.Forlargerseeds,aswheat,corn,oats,peas,etc.,takeathin,toughsod,andscatterthecountedseedsupontheearthside.Putupontheseedsanothersimilarsod,earthsidedown.Setthisdoublesodbythewarm side of the house or other building, or of a tight fence, moistening itoccasionallyasneeded.Ifverycold,cover,orremovetothekitchenorcellaratnight.Theuppersodcanbeliftedforobservationwhendesirable.Theswellingand starting of the seeds will in a few days, according to the kind, tell whatpercentageof themwillgrow—aboxofearthwillanswer insteadofsods,bothfor large and small seeds. Small seedsof vegetablesor flowers, andeven largerones,maybeput intomoistcotton, tobekeptslightlymoistandplaced in thesunor ina lightwarmroom.Forsmallquantitiesofvaluable flowerseedsandthelike,halfadozenwillsufficeforatrialtest.Withanyseed,forfieldorgarden,howevergood,it isalwaysverydesirableandusefultoknowexactlyhowmanyorfewaredefective,andthusbeabletodecidehowmuchseedtouseonanacre,orotherplot.

FIG.129.Homemaderoller.

AFIELDROLLER

Averygood field rollermaybeeasilymade inwinter,when timber isbeingcut.Useabutt-logofanoaktree,intheformshowninfigure129.Thelogneednotbeaverylargeone,becausetheframe,inwhichitismounted,enablesittobeloadedtoanyreasonableextent,andthedrivermayrideuponit,andthusaddto theweight.Arollerwillbe foundveryvaluable in thespringwhenrepeatedfrostshaveraisedthegroundandthrownoutthestones.

APORTABLESLOPBARREL

Abarrelmounteduponwheels,as shown in figure130,willbe foundusefulformanypurposesaboutthefarm,garden,orhousehold.Thebarrelissupporteduponapairofwheels,theaxlesofwhicharefastenedtoaframeconnectedwiththebarrelbymeansofstrapsboltedtothesides.Theframemaybemadeofironbent in the formshown in figure131,orofcrooked timberhavinga sufficientbend to permit the barrel to be tipped for emptying. A pair of handles areprovided,asshownintheengraving.Whennotinuse,thebarrelrestsupontheground,andmayberaisedbybearingdownuponthehandles.Thebarrelmaybemadetorestinnotchedbearingsupontheframe,sothatbyraisingthehandles,thewheelsmaybedrawnawayfromthebarrel,andthelatterleftinaconvenientplaceuntilitneedsremoval.Thiscontrivancewillbeusefulforfeedingslopstopigs,orforremovingthewasteofthehousetothebarn-yard.

FIG.130.Portablebarrelforslops.

FIG.131.Planofframeofbarrel.

WHEREANDHOWTOAPPLYFERTILIZERS

It is often difficult to decide—for barn-yard or stable manures, or for anyartificial fertilizer—whether touse it in thehillorbroadcast it; andwhether toapply it on the surface, or bury it deeply.Here is a hint or two. If not strongenough to injure the first tender roots, a littlemanure near at hand gives theplantagoodsend-off,likenourishingfoodtotheyoungcalforotheranimal;theafter-growth is much better if the young animal or plant is not dwarfed byimperfectandinsufficientdiet.Therefore,drillinginnocuoushandfertilizers inwith the seed isuseful, as isputting somewell-rottedmanureor leachedashesinto hills of corn, potatoes, indeed with all planted seeds. But there arc goodreasons for distributingmost of themanures or fertilizers all through the soil,andasdeeplyastheplantrootscanpossiblypenetrate.Thegrowthandvigorofallplantsorcropsdependchieflyuponagoodsupplyofstrongrootsthatstretchoutfar,andthusgatherfoodoverthewidestextentofsoil.Ifaflourishingstalkofcorn,gramorgrass,becarefullywashed,soastoleaveallitsrootsorrootletsattached,therewillbefoundawonderfulmassofhundredsandeventhousandsofrootstoanyplant,andtheyextendoffalongdistance,frequentlyseveralfeet—thefartherthebetter,tocollectmorefoodandmoisture.Putsomemanureorfertilizer inplace two feetaway fromacornorpotatohill,or fromalmostanyplant, and a large mass of roots will go out in that direction. So, if we mixmanuresorfertilizerswellthroughthewholesoil,theyattractthesefood-seekingrootstoagreaterdistance;andtheythuscomeincontactwithmoreofthefoodalreadyinthesoil,andfindmoremoistureindryweather.Adeeply-stirredsoil,withmanure at the bottom, developswater-pumping roots below the reach ofanyordinarydrouth,andthecropskeeprightongrowing—allthemorerapidlyon account of the helpful sun’s rays thatwould scorch a plant not reaching a

deepreservoirofmoisture.

AMILLFORCRUSHINGBONES

Tosavetheexpenseofapurchasedbone-mill,onemaybemadeasdescribedbelow,whichwillcrushthemintoaconditionmuchmorevaluableformanurethan thewholebones, ifnotquite asgoodas if finelyground.Makea circularmouldofboards,sixfeetwideandtwofeetdeep.Hoopsofbroadband-ironarefitted to the inside of themould, and secured to it about one inch apart. ThemouldisthenfilledwithaconcreteofPortlandcement,sand,andbrokenstone.Placeintheconcretewhenfillingbindingpiecesofflatbar-iron,topreventthemass fromcrackingwheninuse. Inthecentreplacesquaresofband-iron,asalining fora shaftbywhich thecrusher is turned.When theconcrete is setandhardened, the frame may be taken apart; and, as in setting the concrete willexpandsomewhat,theironbandsaroundthemasswillbefoundtohavebecomeatightsolidfacingtothewheel.Thewheelisthensetuponedge,andasquareshaftofyellowpine,sixinchesthick,iswedgedintothecentralspace.Thisshaftisfittedtoanuprightpostbyaloosebandofironandaswiveljoint,sothatthewheelmaybemadetorevolvearoundit.Anyothersuitableconnectionmaybeused for this purpose. A hollow trough of broken stone and well rammedconcrete is then laid in the trackof thewheelas it revolves, and thecrusher iscompleteandreadyforapairofhorsestobeattachedtoit,figure132.Acrusherofthiskindmaybeputupatacountrymill,orasajointaffairbyafewfarmersuniting their efforts, and thus utilizing a valuable fertilizingmaterial, which isnowwastedforwantofmeanstorenderitavailable.

FIG.132.Homemadebone-mill.

LIMEANDLIMESTONE

Inthefirstplace,limestone,marble,calc-spar,chalk(ofrareoccurrenceinthiscountry), marl, and oyster, and other shells, are all essentially the same incomposition, however theymay differ in texture, form, and other particulars.Theyarealldifferentformsofthecarbonateof lime;thatis,theyconsistofthealkalineearth,lime,incombinationwithcarbonicacid,andinthecaseofshells,withanimalmatter.Asageneralthing,weonlyknowcarbonicacidasagas.Ithas a veryweak hold of the lime, for ifwe drop a fragment of limestone intostrongvinegar, the acetic acidof the vinegarwill unitewith the lime (formingacetateoflime),whilethecarbonicacid,beingsetfree,willbeseentopassoffinsmallbubbles.Inthiscasewefreethelimefromitscarbonicacid,bypresentingto it a stronger acid, that of vinegar. But if instead of using another acid todisplacethecarbonicacid,weplacelimestoneinanyofitsforms,inastrongfire,thecarbonicacidwillbedrivenoffbytheheat,andtherewillbeleft,simplylime.This is called quick lime, or caustic lime, and by chemists oxide of themetalcalcium,orcalciumoxide.Lime,then,islimestonewithoutitscarbonicacid.Alltheformsoflimestoneareverylittlesolubleinwater;limeitselfismoresoluble,thoughbutslightlyso,requiringatordinarytemperaturesaboutsevenhundredtimes its ownweight of water, yet it gives amarked alkaline taste towater inwhich it isdissolved.Lime in thiscondition,asquick lime,orwhencombinedwith water, “slaked” as it is called, is much employed in agriculture. A smallportionoflimeisrequiredbyplants,butthechiefuseoflime,whenappliedtothesoil,istobringthevegetablematterscontainedinthesoilintoaconditioninwhichtheycanbeusedasplantfood.Thisapplicationoflimeasafertilizerhaslong been followed by farmers, and in many cases with the most beneficialresults.Withinayearorsogreatclaimshavebeenmadeforgroundlimestone,especiallybythemakersofmillsforgrindingit;someofthesehaveassertedthatitwas superior toburned lime, and superior tonearly all other fertilizers.Thequestionwhichmostinterestsfarmersis,haslimestone,howeverfineitmaybe,anyvalueasafertilizer?Tothistheanswerwouldbeboth“yes”and“no.”Uponaheavyclaysoilthecarbonateoflime,orlimestoneinanyform,appearstohaveabeneficialeffect;itmakessuchsoilsfriableandopen,sothatwaterandairmaypenetratethem.Whileitsactionuponth6vegetablematterinthesoilisfarless

promptandenergeticthanthatofquick-lime,yet itspresence,affordingabasewithwhichanyacidthatmaybepresentinthesoilmayunite,isoftenbeneficial.Toextolgroundlimestoneas“thegreatfertilizeroftheage,”toevenclaimthatitis equal to lime itself, is amistake.Bothhave theiruses. It shouldbeborne inmindbyinquirersaboutthevalueofgroundlimestone,thatmanysoilsalreadycontainmorelimeinthisformthancaneverbeutilized,andneednoaddition.

AFARMWHEELBARROW

Thewheelbarrow isan indispensablevehicleon the farmand in thegarden.Appliedtohardusesitneedstobestronganddurable.Abarrowoftheordinarykind, used on farms, soon becomesweak in the joints and falls to pieces. Themovable sides are inconvenient, and the shape necessarily adopted whenmovable sides areusedgreatlyweakens the structure. Itwill benoticedat firstsightthatthewheelbarrow,showninfigure133,ismoststronglysupportedandbraced,thatthebox,insteadofweakeningit,greatlystrengthensit,andthatitisstoutandsubstantial.Itisputtogetherateverypartbystrongbolts,andcanbetaken apart to pack for transportation, if desired, and a broken part readilyreplaced.

FIG.133.Farmwheelbarrow.

TOPREVENTTHEBALLINGOPHORSES

Whenthesnowupontheroadsiscohesiveandpacksfirmly,itcollectsuponthe feet of horses, forming a hard, projecting mass, in a manner known as“balling.” This often occurs to such an extent as to impede themotion of the

horse,while itcausestheanimalgreatdiscomfort,andissometimesdangerousto the rider or driver. The troublemay be prevented very easily by the use ofguttapercha. For this purpose the guttapercha should be crude, i.e., notmixedwith anything or manufactured in any manner, but just as imported. Itsapplication depends upon the property which the gum has of softening andbecomingplasticbyheat,andhardeningagainwhencold.Toapplyit,placetheguttaperchainhotwateruntilitbecomessoft,andhavingwellcleansedthefoot,removingwhateverhasaccumulatedbetweentheshoeandhoof,takeapieceofthesoftenedgumandpressitagainsttheshoeandfootinsuchamannerastofillthe anglebetween the shoe and thehoof, taking care to force it into the crackbetweenthetwo.Thusfillingthecrevices,andthespacenexttheshoe,wherethesnowmostfirmlyadheres,theballofsnowhasnothingtoholdit,anditeitherdoesnot form,ordropsoutas soonas it isgathered.When theguttapercha isapplied,andwellsmoothedoffwiththewetfingers,itmaybehardenedatonce,topreventthehorsefromgettingitoutofplacebystamping,bytheapplicationof snowor ice,ormore slowlybyawet spongeorcloth.When it isdesired toremovethegum,theapplicationofhotwaterbymeansofaspongeorclothwillso soften it that it may be taken off. As the softening and hardeningmay berepeatedindefinitely,thesamematerialwilllastforyears.Forahorseofmediumsize,aquarterofapoundissufficientforallthefeet.

TOPREVENTCATTLETHROWINGFENCES

To prevent a cow from throwing fences or hooking other cows, make awoodenstriptwoandahalfincheswideandthree-quartersofaninchthick,andattach it to the horns by screws; to this is fastened, by a small bolt, a strip ofhardwood, three inches wide, half an inch thick, and of a length sufficient toreachdownwardwithinaninchoftheface,andwithintwoorthreeinchesofthenostrils. In the lowerendof thisstriparepreviouslydrivenseveral sharpnails,whichprojectaboutone-quarterofaninch.Thearrangementisshowninfigure134;thestrip,whenproperlyattached,allowstheanimaltoeatanddrinkwithallease,butwhenanattempt ismade tohookor to throwa fence, the sharpenednailssooncauseanabruptcessationofthatkindofmischief.

FIG.134.Cattlecheck.

FEEDBOXES

In figure 135 a box is shown firmly attached to two posts. It has a hingedcover,p,thatfoldsover,andmaybefasteneddownbyinsertingawoodenpininthe top of the post near n. The one given in figure 136 maybe placed undershelter,alongthesideofabuildingorfence.Onesideofthetopishingedtothefenceorbuilding,thebottomrestinguponastake,e.Whennotinuse,theboxmaybefoldedup,theendofthestrap,b,hookingoverthepin,a,atthesideofthebox.Agoodportablebox,tobeplacedupontheground,isshowninfigure137.Itissimplyacommonbox,withastripofboard,h,nailedononesideandprojectingabouteightinches.Whennotinuse,itisturnedbottomup,asshownin figure138.Theprojectingstripprevents threesidesof thebox fromsettlingintothemudorsnow.Thestripisalsoaverygoodhandlebywhichtocarryit.Thosewhonowuseportableboxeswillfindtheattachingofthisstripadecidedadvantage.Averyserviceableportablefeedboxismadefromasectionofhalfahollow log, with ends nailed on, as shown in figure 139. By letting the endsprojectabovethesidesfourorfiveinches,itmaybeturnedoverwhennotinuse,andeasilyturnedbackbygraspingthesideswithoutthehandcomingincontactwith earth or snow. All feed boxes and racks should be placed under shelterduringsummer,orwhennotinuse.

FIG.135.Coveredfeedbox.

FIG.136.Hingedfeedbox.

FIG.137.Portablefeedbox.

FIG.138.Feedboxinverted.

FIG.139.Boxfromhollowlog.

ACATTLETIE

Judgingfromthenumerousstanchionsandarrangementsforfasteningcattlein stalls, illustrated from time to time in the public prints, the perfect cattle-fastening has not yet been invented. We do not claim perfection for thearrangementgiveninfigure140,butitwillbedifficulttodeviseacheaperone,and we doubt if any better or more satisfactory one is in use. The fasteningconsistsofa three-fourth inchrope,which is run through thepartitionsof thestalls,onelongropebeingusedforthetierofstalls,althoughshortpiecesmaybeemployedifdesired.Thisropeisknottedoneithersideofeachpartition,andagoodswivelsnapforusewitharope,istiedintheropeinfrontofthecentreofeachstall.Theropeshouldpassover,verynearly,thefrontofthemanger—fromthesideofthecattle—andforcattleofordinaryheight,itoughttobeabouttwofeetfromthefloor.Whenputin,theropeshouldbedrawnuptightly,asitwillsoonacquireconsiderableandsufficientslackfromtheconstantstrainfromtheanimals.Withthisarrangementeachcowmustbeprovidedwithastraporropeabout theneck, the ropeor strapbeing suppliedwith a free-moving iron ring.Whentheanimal isput in thestalls thesnap is fastened in thering,and if thesnapisagoodone—nonebutthebestswivelsnapsshouldbeused—ananimalwill rarely get free from it. This fastening, it will be noticed, admits ofconsiderable foreandaftmotion, andbut slight lateralmovement.Thecostofthisarrangementitisdifficulttostateaccurately,itissosmall.Theropeforeachstallwillcostlessthanfivecents;thesnapswillcosttencentswhenboughtbythedozen, and the time of putting these fittings in each stall is less than fifteenminutes.Theropewillweartwoyearsatleast.

FIG.140.Cattletie.

ABEEFRAISER

Twopostsaresetabout fifteen feethigh.Adeepmortise iscut in the topofeachtoreceivetheroller,whichisgroovedatthepointsofturning.Oneendoftherollerextendsbeyondthepost,andthroughthisendthreetwo-inchholesarebored.Threelightpolesareputthroughtheseholes,andtheirendsconnectedbya light rope. In raising the beef themiddle of a stout rope is thrown over theroller;theendsaredrawnthroughtheloop,andafterthebeefisfastenedtothelooseendstherolleristurnedagainsttheloopbymeansofthe“sweep,”orleverarms, figure141.Aheavybeefcanbeeasilyraised,andmaybefastenedatanylightdesired,bytyingtheendofoneoftheleverstothepostwithashortrope.

FIG.141.Abeefraiser.

ACEDARSTEMSOIL-STIRRER

A convenient and quickly-made implement for stirring andmixingmanureandfertilizerswiththesoil,maybemadeas follows:Acedarstemiscutabouteight feet long, and the branches cut off several inches from the stem, leavinglong spursonall sides for itswhole length, as shown in figure142.Ahorse ishitchedbyachaintothebuttend,andthedriverguidestheimplementbyaropefastenedtotherearendofthestem.Bymeansoftheguide-ropetheimplementmaybeliftedoveroraroundobstacles,andturnedattheendofthefield.Suchanimplementisspeciallyusefulinmixingfertilizerswiththesoil,whenappliedindrillsforhoedcrops.

FIG.142.Astirrermadeofacedarstem.

AHINTFORPIGKILLING

Layalogchainacrossthescaldingtrough,andputthepiguponit.Crossthechainover theanimal,asshownin figure143.Amanateachendof thechaincaneasilyturnthepiginthescald,orworkittoandfroasdesired.

FIG.143.Scaldingapig.

MENDINGBROKENTOOLS

Farming tools, such as shovels, rakes, forks, etc., that are much used, willoften, through carelessness or accident, become broken, and, withmost men,that means to be thrown one side, as utterly useless. By exercising a littleingenuity,theycouldinashorttimebefitteduptodoserviceforseveralyears.The head of hand-rakes often becomes broken at the point where the handleenters, andnotunfrequently thehandle itself is brokenoffwhere it enters thehead.Ineithercasethebreak iseasilymadegoodbyattachingasmallpieceofwood to thehead,bysmallnailsor screws,as shown in figure144.Should theheadbebrokenwhereoneof thebowspasses through, itmaybemended inalikemanner,b.Shovelsandspades,owingtothegreatstraintowhichtheyareoftensubjected,especiallybycarelesslypryingwiththem,crow-barfashion,arefrequentlybroken,andusuallyatthepointwherethewoodenterstheblade.Thisbreak, bad as it is, should not consign the broken parts to the rubbish pile,especiallyifthebladeandthehandlebeotherwiseinfaircondition.Removetheironstrapsorferulefromthehandle;firmlyrivetastripofiron,a,figure145,ontop of the handle, and a similar one underneath, to the blade and handle, asshownintheengraving.Otherbrokentoolsmaybemadetodogoodservicebypropermending.

FIG.144.Amendedrake.

FIG.145.Mendingashovel.

ALARGEFEED-RACK

Thewidthoftherackissevenfeet,butitcanbeanylengthdesired;height,tenfeet;heightofmanger,twoandahalffeet;width.,oneandone-halffoot.Cattlecaneat fromboth sides.Theadvantageof sucha rack, shown in figure146, isthat itwillhold a largequantityof feed, and so securely that very little canbewastedbythefeedinganimals.

FIG.146.Alargeyardfodder-rack.

BARNDOORFASTENING

Oneofthebestbarnsinthecountryhasits largedoubledoorsfastenedbyabarofiron,aboutsixfeetlong,whichisboltedtooneofthedoorsatitsmiddlepoint.Theendsofthebararenotched,oneupontheupperandtheotherontheunderside,tofitoversocketsor“hooks”thatareboltedtothedoors.Onehookbendsupward,andtheotherdownward,andthebarmovesinthearcofacirclewhen the door is being unfastened or bolted. The construction of this doorfastening is shown in figure147.Awoodenbarmay replace the ironone, andmaybeofasizeandlengthsufficienttomakethefasteningsecure.Awoodenbaris shown in figure 148. Such amethod of fastening could be used for a singledoor,provideditneedstobeopenedandclosedonlyfromtheinside.Byputtingapin in thebarnear theend thatpassesby thedoor-post, so that itwill reachthroughaslotinthedoor,sucha“latch”mightbeusedforanydoor.

FIG.147.Ironbardoorfastening.

FIG.148.Woodenbardoorfastening.

A“FORK”STABLESCRAPER

Averyhandy stable scraper ismadeof an inchboard, five incheswide, andabout eight inches longer than theWidthof a four-tined fork.Bore ahole foreach tine a quarter inch in diameter from the edge of the board to about twoinches from theopposite edge, theholespassingoutupon the side.The lowerpartoftheboardisbevelledbehind,thusformingagoodscrapingedge.Afterthecoarsemanureispitchedup,theforkisinsertedintheholesoftheboard,andascraper isatoncereadyforuse, figure149.Tostore it,nailacleatonthefloortwoinchesfromthewall,andsecurethescraperbehindthiscleat;placeonefootupon theboardandwithdraw the fork.Notchesmaybecut in theedgeof theboardoppositeeachhole,toassistinplacingthetines.

FIG.149.A“fork”barnscraper.

AMETHODOFCURINGHAY

Amethod of curing hay which has been used for several years with entiresatisfactionconsists in taking fourslenderstakessix feet long,a,a,a,a (figure150),fastenedtogetherattheupperendswithaloosejointsimilartothatofanordinarytripod.Oneendofthefifthstake,b,restsononeofthefourlegsaboutafoot fromtheground, theotherendrestingon theground.Thehay is stackedaround this frame nearly to the top of the stakes, after which the stake, b, iswithdrawn,and then the fourupright stakesare removed.This isdoneby twomenwith hay forks,who raise themdirectly upwards.As soon as the legs areliftedfromthegroundthepressureofthehaybringsthemtogether,andtheycanberemovedwithease,leavingasmallstackofhay,asshowninfigure151,withanairpassagerunningfromthebottomupwardsthroughthecentreofthesmallstack,asindicatedbythedottedlines.

FIG.150.Theframe.

FIG.151.Thesmallstack.

GRANARYCONVENIENCES

Thebetterplanforconstructinggrainbins is tohavetheupperfrontboardsmovable, that the contentsmaybemore readily reached as they lessen.But asthere are tens of thousands of granarieswhere the front bin boards are firmlynailed, a portable step, like that shown in figure 152, is almost a necessity. Itshouldhave two stepsofnine inches each, andbeone footwide, and two feetlongontop.Itislightandiseasilymovedaboutthegranary.

Everyownerofa farmneedsa fewextra sieves,which,whennot inuse, areusually throwninsomecorner,or laidonaboxorbarrel tobeknockedaboutandofteninjuredbythisroughhandling,besidesbeingfrequentlyintheway.Alittle rack,whichmaybereadilymadeaboveoneof thebins in thegranary,asshowninfigure153, isconvenienttoputsievesoutof theway,andkeepthemfrominjury.

Grainbagsaretooexpensiveandvaluabletobescatteredaboutthebuildings.Asimplemodeofsecuring themisshown,which isatoncecheapandsafe. Inthe ceilingover thebins, staples aredriven about four feet apart, towhich areattachedpiecesofwiretwofeet in length.Tothesewires is fastenedapolefivefeetinlength,overwhichthebagsarethrownwhennotinuse,andtheyarethenoutofreachofmicefromthebinsandwall,asshowninfigure154.

FIG.152.Stepsinagranary.

FIG.153.Asieverack.

FIG.154.Agrainbagholder.

ANON-SLIPPINGCHAINFORBOULDERS

Onegreattroubleinhaulingbouldersor largestoneswithteamandchainistheliabilityofthechaintoslipoff,especiallyifthestoneisnearlyround.Bytheuseofthecontrivanceshowninfigure155,nearlyallofthistroubleisavoided.Itconsistsinpassingtwologchainsaroundthestoneandconnectingthemafewinches above the ground by a short chain or even a piece of rope or wire.Connectthechainsinasimilarmannernearthetopofthestone.Theendsofthedraughtchainsareattached to thewhippletrees inanywaydesired. Inhaulingdownanincline,orwherethegroundisveryrough,itwillbebesttowrapeachchain clear around the stone, connecting with whippletrees by a single chain,therebypreventingapossibilityofthechainsbecomingdetachedormisplacedinanyway.

FIG.155.Methodoffasteningchainsonaboulder.

APITCHFORKHOLDER

Havingoccasiontogointothebarnonenight,wereceivedaveryhadwoundfrom a pitchfork which had fallen from its standing position. This led us toconstructaholder,shownintheengravings.Thefork-holderismadeofaninchboard, of a semicircular shape, with five holes large enough to admit a forkhandle,borednearthecurvedside.Thisboardisnailedtoastandingpostinthebarn.Astraporcurvedboltisplacedsomedistancebelowtoholdthehandlesinplace,astheyrestonabottomboardfixedforthepurpose.Figure156showsthefrontviewofthebolder;figure157givesthesideview.

FIG.156.Frontview.

FIG.157.Sideview.

ACONVENIENTHOGLOADER

Figure158 shows the “loader” attached to awagon,with the rack.Thebed-piece consists of twopineboards, six incheswidebynine feet long.These arefastenedtogetherbythreecrosspiecesofthesamematerial,ofproperlength,sothatthe“bed”willjustfitinbetweenthesidesofthewagon-box.Afloorislaidon these crosspieces, onwhich short strips of lath are nailed, to prevent hogsfrom slipping. At one end the sides are notched to fit on the bottom of thewagon-box.Thereare twostaplesoneach sidebywhich the sidesare fastenedon.The “rack” ismade like anordinary top-box,with the exception that eachsideiscomposedofthreenarrowboardsaboutfourinchesapart,andnailedtothreecleats (the twoendcleats tobeon the inside,and themiddleoneon theoutsideoftherack),andprojectingdownthesideofthewagon-box.End-boardsaremadeandfastenedinlikethoseofanordinarywagon-box.Forunloadingthehogsnothingbut thebed-pieceneedbeused,which,being light,maybeeasilythrownonandtakenwiththewagon.

FIG.158.Rackforloadinghogs.

AHOMEMADEROLLER

Takea log sixor eight feet long, eighteenor twenty inches indiameter, andputpinsineachendforjournals,eitherofwoodoneandahalfinch,orirononeinch.Makeaframeoftwobyfourscantlings,orflatrailsthreeorfourfeetlongtosuitthesizeoftheroller.Boreholesforjournalsalittlebackofcentre,andalsoinch-holestwoinchesfromthebackendofscantlings.Fastentheseendstogetherwithachainorropetightenoughtokeepthescantlingssquarewiththeendsofthelog,figure159.Fastenthefrontendstogetherwithastiffpoleorrail,andputaheavychainacrossthefront,withoneendaroundeachfrontcorner.Attachthedouble-treeatthemiddleofthischain.Thedraftchainandthepolewillkeepthefrontendsof the frame inposition,and thechainbehindwillprevent the rearendsfromspreading.Whentherollergoesfasterthantheteam,thedraftchainwill slacken, and the front of the framewill drop and prevent the roller fromstrikingtheteam.Arollerissuchavaluableimplementthatthereshouldbeonein use on every farm. Even a rough home-made roller is better than none,whetheritisusedtobreakupclods,ortocompactthesoilaftersowing.

FIG.159.Ahome-madeholler.

ALANDSCRAPER

Indistrictswherelandneedsdraining,scrapersmustbeused.Averygoodoneisshowninfigure160.Ithasoneadvantageovermostscrapers:theteamcanstaronthebankwhilethescraperisthrownintotheditch.Whentheditchisalargeone, fourteen feetormorewideat the top, it isonlynecessary to lengthen thechain.Thescraperconsistsoftwoboards,twelveincheswideandthreefeetlong,fastenedfirmlytogetherbytwostrongironplates,figure161,p,p,bolts,androd-ironnails.The scraper-edge ismadeof anold cross-cut saw, fastenedonwithrod-ironnails.Twonotchesarecutatp,p, for thehooks topass through,alsooneatn,foraholderforliftingthescraperwhennecessary.Tomakethescraperworkperfectly,therodorhookshouldhavetherightbendasshownata,figure162.Thehookisfastenedtothescraperbytwobolts,b,b,figure162,andsmallpins,c,whenthelandscraperiscomplete.

FIG.160.Alandscraper.

FIG.161.Frontofscraper.

FIG.162.Thehook-rod.

AHOMEMADEBAG-HOLDER

Thisbag-holderisoneofthemostusefularticlesamancanhaveinhisbarn.Itconsistsofapost,a,twobyfourinches,andfivefeetlong,withsixone-halfinchholesnear theupperend,as shown in figure163.Thebar,b,passes throughamortiseandoverthepinnearestthebag,andundertheotherpin.Thisbarcanbemovedupordown, tosuit the lengthof thebag.Thepost,a, sets inabed-piece, c, two by three inches and two feet long. A board, d, eighteen inchessquare,fasteneduponthebed-piece,furnishesthenecessaryrestforthebag.Themouthofthebagisheldopenbymeansofhooksplacedontheendsofthecross-bar,withanotherbeneaththemainbar.

FIG.163.Ahandybag-holder.

ASAFETYEGG-CARRIER

Infigure164,arepresentsthebottom-boardofthespring-box,neartheedgesofwhicharefastenedsixwire-coilspringsorbed-springs.Atb isrepresentedaholemadeintheboardtoreceivethelowerendofthespring,abouthalfaninch

ofwhichisbentdownforthatpurpose.Smallstaplesaredrivenintotheboardtohold the springs in place. Scraps of leather or tinmight be tacked or screweddown,insteadofusingstaples;d,d,areleatherstraps,aninchormorewide,andlongenoughtoreachfromthebottom-board,whereeachoneisfastenedbytwoscrews, to theegg-box,afterbeingplacedonthesprings.Figure105representsthesideandendboards,which,whenplacedoverthebottom-boardholdingthesprings, forms the spring-box; screws fasten the side and end-boards to thebottom-boardofthespring-box,piecesoftinbeingnailedaroundthecornersofthebox,togiveitproperstrength,thenailsbeingclinchedontheinside.

FIG.164.Bottom-boardofspring-box.

FIG.165.Frameforholdingegg-box.

Aftersecuringthespringsandstrapstothebottomboard,theegg-boxshouldbeplacedonthesprings;andthepointsofthespringsplacedinholespreviouslymadeinthebottomoftheegg-boxtoreceivethem.Nowputasufficientweightintheegg-boxtosettleitdownfirmlyonthesprings,andfastentheupperendsofthestrapstothebox,beingcarefultohavetheboxsetlevel.Havingdonethis,takethepart,figure165,andputitdownovertheegg-boxtoitsplace,andmakeitfasttothebottom-boardofthespring-boxwithheavyscrews.Theobjectofthe

bottom, figure 165, is to keep the springs from being strained to one side ingoingoverroughground.Itshouldbemadeone-quarterinchorsolargerthanthe egg-box, that the latter may have the benefit of the springs. Our formercustomwastoputa feedingofhay inthewagon-box,aboutmidwayfromoneendtotheother,placetheegg-boxonthehay,anddrivecarefullyovertheroughplaces. Butmore or less eggswould be broken, the bestwe could do,whethertheywerepackedinbranorputinpaper“boxes”orcases.Aftersettingtheboxon springs asdescribed,place it on thebottomboardsof thewagon-box,withoneenddirectlyovertheforwardaxleofthewagon.

FIG.166.Egg-boxcomplete.

ABUSH-ROLLER

Figure167showsadevicewhichhasbeenmadeforclearingsage-bushland.Itconsistsofaroller,eightfeetlongandtwoandahalffeetindiameter,coupledbya short tongue—six feet is long enough—to the forwardwheels of awagon.Astandard at each endof the roller-frame supports a crosspiece just clearof theroller.Uponthiscrosspiece,aboutfourfeetapart,andextendingtothebolsterofthewagon,areboltedtwopiecesofoneandaquarterbysix-inchspruceboards.Aboardisplacedacrossthecentreforascat,thusmakingacompleteandeasy-inclining“buck-board.”Withaspanofgoodhorsesandthismachine,figure167,onecanrollfromeighttotenacresofsage-bushinaday;anditissoeasilykilled,thatintwoorthreeweeksaftersuchtreatment,itwillburnofflikeaprairieonfire.

FIG.167.Ahome-madebush-roller.

BROOD-SOWPENS

Figures168and169representaconvenientarrangementforbroodsows.Thepensarenotequaltothecostlypiggeriesofwealthybreeders,buttheyansweragoodpurposeinanewcountry,wherefarmersareobligedtogetalongcheaply.Manywhohavebuiltexpensivehousessaythesepensanswerabetterpurpose.First,thereisatightly-boardedpen(exceptinfront;,sixteenfeetbytwelvefeet.Thisisdividedintofournests,twelvebyfourfeet.Ashedroofextendseightfeetfrom the rear. The tops of the nests are covered with boards, and the spacebetweenthisroomandtheroofisfilledwithstraw,makingitwind-tight,exceptinfront.Whenyoungpigsareexpectedduringthecoldweatherofwinter,hangagunnysackinfrontofthenest.Thedoors,figure169,arethemostconvenient.Theboarddoorisslippedinfromthetop,betweenpairsofcross-boardsinthepig-pen.

FIG.168.Planofcheappig-pen.

FIG.169.Doortopen.

ARABBITTRAP

Rabbitsareagreatnuisancebothinthegardenandorchard,andatrapofthefollowingkindputinablack-berrypatch,orsomeplacewheretheyliketohide,willthinthemoutwonderfully.Acommonsaltbarrel,withanotchsawedoutatthetop,issetinthegroundlevelwiththetop.Thereisanentrancebox,fourfeetlong,withsidepiecessevenincheswide—topandbottomfourandahalforfiveinches.Thebottomboardiscutintwoatb,andissomewhatnarrowerthaninfront,thatitmaytilteasilyonapivotatc.Asmallwashershouldbeplacedoneachsideofthetrapatc,thatitmaynotbindintilting.Thedistancefrombtocshouldbesomewhatlongerthanfromctod,thattheboardwillfallbackinplaceafterbeingtipped.Nobaitisrequired,becausearabbit(hare)isalwayslookingforaplaceofsecurity.Thebottomoftheboxshouldbeevenwiththetopoftheground at the entrance to the top of the barrel. The barrel should be coveredcloselywithaboard,asshowninfigure170.Removetherabbitsfromthetrapasfastastheyarecaught.

FIG.170.Agoodrabbittrap.

WOODENSTABLEFLOOR

Elmmakesanexcellentanddurablestablefloor;thefibreofthewoodistoughandyielding.Theplanksshouldbesecuredinpositionbywoodenpins,astheyareconstantly liabletowarp.Anyofthesoftoaksmakeagoodfloor, thehard,toughvarietiesareunyielding,and,until theyhavebeeninuseseveralmonths,horses are liable to slip and injure themselves in getting up. Both pine andhemlockmakegoodfloors,beingsoftandyielding,buttheyarenotasdurableasmanyotherwoods.Planksforastable floorshouldbetwoandahalf inches inthickness, and not laid until quite thoroughly seasoned, and then always putdownlengthwiseofthestall,anduponanotherfloorlaidcrosswise,asshownatb,b,b,figure171.Theplanksofthisfloor,orcrossfloor,shouldbelaidoneinchapart,thattheymaythemorereadilydryoff,andofferabetterventilationtothefloorabove.Unlesstheupperfloorisofmaterialliabletowarp,itshouldnotbenailed or pinned, but made as close-fitting as possible. It is not profitable ornecessarytohavethestallplanksmorethanelevenandahalffeet inlength,orextend fartherback than thestallpartition,as shownate, e.Thisplan leavesawide smoothwalk behind the stalls at k, so necessary for ease and rapidity incleaningthemanurefromthestable.

FIG.171.Manneroflayingastablefloor.

FIG.172.Aslattedstablefloor.

Somehorse-keeperspreferaslattedfloor,similartothatshowninfigure172.Materialoftheproperlength,fourincheswideandtwoinchesthick,issetuponedge,asath,withastripthree-quartersofaninchthickandoneandahalfinchwide placed between the slats, the whole made to fit the stall as closely aspossible.By thismethod it isquite impossible forhorses tobecomesodirtyaswhen lyingupona commonplank floor, as the spacebetween the slats formamost admirable channel for carrying off the urine. A few days’ constant usesomewhatclogsthepassages,buttheyarereadilyopenedbyusingahome-madecleaner,likethatshowninfigure173.Stablefloorsshouldhaveatleastoneinchdescentintenfeet,andmanymakethedescentthreeandevenfourinchesinthesame distance, but this is unnecessary. All stabled animals should stand uponfloorsasnearlylevelasisconsistentwithcleanliness.

FIG.173.Acleanerforaslattedfloor.

ARAILHOLDEROR“GRIP”

Drivetwoposts,b,b,figure174,threefeetlong,firmlyintheground,fourfeetapart,betweentwoparallellogs,a,a.Athirdpostor“jaw,”c,somewhatshorter,ismortisedinablockplacedbetweenthelogs,andoutoflinewith,ortoonesideoftheposts,b,b,soastoholdarail,d,betweenthethree.Alever,e,eightfeetlong,andheavyattheouterend,ismortisedintoanotherblock,whichisplacedonthesideofa,b,bothblocksbearingagainsttheposts.Theleverandjaware

connectedbyachainpassingaroundthelever,overitsblockandthroughaholeinthejaw.Anironpinthroughalinkcouplesthemjustenoughaparttoholdarailfirmlywhentheleverisontheground.Toremovetherail,raisetheleverandrestituponthesmallpost,f,atthefartherend,whichslackensthechain.

FIG.174.Arailholder.

ACHEAPANDDURABLEGRINDSTONE-BOXANDHANGERS

Agoodgrindstone,wellhung,isoneofthemostvaluableaidsaboutthefarmorworkshop.Thosewhocannotaffordtobuyaveryneatandhandygrindstoneframeofthehardwaredealers,willfindaframeandhangersshowninfigure175,that for convenience, cheapness, and durability is hard to excel. The frameconsists of a well-seasoned “trough” of pine or other wood, fourteen inchessquare(orevenonefootsquare),andfromtwoandahalftothreeandahalffeetin length, towhich legsarenailedatb,b, four incheswide,an inchandahalfthick,andbevelledatthetop.Supportsorhangers,h,h,arenailedfirmlytotheside, as indicated; they shouldbehardwood, andof a size to correspondwithdimensionsandweightofstone.Theshaftmaybeofironorwood;fitapieceofsheetlead,orpieceofleadpipe,properlyflattenedout,inthetopofeachhanger;thiswillcausetheshafttoturneasily,andpreventallsqueakingforwantofoil.Thewoodenplugatr,isfordrawingoffthewateraftereachusingofthestone,and should inno case beneglected. If one side of the stone is left standing inwater, it softens, and the surfacewill soonwearquiteuneven.After thebox is

completed,giveitoneheavycoatofboiledoil;theninafewdaysapplyacoatofleadandoil,andwithevencommoncare,itwilllastalifetime.Whenthestonebecomesworn, it iskeptdownto thewaterbysimplydeepeningthegroove inthetopofthehangers.Alwaysbuyalongshaftforagrindstone,forinthisageofreapersandmowers,thecuttingapparatusofwhichmustbeground,alongshaftfor a grindstone is almost a necessity, or truly a great convenience. If thegrindstone is to stand out-doors, always cover itwith a closely fittingwoodenboxwhenitisnotinuse.

FIG.175.Aboxforagrindstone.

A“LADDER”FORLOADINGCORN

Takeaplanktwoinchesthick,tenincheswide,andeightfeetlong.Nailuponone side of it cleats, of one-inch by two-inch stuff, at easy stepping distancesapart.At theupperendnailupontheundersideof theplankacleatprojectingfourinchesuponeitherside,towhichattachsmallropesorchains,andsuspendtheladderfromthehindendoftherack,sothatoneendoftheplankwillrestupontheground.Thismakesaveryconvenientstep-ladder,upwhichamancancarrya largearmfulof fodder,andthus loadhiswagontoits fullcapacitywithgreater ease than two men could load it from the ground. I find it of greatconvenience tomewhenhaulingcorn fodderalone.The“Ladder” is shown infigure176.

FIG.176.A“ladder”forloadingcorn.

PROTECTINGOUTLETOFDRAINS

Oneof thegreatest annoyances inunderdraining is the trouble arising fromtheoutletbecomingchokedorfilledupbythetramplingofanimals,theactionof frost,orevenofwater in timesof freshets.This trouble isquite successfullyovercomebythearrangementasshowninfigure177;itconsistsofaplank,tenortwelveinchesinwidth,andfiveorsixfeetinlength,withanotchcutinoneside,nearthecentre.Thisplankissetuponedgeattheoutletofthedrain,withthenotchdirectlyovertheendofthetile,andisheldinpositionbyseveralstakesontheoutside,withearthorstonethrownagainsttheoppositesideThisplanisbestforalllightsoils,whileforheavyclaylandtheoneshowninfigure178isjustasgood,andinmostcaseswillprovemoredurable.Itconsistsoftwologs,eightor ten inches indiameter, and from three to ten feet in length, placedparallelwith the drain, and about six inches apart; the whole is covered with planktwenty inches long, laidcrosswise,Flatstoneswillanswerandaremore lastingthanplanks.Thewhole iscoveredwithearth,at leasteighteeninches indepth;twofeetormorewouldbebetter,especially if thesoil is tobeplowednear theoutlet.

FIG.177.Endoftiledrain.

FIG.178.Logsatendofdrain.

ALOGBOAT

Aconvenientboatfordragginglogsisshowninfigure179.Therunners,d,d,are two by six inches and four and a half feet long; the plank is two by nineinches,andthreeandahalffeetlong.Amortiseismadeathforthechaintopassthrough.Thecrosspiece,c,isfourbyseveninches,andthreeandahalffeetlong,andworkeddowntofourandahalfinchesinthemiddle,Notchesarecutintothecrosspiecefourincheswideandtwoinchesdeep,toreceivethescantlings,e,e, two by four inches, and three feet long,which are fastened down by strongbolts,asshownatthedottedlines,f,f.Thetwoboltsinfront,b,b,gothroughthescantling,plankandrunner,whilethebolts,g,g,passonlythroughtheplankandrunner.

FIG.179.Astoutlogboat.

It will be more convenient to load the logs by horses, as shown in theillustration,figure180.Theboatisraisedwithitsuppersideagainstthelog.Thechainisfastenedtothecrosspieceata,withthelargehook,andtheotherendisput around the log, under the runner and crosspiece atb, and pulled throughbetweentherunnerandscantlingatc,whentheendofthechain,d,isfastenedtothewhippletree.As the team is started, theboat tipsover,with the logon top.

Loosenthechainfromthetwo-horseevener,andpullitbackthroughtherunnerandscantlingatc,andthroughthehole.

FIG.180.Loadingthelogs.

CHEAPANDDURABLEWAGONSEATS

Itistiresometobejoltedoverroughroads,inawagonwithoutsprings,withasimpleboardforaseat;butnofarmerorcartmanneedadheretothispractice,whencomfortableandportableseatscanbesoeasilyandcheaplymade.

Foraone-manseat,thatshowninfigure181isthesimplestandmostdurable,andshouldbeonefootlongerthanthewagon-boxiswide;theconnectingblocksshouldbefour incheshigh,andplacedneartheends.Theoneshowninfigure182isarrangedfortwopersons,theconnectingblockbeingplacedinthecentre,the ends being kept a uniform distance apart by bolts, with the nut upon thelowerside,outoftheway.Theholefortheboltthroughthelowerboardshouldbejustlargeenoughtoallowthebolttoplayfreely.

FIG.181.Springseatforoneperson.

FIG.182.Adoublespringseat.

Infigure183isshownaseatalittlemoreexpensive,yetfarmoreelastic.Bothboardsareeightincheslongerthanthewidthoftheboxuponwhichtheyrest.Ateachendofthetop-boardismortisedornailedinastripofhardwood,oneinchthick,twoincheswide,andaboutseveninchesinlength,whichismadetopass

freely up and down in a corresponding notch sawed in the end of the lowerboard.Atorneareachcomeroftheseatisplacedacoilingspring.Apin,passedthrough the wooden strip near the bottom, keeps the seat-boards fromseparating.

FIG.183.Acoiledspringseat.

ABAG-HOLDERONPLATFORMSCALES

Figure 184 shows a contrivancewhichdoes awaywith theneedof a secondperson in filling grain bags, and is both cheap and simple. It is attached to aplatformscalesforconvenienceinweighing,andconsistsofanironhoop,nearlyaslargearoundasabag.Thehoophasfoursmallhooksonit,atequaldistancesapart,towhichthebagisfastened.Attachedtothehoopisapieceofironaboutsixincheslong,exclusiveoftheshank,whichslipsintoasocketfastenedtothefrontoftheuprightenclosingtherods,thatrunfromthebottomofthescaletotheweighingbeam.Thisironandhooparefastenedsecurelytogether.Theshankshouldfitlooselyinthesocket,toletthehooptiltdown,sothatthebagcanbereadilyunhooked.There isaneye-bolt in thehoopwhere the ironrod joins it,andarodwithahookontheupperendisfastenedintoit.Thisrodreachestoastaplefastenedabovethesocketontheuprightofthescales,asshowninfigure184.Whenthehookontheendofthisrodisslippedintothestaple, it liftsthehooptoalevelposition,andisofsufficientstrengthtoholdabagofgrain.Thehoop shouldbehighenough toallowabag to clear theplatformof the scales.Whenfilled,asharpblowof thehandremoves thehookof thesustainingrod,andletsthehooptiltdownward,whenthebagrestsontheplatform.Thehoopcanbeswungtooneside,andentirelyoutoftheway.Wehaveasortofhoppermadeoutof anolddishpanwith thebottomcutout. It is very convenient tokeepgrainfromspillingwhilefillingthebags.

FIG.184.Abag-holderonplatformscales.

MAKINGBOARDDRAINS

Onverymanyfarms,woodendrainsareused inplaceof tiles,butmostly innewdistrictswheretimberischeap,andtilescannotbepurchasedwithoutmuchexpense. They will answer the purpose well, without much expense.Woodendrains,if laiddeepenough,sothatthefrostwillnotaffectthem,will lastmanyyears.Weknowofanolddrainthathasbeenbuilttwelveyears,wherethetimberis still sound in some spots. To make wooden drains, two men are generallyrequired—one to hold the boards, and another to nail them. This mode ofconstructingboarddrainscanbeimproveduponbymakinga“standard,”whichconsistsofanuprightboardthreefeethigh,havingnotchescutintoitsixinchesapart, one inch wide, and several inches deep, to hold the boards firm. Theboardsb,b,figure185,arelaidintothenotches,n,n,whenthetopboardcanbequicklyandeasilynailedon.Anothermethod,showninfigure18G,consistsoftwo posts, driven into the ground about three feet from a fence,with a boardnailedacrossfromeachposttothefence.Notchesarethencutintoeachcross-boardseveralinchesdeep,whenitwillbereadyforuse.

FIG.185.Frameforfoldingboards.

FIG.186.Framebyafence.

PUTTHINGSINTHEIRPLACES

Wehaveinmindanextensiveandwell-tilledfarm,wherealargespaceintheendofawagon-shediscalledatool-room.Thetoolsaredepositedinthebarn,wood-shed,crib,inthefield,hungintrees,anywherebutintherightplace.Thetool-roomflooriscoveredwithheapsofrustyiron,oldleather,brokenharness,fragmentsof tools,andotheraccumulationsof fortyyearsof farmlife.Theoldironshouldbesortedover,andanybolts,nuts,rings,hooks,etc.,thataregood,maybeput in a boxby themselves, and the rest should go to the junkdealer.Theremaybeafewstrapsandbucklesoftheoldharnessworthsaving.Ifso,oiltheleatherandlayitaside;throwtherestoutofsight.Puta lightscaffoldneartheroof-plates,andpilemanysmallarticlesuponit;theywillbeoutofthewayandwithineasyreach.Makeadrawerinabenchforholdingsmalltools,andarowofpigeon-holesfornails,screws,etc.Acrossoneendoftheroom,infrontofthe plate, fasten a long narrow board by pegs, so that a six-inch spacewill bebetweentheplatesandboard.Letthepegsbeafootapartandstandoutbeyondtheboardsomefiveorsixinches,uponwhichtohanglong-handledtools.Aboutfour feet from the floor make a similar rack for shovels, picks, chains,whippletrees,etc.Bringallthetoolstothisroom,exceptthoseneededeverydayinthebarn.Thereshouldbeapaint-potinthetool-house,touseonarainyday

forpaintingthetools.Figure187showsasectionofawell-arrangedtool-room.Lay down this law to your man-servant and maidservant, to your son and

daughter, to your borrowing neighbor and your goodwife, to all that in yourhouse abide, and to yourself: “Thatwhoeveruses a tool shall,whenhis or herworkisdone,returnthetooltothetool-houseandplaceitwhereitwasfound.”

FIG.187.Sectionofatoolroom.

WATER-SPOUTANDSTOCK-TROUGH

Thewater-trough for the stock should not be immediately under the pumpspout,butsometenortwelvefeetdistant,aspoutbeingemployedtoconveythewater.This spout (figure 188) ismadeof twogoodpiecesof cleanwhitepine,inch stuff. One piece is four inches and the other is three inches wide, nicelyplanedandjointed.Ifsecurelynailed,itwillnotleakforalongtime,butwhenitdoes, let it dry, and then run hot pitch down the joint. The trough should bemade of two-inch oak, or pine of the same. thickness may do, if kept wellpainted,insideandout.Insteadofnailingonthesidestotheendshavetheendsfittedintogrooves,anduserods,withburrsonthemtobringthesidesuptightly

totheirplaces.Whenthetroughleaks,tightenuptheburrsalittlewithawrench,and the trouble generally ceases for the time. Even the best trough is by nomean3 very lasting, and its longevity is increased by keeping it thoroughlypainted,insideandout,withgoodpaint.Wheretherearehorsesthatdestroytheedgesof the troughwith their teeth, it is agoodplan to rim it all aroundwiththiniron.Thespout,whereitgoesunderthepump,canhaveastrapslippedoverthenozzleofthepump.

FIG.188.Water-trough.

ADESIRABLEMILKINGSHED

(SeeFrontispiece.)

Werecentlyobservedapeculiarlyconstructedbuildingusedasamilkingshedduringthewarmerportionsoftheyear.Itisacommonframestructure,thirty-five feet in length and eighteen feetwide,withposts eight feethigh.The sidesandendsareboardedupanddownwitheight-inchstuff, leavinga space threeinches wide between the boards for ventilation, light, etc. A row of commonstanchionsareplacedalongeachside.Adoorismadeatoneend,throughwhichthe cows enter. If grain is fed, it is placed in position before the cows areadmitted.Asmallquantityofsaltiskeptonthefloor,immediatelyinfrontofthestanchions, thus allowing the cows to obtain a supply twice each day. Thismannerofsaltingisaninducementforthecowstoenterthebuildingandtaketheir accustomed places; it also tends to keep them quiet while milking. Thisarrangement, for cleanliness, ventilation, etc., is far superior to the commonbasementstables,andisagreat improvementovertheusualplanofmilkinginthe open yard,where broken stools, spilledmilk, and irritable tempers are therule rather than the exception.Nomatter how stormy itmay bewithout, thisshedalwayssecuresadryplace,withcomparativequiet.Agreatersupplyofmilk

is obtainedwith such a shed. The floor of the stable portionmay be of earth,coveredwithcoarsegravel.

WEARPLATEFORHARNESSTUGSANDCOLLARS

Inthemanufactureof improvedharnesstrimmings,devicesareemployedtoprevent,asmuchaspossible,thewearandbreakingofthetugswherethebuckletongueentersthem.Thisisquiteanimportantpointwiththosepurchasingnewharness.Thesimplecontrivance,suchasisshowninfigure189,consistsofathinironplatealittlenarrowerthanthetug,andabouttwoinchesinlength,withaholeforthereceptionofthebuckle-tonguewhenplacedbetweenthetugandthebuckle.Thestrain fromthebuckleupon the tug isequallydistributedover theentire surface against which the plate rests. A harness thus equipped will lastmany years longer than those not so provided. There is another part of theharnessthatisthecauseofmuchtrouble-mainly,thepartwherethetugcomesin contact with the collar. The tug and its fastenings to the hame soon wearthroughthecollar,andcompressthelattersomuchthatduringheavypullingthehorse’s shoulder is often pinched, chafed, and lacerated. This is worse thancarelessnessonthepartoftheteamster,asthecollarshouldbekeptplumpatthispoint,byre-fillingwhenneeded;yet,verymuchofthistroublemaybeavoidedbytackingtotheundersideofthehameapieceofleather,asshowninfigure190.Itwillbefoundnotonlytosavethecollar,butpreventchafingoftheshoulder.

FIG.189.Wearplatefortug.

FIG.190.Wearplateforhames.

POTABLEWATERFENCE

Thewaterfence,showninfigure191,isoneofthebestwehaveeverused,andthosewholivenearorontide-waterwillfindsuchanoneveryuseful.Thisfenceismade usually of pine; the larger pieces, those which lie on the ground andparallelwith the “run” of the fence, are three by four-inch pieces, hemlock orpine,andconnectedby threecross-bars,of threeby four-inchpieces,mortisedin, three feet apart. Into themiddle of these three crosspieces (the upright orposts),aresecurelymortised,while twocommonboardsarenailedunderneaththelongpiecestoaffordabetterrestforthestructurewhenfloatingonthewater,or resting on the ground. Stoutwires are stretched along the posts,which arefourfeethigh.

FIG.191.Sectionofawaterfence.

DITCHCLEANERANDDEEPENER

Open ditches require constant attention to prevent their being chokedwithweeds and accumulations of silt. Keeping them cleaned out with a hoe is adifficultandlaborioustask,whiledrawingalogdownthemisunsatisfactoryandineffective.Torunaplowalongthebottomisnotonlyadisagreeabletask,butfrequently does more harm than good. In view of these facts we devised thesimpleandeffectiveimplementshowninfigure192.

FIG.192.Acleanerforditches.

Thecentre-pieceissixbyeight-inchoak,eightfeetlong,andshapedasshowninthecut.Thewings,orscrapers,aremadeofoak,orothertoughwood;boardstenincheswide.Theyareattachedtothecentre-pieceattheforwardendbyaninchboltthatpassesthroughallthreepieces.Theyareconnectedattherearendbyastrongcross-barofhardwood.Twelveorfifteeninchesbackofthisbartheendoftheleverisattachedtothecentre-piecebyaneyeandstaple.Ashortchainis fastened underneath the centre of the cross-bar, with an eye-bolt passingthroughit.Thechainisattachedtotheleverwithahook,andmaybelengthenedorshortenedasrequired.

Theimplementisdrawnbytwohorses,oneoneachsideoftheditch.Amanstandsonthecentre-piece,andhandlesthelever.Iftheditchisnarrowanddeep,the rear ends of the wings or scrapers will naturally be forced upward to aconsiderable height, and the lever chain should be lengthened accordingly. Inwide,shallowditches,thecross-barwillnearlyrestonthecentre-piece,andthechainmustbeshort.Thescrapersareforceddownhardbybearingonthelever.If thebottomof theditch ishard, twomenmay rideon the implement.Longweedscatchingontheforwardendmustberemovedwithafork.Astrapofironisfastenedacrosstheforwardendsofthescraperswheretheboltpassesthroughtopreventthemfromsplitting.Thehorsesmaybekepttheproperdistanceapartbymeansofalightpolefastenedtothehalterrings.

HOWTOBUILDADAM

Aformofcrib,showninfigure193,isbuiltoflogs,abouteightfeetsquareforordinarystreams.Thebottomshouldhavecrosspiecespinnedonthelowestlogs.Thestonesthattillthecribrestonthesecrosspiecesandholdeverythingsecure.Thecribcanbepartlybuiltonshore,thenlaunched,andfinishedinitsplacein

thedam.Allthelogsshouldbefirmlypinnedtogether.Thevelocityofthestreamwill determine the distance between the cribs. The intervening spaces areoccupiedwithlogs,firmlyfastenedintheirplaces.Stoneisfilledinbetweenthelogs,andthebottomismadewater-tightwithbrushandclay.

FIG.193.Acribforadam.

A dam without cribs, built of timbers spliced together, and reaching quiteacrossthestream,isshowninfigure194.Theframeisboundtogetherwithtiersofcross-timbersabouttenfeetapart.Thesidesofthisframeworkofsplicedlogsareslantingandnearlymeetatthetop.Theinteriorisfilledwithstoneandclay,and planked over tightly, both front and rear. For a small stream with anordinarycurrent,thisisperhapsthecheapestandmostdurabledammade.Theengravingsfullyillustratetheconstructionofthetwoforms.

FIG.194.Logframeforadam.

DRIVINGHOPANDOTHERPOLES

Theusualmethodofdriving stakes, etc., is to strike themon theupper endwithasledgeorotherheavyarticle;butinthecaseofhoporotherlongpolesthismodeisimpracticable.Hoppolesareusuallysetbymakingaholewithanironbar and forcing into it the lower end of the pole. Poles and other long stakesoftenneedtobedrivendeeplyintheground,andthismaybedonequickly,andwithout a high step or platform, by using a device shown in figure 195. Thisconsistsofablockoftoughwood,onefootinlength,fourorfiveinchessquareatthe top,madetapering,asshown,with thepartnext thepoleslightlyhollowedout. Take a common trace chain, wind closely about the block and pole, andhook it inposition.Withanaxe, sledge,orbeetle, strikeheavyblowsupontheblock.Eachblowservesonly to tighten thegripof thechainupon thepole. Inthisway,quitelargepolesorstakesmaybequicklydrivenfirmlyintheground.Tokeepthechainfromfallingtothegroundwhenunfastenedfromthepole,itshouldpassthroughaholeboredthroughtheblock.

FIG.195.Drivingblock.

ACONVENIENTGRAINBOX

Theboxhererepresented,figure196,isatthefoot,andjustoutsideofthebin.Itservesasastepwhenemptyinggrainintothebin.Thefrontsideofitisformedbytwopiecesofboards,hungonhingesattheoutsidecorners,andfastenedatthemiddlewith a hook and staple. The contrivance opens into the bin at the

back, thusallowing thegrain to flow into it.Whenaquantityofgrain is tobetakenfromthebin,thecoverisfastenedup,thefrontpiecesswunground,givingachancetousethescoop-shoveltofillbagsormeasures.Theboxisafootdeepandsixteenincheswide.Itslengthisthesameasthewidthofthebin.Thefirstfour boards, forming the front of the bin, may be made stationary by thisarrangement,as,atthatconvenienthight,bagsmaybeemptiedoverbyusingtheboxasastep.Thecostofthis isaboutseventy-fivecents.Animprovementhasthefrontpieceandendsnailedtogether,andthewholefastenedtothebin-postsby hooks and staples from the end-pieces, as shown in figure 197. Then thewholecouldberemovedbyunhookingthefastenings,andthecovercouldbeletdown,toformthelowerboardonthefrontofthebin,ifdesired.

FIG.196.

FIG.197.

Grainboxes.

AROAD-SCRAPER

A road-scraper is shown in figure 198, which consists of a heavy plank or

hewnlog,ofoakoranyotherhardtimber,sixfeetlong,sixinchesinthickness,and ten incheswide.Ascantling,5, twoby four inches thickandsix feet long,and the brace, c, are secured to the log, a, by a strong bolt. The edge of thescraperismadeofanolddrag-saw,andsecuredbyrod-ironnails.Thescantlingservesasareach,andisattachedtothefrontpartofaheavywagon,wheninuse.When the road is very hard, it becomesnecessary sometimes for the driver tostandonthescraper,tomakeittakebetterhold.Thescrapershouldbeshapedaboutasshownatd,intheengraving,soastomakeitrunsteady,andcausetheloosedirttoslidetooneside,andleaveitinthemiddleoftheroad.

FIG.198.Aroad-scraper.

AIDSINDIGGINGROOTCROPS

Figure199showsacarrotandsugarbeetlifter,madeinthefollowingmanner:Takeapieceofhardwood,twoandahalfbythreeinches,andsixfeetlong,forthemainpiece,a, intowhichmake amortise two feet from thewheel end, toreceive the lifting foot (figure200); attach twohandles,b,b, atone end, andawheel, c, at the other.Thiswheel canbe set highor low as desired, by the setscrew,d, in the clevis, e. Figure 201 shows the lifting “foot” separate from themachine. This is made of flat iron or steel, five-eighths inch thick and threeincheswide,withasteelpointandasmallwingatthebottom.Itisinthecurvedformseenintheengraving.Therootsarefirsttoppedwithasharphoeorsickle,tworowsoftopsbeingthrownintoone,whichleavesonesideoftherowsclearfor the lifter.Thehorsewalksbetweentherowsandthe footof the implemententers the ground at the side of the roots in a slanting direction, as shown infigure201,liftingtherootssotheymayberapidlypickedup.Theimplementisvery easily made to run deep or shallow, by simply changing the wheel andlifting,orpressingdownuponthehandles.A“foot,”madeintheformoffigure

200,maybeplacedinthecentrearmofacommonhorsehoewithsidesclosed,andusedasabove.

FIG.199.Arootlifter.

FIG.200.

FIG.201.

THEWOOD-LOTINWINTER

Afewacresintreesisoneofthemostvaluableofafarmer’spossessions;yetnopartofthefarmissomistreated,ifnotutterlyneglected.Asidefromthefuelthewood-lotaffords,itisbothagreatsavingandagreatconveniencetohaveastickofash,oak,orhickoryonhand,torepairabreak-down,ortobuildsomekindofrackorotherappliance.Asageneralthing,suchtimberasoneneedsiscutoff,withoutanyreferencetowhatisleft.Byaproperselectionincutting,andtheencouragementoftheyounggrowth,thewood-lotwillnotonlycontinuetogiveasupplyindefinitely,butevenincreaseinvalue.Abeginningsandoftenthewhole,of the improvementof thewood-lot, isusually tosendamanor twoto“brush it,” or clean away theunderbrush.This is a greatmistake.The averagelaborerwillcutdowneverything;fineyoungtrees, fiveorsixyearsold,gointothe heap with young poplars and the soft underbrush. The first point in themanagement of the wood-lot is, to provide for its continuance, and generally

thereareyoungtreesinabundance,readytogrowonassoonasgivenachance.In the bracing winter mornings one can find no more genial and profitableexercise than in thewood-lot.Hardwooded anduseful young trees shouldnothave to strugglewithamassofuselessbrush, anda judicious clearingupmaywellbethefirststep.Intimber,weneedaclean,straight,graduallytaperingandthoroughlysoundtrunk.Inthedenseforest,natureprovidesthis.Thetreesaresocrowdedthattheygrowonlyattheupperbranches.Thelowerbranches,whileyoung,arestarvedoutandsoonperish,thewoundssoonhealingoverareoutofsight. In our openwood-lots, the treeshaveoften largeheads, and the growththat should be forming the trunk is scattered over a great number of uselessbranches.Onlygeneralrulescanbegiveninpruningneglectedtimbertrees;thenaked trunk,according toage, shouldbe fromone-third toone-half thewholeheightofthetree;hencesomeofthelowerbranchesmayneedtobecutaway.Allthebranchesaretobesoshortenedinorcutbackastogivetheheadanovaloregg-shapedoutline.Thismay sometimes removehalfof thehead,but itsgoodeffectswillbeseeninafewyears.Inremovingbranches,leavenoprojectingstubonthetimber,andcoveralllargewoundswithcoal-tar.Whosoeverworksinthismannerthoughtfullycannotgofarastray.

SWINGING-STALLFRONTS

Thevalueofswinging-stallfrontsisappreciatedbythosewhohaveusedthem.They prevent the animals from putting their heads out into the alleys, andendangeringthemselvesthereby.The“cribber,”or“windsucker,”hasbeenmadesuchbywantofacontrivanceliketheoneshowninfigure202.Anyonewithamoderate knowledge of the use of tools can put it up, as the engraving showshow it ismade;a, a, being straps to fasten the “fronts” down intoplacewhenthey are not raised to feed the stock. Inch stuff constitutes the material. Thecleatstowhichthestripsareattachedshouldbefourincheswide,withthesharp,exposededgestakenoffwithaplane.Thestripsshouldbefromtwototwoandahalf inches wide, and attached with screws or wrought nails. The hinges caneitherbeofwroughtironorofheavyleather.Ifmoredurablefrontsaredesired,oak, or yellowpine canbeused, though it ismuchmore expensive.Unplanedlumberwillanswer,buttomakeaneat,workmanlikejobhadbetteruseplanedlumber.

FIG.202.Frontofstalls.

SAVEALLCORNFODDEREVERYWHERE

Theprofitsoffarming,asinotherbusiness,isthemarginbetweenreceiptsandexpenditures.Thereceiptsarelargelyaugmentedbysavingwastes;thesewastesinfarmingareenormousintheaggregate.Thelossesinthisdirection,thatmightbesaved,wouldmakethebusinessveryprofitable,whereitisnowbarelypaying,ornotdoingthat.Takecornstalks,forexample.Theleavesandaportionofthestemsthatproduceeachbushelofcornhaveacertainamountofnutrimentthatwouldsupportandincreasetheweightandgrowthofanimals.Yetofourgreatcorncrop,seventeenhundredtotwothousandmillionbushelsannually,onlyavery small part of the fodder is turned to much account. At the very lowestestimate, the stalks yielding one bushel of corn are on the average worth tencents for feed, even including the great corn regions—a total of two hundredmilliondollars.At theSouth,generally, littlevalue isattached tocornstalksasfodder. At theWest,many farmers let their cattle roam in the fields, pick offsome leaves, eat a little of the stalk, and trample the rest down; they pack theearth so much in trampling on it, that the damage thus done to many fieldssurpassesthevalueofthefoodobtained.

Nearlythewholeofacornstalk,exceptaverylittleofthethin,hardoutsidecoating,affordsnutritiousfodder,ifitiscutatthepropertime,iswellcuredandjudiciously fed. Itneeds tobecutwhennotsogreenas tomould in theshock,butnotsoripeasto loseall itssucculenceandbecomewoody.Experienceandobservationwillgenerallyindicatetoeveryonethepropertimeofcuttingit.

In shockingcorn, the stalks shouldbekept straightandparallel.The shocksshouldbelargeenoughtonothavetoomanystalksexposedtotheweather,yet

small enough to dry and cure through. For somewhat heavy corn, twelve hillssquare (one hundred and forty-four hills), is abundant for one shock.A goodmodeofshockingisthis:Whentheshocksaresetnearlyperpendicular,drawthetops together very firmly with a rope, and tie temporarily—twomenworkingtogether.Bindwithstraworwithstalks.Forthelatterchoosetough,nearlyripe,long,slenderstalks.“Bend-break”thetopwiththethumbandfingereverytwoorthreeinches.Thrustthebuttendintotheshockandtowardsthecentrenearlytwo feet, and carefully bend-break it at the surface to a right angle. Insert asimilar top-broken stalk two feet distant; bring the top of the first one firmlyaroundtheshock,benditaroundthesecondstalkclosetotheshock,andthenbend the second stalk around andover a third one; and so on, using asmanystalksasrequiredbysizeofshockandlengthofbinders.Bringtheendofthelastone over the bend in the first, and tuck it under the binder into a loop, intowhich inserta stalk stub,pushing it into theshock tohold the loop.All this ismorequicklydonethandescribed.

IMPROVEDBRUSHRAKE

Oneofthemostdisagreeabletasksconnectedwithahedgefenceisgatheringand burning the annual or semi-annual trimmings. It is generally done withpitchforks,andoftencausespain.Tohavealongshoot,coveredwiththornsaninch long, spring out from a roll of brush and hit one square across thecountenance, is exasperating in the extreme. To avoid this danger, manyexpedientsareresortedto.Amongthebestoftheseisalong,strongrail,withahorsehitchedtoeachendbymeansofropesorchainseightortenfeetlong.Aboy is placed on each horse, and twomenwith heavy sticks, eight or ten feetlong,follow.Thehorseswalkoneachsideoftherowofbrush,andthemenplaceoneendoftheirsticksjustinfrontoftherail,andholdthematanangleofaboutforty-five degrees, to pre rent the brush from sliding over it.When a load isgathered,thehorsesareturnedabout,andtherailwithdrawnfromthebrush.

FIG.203.Abrushrake.

Thedeviceshown in figure203 isan improvementon thismethod.Agood,heavypole,eighttotwelvefeetlong,hasfourorfivetwo-inchhardwoodteethsetin it, as seen in the cut.These teethmaybe twelve to twenty inches long, andslideonthegroundinfrontofthepolesimilartothoseofarevolvinghayrake.Thehandlesaresixtoeightfeetlong,ofashorothertoughwood,andfitlooselyintotheholesinthepole.Twohorsesareemployed,oneateachendoftherake.Onemanholdsthehandles,andraisesorlowerstheteethasnecessary.Whenaload is gathered, the handles are withdrawn, the ends of the teeth strike theground,throwthepoleup,anditpassesovertheheap.Aftera littlepractice,amancanhandlethisrakesoastogatherupeitherlargeorsmallbrushperfectlyclean,anddoitrapidly.

DIGGINGMUCKANDPEAT

A dry fall often furnishes the best time in the whole circle of the year forprocuringtheneededsupplyofmuckorpeatforabsorbentsinthestyandstable.Theuseofthisarticleisontheincreaseamongthosefarmerswhohavefaithfullytriedit,andareseekingtomakethemostofhomeresourcesoffertilizers.Somewhohaveusedmuckonlyintherawstatehaveprobablyabandonedit,butthisdoesnotimpeachitsvalue.Allthatisclaimedforithasbeenprovedsubstantiallycorrect, by the practice of thousands of ourmost intelligent cultivators, in allparts of the land. There is considerable difference in its value, dependingsomewhatuponthevegetablegrowthofwhichitismainlycomposed,butalmostanyofit,ifexposedtotheatmosphereayearbeforeuse,willpayabundantlyfordigging.Thisdriedarticle,keptundercover,shouldbeconstantlyinthestables,inthestiesandsinks,andinthecompostheap.Solongasthereisthesmellofammonia from the stable or manure heap, you need more of this absorbent.

Hundredsof dollars arewastedonmany a farm, every year, forwantof someabsorbent to catch this volatile and most valuable constituent of manure. Insome sections it is abundant within a short distance of the barn. The mostdifficultpartofsupplyingthisabsorbentisthedigging.Inadryfallthewaterhasevaporatedfromtheswamps,sothatthepeatpedcanbeexcavatedtoadepthoffourorfivefeetatasingledigging.Oftentimesditching,forthesakeofsurfacedraining, will give the needed supply of absorbents. It will prove a safeinvestment to hire extra labor for the enlargement of themuck bank. It helpsrightwhereourfarmingisweakest—inthemanufactureoffertilizers.Itisagoodarticlenotonlyforcompostwithstablemanure,buttomixwithotherfertilizers,asbutcher’soffal,nightsoil,kainite,ashes,bonedust,fish,rockweed,kelp,andothermarineproducts.Digthemuckwhenmostconvenientandhaveitready.

ACLEANERFORHORSES’HOOFS

Theengravingherewithgivenshowsasimpleandconvenient implementforremovingstonesandothersubstancesfrombetweenthefrogandtheendsofahorse’sshoe.Itsvalueforthisandotherpurposeswillbequicklyappreciatedbyeverydriverandhorseowner.Whennot inuse, thehook is turnedwithin theloopofthenandle,andthewholeiseasilycarriedinthepocket.Theengravingshowstheimplementopen,twoandone-halftimesreducedinsize.Ifhorsemenkeep this cleaner within easy reach, it will often serve a good turn, and be ofgreatervaluethanapocketcorkscrew.

FIG.204.Ahoof-cleaner.

COLDWEATHERSHELTERFORSTOCKPROFITABLE

Notonefarmerinahundredunderstandstheimportanceofshelterforstock.This has much to do with success or failure of tens of thousands of farmers.Animals fairly shelteredconsume fromten to fortypercent less food, increasemore in weight, come out in spring far healthier; and working and milk-producinganimals aremuchbetter able to render effective service.The lossofoneormoreworkinghorsesoroxen,orofcows,orotherfarmstock,isoftenastaggeringblowtothosescarcelyabletomaketheendsoftheyearmeet,andthelargemajorityofsuchlossesofanimalsaretraceabletodiseasesdue,directlyorindirectly, to improper protection in autumn, winter, or spring. Of the foodeaten,alltheanimalsuseupalargepercentageinproducingthenaturalheatofthe body at all seasons, and heat enough to keep up ninety-eight degrees allthroughthebodyisabsolutelyessential.Onlywhatfoodremainsafterthisheatisprovided in the system can go to increase growth and strength, and to themanufacture ofmilk in cows and of eggs in fowls.When heat escapes rapidlyfrom the surface, as in coldweather,moreheatmustbeproducedwithin, andmorefoodbethusconsumed.Innaturethisispartlyguardedagainstbythickerhairorfurinwinter.

Any thinking man will see that an animal either requires less food, or hasmoreleftforotheruses,if it isprotectedartificiallyagainstwindsthatcarryoffheatrapidly,andagainststormsthatpromotethelossofheatbyevaporationofmoisturefromthesurfaceofthebody.Adozencows,forexample,willconsumefromtwotosix tonsmoreofhay if leftexposedfromOctobertoApril, thanifwarmly sheltered, and in the latter case theywillbe inmuchbetterhealthandvigor, andgivemuchmoremilk.Other cattle, horses, sheep and swinewill beequallybenefitedbycarefulprotection.

GOODSTONETROUGHSORTANKS

Figure205 showsanunpatented stonewater tank,or trough,neat, effective,andreadilyconstructedbyalmostanyone.Thesetroughsmaybeofanylength,widthanddepthdesired,accordingtotheirposition,use,andthesizeofstonesavailable.Herearethefiguresoftheoneshown:Thetwoside-piecesareflaggingstones,sixfeetlongandtwenty-sevenincheswide.Thebottom-pieceisfourfeetten inches long, two feet wide; and the two end-pieces, two feet long, twentyincheswide,orhigh.Thesestoneswerealla littleunder two inches thick.Five

rods,of three-eighths inchround iron,havea flatheadononeend,andscrewandnutontheother;ortheremaybesimplyascrewandnutoneachend;theymust not extendout to be in theway. Five holes are bored or drilled througheachside-piece,which is easilydonewithbraceandbit inordinary stone.Themiddleholeisfourtofiveinchesabovethebottomedge,sothattherodthroughitwillfitunderandpartiallysupportthebottomstone.Theendrodsareaboutfourinchesfromtheendsoftheside-pieces,andstandclearoftheendstonesinthiscasesothat thedipperhandleshanguponthem;buttheymayrunagainstthe end stones. When setting up, the stones being placed nearly in position,newly-mixedhydrauliccementisplacedinallthejoints,andtherodsscrewedupfirmly.Themortarsqueezedoutintighteningtherodsissmoothedoffneatly,sothat when hardened the whole is almost compact solid stonework—if goodwater-limebeused.Almostanyfiatstoneswillanswer,iftheedgesofthebottomand end-pieces be dressed and a somewhat smooth groove be cut in the side-piecesforthemtofitintooragainst.Themortarwillfillupanyirregularities.Alittlegroovingwillgiveabettersupport to thebottom-pieceandtheends thanthe simple cement and small rods. Itwill be noted that the side-pieces extenddown,likesleighrunners,leavinganopenspacebelow.Aholecanbedrilledinaloweredgetoletoutthewaterinhardfreezingweather,andbestoppedwithawoodenplug.Suchtankswillkeepwaterpurerthanwood,andlastacenturyorlonger, if not allowed to be broken by freezing. Any leakage can be quicklystopped by draining off the water and applying a little cement mortar whereneeded.Whenflaggingorotherflatstonesareplentiful,theworkandcostwouldbe little, if any,more than forwooden tanks.They canbe set in the ground ifdesired. The iron rods need painting, or covering with asphalt, to preventrusting.

FIG.205.Astonetrough.

ARTIFICIALFEEDINGOFLAMBS

Itfrequentlyhappensthatartificialfeedingoflambsisnecessary,andtodoitsuccessfullygood judgment is required.Thepoint is topromoteahealthyandrapid growth, and not allow the lambs to scour. The milk of some cows,especially Jerseys, is too rich, and should be diluted with a little warm water.Farrow cows’ milk, alone, is not a good feed, since it frequently causesconstipation. Itmaybegivenbyaddinga little canemolasses.Milk,when fed,should be at about its natural temperature, and not scalded. Lambs, andespecially“pet”lambs,areoften“killedwithkindness.”Feedonlyaboutagilltoahalfpintat first.After the lambhasbecomeaccustomedto themilk, itmaybefedtotheextentofitsappetite.Whenoldenough,feedalittleflaxseedandoats,or oil-meal if early fattening is desired. There are variousmethods of feedingyounglambsartificially.Asatisfactorywayistouseaone-quartkeroseneoilcanwiththespoutfixedsoastoattachanipple;themilkflowsmorefreelyfromthisthanfromabottle,onaccountofthevent.Letewesandlambshaveclean,well-ventilatedapartments.Whentheweatherismildandwarmturnthemoutintotheyard.Ifitisnotconvenienttolettheewesout,arrangepartitionsandpens,sothatthelambsmayenjoytheoutsideairandsunlight

ACONVENIENTBAILEDBOX

Thecommonboxwithabail,orhandle,isausefulfarmappliance;itanswersthepurposeofabasket,ismuchmoredurable,andagreatdealcheaper.Insteadofaflatbail,wewouldsuggest,forheavywork,agreenhickoryorothertoughstick,tobechamferedoffwhereitisnailedtothesidesofthebox,theportionforthehandbeing,ofcourse,leftround.Itwillbefoundusefultohavetheseboxesofadefinitesize,toholdahalf-bushelorabushel.Alegalbushelistwothousandonehundredandfifty(andafraction)cubicinches.Aboxmaybemadeofthiscapacityofanydesiredshape.Endsafootsquare,andside-piecesandthebottomeighteen and a half-inches long, will make a bushel box. If desired narrower,make the ends eight inches high and fourteen incheswide,with the sides andbottomtwofeet long.Suchabox,showninfigure206,holdsavery littlemorethananevenbushel.Itisinexpensive.

FIG.206.Abailedbox.

SAWDUSTFORBEDDING

Wehavetriedfortwoyearsdrysawdustinthecows’stable,andonthewholelikeitbetterthananybeddingwehaveevertried.Itmakesamorecomfortablebed,completelyabsorbstheurine,andthecowiskeptcleanwithlesslaborthanwhenanyotherisused.Theobjectiontosalt-marshsods,dried,ortoheadlands,anddrymuck, is that theysoil thecow,andmake itnecessarytowashthebagbeforemilking. Straw, of all sorts, soon becomes foul, and,withoutmore carethan the ordinary hiredman is likely to bestow, soils the cow’s bag also. Drysawdust is clean, andmakes a soft, spongy bed, and is an excellent absorbent.Thebagiskeptcleanwiththeaidofacoarsebrushwithoutwashingachargeoffifteen bushels in a common box-stall, or cow stable, will last amonth, if themanure,droppeduponthesurface, isremoveddaily.Theporousnatureof thematerialadmitsofperfectdrainage,andofrapidevaporation,oftheliquidpartofthemanure.Thesawdustisnotsoperfectanabsorbentofammoniaasmuck,butitisamuchbetteronethanstraw,thatneedstobedrieddaily,inthesunandwind,tokeepitincomfortableconditionfortheanimals.Inthevicinityofsawand shinglemills, andof ship-yards, the sawdust accumulates rapidly, and is atroublesomewaste thatmill-owners are glad to be rid of it can be had for thecarting.Butevenwhereitissoldatoneortwocentsabushel,acommonprice,itmakes a very cheap and substantial bedding. The saturated sawdustmakes anexcellentmanure, and is so fine that it canbeused to advantage indrills. It isvaluable to loosencompactclay soils, andwillhelp to retainmoistureon thin,sandyandgravellysoils.Thereisachoiceinthevarietiesofsawdustformanure,butnotmuch forbedding.Thehardwoodsmakeamuchbetter fertilizer than

the resinous timber. To keep amilch cow in clean, comfortable condition,wehavenotfounditsequal.

ACHEAPENSILAGECART

Theadoptionbymany farmersof the silomethodofpreserving fodder,hasmadeitnecessarytochangethemanneroffeedinglivestock.Whentheensilageisremovedtwentyfeetormorefromthesilotothefeedingrack,itisbesttohavesomemeansofconveyingitinquantitiesoffromonetotwohundredpoundsatatime.Thiscanbedonecheaplyandquicklybyasmallhandcart,oneofwhichanyfarmerhavingthetoolscanmakeinhalfaday.Agoodformofensilagecartisshowninfigure207,andissimplyaboxeighteenincheswide,threefeetlong,andtwoandahalffeetinheight.Awoodenaxle,ofsometoughfibre,isnailedtothebottom,teninchesfromtheend,andwheelsfromonetotwofeetindiameterareplacedupontheaxle.Suitablewheelscanbemade fromplanks,withcleatsnailedontokeepthemfromsplitting.Handlesandlegsareattachedasshownintheengraving.Theaxlebeingnearthecentre,throwsnearlythewholeweightofthe load upon it while beingmoved. It will be found easier to handle than abarrow, and not so liable to upset when unequally loaded. It is a cheaparrangement,andmaybeusedforvariousotherpurposesaswellasformovingensilage.

FIG.207.Anensilagecart.

MILKINGANDMILKINGTIME

Anyonewhohashad todowithdairy farmingknows that thereareagreatmany poor milkers, against a few who understand and practice the propermethod of removing the milk from a cow. It is a well-known fact that somepersonscanobtainmoremilkfromacowwithgreatereaseandinquickertimethanothers.Inthefirstplace,theremustbeanairandspiritofgentlenessaboutthemilker,whichthecowisquicktocomprehendandappreciate.Itisnottobeexpected that a cow, and especially a nervous one, will have that easy, quietcondition so necessary to insure an unrestrained flow of milk, when she isapproachedinaroughway,andhasapersonatherteatsthatshejustlydislikes.Theremustbeakindnessoftreatmentwhichbegetsaconfidencebeforethecowwilldoherbestatthepail.Sheshouldknowthatthemilkercomesnotasathiefto rob her, but simply to believe her of her burden, and do it in the quickest,quietest, and kindest way possible. The next point in proper milking iscleanliness:andit isofthegreatest importanceif first-classmilkandbutterarethe ends to be gained in keeping cows. No substance is so easily tainted andspoiledasmilk; it isparticularlysensitivetobadodorsordirtofanykind,andunlesstheproperneatnessisobservedinthemilking,theproductsofthedairywill be faulty and second-class. Those persons who can and will practicecleanlinessat thecow,aretheonlyoneswhoshoulddothemilking.Itmattersnothowmuchcare is taken tobeneat inall theoperationsof thedairy, if themilkismadefilthyatthestart;nostrainerwilltakeoutthebadflavor.Threeall-essentialpointsare tobe strictlyobserved inmilking:kindness,quickness, andneatness.Asidefromthesethreeisthematterofthetimeofmilking.Itshouldbedoneatthesamehoureachandeveryday,Sundaysnotexcepted.Itisbothcrueland unprofitable to keep the cowswith their udders distended and aching anhour over their time.Wewill add anotherness to the essentials already given,namely:promptness.

AREVOLVINGSHEEPHURDLE

Aneasilymovedfeedinghurdle is shownin figure208. Itconsistsofastoutpole or scantling of any convenient length, bored with two series of holes,alternating in nearly opposite directions, and twelve inches apart. Small polesfiveorsixfeetlongaresoplacedintheholesthateachadjoiningpairmakestheformoftheletterX.Thesehurdlesarearrangedinarowacrossthefield,andthe

sheepfeedthroughthespacesbetweentheslantingpoles.Thehurdlesaremovedforward by revolving them, as shown in the engraving. By using two rows ofthese hurdles, sheepmay be kept on a narrow strip of land, and given a freshpasture daily by advancing the lines of hurdles. This method of feeding off aforagecropisoneofthemosteffectiveandinexpensiveforenrichingworn-outland,especiallyifadailyrationofgrainoroil-cakeisgiventothesheep.

FIG.208.Arevolvinghurdlefence.

LIGHTSINTHEBARN

Itisestimatedthatnine-tenthsofallfiresarecausedbycarelessness.Winteristheseasonwhenthelanternisfrequentlyusedinthebarn,andwegiveawordofcaution.Never light a lamp or lantern of any kind in the barn. Smokersmayincludetheirpipesandcigarsintheabove.Thelanternshouldbelightedinthehouseorsomeout-buildingwherenocombustiblesarestored.Alanternwhichdoesnotburnwellshouldneverbeputinorderinthehay-mow.Thereisagreattemptation to strike amatch and re-light an extinguished lantern,wherever itmaybe.Itisbesttoevenfeelone’swayouttoasafeplace,thantorunanyrisks.If the light isnotkept in thehand, it shouldbehungup.Providehooks in thevariousroomswherethelightsareused.Awirerunningthewholelengthofthehorse stable,at therearof the stalls,and furnishedwitha slidinghook, isveryconvenient for nightworkwith the horses. Some farmers are so careless as tokeepthelampoilinthebarn,andfillthelanterntherewhilethewickisburning.Suchrisksaretoogreat,evenifthebuildingsareinsured.

ANESTFORSITTINGHENS

Thenest box shown in figure 209 canbemade to contain asmanynests asdesired,andbeplacedinthepoultryhouseoranyotherconvenientplace.Whenahenissetinoneofthenests,theendoftheleverisslidfromunderthecatchontopofthebox,andthedoorfallsovertheentrancetokeepoutotherhens.Theyrarelymolestthesittinghenaftershehasheldexclusivepossessionthreeorfourdays, and the dropmay be raised again. The box legs should not be over sixinches long. The step in front of the nests, four to six inches wide, is acontinuationof thebottomofthebox.It isavast improvementonoldbarrels,brokenboxes,andothermakeshifthens’nestssogenerallyemployed.

FIG.209.Boxofhens’nest.

BARN-YARDECONOMY

Adark stream,oftenof golden color, alwaysof goldenvalue, flows towastefrom many an American barn-yard. This liquid fertility often enters the sideditch of the farm lane, sometimes of the highway, and empties into a brook,whichremovesitbeyondthereachofplantsthatwouldgreatlyprofitbyit.Micemaygnawaholeintothegranaryanddailyabstractasmallquantityofgrain,ortheskunksmayreducetheprofitsofthepoultryyards,buttheseleaksaresmallincomparisonwiththatfromthepoorly-constructedandill-keptbarn-yard.Themost valuable part of manure is that which is very soluble, and unless it isretainedbysomeabsorbent,orkeptfromthedrenchingrains,itwillbequickly

out of reach.Manure is a manufactured product, and the success of all farmoperations in the older States depends upon the quantity and quality of thisproduct.Otherthingsbeingequal,thefarmerwhocomesoutinthespringwiththe largest amount of the best quality of manure will be the one who findsfarmingpaysthebest.Abarn-yard,whetheronaside-hilloronalevel,withalltherainsfreetofalluponthemanureheap,shouldbesoarrangedastolosenoneofthedrainage.Side-hillbarn-yardsarecommon,becausethebarnsthuslocatedfurnishaconvenientcellar.Abarrierofearthonthelowersideoftheyardcanbequicklythrownupwithateamandroad-scraper,whichwillcatchandholdthedrenchingsof the yard above, and the coarse,newly-mademanurewill absorbtheliquidandbebenefitedbyit.Itwouldbebettertohavethemanuremadeandkept under cover, always well protected from rains and melting snows. Onlyenoughmoistureshouldbepresent tokeep it fromfermenting toorapidly.Anold farmerwho lethismanure take careof itself, oncekept someofhis sheepundercover,andwasgreatlysurprisedattheincreasedvalueofthemanurethusmade. In fact, it was so “strong” thatwhen scattered as thickly as the leacheddungoftheyard,itmadeadistinctbeltofbettergraininthefield.Thetestimonywassomuchinfavorofthestall-mademanurethatthisfarmerisnowkeepingallhislivestockundercover,andthefarmisyieldinglargercropsandgrowingricheryearbyyear. If itpays to stopany leak in thegranary, it is all themoreimportant to look well to the manure that furnishes the food, that feeds theplants,thatgrowthegrain,thatfillsthegrainbin.Atthisseasonthelivingmillsareallgrinding thehayandgrain,andyielding theby-productsof themanureheap.Muchmaybesavedinspringworkbylettingthisheapbeassmallasout-dooryard feedingand thewindsandrainscanmake it,but suchsaving is likethat of the economic sportsmanwhowent out with the idea of using as littlepowder and lead as possible. In farming, grow the largest possible crops, eventhoughittakesaweekormoreofsteadyhardworktogettherich,heavy,well-preparedmanureupon the fields.More than this, enrich the landby throwingevery streamof fertility back upon the acreswhich have yielded it.Watch themanureheapasyouwouldamineofgold.

ACHEAPMANURESHED

Manyfarmerswastemuchoftheirstablemanurebythrowingitoutofdoors

tobeacteduponbysunandrain.Werecentlysawaverycheap,sensiblemethodofalmostwhollypreventingsuchloss.Aboardroof,tenfeetsquare,issupportedbypostseight feet longaboveground,whichareconnected insidebyawallofplanks(orofpoles,astheoneexaminedwas).Nearthepostateachend,stakesa,a(figure210),areset,againstwhichoneendoftheend-planksrest.Thisallowsthe frontplanks,d,d, tobe removed in fillingor loading. It isplacednear thestable,preferably,sothatthemanurefromthestablecanbethrowndirectlyintoonecorner,whenceitisforkedtotheoppositecornerinafewdays,topreventtooviolentfermentation.Afrequentadditionofsods,leaves,andothermaterialsthatwilldecompose,will increase theheap, and improve itsvalue, supplyingamanuresuperiortomanyofthecommercialfertilizers,atlesscost.

FIG.210.Ashedformanure.

ASHEEPRACK

Thedimensions of the rack (fig. 211) are: length twelve feet,width two feetnineinches,andheightthreefeet.Thematerialsare:tenboardstwelvefeetlong,eightofthemtenincheswide,onesevenincheswide,andoneeightincheswide;fourboards,twofeetnineincheslongandtwelveincheswide;sixpoststhreebyfour inches, three feet long; sixty-four slats, sixteen inches long and one inchsquare;andtwostrips,twelvefeetlongandtwoandahalfincheswide.Nailthetwonarrowerboardsintheshapeofatrough,turnitbottomup,anddrawalinethroughthemiddleofeachside.Set thedividerstofourandahalf inches,andmarkalongthelinesforholeswithathree-quarter-inchbit,andborethenarrowstripstomatch.Settheslatsintothetrough,andfastenthestripsontheirupper

ends.Nailtwooftheboardstothepostsoneachside,asseeninthesketch,andalsotheshortboardsontheends.Layinaflooronefootfromtheground,andsetinthetroughasshownintheengraving.Fitaboardfromtheslatsuptothetopof theoutsideof theframe.Thefloorneednotcoverthemiddleunderthetrough.

FIG.211.Fodderrackforsheep.

AGOODPICKETPOINTER

Onmanyfarmsapicketpointermightneverbeofuse,butanyonewishingtoputupapicket fenceahundredormore feet longwouldsave timebymakingonefortheoccasion.Picketsmaybepurchasedreadypointed,buttrueeconomyconsists in doing asmuch of thework as possible at home. This arrangementdoes not concern the fancy-topped pickets sometimes seen, but simply thepopular squarepicketwithpyramidal point,whichmakes, after all, one of theneatestfencesthatcanbefoundfortheyard.Thewastematerialfrombuildingorfence-making,andanhour’stime,willsufficeforitsmaking.

FIG.212.Frontview.

Abitofstuddingmaterial,30incheslong,hasahardwoodstripthreeinches

widenailedoneachsidesoastoprojecthalfofitswidthforward,thusformingagrooveinwhichthepicketisheld,aswillbeseenlater.Theyextendlowerdownthan the central piece andwith it form the front leg. The left strip, instead ofextending to the top, however, is there replaced by a broader bit of hardwoodboardfiveorsixincheslongandprojectingforwardthreeinches,afterwhichtheprojecting edgesonboth sides are sawedoff at theproper angle for thepicketpoints,sayalittlelowerthan45degrees.

FIG.213.Sideview.

Thetworearlegsarestripsoflathfivefeetlong,fastenednearthetopofthefrontlegandbracedsothattheforwardpartisnotquitevertical.Ablockorseat18 inches long is fastened across them 32 inches from the lower end, and soadjustedastoholdthemonefootapartattheground.Theclampbywhichthepicketsareheld inplaceconsistsofahalfcylindricalblocksuspendedbyshortlengthsof strap iron and connectedby awireon each side to a foot lever, theactionofwhichneedbebutslight.

Measurefromthebevelatthetop,downjustthelengththepicketsaretobemade,andplaceablocktransverselyinthegrooveatthatpoint,forthesticktoreston.Thegrooveshouldbeatleastone-fourthinchwiderthanthepickets,buta small wedge is inserted at the bottom on the left, so that as they fall intopositiontheyarecrowdedovertotherightside.

Todothepointing,firstcutallthepicketsinamiterboxtotherightlength,andattheproperangletofitthewaterledgeoverthebaseboard,thenplaceonein thegrooveof thepointer, thrust it downpast the clamp,which itwill pushout,tillitreachestheblockatthebottom.Applyalittlepressureonthefootlevertoholditinplace,andthen,withasharpdrawingknife,bevelthetop,keepingthebladeflatontheguidesofhardwood;liftthepicket,turnonequartertotheright, thrust down and cut again, and so on until it is finished.With poplarpickets one and one-fourth inches square, I have seen thempointed at a littlemore thanoneperminute,which is certainlymuchbetter than to layoff each

oneandcutwithachisel,asIhaveknownacarpentertodo.

STERILIZINGOVENANDBOTTLETRUCK

Bothovenand truck formilkcanbemadebyanycarpenterand tinner.Fig214 represents the sterilizing oven. It is made on a light frame, of matchedlumber; the inside is linedwithzincsolderedat the joints.Thedoorshouldbedouble, with beveled edges fitting loosely and having felt, rubber or asbestospackingallaroundtheoutside.Nothresholdorextrafloorisrequired.Drainagemustbesupplied,preferablythroughthefloor.

FIG.214.Sterilizingoven.

Steamis introducedbyarowof jetseight to12 inchesapart inasteampipelaidonornear the flooron the two sides andbackandconnectedwith steamsupply.Avalvejustoutsideregulatestheamounttobeused.Thepipesattheendjust inside the door are capped so that no steam escapes except at the shortnipples,orsimplyholesdrilledinpipe,whichwillanswerverywell.Aflueopensoutofthetopoftheoven,madeoftin,threeorfourinchesindiameterandlong

enoughtogooutattheroof.Thisflueisclosedbyadamperjustabovetheoven;exceptaftersterilizingitisopenedtohastenthecoolingandassistindryingoffthebottleswhichareinside.Suchanovenisnevertobeusedfortheheatingofmilk, but in itmay profitably be placed not only bottles, but tinware, stirrers,faucets, dishcloths, in fact, anything movable that comes in contact with themilk.

FIG.215.Bottletruck.

Aconvenientmethodofhandling a largenumberofbottles is illustratedbyFig.215.Thisconsistsofshelvessoarrangedthatwhenthebottlesareplacedonthem, necks inside, they are inclined sufficiently for thewater to drain out ofthemreadily,andthedustdoesnotasreadilyenterthemasitwouldiftheywereinanuprightposition.

Thetruckisofsuchasizethatwhenloadeditwillreadilyentertheovenandadmitofthedoorbeingclosed.Agoodwaytomountsuchatruckistoplaceitontwowheelsinthecenter,whichbeartheentireweight.Thelittlewheels,oneeachat the frontandrear,donotquite touchthefloorwhenthetruck is level;theselatterarealsofixedsoastoturnaroundinasocketlikeatablecaster.Thusrigged,thetruckmaybepushedaroundwhereverwantedtoloadorunloadandsavesavastamountofhandlingandinevitablebreakage.

INEXPENSIVEBUILDINGCONSTRUCTION

Manyfarmerswouldliketoputupasmallbuildingforsomepurposeorotherbutaredeterredby theexpense, theshinglingorclapboardingofwallsandtheshinglingof the roofbeing a large item in the expense account, both for labor

andmaterials.Thecutshowsasimpleandinexpensiveplanthatwillgivegoodsatisfaction.Theframeofthebuildingisputupandcovered,roofandsides,withredresin-sizedbuildingpaperstretchedtightlyandlappingsoastoshedwaterifany should ever reach the paper. This costs only $1 per 500 square feet. Theboarding is then put on, “up-and-down,” and the cracks battened, as shown.Covertheboardsandbattenswithacheapstainorpaint,andtheywill last formany years. Such a building will not only be inexpensive but it will be verywarm,andinlateryearscan,ifdesired,beclapboardedandshingledbysimplyremovingtheoldbattens.

FIG.216.Battenedbuilding.

COVERFORSAPBUCKETS

Agoodcoverforsapbucketsmaybemadeatacostoflessthanonecentbytakingawideshingle(a),sawingofffourinchesofthetipendandfasteningtoitasmallspringwire,asshownintheillustration.Thewirecanbemadefasttotheshinglebylittlestaples,orbyusinganarrowcleatlikeapieceoflath.Thewireshouldbeabout30 inches longandwillcost less thanhalfacent.Whendone,springtheendsofwireapartanditwillhugthetreefirmly.

FIG.217.Coverforsapbuckets.

AHANDYTROUGH

Forwateringorfeedingcattleinthebarnahandytroughisillustrated,gottenup by a practical farmer. It may be of any desired dimensions, but is usuallyaboutfourfeet longandoneandone-half feetwide.Ifbuiltslanting,stockcaneatupcleananyfeedinit,orthetroughcanbereadilycleaned.Itisveryhandyforwatering cattle inwinter, as the trough fullofwater canbe rolleddown infrontofthecattle,andfromonetoanotherassoonastheyarethroughdrinking.Whererunningwater ishandy, it canbe let into this tubandquickly rolled infrontofthecattle.Withwheelsmadeofhardwoodthisdevicewilllastforyears,andcanalsobeusedforavarietyofotherpurposesaboutthebarn.Itisoneofthosehandycontrivances that save laborandadd to thepleasureandprofitoffarming.

FIG.218.Ahandytrough.

SUBSTITUTEFORFLOODGATE

Whenafloodgatecannotbeused,thedeviceshownintheillustrationisverydesirable;a represents thepostsor trees towhich thedevice is attached;b is apieceofironintheshapeofacapitalL,thelowerendofwhichisdrivenintothepost.Furtherupisasmallironwithaneyewhichfitsovertheupperendofthisiron.Thisisdriveninorturnedinafterthepoles,c,havebeenplacedinposition.Itisbesttomakethepolesorrails,c,ofsomegoodtimber.Useenoughofthesetomake the fenceorgate sufficientlyhigh.These swingaroundon therodsasthewaterforcesthemapart.Whenthewaterrecedesthesecanbeagainplacedinposition,andthereisnolossoffencematerial.Theendsarelaidoneachother,asinbuildinguparailfence.

FIG.219.Floodgatesubstitute.

HOOKSFORSHOPORSTOREHOUSE

A handy arrangement for hanging up articles, as for instance, tools in theshop, or meats and other eatables in the storeroom, is shown in theaccompanying sketch. This plan is particularly to be commended where it isdesired to get the articles up out of the reach ofmice, rats or cats. Suspend aworn-outbuggywheeltotheceilingbyanironbolt,withascrewthreadononeendandanutorheadupontheother.Thewheelcanbehungashighoraslowasdesired.Hooks canbeplacedall about the rimandupon the spokes, in themannershown,givingroominasmallspaceforthehangingupofagreatmanyarticles.Thisarrangement isconvenient,also, fromthefact thatonecanswingthewheelaboutandbringallarticleswithinreachwithoutmoving.

FIG.220.Cheapsupportforhooks.

IMPROVINGAPASTURESPRING

Theaveragepasturespringisapttobeamudholebecausenotprotectedfromthecattle’sfeet.Whereaspringistofurnishthesolesupplyofwaterforapastureyear afteryear, it isworthwhile tomake themostof it. If there is anold ironkettlewithabreakinthebottom,itcanbeutilizedafterthefashionshowninthecut,provided the sourceof the spring is a littlehigher than thepointwhere itissuesfromtheground.Withroughstonesandcement,buildawater-tightwallaboutthespring,settingtherockswelldownintotheground.Setthekettlewiththeopeninginthebottom,sothatthewaterwillrisetoitstop.Apuresupplywillthusalwaysbeathandforthestockandapermanentimprovementmadetothepasture.

FIG.221.Aspringwalledup.

AGENERALFARMBARN

Thegroundplanshownintheillustration,fig.222,providessufficientstableroomfor tencows, threehorses,andaboxstall,besidesacorncribanda toolhouse. These are all on the first floor. The building is 40x30, with a feedwayrunning through the middle four feet wide. The building can be made anydesiredhight,but20-footpostsareusuallymostdesirable.Onthesecondfloorisspaceforhay,sheafoats,cornfodderorothercoarsefood.Thereshouldalsobeonthesecondfloorabin foroatsorgroundfeed.This is spouteddownto thefeed way, where it can be easily given out. The corn crib, of course, can bedivided,ifitisthoughtnecessary,sothatgroundfeedcanbekeptinaportionofit. There are plenty ofwindows in front and back, so that the building iswelllighted. This barn can be built cheaply, and is large enough for a small dairyfarm.

FIG.222.Groundplanofbarn.

HANDYCLODCRUSHERANDLEVELER

Onewhohasnottrieditwouldbesurprisedtofindhowmuchexecutionthedevice shown in the cutwill accomplish. Insert anarrowplank in frontof therearteethofanAharrow,andthelandwillbeharrowed,thelumpscrushedandthe surface leveled, atoneoperation.One canalso,by steppingonandoff thecrosspiece,dragearthfromknollsanddeposititindepressions,thusgradingthelandverynicely.

FIG.223.Clodcrusher.

GIVINGSEEDSANEARLYSTARTINTHEGARDEN

Thegroundisoftencoldwhentheseedisputintothegardenplot.Togettheearliestvegetables,haveafewboxeswithoutbottomsandwithaslidingpaneofglass fora top,as shown in thecut.Let the topslope toward thesun.Shut theslide entirely until the plant breaks ground, then ventilate as one would in ahotbed,assuggestedintheright-handsketch.Afewsuchboxeswillmakesomeofthegardenproductstendaysearlier—worthtryingfor.

FIG.224.Forcingboxes.

APOSTANCHOR

Wheretemporarywirefencesareusedtoanyconsiderableextent,thecornerorendpostsmaybeanchored,asshownintheillustration.Thelargerock,a,issunk into the ground as deep as the post is placed and the earth is solidlytrampled above it. Place the wire around the stone before it is put into theground,thenpassitaroundthetopofthepost.Byusingastick,b,thewirecanbetightenedifthereisanytendencytobecomeloose.Tomovethefence,loosenthelowerstrandfromtheposts.Beginatoneendandmakeacoilabouttwofeetacross.Roll thisontheground,crossingandrecrossingthestrandofwirewiththeroll,abouteveryfootoflengthonthestrand.Thebarbswillholditandkeep

therolltogether.Whentherollisaslargeasisconvenienttohandle,cutthewireandbeginagain.Whenreplacing,fastenoneendtothepostwherethetopwireistostayandrollalongthegroundclosetotheposts.Followwiththesecondonealittlefurtheroff,andthenthethird.Experiencehasprovedtomethatthisistheeasiest,quickestandbestplantoremovewirefence,asaftersomepracticeitcanbedonequickly.

FIG.225.Anchorforendpost.

STONEBOATFROMTWOBOARDS

Mostof the stoneboats inusearemadewith runners. Iprefer to secure twoboards the length desired for the boat, about 15 incheswide and three inchesthick. I then measure 12 inches on top of the board and 18 inches on theoppositeside,asshowninFig.1.Sawthroughonthedottedline,turntheendoftheboardoverandwithfourboltsfastenitasshowninFig.2.Dothiswithbothboards,placethemsidebysideandfastenwithstrongcrosspieces.Thismakesagoodboat,andinmyexperienceismoredesirablethananyotherkind.Theycannotonlybeusedforhaulingabouttheplace,butareexcellentforbreakingroadsduringthewinter.

FIG.226.Easily-madedrag.

AHANDYGARDENBARROW

A great improvement on the ordinary gardenwheelbarrow is shown in thecut.Thewheelshavebroadtires,arelightandrunbeneaththebody—justintheposition to balance the loadwhen the handles are raised. This barrow can bedumpedfromtheside,asinthecaseoftheordinarybarrow.Itisthuspossibletomakeoveroneoftheold-fashionedwheelbarrowsintothestyleshown,andthat,too,atbutsmalltroubleandexpense.

FIG.227.Improvedbarrow.

HOMEMADETRUCKSANDWHEELS

Lowtrucksareconstantlyofserviceonthefarm.Nowit isafeedcarforthebarn, or a two-wheel barrow for the garden, or itmay be that lowwheels are

neededforoneendofacrateformovingsheeporhogs.Thecutshowshowtomakeanyofthem.Witha“key-hole”sawcutcirclesfrominchboardsandscrewthem together with the grain at right angles, as shown. Two-inch hoop ironbindstheedgesandkeepsthemfromsplitting.Largeironwashershelptoholdsuchwheelsfirmlyinplaceontheaxles.

FIG.228.Homemadewheel.

AROLLERFROMMOWINGMACHINEWHEELS

Cast-offmowingmachinewheelsmay be utilized very readily formaking alandroller.Usenarrowstripsofplankwithslightlybevelededges,puttingthemaroundthewheelsinthemannershowninthecut,makingslotsintheplankstofit the cogs on the rimsof thewheels.These strips areheld firmly inplace by“shrinkingon” two ironhoopsat theends,as shown.The frame isattached intheusualmanner.

FIG.229.Sideview.

MAKINGAPICKETFENCEHEN-TIGHT

Onmanyfarmsthehenscouldbegivenfreerangeifthegardenfencewereasufficient barrier to the fowls. The cut shows a picket fence with a picketextendingupwardforfifteenincheseverytwelvefeet.Totheseextendedendsofthepicketsisstretchedatwelve-inchstripofwirenetting,asshowninthesketch.Intheprominenceofthepicketsthefowlsdonotclearlynoticethenettinguntilthey fly against it. After a few trials they will give up the attempt to fly over.Poultry yard fence canbe constructed in thisway, usingordinarypickets, andabove them any neededwidth of netting, according as the fowls are Brahmas,PlymouthRocksorLeghorns.

FIG.230.Picketfence.

BARRELSTRAWBERRYCULTURE

Probablymanyreadershaveheardof theplanof raisingstrawberrieson theoutsideofabarrel.Ifonehasonlyasmallcityorvillagelot,or“backyard,”theexperiment is well worth trying. The accompanying illustration shows one ortwowrinklesthatmayhelpmaketheexperimentasuccess.Firstboretheholesall about thebarrel, thenput inside adrainpipemadeof four stripsof board,reachingfromthetoptothebottom.Thejointsshouldnotbetight.Nowfillinearthabout thepipeandsetout thestrawberryplants inall theholesandoverthe top. Put the barrel on a bit of plank, on the bottomofwhichwide castershavebeenscrewed.Thebarrelcanthenturnedabouteveryfewdaystobringthesuntoalltheplants.Anordinaryflourbarrelwillanswerverywellfortryingthisinterestingexperiment.

FIG.231.Viewofbarrel.