History 2500British Political History - Harriet Edwards

Sept 15 2009

the last prehistoric invaders were the Celts and they changed the face of the country side by laying out large rectangular fields and terraces with ditches and walls as boundaries. The celts are also started to organize the economy using iron and tin import/exportContact with the Celts began with the invasion by Julius Caesar in 55BC. the conquest of Britain was a protracted affair talking many years the most notable resistance was from Boudica - the queen of a Celtic tribe called the Iceniby the end of the 1st C and beginning of the 2nd C Roman characteristics are evident eg. cities built on a grid plan. Great networks of roads and enemies co-opted into Roman army.

pop estimates in Roman Britain at about 2 million and are ruled by governors and rule was enforced by a large standing army - as large as 60,000the Romans built hundreds of cities like York and London although the economy was based primarily in farming and iron - slavery was commonthe first half of the 4thC is considered to be the Golden age of Roman Britain (and all of the Roman Empire) Characterized by the spread of Christianity in tha wake of the Edict of Milan by Constantine 1

Life of the British was menaced by Germanic barbarians who raided the British CoastRoman Villas and Cities fell into decay shortly after 410. The iron ind which had supported the Roman fleet also collapsed at this timethe situation was irretrievably lost during the reign of the weak Emperor Honorious

Roman rule had always been shaky. a small group of official and ruling class had to maintain a huge standing armyby the mid 4thC the entire roman empire is in decline and Romans have been attacked by Celts fr/ ireland, Picts fr/ Scotland and Saxons fr/ the continentby 401 the roman troops are withdrawn from Britain for the defense of Italy410 Rome is sacked and the Britons are now let to undertake their own defenceby the mid 5thC all direct links b/w rome and britain are brokenin the end Romans made few permanent contributions to British society

The Anglo-Saxon Era 410-1066the era fr/ 450-1066 seems to be a dark age with unabated conflict and assaults fr/ invadersThe Angles - fr/ Schleswig-Holstein

The Saxons from the region b/w the Elbe and the RhineBoth the Angles and the Saxons arrived in Force at around the same timeRomano-British and celts failed to mount an effective defence. Period gave rise to the myth of King Arthur as a staunch defenderthe the early 6th C the Anglo-Saxons are in control of virtually all of EnglandBoth the Anglos and the Saxons are illiterate and the country was not ruled as a unit - there were as many as 12 kingdoms although only 7 lastedthe Dominant kingdom and its ruler became known as the Brentwalda or paramount king Around 800 rulers of Wessex est dominance and England started to become unified under the house of Wessex

Revival of ChristianityLikely that Christianity came to Britain via Roman Soldiers while the principal gods of the A/S were those of Norse mythologyBritish Christians were in hiding until the arrival of St Augustine in 597 - hundreds are baptized. He made his way to Canterbury and was accepted by the Brentwalde because Queen Bertha was already of a Christian and very influential St Augustine is recognized as the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

Alfred the Great (reigned 871-899)

Alfred is the greatest of all A/S Kings. he is eventually able to defeat Danish (viking) invaders who had been attacking England since 865. He negotiated settlements which allowed Danes to settle in an area called DanelawHe improved the A/S military and built larger ships than the VikingsHe is considered to be the greatest A/S king b/c (other than the military feats)

Divided England into Shires and countiesUnified the Legal systemestablished a court schooltranslated the Venerable Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People

from Latin to A/Sattempted to establish a single written language by ordering monasteries to

keep A/S chronicles

Anglo-Saxon SocietyMonarchy hereditary - the most able son is chosen to be the next kingCoronation ceremonies important with clergymen officiating ordinary men were called CEORLS or CHURLS - mainly involved in farming, few were craftsmen, blacksmiths etc. Ceorls were free - they could live where they wished below ceorls was a class of serfs, not bought or sold but bound to the land where they were bornWomen - more equal to their brothers and husbands than those who lived before or after under the Normans. Women could inherit land. A number of women assumed roles of leadership in the church and nunneries were important.

economic conditionstill primarily agriculturalforests were valuable sources of timber and wild gameforeign trade increased eg. imported glass fr/ Francepop appeared to have declined by about 2 million.

Intellectual and artistic lifedespite invasions, monasteries and cathedrals were centers of learning. Churchmen were historians of period .built a large number of churches but few survive as they were replace by grander Norman structures

Sept 17 2009

Alfred the Great dies in 899 and by 1012 there was another Danish invasion and the house of Wessex was unable to mount an effective defence. An A/S advisory group called the Witan appoint a Dane (Cnut) as King from 1016-1035. the problem is is that he is also the king of DenmarkEdward the Confessor was appointed King by the Witan after 1035 - he established the Westminster Abbey. It was completed by Christmas 1065 and king Ed died in Jan 1066 without an heir.Claimants to the English Throne:

Harold and Tositig Godwinsson - sons of the late Earl of Godwin whose daughter had married Edward the Confessor

William, Duke of Normandy - Claims that Edward that had promised him the throne b/c he had released a Godwinsson the Witan appoints Harold King and Harold and Tostig begin to fight each other. Harold‘s forces defeat Tostig and Tostig is killed in the north of EnglandWillam sees that Harold is caught up in the north of England so he lands his troops at Kent and Harold had to rush south to defend his new kingdom.Harold’s forces were fatigued and had no calvary and very few archers so William wins the battle of Hastings rather easily. With Harold’s defeat we see the end of Anglo-Saxon rule in England

Under the Norman Kings French becomes the dominate language and the dominant culture in EnglandWilliam sets up Fiefdoms all across England by displacing Anglo-Saxon lords with Norman lords. the men that the king gives the Fief to becomes a Vassal of the King. the Vassal will than split up his land into smaller Fiefs and get his own Vassals. These men were actually called Mesne Tenants. the eldest son was expected to inherit the Fief although if there were no sons a daughter could inherit the land. Under this fief system it was the A/S who were the workers and they became known as the villeins

Under the Manorial system these huge estates were self-sufficient. The Lord of the manor didn’t pay wages or charge rent. the workers each received an an amount of land to farm with the understanding that they must supply the Manor with all its needs and then their own house. there were usually common lands that all workers could use as pasture and common buildings like mill houses, blacksmith’s and churches

William, after he was secure in his rule took a census of his new nation and it was called the Domesday Book. This allowed him to effectively tax the people and also allowed him to know what he and others now owned. While he was King of England William was also the Duke of Normandy and this lasted through his sons and the other kings for quite some time. Stability b/w the continental interests and England was finally achieved under Henry II in 1154. His father was the Count Geoffrey of Anjou and his descendants are known as the Angevin Kings or the Plantagenets

Thomas Becket was one of Henry II friends and he was an ordinary man who had achieved extraordinary success on the battlefield and in the church. So Henry II promotes him to the Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry then tries to reduce the power of the Church but Becket opposes him. Becket flees to the Continent and when he returns he is even more militant in his opposition. Becket is killed by some of Henry’s knight’s after they had over heard him say “Will no one rid me of this upstart priest”

the Coronation Charter of the Charter of Liberties by Henry I is the first document of recognition that the king isn’t all powerful. outlined the kings powers and abilities to take and seize land from Barons

Sept 22 2009

King Solomon’s Mines - Victorian perceptions of manliness. Victorian attitudes towards colonies and race relations. Conservation and environmentalism. a sense of adventure. victorian sense of nationalism

Although Robin Hood is a fictional character he represented the common disgust of feudalism. some people were becoming fantastically wealthy and most of the people are for all intensive purposes serfs. King Richard the Lionheart went off on a Crusade and was captured by the Germans who demand a massive ransom to release Him. His brother John pretended to try and raise the ransom but in actuality he didn’t want Richard to return. John raised taxes and the people suffered under his rain and this is how the myth of Robin hood was created. John also tried to prove that he should be King by increasing and oft using his powersWhen Richard returns he doesn’t kill John but only a year after his return he mysteriously dies of an arrow wound. Prince John thus becomes King John

John starts a war with France and he looses badly at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214. John looses Normandy, Anjou, Touraine and Maine. This really Pisses of the Barons because they lost there continental possessions. He also levied higher scutage (a higher shield tax) this meant that it cost much more for Knights and Barons to buy there way out of wars. The Barons literally surround King John and force him to Sign the Magna Cartathe Magna Carta was signed by King John at Runnymede on June 15 1215.the MC didn’t help the under classes b/c it was written by the Barons for the Barons. what it does is state that the King isn’t above the law. John tried to repudiate the MC and plunges the nation into a Civil war luckily for England he died the next year.Henry III Johns son was an incompetent King partly cause he was 9 when he is crowned king. The people surrounding him are also incompetent. When Henry attempted to lead a campaign to capture Sicily for his son Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester comes forward and opposes the king. He believes that Henry III must live under the Magna Carta.a number of Barons follow Simon and what results is the Barons’ War.both Henry III and his son are captured in the war leaving Simon the de facto King and he calls the first parliament . he even includes commoners in the invite but the Barons don’t like that and they turn against him and begin to fight amongst them selves.Edward escapes from captivity and raises an army. in 1265 Simon de Montfort is defeated and killed. Edward is crowned king and rules fairly effectively. Ed calls parliament fairly frequently but it is restricted to the top class of society.Parliament was called for a two main reasons

ratify taxes the king wantedratify the kings statutes (laws)

Edward, by using the parliament so often and effectively, begins to curb the Barons power and their desire to take up arms against the king b/c they feel they are party of the power structure.

The ChurchThe church governed almost everything - birth, death, marriage, almost all of the social culture.Whenever there was a spiritual message it came through the parish priest who was without a doubt the most important person in a village. the boundaries b/w secular authority and religious authority was so blurred that it was often illegible.the boundaries b/w religion and superstition are also blurred.

Everyday lifein the early middle ages it is agreed that England is a prosperous nation. Trade begins to increase in the 12th and 13th C Ports like Newcastle and Hull rise in importance and size. England had an effective agricultural nation so they are able to feed themselves and can export some food.

People lived in houses but they were often poorly constructed and there was extremely poor sanitation. the simplest of houses were mud with thatched rooms. the Manor houses were grand buildings made of stone and were built for comfort and to inspire awe. Manors often had great halls that were used as a meeting place and a place for feasting. the individuals interests were sacrificed for the village’s interests

Sept 24, 2009

the hundred years war - a series of recurrent conflicts rather than a sustained campaign. the English under Edward III, at first enthusiastically supported the warEdward III wanted to

assert his claim to the french throneregain former Angevin Empiredetermined to maintain his authority in Aquitanethere was a dispute over the wool trade with Flanders and Edward had to

protect trade as France wanted to disrupt tradewished to be seen as a military hero, would help unify England

England was successful during the first phase. Edward captured Calais, Aquitaine, Poitou and Gascony. For this Edward III gives up his claim to the French ThroneSecond phase - 1369-1376 - little success for England but considerable cost. Desire for money/increased taxes to led to the peasant revolt of 1381.

The Black Death - punctuated the hostilities of the hundred years war. Englands population may have fallen from 4 3/4 million to about two million by the end of the centuryunderlying causes

chronic undernourishment form shortages of food caused by - fall in temp (called the little ice age), 1315-1317 great floods, Sheep plague in 1313 and cattle plague in 1319.movement from arable cultivation to pasturedeserted villages were apparent before the plague from poor soil from

poor crop rotationsinflation - prices of grain and livestock almost doubled b/w 1305 and

1310 in some areas monks and priests were particularly hard hit as they had to visit the sick. this meant that small town parish’s were virtually wiped out. working pop was hit and there were shortages of workers. although most of the people who died from the Black death were either the young or the old.STATUTE OF LABOURERS in 1351 attempted to impose a wage freeze, but not a price freeze

plague hastened the intro of a money economy which helped to erode the basis of manorialism

Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 - sparked by an attempt to levy a poll tax, the third tax in 4 years and it tripled the amount of taxes being paid.important characters

Wat Tyler - leader of the peasants. KilledKing Richard II (age 14/15) - bravely rode into the midst of peasantsJohn Ball - a priest who loudly criticized the unfairness of feudal society

30000 peasants march on London and rampage and loot, they demand that serfdom be ended and that the poll tax be overturned. Wat Tyler was killed in London and this causes the peasants to take a proverbial step back. King Richard then promises to end serfdom and the poll tax. the peasants foolishly go home and Richard raises an army hunts down and kills the remaining leaders of the revolt.the Peasants revolt is significant b/c it is one of the earliest expressions of class animosity in England.

Sept 29, 2009

1387 - a group of noblemen calling themselves the Lords Appellant decided to bring charges of treasons against some of the Kings friends. Richard II sends the issue to Parliament but still 3 of his friends are killed. 9 years later Richard uses parliament to condemn and exile some of his enemies1397 - Richard imprisons his uncle who is conveniently killed in Prison. Richard goes on to kill a number of men who could try and lay claim on his thrown.Richard set up new dukedoms to reward his friends but he took land from powerful men and this pissed off a lot of the landed gentry especially John of Gaunt the Duke of Lancaster. (his uncle)By seizing the Duke of Lancaster's land he denied his cousin Henry Bolingbroke his rightful inheritance. this makes many people very nervous and Henry flees the nationWhile Richard was busy quelling a rebellion in Ireland Henry seizes parliament claiming that Richard was a tyrant.1399 - Parliament forced Richard II to abdicate and then declares that he was completely unfit to rule the nation. 5 months later he is dead.Significance of the rebellion of 1399

might upstage legitimacystrides made in the direction of royal gov’t subservience to aristocratic

dominationend of the Angevin/Plantagenet periodled almost directly to the War of the Roses.

War of the Rosestwo sides - House of Lancaster - John of Gaunt and Henry Bolingbroke and their descendant - House of York - descendants of Richard II

the whole thing started b/c Henry VI had bouts of insanity the War of the Roses lasts about 30 years and is called the War of the Roses b/c the two different houses adopt the emblem of the Rose as their symbols. White for York and Red for LancasterRichard is declared king but is killed in Battle. Henry is still insane and after another battle Richard's son is declared king Edward.Edward died leaving two young sons. he leaves his brother in charge and his brother Richard kills Edward’s sons. He however, has no heir this opens the way for other claims to the throne.from the House of Lancaster Henry Tudor claims the thrown. Henry is claimed King after Richard dies. He quickly united the Houses of York and Lancaster by marrying a Yorkist women. Thus starts the reign of the Tudors.

Joan of Arc - in the final phase of the hundred Years’ War saw the French victorious under the leadership of a young peasant girl Jeanne d’Arcshe believed she was guided by angelic voices. these voices guided her to Orleans and the French are victorious hence she is known as the Maid of OrleansVictories led to the Coronation of the Dauphin as King Charles VIIJoan is captured by the Burgundians and handed her over to the English, She was tried as a heretic and burned at the stake.Joan roused the French from their apathy. After her death even the Burgundians turned against the English. By 1453 England’s sole remaining possession in France was Calais.

Life in the Later Middle Agesthe Church is still extremely prominentJohn Wycliff

a theologian who began preaching in 1378he was distressed by the worldliness and corruption of the clergyhe asserted the right of every man to read the Bible in his own languagehe translated a large part of the Bible into English.John Questioned the fundamental beliefs of the Church - mainly the

doctrine of transubstantiation - the belief that when communion is taken that the bread and the Wine are literally transformed into the physical body and blood of Christ.

Preached that all authority must come from God’s grace and therefore no homage was owed to wicked Kings and Popes

He denied the Church’s right to lavish possessionshe argued that papal power had no scriptural justification

Wycliff was condemned by the pope in 1377 and he was suspended from his university post.He was not executed b/c the church feared that he would become a martyr but a number of his followers (known as Lollards) were burned as hereticsWycliff foreshadowed the Reformation. His ideas were adopted by Martin Luther and John Calvin.

Schools and universitiesGrowth of ed important in the development in the later M/A in England. Most peasants are still illiterateChurchmen had to know some latinGrowth of grammar schools intent on teaching boys destined for careers in gov’t or the church. the most prestigious were Winchester(1382) and Eton (1440)

Languageby 1400 the country was developing a linguistic identity - English. Conquered tongue of the Anglo-Saxon modified, triumphed over Norman French eg. Chaucer was written in English Geoffrey Chaucer - at age 19 went to fight in France, taken prisoner and ransomed. in 1366 he married one of the queen’s ladies-in-waiting.he wrote in the vernacular and wrote about the idea of courtly lovework culminated in The Canterbury tales in which pilgrims travel from London to the Shrine of Thomas Becket.

Economywool still overwhelmingly important. it was shipped to Flanders to be made into cloth. the war forced this trade to end and the wool was processed into cloth in Englandag production decreased or remained stagnant (exhausted land and falling yields)

Guildsimportant medieval institutions. originally est for religious and social purposes. Members made annual payments in exchange for benefits such as

prayersfinancial assistance for funeralsa fraternity offering the pleasures of fellowship

Oct 1, 2009

The Tudor Age 1485-1603 Chpt 5Kings and Queens of the Tudor age

Henry VIIHenry VIIIEdward VILady Jane Grey (9 days queen)Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary)Elizabeth I ( no heirs and the end of the Tudor line)

the Tudor dynasty began w Henry 7th, out of the shambles of the War of the RosesHe halted lawlessness and made sweeping reforms to the legal system. He also

tamed the nobility, and centralized the royal courtHenry used patronage to reward loyalty, and set the economy on a firm footing.He attempted to avoid war by using a strategy of alliances. He makes the alliances by marrying off his children to different royal courts all across Europe. e.g. He married his son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon (Spain) however, Arthur ups and dies

to maintain the alliance with spain Henry VIII got special dispensation from the pope and Married his brothers Widow Catherine. Catherine was unable to bear a son. the only surviving child was MaryHenry was initially an avid defender of the Catholic Church. in fact in 1521 the Pope bestowed the title of “Defender of the Faith” in recognition of his anti-Lutheran tract. Henry’s break with Rome had nothing to do religion but with politics.Henry inherited a stable nation but a nation in which the protestant movement is spreading.desperate for a male heir Henry needs to get divorced from Catherine because he wants to marry Anne BoleynCardinal Thomas Wolsey presented the King’s case to the pope. the Pope rejects the case for annulment/Divorce. Wolsey dismissed (ends up dead)Sir Thomas More - New lord Chancellor was also against divorce. he resigns his post in 1532 (also ends up dead)proponents of divorce

Thomas Cranmer - Archbishop (related to anne)Thomas Cromwell - Principal Secretary (virtual control of the gov). Comes

up with plan to remove the Pope as the head of the Church in England. He wants to take away the power to grant divorce from the Pope and give it to the Archbishop of Canterbury. He also wants the wealth of Church to be seized by Henry and then divide it b/w his supporters to forestall political reaction.Cromwell wanted not only to fill the government coffers with the Churches money but also gave the State control over the Church.b/w 1529-1536 parliament passes a series of acts to end the RC Church’s power in England1534 - Act of Supremacy - created an independent Church of England with the Monarch as its head1536 - Act of the Dissolution of Monasteries. transferred buildings and possessions of the Church to the Crown also served to replenish the depleted treasury. got about 2 million pounds to the gov.

reaction - opposition was not limited to Thomas More. the Treason act of 1534 was used by Henry and his supporters to condemn some 883 persons b/w 1532 and 1540. some 339 were executedthe Pilgrimage of Grace 1536/37 - a rebellions against Cranmer and Cromwell as well as their attempts to impose Protestantism. Leaders are mercilessly crushedThomas Cromwell was executed b/c for Henry’s 4th wife he chose Anne of Cleves to strengthen link with German protestants. However Henry thought she

was really really ugly and the Marriage was not consummated. He married his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, on the day of Cromwell’s execution.

Henry feared an attack by Catholic powers and spent vast amounts of money on fortifications. He renewed hostilities against Scotland and France. he financed his campaigns by:

Selling off monastic landsincreased taxesMints were ordered to debase the coinage - lessen the amount valuable

metal.Henry’s major achievements included

the founding of the House of Trinity House - forerunner of the modern Admirality. Extended royal dockyards and built the Mary Rose e.g. a faster ship with superior fire power

to his death he managed to retain the personal loyalty of both Protestants and Catholicsdied in jan 1547

Edward (son of Jane Seymour) and Mary Edward was 9 years old and is under the influence of Edward Seymour (Earl of Hertford, later Duke of Somerset)under Edward the reformation proceedsin 1549 - act of uniformity - forced version of the Book of Common Prayer on the populaceSomerset is deposed in a palace coup. the New Lord protector of King Edward was the Duke of Northumberland. he dominates the government from 1549-1543Edward was a sickly child and everyone knew it. He Died of tuberculosis in 1553 and was buried in Westminster AbbeyBefore he died he participated in a plot to prevent his Catholics half sister Mary from gaining the thrones. he had Mary and Elizabeth both declared illegitimate. A reluctant lady Jane Grey was named his successor. She is Northumberland’s daughter-in-law.After Edward died Mary raised an Army. Northumberland was arrested. his son and Lady Jane Grey were executed after a rebellion in her name. Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary) - was 37 when she became queen. she was a fanatic Catholic and wanted to return the Church to RCism. She Polarized the country. reigned from 1553-1558She married Philip, heir to the Spanish Throne on 25 July 1554Archbishop Cranmer, Bishops Latimer and Ridley were burned at the stake. About 300 people (known as the Marian Martyrs) were burned or fled into exile.

Oct 6, 2009

Mary was unable to bear children partly b/c she was 37 and partly b/c she was virtually abandoned by her husband Philip of Spainshe was very unpopular b/c executions that she saw as necessary were very

unpopular. Also she wanted to get the lands that her father had seized from the catholic Church and give them back to the church. the Landowners refused to do thisEven the Pope turned against Mary in her final years, over a quarrel with Spain over the possession of Naples and Sicily.She put her religion ahead of the interests of England. Alone and despondent, Mary died on 17 November 1558. Bonfires of rejoicing were lit in London. Her Death heralded in the Elizabethan Age.

The Elizabethan Age“ I have the body of a weak and feeble woman but i have the heart and stomach of a King, and of a King of England too.” a quote by Elizabeth. She was the Daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. She barely escaped execution by both Edward and Mary. She was highly educated and spoke multiple languages and had an abrasive tongueher Key advisors were:

William Cecil (Lord Burghley) - her right hand man, he exercised a powerful influences for decades

Sir Francis Walsingham - Queen’s spymaster. Disrupted plots against Elizabeth. Used agents provocateurs. early practitioner of modern intelligence. both the men were unquestionably loyal to ElizabethElizabeth repealed Mary’s Catholic Legislation . She re-enacted in 1559, the act of Supremacy which re-eliminated Papal supremacy and jurisdiction in England she avoided giving unnecessary offence to pro-Catholic subjectsFirm insistence upon respect for traditions of the Church. this allowed RCs to continue to venerate saints, and go on pilgrimages etc. Elizabeth kept her personal beliefs quiet. the Elizabethan Settlement brought stability and spared England from the religious wars that were plaguing Europe (30 years war)Her main opposition came from Puritans who didn’t believe that the Church was sufficiently purified. Puritans and Puritanism

by 1580 had engulfed a significant portion of the gentry and merchant classesPuritan ideals

bible is the sole authority on earthheld a doctrine of predestinationbelieved in the omnipotent GodChurch a body of the faithful and ministers were teachers not priests

imbued with miraculous authoritythe miracle of Salvation came solely through God’s Grace

what distinguished a Puritan from his Protestant brothers was the literalness with which he subscribed to the Protestant creed i.e.

DisciplinedMilitantbelieved rebirth and conversion set them above and apart from the rest of

humanity

Mary Stewart - Queen of Scots ( a headache of Elizabeth)Great Grand-daughter of Henry VIII. Forever engages in intrigue. Made 3 ill-advised marriages, the last to a man who allegedly killed her second husband. this final indiscretion was too much for her supporters and she was forced to flee to England in May 1568. She Threw herself on the mercy of Queen Elizabeth.Spent the next 18/19 years under house arrest.there were at least 3 major plots to kill Elizabeth that all coalesce around Mary Queen of Scots, who in fact had a stronger claim to the thrown than Elizabeth. this is why she is a headache to Elizabeth. Mary Unwisely engaged herself in a catholic plot to depose Elizabeth, which failed and she was executed on 8th February 1587. Mary Stewart adopted the custom of signing her name with the French spelling Marie Stuart. When her son from husband number two, became King of Scotland and England, they became known as the Stuarts.

The Spanish BogeyEnglish Pirates such as Sir Francis Drake and his cousin John Hawkins attacked the Spanish fleets and towns in the New Worldthis tactic was approved by Elizabeth. She could no longer deny her involvement when she knighted Drake who had returned from his voyage around the world in oct 1580 with a bounty of 750,000 poundsthe Spanish Conquests of the Aztecs and Inca’s showed the rest of Europe that there was fantastic wealth available in the new world. They were therefore extremely willing to challenge the treaty of Tordesillas (the popes treaty that divided the world b/w the Spanish and the Portuguese). and of course the English wanted to get into it to.Philip II is super pissed off with Elizabeth for a number of reasons

she is protestantshe is a bastardshe aided the Dutch protestants against the Spanishshe sponsored the British pirates against SpainShe executed Mary Queen of Scots

The Spanish Armada was launched 3 times against England. the most famous in 1588. a Combination of Luck, inferior spanish tactics and faster English Ships led to England’s Famous victories England saw themselves as protecting the Protestant faith (the protestant winds of God blew away the Catholic Armada)

Failings at the end of her reignincompetent/unrealistic taxation system forces higher local taxesShe involved England in expensive wars and the burden of recruitment and training fell on the localitiesrising corruption in the central gov with influence bought and sold at courtPoor laws were not able to keep pace with rising prices during the economic

distress of the 1590’s. Disease, Malnutrition, and crimeElizabeth’s death in 1603 was greeted with relief

Oct 8, 2009

Intellectual HIstory and Literature in the Tudor AgeHumanism spread to England, the best known humanist was Sir Thomas More (Utopia, published in 1516) Elizabeth’s reign is considered a golden age in English literature. Shakespeare’s genius, poetry of Edmund Spencer and the dramas of Christopher Marlowe have not been surpassedThe Bard of Avon (1564-1616) - Shakespeare straddled the last years of the tudors and the first of the Stuarts. He was born in Stratford -on-Avonhe went to London in his early twenties became a member of Lord Chamberlain’s company of players.By 1592 he was writing plays. He had a share in the syndicate of the Globe Theatre

Parliament under the TudorsHenry VII made use of Parliament to secure the final settlement of the War of the Roses. In later years he was determined “to live off his own” and by avoiding war, to avoid undue dependence on the CommonsThe House of Lords still possessed the greatest men in the land and they guarded their right to counsel the Kingheredity secular peerage provided continuity in English politicsMonarchs continued to rule in a regal manner. Tudors cut their subjects to size, at no point before the end of the 16th C did anyone in Parliament enjoy legal immunity from royal ire. One spoke one’s mind in Parliament at the risk of losing one’s head Nevertheless Parliament increased in importance - met on avg once every three year b/w 1485 and 1529, but it was summoned almost every single year in the following 3 decades

The Stuarts 1603-1688 ch 6the Stuarts were a largely unsuccessful dynasty

James I - his ambitions were largely thwartedCharles I - engaged in Civil war , tried for treason and executedCharles II - unambitious, desirous of a quiet lifeJames II - fled the country and abandoned his Kingdom - departure ushered

in the Glorious Revolution

Society and Economic Lifepop growing steadily. in 1600 England’s est. at approx. 4 million. Consequences - not enough food and inflation as food prices rose outstripping wagesShortages of jobs forcing movement especially to larger towns like London food production crisis easing by the late 17th C b/c

more acreage under productioncrop rotations are being employedmore use of fertilizer - England became an export of surplus grain.

manufacturing - retailing revolution with the coming of shops in even small villageslarger towns concentrating on sale of services as well as goodsmigration to the towns in search of better opportunities.

England in possession of skimpy English settlements in North America which attracted only the hardy or the Persecuted. In Elizabeth’s time, Raleigh had tried to establish a Colony which he named Virginia in honour of the Virgin Queen, but abandoned it. 1607 - establishment of Jamestown, developed their trading and tobacco-growing on a largely communal basis in the quest for the northwest passage Henry Hudson explored the land/water and discovered the bay which bears his name1620 - an expedition of Puritans from Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire set sail from Plymouth in the Mayflower, set foot at Cape Cod, named Plymouth Rock. the Pilgrim Fathers founded what became the New England colonies

the 17th C saw the growth of the middle classthe number of landless labourers soared as land was enclosed and farming became more prosperous.those who benefited rose into the gentrythose who made their money in towns, e.g. merchants, demanded equal respect to the landed gentryconditions among the lowest classes not improving despite some tentative attempts at poor reliefemergence of the term aristocracy

Gov and LawRevenues derived from

taxing trade (customs and excise)direct taxation

explosion of English commercial power, evident in the navigation Acts, England becomes master of the seas by the end of the Century, by defeating the Dutch both militarily and economically

The Early Stuarts 1603-1649 James I to the Execution of Charles I

James I - son of Mary Queen of Scots he is known as James VI of Scotland and James I of England he was proclaimed king on the death of Elizabeth37 years old when he became king and he was greeted with good willhe was unaware of the political and religious realities of England and made no attempt to acquaint himselfHe Surrounded himself with Scottish advisors and rewarded his Scottish friends.

James I drove the ship of State onto the rocks but it was up to his son Charles I to sink it.James I inherited a serious financial crisis from Elizabeth from depleted land revenues and a debt of 473,000 lbsThe king had to economize or be granted additional income by Parliament. James I made no efforts to be frugal and this lead to many confrontations with parliamentJames had a deep-seated belief in the divine right of kings. this lead to the adoption of a fiscal policy which exploited royal prerogatives e.g. he collected taxes without parliamentary approvalJames I sold off titles of nobility e.g. a baronetcy went for as much as 10,000 lbsBribery was prevalent . Licences and patents liberally granted to favoritesthe result was economic chaos, starvation, low wages and protests from far and wide.

Oct 13 2009,

the gunpowder plot - late in 1604 England made peace with Spain. Both Protestants and Catholics were unhappy b/c the war had been a holy causethe most aggrieved was a core of militant english catholics who had hoped that spain would rescue them. Leaders were Robert Catesby and thomas Percy. the plot was to blow up the King at the state opening of parliament on the 5th of November 1605.The barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellars under the house of lords, supervised by Guy Fawkeswarnings were given to some to stay away and that exposed the plot. Guy Fawkes was arrested and tortured to give up the names of his accomplices. all were hangedfor centuries the plot was the focus of anit-catholic sentiment. now commemorated with fireworks and bonfires on the 5th of november and with a ritual search of the cellars before the opening of parliament.James was extravagant and dependent on court favorites. mismanagement of the economy and corruption and patronage to scottish parasites lead to financial disaster for the economyJames had a weakness for pretty young men and showed a poor judge of character. most scandalous liaison was with George Villiers “He was tall, athletic, beautifully proportioned and seductive.”Villers jumped from being a private gentleman in 1616 to a dukedom in seven years (Duke of Buckingham)Grew unpopular b/c of the King’s fawning affection for himhe was made lord admiral and regulated access to the king. he survived as a favorite under Charles I as well, until that is he was assassinated in 1628James court is known throughout Europe as extremely corrupt and inefficient as well as having very very loose morals.

the relationship b/w parliament and James I was very uneasy in James I later

years. he governed without parliament for 7 years .James I was forced to call parliament b/c of financial necessity (Thirty Years War). James wanted to help his daughter who was married to the king of Bohemia. Parliament was willing to vote funds to defend protestants but not happy with James’ friendly relationship with catholic spain. (James wanted to marry his son Charles off to the Spanish)parliament voted not to give him the funds and James stood up in parliament and lectured the lords about royal prerogativeJames continued with pro-spanish policies despite parliaments objectionsJames I went so far as to execute Sir Walter Raleigh to appease Spain in 1619

Charles and Buckingham went to Spain in an attempt to mary Charles off to a Spanish princess. She laughed at the two of them and this in know as the Spanish InfantaCharles and Buckingham are angry at the spanish rejection and stampeded James into war with Spain. England allied herself with the Netherlands in June of 1624in the midst of all these military preparations, James I died on 27 March 1635.

Charles I 1625-1649 - The Royal road to WarCharles I was a rigid and inflexible man. He was known as being very impersonal and cold.His reign is a study in confusion and suspicion b/w the King and CommonsWhile he did inherited numerous problems from his father, his personal conduct, unlike his father, was beyond reproachCharles was sensitive about his prerogative in the realm of tax collection. Insulted by parliament’s attempt to control the level of taxation. parliament was alarmed by the rising tide of Catholicism at the court e.g. arrival of new Queen henrietta maria, a Catholic princess of France. She was allowed to have private catholic mass in her private chapel, charles promised her that he would extend toleration to his catholic subjectsthe continued presence of the unpopular Buckingham made matters worse for Charles after an extremely unsuccessful campaign against Spain Charles is faced with the prospect of begging commons for funds to stave of bankruptcy the King tried to purge parliament of his critics - leadership of the commons fell into the hands of Sir John Eliot.This didn’t work for Charles and he forced parliament to dissolve after they are uncooperative. Parliament was angry at Buckingham for the fiasco at Cadiz (British troops starved as Buckingham didn’t send enough supplies) and threaten to Impeach himParliament was also angry about mercenary sale of titles and Buckingham’s efforts to advance his friends. Parliament was also very angry that Charles kept dissolving them.1628 - Charles was presented with the Petition of Right - parliament sought to define and limit royal power. Charles accepted the petition and then ignored it

completely. Charles was still a strong believe in the Divine Right of Kings1628 Buckingham was assassinated by a disgruntled naval officer, Lieutenant Felton -who became an overnight heropeople saw this as an opportunity for Charles to improve relations with parliament - this obviously doesn’t happenCharles ruled on his own for 11 years - he devised all manner of means to raise money e.g. ship-money, a levy on towns and landowners to ostensibly support his fleet. (it in fact supported his lifestyle) Charles imprisoned 9 members of parliament who criticised his regime. All but Sir John Eliot were released. he died in prison in 1632 and is regarded as a martyr for the cause of free speech and parliamentary gov’tReligion forced Charles to recall parliament in 1640. His goals were

he wished to provide toleration for catholicssought to reform the state church by restoring practices that were regarded

as popishneeded funds to put down the Scottish revolt that arose when archbishop

Laud attempted to reshape the Scottish Church. Scots vowed to resist and the dissenters became known as the Covenantersthe Archbishop Laud was the cause of many of Charles’ problems with the Scots and Parliament. he was accused of treason, imprisoned during the Civil war and eventually beheaded. He tried to impose high Anglicanism on to the Scottish Presbyterians the Scottish rebellion had a time when Charles’ treasury was empty. The Scots invaded England and set up a residence in Northern England and demand to be paid to leaveEnglish Parliament sided with the Scots. Parliament were led by John Pym and he stood up in parliament and gave a fiery speech in condemning the King and his actions. Parliament wouldn’t give funds to Charles b/c they feared he would raise and army to fight against them not the scotsThe Long parliament 1640-1660 - New Parliament convened on 3 Nov 1640Charles was forced to bow to parliamentary demands

to get rid of those who assisted the king during his arbitrary rulepassed several act which made repetition of personal rule impossible - the

Triennial Act of May 1641 - guaranteed the calling of parliament at least every three years without the consent of the KingParliament achieved an overwhelming legal victory without a shot being fired, and yet within the year civil war has exploded across England.

Oct 15, 2009

causes of the civil war in Englanda fight over religious beliefs constitutional conflict b/w the King and ParliamentBattle b/w a declining nobility and they increasingly wealthy merchant and

members of the Urban middle classthe difficulty of ruling three realms given the different views of the Scottish,

Irish and English

the war was fought within a class to which the King as the greatest Baron belonged. Substantial numbers remained uninvolved and neutralParliament was suspicious that Charles would accept limits to his powerthe Catalyst to the war was the murder of 3,000 Protestants by “bloodthirsty Irish peasants” figures probably exaggeratedParliament was unwilling to provide an army to avenge the murders b/c they feared that Charles would turn against the Protestants in England.November 1641 - Grand Remonstrance - cataloguing the King’s sins.Feb 1642 - Militia Bill - Placed all naval and military appointments under parliamentary inspection. this is an ancient monarchical right. in the winter of 1641 tensions were increased by a number of issues . Parliament threatened to impeach the Queen, and executed Thomas Wentworth - a strong supporter of the King, he was condemned by parliament for his policy on the Irish. this is sad as Wentworth was an advocate of limited monarchial power. there was a growing frenzy of the London mob and other radicalssides began to polarize, Pym incites members of parliament.on the 4th of January 1642 - 400 guardsmen were sent to arrest Pym and four others, however, they were warned and fledfebruary 1642 - Queen travels to Holland in search of Money and Friends. Charles moved north to gather support22 August 1642 - Charles raised his standard at Nottingham in defence of the Crown, the episcopacy, and the ancient constitution.

Civil War- the two sides of the civil war

Royalists (Cavaliers) - High nobility, Anglican Church, most of the peasantryParliament (Roundheads) - merchants, entrepreneurs, Townspeople (esp.

those in London) Scots, and Puritans. Three separate outbreaks. The King held the initial advantage but it came down to the simple question of which side could afford to pay the troops. A new and vibrant military leadership was able to match the King and the kings army just melted away. The Parliamentary army became the strongest force in England and parliament no longer had any control over their own army. The Army wanted the head of the Kingthe House of Commons was extremely reluctant - the Army sent troops to Westminster to prevent more moderate members from taking part in deliberationsThe Coup d’eta - “Pride’s Purge” troops forced many of the moderate members of parliament out of the HofC by force. 50 out of the 500 (called the rump parliament) made the decision to try CharlesJanuary 1649 - Rump order a special court - and charges of treason and high crimes against his people were levied against Charles. the House of Lords refused to co-operate with the Rump and was ignored.

Charles appeared before a group of 150 jurors and was found guilty. It was the Puritans on the jury that whipped up religious zeal and obtained enough signatures to condemn him. On Sunday 30 January 1649 - Charles was publicly executed, a week later, the House of Lords was abolished. The Final decision to execute the king was Cromwell’s. Cromwell believed that he alone could save England from “a bleeding dying condition”

MIDTERM COMES TO HERE

the Interregnumthe Execution of Charles left England a commonwealth ruled by a Council of State with 41 members and a Rump Parliament of fewer than 78 members of parliament and was very indecisive so Cromwell dissolved it. Cromwell handpicked an “assembly of saints” of 140 “bigots” they were selected by Cromwell from the Army and local church congregations. it was known as the “Praise God Barebones Parliament” Saintliness was not a substitute for political acumen and thus Cromwell dismisses themfrom Dec 1653 to his death on the 3rd of September 1658, Cromwell ruled as Lord Protector and Head of State.Power was vested in his command of the troops - he had to use the army to avoid lawlessness and operate the governmentCromwell banned so much stuff it can’t be all listed and this was known the Regime austere - theaters, dancing, gambling etc were all banned and strict religious observances were required.

there were fundamental differences b/w Anglicans and Puritans and this made them incompatiblestrikes were made against the moderate Anglican Church. e.g. worship according to the book of common prayers was illegal.Most Anglican clergy ejected from their positions, office of the Bishop was abolished; some cathedrals were closeda group of independents called the Baptists grew in strength - they were distinguished by their disapproval of infant baptismQuakers - gained considerable following during the 1650s - they emphasized the value of the “inner light” which could be found in all persons. George Fox was a significant figure among the Quakers. he founded the Religious Society of Friends and travelled widely to convert people. Industriousness and pacifism were hallmarks of the Quakers.

Oct 20 2009Midterm Essay Question

political, economic, social, intellectual - the order to be followed in the essay

question. can the middle ages be described as the dark ages in england. rise of religious persecution and witch craft. plague 100 years war. identify the years i am using and then highlight the problems in those year. at the end supply some contrast by listing some of the good things that happened. balance the essay. answer the question and shut up!!

Cromwell’s dilemmaHe had executed a legitimate monarchhe had no political legitimacyhe disregarded civil and legal libertieshe issued taxes by decree (much like Charles)he failed to impose his vision of religious utopia Cromwell will be

an essay question on the final examthe irony of Cromwell’s situation is that the second parliament offered Cromwell the crown in order to limit his power.

after Cromwell’s death people were very afraid as he had assumed enough power to frighten people into recalling the monarchHis son richard became lord protector but he was weak and uninterested. W/i 9 months he was ousted by a military junta and gladly returned to his farmthe army expelled Parliament and the Committee of Safety was appointed to rule in Oct 1659 - they were oppressive and incompetent.

the Long parliament agreed to its own dissolution. New elections brought about the Convention Parliament which was dominated by RoyalistsCharles II promised “amnesty and oblivion” (he wouldn’t take revenge), and there would be religious toleration.Parliament voted to restore the monarchy on may 25 1660. Charles landed at dover and the Interregnum came to an end.

Thomas Hobbeswrote the Leviathan as a warning against rebellion and in defence of the Crown. He wrote of a godless Leviathan, the secular state that was the product of social need and naked power.Law and order rested on the will of the sovereign who had the strength to secure order and enforce the lawhe believed that attitude was shaped by lawlessness of the civil war. Hobbes theories justifies absolute power given to sovereigns.

Charles II was restored to power in 1660 and he recognized that he was returning at the sufferance of Parliament and public opinion and was not tainted by a belief in the divine right of Kings. in theory the only thing that was limiting Charles II was his own promises not to attempt to be an absolute monarch. He became king at the age of 30he re-established the Church of England. Theaters were re-opened and

things like horse racing returnedsome 26 (number varied) executed - there was no major campaign of revenge. Parliament restored former properties of the King and Church, individual Royalists generally failed to regain their landsKings no longer are able to live on their own resources - granted an annual income gathered from taxes, clergy exempt tax policies favoured landlords and powerful merchants.

The Claredon Codereligious settlement enacted b/w 1661 and 1665 with four statutes:

only Anglican qualified to hold office in municipal corporationsthe Act of Uniformity brought back the Book of Common Prayer - no

concessions to PuritansClergy required to swear to conduct services according to the Prayer

Book the code acknowledged the permanent existence of dissenting and

non-conformists churches. such persons were still at a sever disadvantage and not granted the full toleration that Charles II had promised puritans suffered greatly. some 250 pastors were removed from their posts. Puritans found their greatest voice in John Milton

John Milton - he was evicted from his position as Latin Secretary held under Cromwell. He was Silenced as a political pamphleteer. he was cut off by law from the comforts of his faith. Milton writes a book on Satan's triumph in Paradise Lost (1667) is the cry of the disheartened Puritans John Bunyan - A puritan who was twice imprisoned for his preaching without a license.His main work is A Pilgrim’s Progress (1678) it is a christian allegory “ Which concerns the individual’s search for peace and salvation” it has been translated into numerous languages and has never been out of print.

the plague returns in 1665 and spread b/c of unsanitary conditions almost 70,000 londoners dieanother major event in Charles II reign was the Great fire of 1666. It spread from ovens of a bakery in Pudding Lane. two thirds of the city burns b/c of all the wooden houses and narrow streetsthe fire provided opportunity for rebuilding - brick, wider streets and sanitation. Sir Christopher Wren was prominent. His masterpiece is St. Paul’s Cathedral.

the Dutch War 1665-67 - resumptions of hostilities which began in Cromwellian era b/c of the Navigation acts. this war was different b/c it was mainly on land and intended largely for the benefit of France.Rumor/belief that Charles II had signed a secret agreement with Louis XIV. Annual subsidy for a return of England to Catholicism. Parliament refused to subsidize the war and the English gov’t is virtually

bankruptword of secret clauses leaked forcing Charles to cancel the 1672 Declaration of Indulgence. RC are once again excluded from gov’t offices and military command.the Dutch War was costly and useless.

Oct 22, 2009

development of political parties - there were roughly 250,000 voters in the late 1600’sthe EXCLUSION CIRSIS 1679-1681: an attempt to prevent James from assuming the throne. Brought about by an attempt to murder Charles II and put the catholic James on the Thronethe crisis led to the formation of formal political paritiesWhigs - wanted to exclude James. they were against royal absolutism. they defended individual liberties and were fierce defenders of Protestantism. in opposition to the Whigs were the Tories - they were devoted to the rights of Kingship. they protected the social hierarchy. defenders of societal peace, regarded Whigs as demagogues. the Tories were the party of unity of Church and State. They Saw the Crown and the Anglican Church as twin pillars of societythe Elections of 1679 were the first to be fought along party linesCharles II resisted depending on either party. Final years of his reign were peaceful with no serious threats to the throne. A Trade boom allowed him to be free of financial worry.

James Scott, Duke of Monmouth was one of Charles II illegitimate sons and was to be Charles successor. He was described as the “favoured royal bastard”.Charles named James’s uncle, his brother, James as heir to the throne. Monmouth landed at Lyme Regis and issued a proclamation asserting his claim to the throne. Monmouth was Captured and executed.

King James II became king at the age of 50 he was expected to be succeeded by his protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband William of Orange. however his wife unexpectedly gave birth to a son prompting a dynastic crisis.James II wished to turn back the clock by lifting the ban on Catholic evangelism. Granting of equal status would be a humane gesture he thoughtBritain a Tory-Anglican nation was outraged. Passive disobedience was used to blunt James’ II plansHope that the matter would die out with James’ death but all that changed with the birth of his son. Mary of Modena was James’ wife. she was a Catholic French princess. She gave birth to a son in June 1688 prompting the crisis which lead to James’ abdication of the throne. this left the way clear for William and Mary

Both Anglican leaders and many protestant dissenters combined to invite William of Orange to Come to England. He landed at Torbay on November 5Few English men were willing to take up arms to defend James. His cause was not helped by his strange behaviour which led to many of his commanders deserting him.James vacates the throne when William lands and the Crown is offered jointly to William and Mary.

James was allowed to escape, his flight was declared an abdication. His wife and son had already been sent ahead of him to France.the change of rulers was no revolution. it was a rebellion instigated by the Whigs and reluctantly accepted by the Tories for the purpose of preventing James’ arbitrary rule and the establishment of Catholicism. in return for being named joint sovereigns William and Mary had to accept a BILL OF RIGHTS 1689which clearly established the supremacy of Parliament denied any ruler the right to suspend the laws of the land whenever it suited them. no Monarch could be a catholic Free speech of Parliament which couldn’t be suspendedindependence for the Judiciaryno standing army in peacetime

- Toleration act 1689Granted freedom of worship to Dissenters but not to Unitarians (didn’t

believe in the trinity) and Catholics. Formal recognition of religious plurality if not equality

on the Whole the Church was weakened as new denominations arose e.g. Baptists and Quakers - informal missionary evangelism

Post 1688William became king of England to draw England into an alliance vs France. For 21 of the 25 years William/Mary and Anne reigned, England was at warParliament met every year and became and indispensable part of the British governmentthe Royal administration grew over this time as well. New financial institutions emerged e.g. the Bank of England and the value of commerce was greatly increasedEngland emerged as a great power, untied itself with Scotland and became very politically stable Anne (Mary’s sister) comes to the throne after William dies

Other Characteristics of the Stuart EraClass differences are strengthening e.g. new houses with private dining-rooms

while servants were given separates quartersLiterature/art and science became more secularizedSir Isaac Newton - Principia Mathematica 1687, Thomas Hobbes - the Leviathan 1651, John Locke - Two Treatises on Civil Government 1690.

South Sea Company Bubble - Tories believed that the Bank of England was too Whiggish and so they Chartered the South Sea Company to rival it. After the Treaty of Utrecht England was granted the right to trade into the Spanish American Empire. the directors of the South Sea Company believed that it was the Financing had a greater potential for profit than did trading. Parliament (who was bribed) allowed the SSC to take over the National debt. on the promise that interests rates would be lower. the SSC also advanced the gov’t 7 million lbs.the SSC covered the gov’t debt by selling stocks in the SSC the assumption was that SSC stocks would always rise in value. there is a stock scramble and stock prices rose by around 10 times. once stock prices stop rising they started to sell their stocks to make money. the SSC started to advance people credit to encourage them to by stocks. in less than a year the SSC stocks crashed.people lost their shirts and people found out that the gov’t was taking bribes. the entire gov’t and court system almost failed b/c everyone was involved.

Oct 27, 2009

George I was a descendent of James I, his claim is legitimate but remote. He brought foreign advisors and didn’t speak english well.Both George I and his son were looked upon with a degree of suspicion and condescension

Age of Stability : How it was achievedSeparation of powers allowed for a balance of powersa “Constitution” that increasingly centered power in Parliament in a cabinetDevelopment of a one-party gov’t under the leadership of Sir Robert Walpole (leaders of the Whigs in the H of C and the gov’t) the King’s reluctance to learn English made him even more dependent on Walpole. Continuity - Walpole remained in power even when George II ascended the throne in 1727

The Fall of WalpoleCould be traced to the nation’s lack of preparedness at the outbreak of the War of Jenkin’s Ear 1739-1748. This Anglo-Spanish war developed into a general European conflict.

Ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Indecisive war with no real winner. English people were unhappy as taxes were increased during the war and after the war the status quo was returned meaning that 9 years of fighting was useless.

Winning of an empire - The Expansion of the British EmpireIn 1714 (death of Queen Anne) Britain had 2 major goals in foreign policy

to preserve the balance of power in Europeto protect trade abroad

George I added a third Goal - preserving the interests of the Electorate of Hannover

treaty of Utrecht in 1713 allowed England to make some gains to justify the years of warfare carried on by William and AnneBritain gained - NFLD, Nova Scotia, St Kitts, Gibraltar and MinorcaBritain won the Asiento which was a license to trade slavesSpain and Holland were in decline by this time and France was the main competitor.

Britain (now included Scotland, Ireland, and Wales) had shown naval superiorityParliament could now tax the whole of the British Isles to maintain the navy and the armyColonial rivalry ( mercantilist ambitions) culminated in the Seven Years War (1756-1763) the war was fought simultaneously in Europe, Asia and the Americas. Ended with the Peace of Paris. The Peace of Paris was denounced by William Pitt the Elder who predicted that it would allow France to challenge Britain in the future- which was truethe War interfered very little with Britain’s increasing trade and it stimulated many industries associated with shipbuilding and the manufacturing of weapons and military supplies

The War of Independence

-Colonists expected to pay taxes as their portion and support a standing amryostensibly to rebel Indian attacks-By mid century, day-to-day work carried on by colonists own assemblieswhich raised revenue and controlled expeditions – Governors as figureheads. Americans felt they didn’t really need Britain.-1765 – The Stamp Act – First direct tax on a wide range of legal

document– Protest repeatedly throughout the following year.-Declaratory Act: Re-affirm parliaments jurisdiction over the colonies-1770- Lord North became PM the tax on Tea lead to The British Tea Party-2nd Congress appointed George Washington Commander in Chief-King George insisted that the colonists be put in their place. Lord Northwas confused and ineffective-Ignored the warnings that England’s enemies would rush to aid the rebels(from Charles/James Fox/John Wilkes)-Underestimated American Militiamen-North attempts at negotiation – it is too late – rebuffed-Oct 1781 – Lord Cornwallis was trapped in Yorktown and forced tosurrender – decisive battle-Early 1782 Admiral Rodney saved British possessions in the West Indiesbut could not save a crumbling campaign on the mainland-Parliament demanded an end to the war and Lord North resigned in March 1782-September 3, 1783 – treaties signed at Versailles – Rebellious Satesrecognized as the United States of America-The Bitterness felt over the loss of the American Colonies was temperedby the “Discovery” of Australia and knowledge that B’s trade with the NewRepublic would not be interrupted.

Captain James CookDiscovered AustraliaSaving sailors from scurvy by introducing citrus fruits into their diet.Surveyed the coast of Newfoundland and chartered the St. Lawrence riverfrom the capital to the seaWas killed by Natives in 1779

Political Crisis of 1782-1784Began with resignation of North in 1782Furthered by the rivalry between the Foxes and the PittsGeorge III disliked Charles Fox and refused to support a Fox/North coalitionUsed his royal patronage to defeat the east offered the Prime Minsisteroffice to

William Pitt – The Younger

Ignored the fact that he did not have a working majority in Parliament andrefused to resign despite several Parliamentary defeats.Bitter rivalry with Charles and James Fox who insisted that the Kingdidn’t have the Prerogative to form a governmentPublic opinion and parliament eventually shifted to Pitt and providedstrong leadership 1784-Feb 1801

Nov 5, 2009

Revolution and the Rule of Law 1789-1851

the French Rev was initially greeted with enthusiasm in Britain until it became more radicalthe British Gov’t was weary of

Contagion of ideasthreats of invasion and the cost of war - feb 1793 France declares War.

Made 3 attempts at invasion began 12 years of warfare until 1815. England subsidized countries in Europe to fight the war but never sent troops during this period. around 210,000 British Service men died although about 1/6 of the adult male pop was under arms very few served abroad.serious setback for France when Britain wins the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. It is because of this naval defeat that Napoleon enacted the Continental system to try and starve out England. for most of the war England paid subsidies to members of various coalitions and avoided direct European involvement. only b/w 1811 and 1814 did Britain involve herself in Continental wars.

Nelson’s victories ensured that britain controlled the seas for the duration of the Napoleonic wars. He was wounded and died during the decisive Battle of Trafalgar.

Conditions at homeWar and depression polarized political ideas - revolutionary vs patriotic.the need for reform becomes obvious at the end of the centuryConcept of Utilitarianism springs up: Jeremy Bentham he was a philosopher and social reformer 1748-1832 and he advocated

Legal and Social reform Separation of Church and StateEnd of Slavery Universal Suffrage

1799 - Combination Laws - treated trade unions like revolutionary societies and outlawed them, the Average wage for workers was stagnant b/w 1790 and 1814. the Poor Relief system was designed to help mitigate distressin 1801 Britain had 15.74 people. Improvements in ag meant that the pop could

easily be fed. there were three dominant economic sectors: Coal Iron and Textiles. French Rev left England profoundly conservative. Governing classes obsessed by its terrors and its warspost war problems

Debtdemobilized servicemen to be settledPost-war economic slump industrial tension

1815 - the Corn Law. Excluded all foreign grain unless the price in England reached certain prices (80 shillings for a quarter hundredweight). This keeps the price of bread high and did nothing for workers. it resulted in riots.

The Peterloo Massacre 16 August 1819there are a series of demonstrations demanding reforms. demonstrators met at St. Peter’s Field in Manchester. eventually b/w 50,000 and 60,000 people are there. they are peaceful but noisythe Magistrates grew nervous and they call up the militia. the Militia was ill-trained and made up of normal people that were shop keepers and store owners. they grew scared and stormed the crowd killing 11 people. An inquiry was called and the Magistrates and the Militia was cleared

the gov’t response to the Peterloo Massacre was to pass repressive legislation.

Dec 1819 - Infamous SIX ACTS which included the seizure of publications deemed seditiousby 1820 fears of revolution were receding and Tory MPs were becoming more moderate1829 - Catholic Emancipation - gives catholics the right is sit in Parliament and hold high military and civil offices.spread of new ideas, rise of the middle class and the growing power if the liberal press are all aspects of the 1820s.England was forced to wrestle with the problem of parliamentary reform.

*Reform Act of 1832*Electorate was still limited at this time and the nation was still dominated by the landed interests. the Electoral victory of the Whigs was a mandate for reform. King William IV threatened to create new peers to ensure that the bill got through the House of Lords. he was determined to prevent revolution from breaking out as it had on the Continentthe Reform Act Abolished the right of 56 Boroughs to send 2 members to Parliament - all contained less than 2000 inhabitants (rotten boroughs) 30 other boroughs lost 1 MPManchester, Birmingham,and Leeds the centers of cotton, iron, and wool

now had spokesmen in Parliament. the boundaries of 65 remaining boroughs were redrawn so more could vote. Any male male who leased or owned a habitation worth 10 lbs a year could now vote.electorate pre 1832 estimated at 419,000 and rose to 800,000 after the act.despite changes, landlords, not manufacturers still had controlled of the Commonsthe Reform Act was used to Control the Pace of Reform. It prevents the outbreak of violence.

Lord John Russell (1729-1878) - Campaigned for the passage of the Reform Bill. He Also aided in the drafting of the Bill for the Abolition of the Negro Slavery in the British Empire in 1833. He also twice served as the British PM.

Nov 10, 2009

Chartism and the Anti-Corn Law LeagueEnergy of the newly enfranchised and the anger of those still outside the process led to the creation of the Chartists and Anti-Corn Law leagueChartism (1838-1848) - reflected a degree of working class co-ordination - described as first mass working class movement in the world. it was a national movement but was strongest in the North, Lancashire and Yorkshire. causes of the founding of the Chartist movement

the frustration of working-class radicalsthe popular hatred of the Poor Law of 1834 which working people

thought was cruel and degrading since it forced them to seek relief in the houses (“Poor Law Bastilles”) where they had to wear prison-like uniforms, undergo separation of families and work at miserable tasks like stone breaking. Chartist demands - all were eventually implemented

Manhood suffragesecret ballotEqual electoral districtabolition of property qualifications for MPsPayment for MPsAnnual parliament - members elected for a year only to check bribery

and intimidation the chartists made petitions to parliament one with over 3 million signatures. these petitions were rejected, and sometimes laughed out of Parliament.the Legacy of the Movement is that by 1918, five of the six points of the charter had been adopted. the movement was sapped by:

PM Peel’s refusal to over-react - He was very calm and didn’t label the chartists as radicals

improved economic conditionsFeargus O’Connor was and Irish parliamentarian who became the firebrand of

the chartists movement. he toured the country advocation chartist demands.

The Anti-Corn Law League was formed in 1838 which meant that the League and the Chartists ran concurrently. its leading figures were

Richard Cobden (pg 442) - English parliamentarian who campaigned against Corn Laws. by 1845 the league was the best organized political group in England.

John BrightJames Wilson

the league acted with a fury born of desperation in the face of “an increasingly mutinous labour force”Manufacturers were concerned about falling profits and they wanted to lower wages. they could do this if the price of bread was lowered. Bread was the staple of poor people’s diets.the period this was happening in was called the Hungary Fortiesthe two radical movements did not unite. the chartists wanted nothing to do with the League who believed that cheaper bread would mean lower wages.

Elizabeth Gaskell - wrote about the tensions b/w the classes in industrial Britain. Her novels include Mary Barton and North and South. Charles Dickens - The most popular novelist of the Victorian Era. the plight of the British working class was brought to light in Oliver Twist and Hard Times.Friedrich Engels - a German social scientist and author. he wrote about conditions in Manchester where he saw child labour, a despoiled environment, overworked and impoverished labourers in his book The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844.

Workers’ housing in Northern England were called “back to backs” with no running water or toilet facilities. A water pump was shared by the whole street. these houses had up to 5 persons in a room and the cellars were also often filled. the Streets were narrow and unsanitary and encouraged disease eg. the cholera epidemic of 1832. Child labour was extremely common as Children (and women) accepted lower wages and were therefore more “attractive” to mill owners. Child labour was also used in mines as children were used as harriers. they were used to transport coal to the surface by pushing loading carts up narrow shafts.

Sir Robert Peel - his appointment began modern politics in Britain. the sacking of Lord Melbourne by King William IV and the appointment of Peel was the last time a monarch dismissed his ministers of his own accord.PM from 1834-45 and 1841-46. he introduced reforms at the Home Office e.g.

passed bills to improve prisonscreated a metropolitan police force (Bobbies)

reformed the justice systemurged an extensive reduction of the death penalty. Some 200 statues

prescribed hanging for some 600 offences before his reforms.in feb of 1846 he abolished the Corn Laws which is considered to be the act which finally ushered in free trade in Britain and the Empire. this made wheat only about 10% cheaper. not until the railroads and steamships brought North American grain in large quantities did price fall decisively.the repeal was largely symbolic of the rising middle class influence

ConclusionAgreement that by 1848 the Industrial Rev had failed to improve the conditions of the working class but militant dissidents had failed to incite revolution as they did in EuropeBelief in the Rule of Law but recognition that the benefits of the law didn’t extend to everyone. England was at the forefront of industrial development - 20% of world trade.Manufacturing was 25% of the national incomeCapitalist agriculture wasn’t hindered by enhanced peasants rights as in France. It allowed for the commercial exploitation of the landEngland had pushed France out of Spanish territories, India and Canada.

Nov 12, 2009

The Liberal Agethe Great Exhibition of 1851 was designed to showcase England's Military, Economic and technological superiority.

EconomyEconomic boom 1850s-1870sthe range of products and exports is huge eg. coal and iron to the continentmanufacturing sector is massive and diverse eg. textiles, ships, and steam enginesEngland has a sound currency and stable banking system which allows her to export and finance there is mass migration to industrial towns like Manchester and Liverpool which were linked by the first railway in the 1830s

Working and Living ConditionsFilth and noise characterized Victorian cities - from trains, chimneys, factories, houses and horses.rural depopulation as workers attracted by fewer hours and higher wages in the townsdepression in the ag industry for two decades after 1870 Thomas Hardy - author of books which include The Mayor of Casterbridge and Tess of the d’Ubervilles. Hardy traced the demoralization and neglect

of rural England.

Development of Working Class Consciousnessb/w 1860 and 1914 - real wages of the working class doubledbirth rate falls so the extra cash a family now has isn’t absorbed by extra children. The Working class started enjoying leisure activities like soccer, cricket, betting and seaside holidays. Growing prosperity led workers to join trade unions to safeguard gains. Unions also provide self help benefits eg. money and support for burials, sickness and unemployment. Unions were virtually devoid of specific ideologies. Marx wasn’t well known among the lower classes.Diets started improving with the addition of meat, milk and veggies added to bread, potatoes and beer.the importance of religion lessened. the Church was relegated to weddings and funeralsthe emergence of a lower middle class as an intermediate group. there are now white collar workers and members of the expanding civil service along with the blue collar worker. on the whole the emerging middle class prospered in an era when individual progress important.

The Propertied Class Professionals - educated in Greek, Latin and ancient history instead of science as in Germany.the propertied class was largely Protestant.they saw their profits starting to diminish in the 1880s in the face of competition from Germany, US, and JapanWomen started to expect to be more than being mere breeders. by the 1870s women’s colleges founded at Oxford, Cambridge and London. A few were doctors, nursing was also an important career avenue

Aristocracy and GentryContinued to wield political powerthey had a close relationship b/w the landowners and the industrialists and commercial class. it is now just a class of very rich peopleRoyal Court led the way in the recreation pomp and ceremony. The Monarch was a symbol of continuity. Queen Victoria ascended to the Throne in 1837 when she was 18 and ruled until her death in 1901.She married Prince Albert in 1840 and they had nine children but he died in 1861 sending the Queen in prolonged mourning.

Age of Crisis 1870-1914Most of the people in Britain valued

Capitalism

Parliamentary governmentEmpireVictorian morality and values

However at this time negative signals were becoming evidentslower rate of growthfailure to adopt new technologies sever cycles of boom and bustgross disparity in income distribution

Britain still enjoyed 41% of world trade in 1870 but it fell to 30% by 1914Britain was guilty of complacency e.g. Germany took the lead in the development of of the electric motor.Competitors produced cheaper steel and cottons productivity increased in both America and Germany. British firms neglected to do the research that Germany and America were doing.German financial houses made wiser investments e.g. in steel, chemicals and electricity.

The Political LandscapeThe Country was highly politicized, everyone seemed either Liberal or ConservativesConservatives were born out of traditional Tory party. Organ of the aristocracy and the gentryby 1860s - the liberal party was created out of a coalition of the Whigs, the Peelities, radicals and a number of middle class commercial and industrial men. they advocated peace and reform.The Reform Act of 1867 didn’t usher in democracy of universal manhood suffrage but it expanded the electorate from 1.3 million to 2.5 million so that one in twelve of the pop had the vote.However, the system was flawed. Some wealthy property owners might cast as many as ten votes as they met the property requirements in a number of places. the process begun in 1832 continued:

1872 - secret ballot1883 - began to eliminate bribery1884 - Third Reform Bill - electorate expanded to 5.7 million one in six

could now vote.

Nov 17, 2009

the era was dominated by two great part leadersWilliam Gladstone - he was a model of Victorian religiosity and moral uprightness. He had a strong sense of public service. He had sympathy for oppressed nationalities abroad. He came to believe that ordinary people had a greater capacity for good than the elite. He was the Liberal PM 4 times in the late 19th C. some highlights include

reformed the education system and created the first state school

system in England in 1870Ended the religious tests at Oxford and CambridgeIntroduced the Secret ballot in 1872 Introduced the third reform act of 1884

Benjamin Disraeli - he was the perfect foil of Gladstone and leader of the Conservative Party. He was a novelist and incurable romantic. he was Flamboyant and melodramatic. he helped the tories to survive in an era when the power of the conservative element was declining by the sheer force of his personality.he was PM twice and some highlights include

Public Health Act of 1875Sale of Food and Drugs Act of 1875Factory Act: to protect workers in 1874the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act to allow peaceful

picketing in 1875

The Emergence of Labourin 1884, some 600,000 workers belonged to unions affiliated with the Trade Union Congress. the numbers in to 2.7 million by 1914However, the unions were vulnerable. From 1892-1910, new unionism suffered heavy defeats as employers declared war on themMore threatening were three court decisions b/w 1893 and 1901 which declared picketing and boycotts to be illegal and held unions liable for damages suffered during strikes.

The Labour PartyFirst efforts to establish an independent path for labour came in 1893 with the formation of the Independent Labour Party (ILP)Traditional ties with the Liberal Party started to loosen1900- representatives of trade unions and the ILP and a small number of socialist societies set up he Labour Representation Committee which eventually became the Labour Party in 1906in the General Election of 1900 the ILP won 2 seatsin 1910 - the Labour Party won 42 seats after miner unions affiliated with the Partythe birth of the Labour Party is a sign of the growing divides within Britain. as WW1 approached there were 3 major developments

Unions became more militantLiberal/Labour electoral Pact at the constituency level was breaking

down - this was big trouble for the liberals as they were losing the support of the working class.

Wealthy property owners were shifting from the Liberal to the Conservative Party.

Important Ideologies and Personalities in the 19th C

Lord George Gordon Byron - Poet and satirist who epitomized the Romantic Movement which was a direct reaction to the Enlightenment. he was described as “Mad, Bad, and Dangerous”. Byron and the era reflected explicit criticism of the rationality and sterility of the Enlightenment period. the Romantic period connoted a return to the celebration of Nature, and the aesthetics and even God.

Florence Nightingale - Became known for her work as a nurse during the Crimean War. She led a group of nurses she had trained. She became known as the Lady with the Lamp. She returned to England in 1857 as a heroine and is often called the second most famous person in the empire in the late 19th C.

Charles Darwin - he was an Evolutionary Biologist. his book On the Origin of Species 1859 built theories which changed the world and his spawned a never-ending debate b/w creationists and evolutionists further eroded the importance of religion. His idea of the Survival of the Fittest was taken from the natural world and extrapolated to human society and politics. Herbert Spencer - an english philosopher who is considered the “father of Social Darwinism”. It was a belief popular in the late Victorian era which states that the strongest or fittest should survive and flourish in society. this theory was extended to justify the domination of weaker nations by the strong. this was scientific justification for Imperialism.

Karl Marx/Marxism - co-author of the Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867) with Engles. - Argued that capitalism held w/i itself the seeds of its own destruction as the downtrodden proletariat would eventually rise up against capitalism which exploited the workers. A Clash b/w these two opposing forces would lead to the emergence of communism and a stateless society.

Nov 19, 2009

by 1890 the British controlled 1/5th of the globes surface

The Reluctant Imperialist??Crimean War - Britain and France are determined that Russia cannot expand into the decaying Ottoman Empire. It was fought to stymie Russian aggrandizementthe Opium War - “the most disreputable of al Britain’s imperialistic exploits” pg 506. A war fought over the right of Britain to import Opium into China. At the time Opium was not illegal anywhere in the world. Eventually the Chinese gov’t says that the British are smuggling Opium into the country and that the opium is killing chinese people. Appeals to the Queen are ignored and the British say that any attempt to curtail the opium trade is a war on free trade. Eventually China and Britain go to war (a number of times). The Chinese were extremely embarrassed and ashamed and China

has never gotten over it.Indian Mutiny 1857-1858 - The Indian Mutiny only lasted for a year but it shocked the British into change. It started off b/c the Indians didn’t want the British to harm cows as they are sacred or pigs cause they are unclean. Sepoys (Indian troops in the british army) learned that the grease they were using to grease their guns was made of pig and cow fat. the British were able to crush it in a year b/c the vast majority of Indians stayed loyal to the Crown. The East India company was dissolved b/c it was realized that it was corrupt and uses and abuses people. Victoria is declared Empress of India in 1876

to safeguard the Jewel in the in the British Crown (India), Britain annexed burma and malaysiaTo protect the trade routes to India, Egypt and Sudan came under British ControlImperial expansion in East and South Africa partly affected by Indian considerations.

The Boar War 1899-1902the Cape of Good Hope was occupied in 1795 to safeguard the route to India. the occupation was complicated by the presence of the Boers (Afrikaners of Dutch descent). It was the most serious colonial conflict faced by Britain. War the war revealed British isolation and weakness.the major cause of the war was who was to be in charge. the British held 2 colonies the Cape Colony and the Natal. Afrikaner farmers who left the Cape Colony 1837-1838 and established 2 alternative republics. the Orange Free State and Transvaal.The British sent troops to crush to two new Boer republics b/c they were controlling the diamond minesthe Orange Free State and Transvaal were effectively independent of the British High Commission based in the Cape Colony and theoretically in charge of the whole region. British policy had two state goals

to Keep the Cape route to india Safeto secure the hinterland

the conflict b/w the bantu and the Boers kept the hinterland unstable. Britain inclined to take complete control of the areathe riches of the region attracted speculators. Afrikaners began to demand that newcomers pay taxes and that seemed to the British as if they were taking control of their regions and they couldn’t have that. the Afrikaners demand for taxes was the excuse the British needed to overturn the Transvaal gov’t.Britain sailed for South Africa amid an outburst of patriotism - some 400,000 men. and the Boer army had less than 50,000 soldiersBritish problems

poor leadership

Boers used hit and run guerrilla tacticsSevere underestimation of Afrikaner resolve

the British resorted to herding the pop into concentration camps where about 20,000 Afrikaners died of disease and malnutrition. the war finally ended in 1902. the Boers recognized British sovereignty and Britain promised to eventually restore self-gov’t to the Boers - fulfilled in 1907.Effects of the War:

Did Britain’s reputation no good. She appeared unable to put down the little Afrikaner army. Damaged Britain’s image of invincibility

Cries against imperialism and immortality of the whole affairWidespread denunciation of British tactics e.g. Scorched earth and

concentration camps “methods of Barbarism” Aftermath

Britain’s concerns about national defence in the wake of the war really grow and it led to the reorganization of the Army and NavyIt made Britain aware of her isolation (other than the empire) and she sets about creating a series of alliances which would ultimately drag her into WWI

Britain’s Alliances1901 - Britain signed the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty which conceded to the US the right to build and run (alone) a canal across the Isthmus of Panama.1902 - treaty with Japan in which the two nations pledged mutual aid should either be attacked by more than one power in Asia.1907 - Britain reached a similar “understanding” with Russia (which was already allied with France) resolving their rivalries in the Middle and the Far East. It wasn’t a formal alliance but Britain was now entangled with Russia and France.

New View of the Statethe Boer War was tremendously expensive and the Empire appeared to be over-stretched. The British Navy no longer pre-eminent: it was challenged by the Germans, French, Americans, Italians and JapaneseGermany was emerging as Britain’s most likely enemy especially after her encouragement and arming the Boersthe overwhelming superiority of the British economy of the 1850s diminished in face of competition from USA, Germany, France and Russia. British society was still unwilling to accept that things had changed, and they were unwilling to make changes.

the Domestic Scene in the first decade of the 20th CSaw the end of 17 years of conservative rule with the liberal victory in Jan 1906Conservatives judged to have done little for the 12 million Britons who were underfed, badly housed and impoverished

tories were hostile to trade unionsLiberals 1906-1911 made Britain more democratic and showed more concern for the welfare of its citizensin 1910 a wave of strikes rolled through Britain - miners, shipyard workers and dock workers, railway workers and mill workers all went on strikethere are some 850 strikes in 1912 and 940 in 1914 and anger threatened to wreck britain. Main causes of unrest

the fall in real wages in period of rising pricesFight for union recognition and collective bargainingideas of Syndicalists (doctrine which urged workers to paralyze the

economy. The next step would be the abolition of the state and the creation of a society based on democratically elected workers’ associations. which would own the means of production)however, domestic unrest would soon take a backseat to war for which Britain appeared unprepared for.

Nov, 24 2009

Why did Britain go to War?The understanding with France and Russia formed the basis of the Triple EntenteBritain had involved itself in European affairs. Decisions were left in the hands of Sir Edward Grey, Foreign Secretary and he was not a skilled practitioner of realpolitik. the major strategy was talk and vacillation he didn’t make Britain’s position clearBritain declared neutrality until the German invasion of BelgiumBritain was alarmed by the belief that Germany would destroy the balance of power in Europe. A German defeat of France would allow Germany to turn it’s massive resources to the construction of a large navy - a development which would be disastrous to British Interests. the seed of war lay in the competition b/w Germany and Britain in the latter part of the 19th Cthe division of Europe into two armed camps and the arms race which accompanied it meant that the tinder was there.

Britain at warthe first two years of the war were disheartening - they lost 89,00 men on the western front in 1914 which effectively destroyed the professional army. there were serious munitions shortages, confusion of strategies, indecisive leadership etc. a new army had to be recruited and trained. The draft was a very divisive issue.

Cost of warBritish gains were relatively small e.g. Palestine, Iraq (assigned as

trusteeships), colonies from the Ottoman Empire, Tanganyikatemporarily eliminated as a rivallost about 750,000 men or about 9% of all men under the age of 45the Empire lost an addition 250,000 people were killed. the ultimate cost was that WWI was the event that marks the beginning of the end of the British Empire. It starts the decay of Britain as a superpower. 1.5 million Britons were wounded, thousands remained invalidsa disproportionate number of the elite were killed b/c of their leadership roles and more volunteered (over 19% of Oxford students and graduates who served were killed and 18% from Cambridge)

the economic losses of the war were enormousgreat dislocation of British industry as the whole country was

mobilized. Britain was no longer producing goods to be sold.Britain’s shipping fleet was destroyed Britain’s world trade was disrupted and severely damaged Britain’s

ability to earn invisible incomeBritain was forced to abandon some of its foreign market the best

example being South Americaturned Britain from a creditor to a debtor nation 706 million in 1914 to

7,875 million in 1920

Societal Changesthe Gap b/w the rich and the working class began to close (largely b/c of income taxes and death duties)Brought down economic status of some landed families because of agricultural depressionsome businessmen did very well out of war contracts. the working class benefitted from full employment and high wagesTrade union membership grew and by 1920 some 40% of working people belonged to unionsstatus of women improved contributions to war effort earned them more opportunities for employment, they earned more personal freedom and the vote in 1918 for women over 30 the electorate extended from 8 million to 21 million - which was a huge increase in working class vote. in 1919 - the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act abolished legal barriers to women’s advancement on the civil service and the professionsdon’t go overboard - there was still a belief that respectable women should stay at home. Still no equal pay and women still didn’t have access to top jobs.

the Zimmerman Telegram was probably the last straw for the Americans. it was decoded by by the British and they sent it immediately to the Americans. French Premier Georges Clemenceau was the main pusher behind the “lets

kick the Germans no that their down” peace at the end of WWIGermans didn’t think that they started the war but they are punished as the aggressors

Versailles SettlementGermany remained intact but lost Alsace-Lorraine to France and Poland was created out of the PrussiaGermany had to pay reparations for an unspecified amount (set in 1921 at $21 billion)The Austro-Hungarian Empire dismembered and Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia are created. the Saar industrial valley in Germany was to be occupied by France for 15 years.the Rhineland was to be demilitarizedthe League of Nations was established (not ratified by the US) and Britain repudiated the military alliance with France. There was now no body to regulate individual aggression.the Soviet Union was not invited to Paris.

The Inter-War Yearsthe early interwar years are known as the gay twentiestechnological advances revolutionized entertainment, communications and travelFor all classes the cinema became the main medium of entertainment. London born Charles Chaplin becomes famous1927 - movies become talkies as the silent movie is left behindthere is a large spread of motor racing and commercial flights to the US and Australia are now available the Est of the BBC. by 1926 the BBC was financed by license fees from the owners of receiverspopular culture - a decline in religion and drinking b/c of higher taxes (on the later)two new vices emerge - gambling and smoking

The General Strike of 1926Disillusionment soon replaced joy as a the brief spell of prosperity ended, profits began to fall. By the summer of 1921 over 2 million people were unemployedthe example of Soviet Russia encouraged the stirring of class wara strike was called in support of British miners as owners attempted to cut wages. The strike was supported by other unionson 3 May 1926 - the first general strike, printers, steelworkers, railway-men, dockers etc. However, all workers were not supportive and the strike was ineffective. Unions capitulated after only nine days b/c the gov’t organized counter measures e.g. middle class volunteers ran trucks and buses and distributed food the gov’t promised to negotiate a fair settlement but the Unions lost a trial of

strength and the worst was yet to come as the Great Depression was right around the corner

The Great Depressionthere was slow recovery from 1927 but by 1930 this came to an endtrouble began on 24 Oct 1929 in the NYSE when investors realized that speculation had grossly inflated the value of stocks and bonds. 13 million shares were suddenly sold and the bubble burst. British Gov’t large budget deficit made foreign holders of English pounds turn to gold. In July 1931 - gold flowed out of English Banks at the rate of 2,5 million pounds per day Gov’t responded with huge cuts in budget, cuts in wages, etc. The value of the pound fell and unemployment rose to nearly 3 million people. Recovery wasn’t until 1934 but benefits were still unequal. e.g. miners and cotton workers were not as well off as airplane and auto workers in the new industries.

The AbdicationKing George V died on the 20th Jan 1936. His eldest son became King Edward VIII but he was never crowned.The Prince, who was personally popular, but he was indifferent to official ceremony. He visited Wallis Simpson on a regular basis, she had divorced her first husband and she was currently married to a London Stockbroker. The British press was loyally mute. In Oct 1936 - Wallis Simpson filed for divorce. The Church of England disapproved of a marriage to a twice-divorced woman. the Choice became the throne or Mrs. Simpson Edward chose the latter.on the 10th of December 1936 Edward signed document of abdication. Made farewell broadcast and then fled to France. in May 1936 Edward’s brother, the Duke of York, was crowned King George VI in Westminster Abbey

The Coming of WarEvents from early and mid 1930s exposed the weakness of British power and policies.1931 - Japanese invasion of Manchuria with no response from the league1933 - Hitler withdrew Germany from League of NationsMarch 1935 - Hitler announced he would not adhere to the arms limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. 1935 - Italy invaded Abyssinia. League reaction was limited to condemnation and inaction. Mussolini annexed Abyssinia in 1936. This Destroyed faith in the effectiveness of the League and Hitler believed he had a free hand1936 - Hitler sent German troops back into the Rhineland. at this time Britain is talking tentative steps to rearm.

1938 - Germany annexes Austria.15 March 1939 - Hitler marched into the rest of Czechoslovakia and seized the entire nation.August 1939 - Germany and Russia sign a non-aggression pactSeptember 1, 1939 - Hitler invaded Poland (despite British guarantees to defend Polish territory)

ChamberlainHe became PM in may 1937. he fashioned a policy of Appeasement - some argue it was a strategy to buy time but he appeared to have believed that he could deal independently with Germany.He appeared to believe Hitler’s assurances of non-aggression. Hitler interperpates Britain’s appeasement as a British weakness. Chamberlain’s chief critic was Winston Churchill who attacked the gov’t (since 1933) for failure to re-arm.simplistic reasons for Britain’s reluctance of war may be a fear of the horrors and expense of warin Sept 1938 - Chamberlain flew to Germany and Acquiesced to Hitler’s seizure of the Sudentenland (Czechoslovakia). He returned with a piece of paper signed by both Hitler and himself. Perhaps another major diplomatic blunder was Britain’s refusal of an alliance with Russia - mainly b/c of the distrust of Communist.

Britain Declares War3rd September 1939 - Neville Chamberlain broadcast’s an announcement to the nation that Britain and France were now at war with Germany. for the first 7 months very little happened Chamberlain was forced out for the half-hearted prosecution of the WarNational unity coalition gov’t formed under Churchill as Prime Minister22 June 1940 - France surrendered and Britain stood aloneThe Battle of Britain lasted throughout August and September 1940“Never before in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few” - Churchill’s description of the RAF’s Battle against Hermann Goering’s LuftwaffeHitler knew that to invade Britain it would be vital to destroy the RAF. Goering’s strategy was to bomb the airfields, but he had to switch strategies (b/c of Hitler) to bombing the cities and hopefully bomb the nation into submission.

On the 11th of June 1940 - Italy entered the war hoping for juicy pickings but proved more of a liability than an asset.on the 22nd of June Germany made the fateful decision to invade Russiaanother fateful decision was the Japanese choice to Bomb Pearl Harbor on the 7th December of 1941.

Blow to British Prestige

In february 1942, the British suffered a massive blow form the Japanese when the Bastion of British power in the East, Singapore, fell with the surrender of 80,000 British and empire personnel. Churchill had guaranteed that it would be defended to the last man. The PM, however, had underestimated the fighting prowess of the fighting prowess of the Japanese and British leadership was suspect.

with the entry of American troops and supplies the tide of the war began slowly to turn by August 1942Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Teheran in November 1943 to talk about post-war settlements. Roosevelt, anxious not to gang up on Stalin, agreed to open up a second front in France. Churchill overruled. Thus the future of central and eastern European stated was delivered into Stalin’s hands.

The War Endsthe Red Army fought its way into Poland, Austria and was first to reach BerlinHitler and Eva Braun committed suicide on 30 April 1945Two days before that, Mussolini had been captured by Italian Partisans and executed along with his mistress8th May 1945 was VE day - Victory in Europe. The war against Japan continued until the US started dropping nukes and the war ended on the 14th of August 1945 with the Japanese surrender on the deck of the of the battleship USS Missouri.

Dec 1 2009

the first post war election was a surprise as Winston Churchill, the war hero, lost the election to Clement Attlee. His prestige was still great but people recognized that he was stuck in the past and people wanted social reform and the introduction of the welfare state. Attlee was deputy PM under Churchill during the wartime coalition government.

The Welfare State - know for final examBasis of the plan was the public ownership of key industries e.g the Bank of England, railways and mines. The introduction of the National Health Service, a comprehensive National Insurance and the National Assistance Act (the dole). were al proposals taken from a report published during the war by SIR WILLIAM BEVERIDGE and his committeethe Country however, was on the verge of bankruptcy. Britain negotiated a loan of 937,500,000 lbs from the US in the mid 1947. This wasn’t Marshal Plan moneyNHS began operations in July 1948 - free treatment for most health requirements. Critics argued that such guarantees of a decent standard of living would negatively impact British competitiveness.

The End of the EmpireBoth the USA and the USSR disapproved of the British Empire and forced Churchill to sign the Atlantic documentNationalist sentiments had emerged across the empire and Britain was no longer financially or morally able to sustain the empirein March 1947, Lord Mountbatten was sent to India to oversee the transfer of power to India and set in motion the dissolution of the British Empire.

Indian independence and the creation of the state of Pakistan resulted in the displacement of approximately 12 million people. Estimates if the death toll in the violence range from several hundred thousand to a million. The transfer of power to India was a very messy affair and created East and West Pakistan (East Pakistan is now Bangladesh).

resentment against Britain in Arab countries b/c of her role in the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. In 1948, Britain withdrew and the state of Israel was born. Changes were also made throughout Africa, South East Asia and across the empire.the Idea of Empire gave way to the idea of the commonwealth.

Ghana was the first British possession in Africa to gain independence.

Years of Affluence and Tory Rule 1951-1964By 1951 a chorus of criticism against nationalized industries and an inefficient welfare state. Churchill was re-elected as PM, but Tories nevertheless continued running “ socialist” state e.g. expanded maternity benefits and child allowances tories benefited from prosperity generated by rapid growth of the world economy and the expansion of the middle class.

The Profumo Affair - know for exama Major Scandal in 1963 concerning John Profumo, the secretary of state for war since 1960. issue dominated the news for months, and Miss Christine Keeler (model or call girl)Profumo stood up in the H of C and denied a relationship and questions arose over national security since Keeler was also associating with Captain Ivanov, a naval attache at the Russian Embassy. She Alleged that he had asked her to obtain nuclear secrets from Profumo.Profumo resigned 4 june and then admitted he lied to the House.the tory gov’t was badly shaken. the scandal coupled with PM Harold Macmillan being forced to resign b/c of ill health saw the tories losing the election of 1964. labour returned to office after 13 years in opposition with Harold Wilson as the new PM

Post War Foreign Policy

Britain emerged from WWII with the appearance of a world power. possession of the atomic bomb was seen as a way to maintain great power status. the Americans refused to share the technology and Britain decides to construct the bomb in 1947-1952. it was so expensive that defence expenditures on defence were the 3rd highest in the world from 1945-79foreign relations shaped by the Cold War. Distrustful of the USSR and so Britain joined the Brussels Pact in 1947 and NATO in 1949

Britain accepted American air force bases in Britain (American Missiles) the Marshal Plan ($3.2B) saved Britain from cuts in rations, high unemployment and the end to the house construction programparticipation in the Cold War, and how expensive it was, became clear during the Korean War when the British believed they had to support Americans with ground troops as well as naval and air support and thus 63,000 British troops were deployed to Koreathe choice to cut either military spending or social programs wasn’t made by the Labour gov’t and Churchill returned to power as PM in 1951. He was an old man though and he retired in 1955 at the age of 77 years

Suez Canal Crisis 1956this crisis was the final blow to British pride and prestigethe British were unhappy with Nasser’s decision to nationalize the Suez Canal. being unhappy and having unhappy friends the British, French and Israeli’s invade the Suez Canal and Egypt. World opinion and domestic opinion was against British action. the US was particularly displeased and encouraged a run on the pound sterling and blocked their efforts to borrow money from the IMFThe invaders were forced to withdraw its forces from Egypt and the public humiliation was accompanied by a number of British colonies demanding and receiving independence.

there was a recognition that the Commonwealth was not an effective economic unit. this is why for such a long time Britain didn’t want to enter into unions with European nationsBritain applied for entry to the European Common Market in 1961 and they were Rejected by the French. the second application in 1967 was also rejected.

Dec 3, 2009Kwame Nkrumah - declared Ghana (formerly Gold Coast) and independent on 6th March 1957.

Rhodesia Independence CrisisRhodesia had white minority rule - Whites were less than 5% of the pop and British pressure for change was resisted. Black and Brown nations of the Commonwealth demanded action from

Britain and the very existence of the Commonwealth was under threat over the issue. Britain was impotent as Wilson refused to use force and had very limited leverage. on the 8th of Oct 1965 Rhodesian Premier and British PM Wilson met at 10 Downing street to discuss the issue of Rhodesian Independence.Wilson loses the 1970 election b/c he blows chunks.

Powellism - British social fabric under threat.labour gov’t was unable to handle economic issues as well, it’s foreign policy was unimpressive. They were defeated in 1970 and the new PM was Edward Heath. Powel was an outspoken critic of both the EEC and immigration who fanned the flames discontent with his famous “Rivers if Blood” speech in which he warned Britons that they would become strangers in their own language if the levels of immigration continued b/c of Powellism and the uncontrolled immigration, immigration controls were put in place under both Conservative and Labour Parties.

A reflection of Economic DeclineBritain’s growth in comparison with her major industrial rivals (excluding US) 1973-1977

GB 1.0%West Germany 2.3%France 3.4%Japan 4.1%Italy 3.0%

by late the 1970sthe British economy was in a state of STAGFLATION i/e/ economic growth stagnated, unemployment is high and inflation is rising Britain makes its third application to the EEC and it finally meets no resistance from the french as de Gaulle had resigned. January 1 1973 - Britain becomes a member of the EEC

Britain and the EEC/European Common MarketSymbolically important b/c:

it reflected Britain turning away from old imperial tiesthere was a lessening of “special relationship with the US”it symbolized acceptance by the British of their new status as ordinary

European state.

Britain and the EECBrought changes to the landscape. Ag pricing policy (1982) saw the income of farmers rising. New modes of farming implemented and different parts of the country which were once unique now looked the same e.g. grass monoculture to support stock-rearing, cereal growing, conifers and the use of Barbed wire.Men and animals continue to give way to machines1945 - 563,000 full time farmers

1980 - 133,000 full time farmers

A Watershed Election on the 4th of May 1979Margaret Thatcher was elected as the first female PM. She was also the daughter of a butcherthe Falklands War - april-june 1982 - Argentina claimed that the islands were theirs. They were islands of Rock and Sheep. Argentina had a military gov’t and they were really wrecking the nation. the economy was in a slump. The military tried to use the Falklands as a distraction and fool the people. The military didn’t think that the Britons would defend the Islands. on 2nd april 1982, a small contingent of Royal Marines is overrun by Argentine forces - which threatened 150 years of British rule. Argentine reasons for the invasion: a distraction from domestic problems, national pride and a centuries’ old claim. The combined strength of the British Task force was less than 9000 men. However, the Argentine Military was made up primarily of conscripts who were poorly trained and equipped. the Argentine Air force blew up and sunk a number of British ships. Casualties

913 lives lost655 Argentines255 British troops3 Falkland Islanders

Hostilities ended on the 20th June of 1982Thatcher used the war and the British victory to boost British moral.

Post 1982Post War euphoria soon disappeared. Conservatives, under Thatcher, more right-wing than Britain appeared ready to accept. She Bitterly crushed the Miners strike and disruption in other sectors including the public service. Thatcher was re-elected with a huge majority and it seemed that she was the reason for the economic revival of the nationThatcher won again in 1987 but cracks began to appear. Two nations appeared to be emerging with the haves and the have nots. Her creed was “monetarism privatization and the primacy of market forces”Thatchers Errors

she appeared dictatorial and filtered out opposition from her Cabinet. she appeared out of step with British policy toward the EU as she

seemed only half-heartedly interested in joining the EUthe unpopular poll tax - a flat rate of tax which meant that the rich and

poor would pay a flat fee, obviously benefiting the richrevolt came from within her own party from Deputy PM Geoffrey Howe and ex Defence Minister Michael HeseltineJohn Major emerged as leader of the Tories after the infighting and was sworn in as PM on 28th of November 1990John Major was PM from 1990 -1997 and was heavily defeated by Tony Blair.