UK _glass & recycled glass production & market _report CARE2004
Transcript of UK _glass & recycled glass production & market _report CARE2004
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CARE Report on automotive glass recycling
2004 Update
by
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Peter Stokes (CARE Group) and the other members of the CARE Group for their support
continued support and guidance throughout this project and the constructive feedback received. Finally I would
like to thank Peter Pennells, Rebecca Cocking and the members of WRAP for their valuable input and feedback
in finalising the report.
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary....................................................................................................................5
Executive Summary....................................................................................................................5INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................7
Types of Glass.........................................................................................................................7
Glass Production the process...............................................................................................7
Container glass....................................................................................................................7
Flat glass.............................................................................................................................7
Glass Production the figures................................................................................................8
Figure 1 UK Glass Production figures by sector.....................................................................8
Waste Glass and Glass Recycling.............................................................................................10UK Waste Arisings................................................................................................................10
Why Recycle Glass?.............................................................................................................10
Packaging waste regulations.............................................................................................10
End-of-Life Vehicles Directive.........................................................................................10
How is glass recycled?..........................................................................................................10
Waste Glass processing.........................................................................................................11
Benefits.............................................................................................................................11Problems associated with recycling glass.........................................................................11
Figure 2 Production v recycling: the UKs colour imbalance................................................12
Economics and fluctuations in market price instability....................................................12
The markets...............................................................................................................................13
Existing and Potential markets for waste glass.....................................................................13
Figure 3 Potential routes for waste glass...............................................................................13
Glass Markets........................................................................................................................13
Fi 4 P t ll t b l t 14
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Shredding in the UK.........................................................................................................26
Technical and Economic Barriers to recovery ELV glass.....................................................26
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In 1999 (published Feb 2000) CARE produced a report which looked at the challenges for industry in the
recycling of automotive glass, against the backdrop of competing glass waste streams and limited recycling
opportunities. Since Glass approximates to 3% of an average vehicles weight and is relatively easy to remove,
store and transport, it is viewed as an important material en-route to the attainment of the End of Life Vehicle
Directive targets. Four years have passed since the original report and this second report is designed to ascertain
how that backdrop has changed and to flag up the challenges yet to be overcome, as well as emerging
opportunities.
Glass still remains a significant contributor to the UKs waste stream and as such is still a primary focus in
nationwide initiatives for recycling and re-use. In recent years, however, the adoption of new legislation into the
UK has increased the mandatory requirements on certain industries to recycle this material. The Packaging
Waste Directive and the ELV Directives impose set targets to the applicable industries for recycling and recovery
rates.
The technologies associated with the variety of glass types made remain relatively unchanged in recent years.
Glass manufacturers are becoming increasingly aware of the pressure on them to accept recycled glass cullet and
as such investments in newer technologies are occurring. The process of re-processing glass to form cullet and
the removal of contaminants also remains relatively unchanged with the main advances and research effort in the
separation of the fine fractions of materials in the mix.
Although advances in the technological side of glass making and re-processing may appear slow in terms of
enhancing the ability to consume increased amounts of variable quality cullet, the developments in the market
place for recycled material have been steadily ongoing. In 1999 the dominant route for recycled glass cullet
would have been back into the glass sector, with the container sector consuming the main proportion of total
recycled glass. However, at that time the emergence of the aggregates sector was beginning, using glass cullet as
an aggregate substitute, primarily for highway construction. There is now a changing picture of the market
structure for recycled glass. Although the container sector still remains the dominant consumer of glass cullet,
the flat and fibre glass sectors are increasingly conscious that they need to increase their use of post-consumer
glass In addition to this the aggregates sector (ranging from top end se in Glassphalt to bottom end se as a
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The industry is arguably already on target for reaching the figures set out for 2006; however, it is necessary that
the distinction between recovery and recycling is adhered to in reaching these targets. These targets are very high
and therefore require a high percentage of the material that makes up an automotive vehicle to be recycled.
Current estimates for the percentage recycled material are anywhere between 72% (EMR/SIMMS study 2003)
and 77+% depending on the data source (ACORD annual reports.) and therefore include the main components of
the vehicle, for example metals, and those which are easily removed, for example tyres and batteries. However,
the industry now has to look into the ways and means of recycling the more difficult components such as glass
and plastics in order to continue to increase the recycled and recovered weights to reach future targets.
Increasing research and feasibility experiments have been ongoing in the automotive sector in terms of removing
the vehicle glass. Though some advances have been made, it is still the case that the cost of removing the glass
from vehicles at the dismantling stage (which ultimately gives the higher value product as quality is higher)
mean it is still an uneconomic process. The cost of removing the glass from one vehicle ranges between 2.50
and 3.50 and with the current market price for cullet ranging from 5/tonne to 45/tonne (dependent on quality)
ELV glass generated at the dismantling stage (i.e. high cost stage requiring high cost end markets) is
economically infeasible at present. The resultant cullet would have to fetch a minimum price of 102/tonne to
make the process economically feasible. However, this figure is based on potential ELV waste glass arisings
from dismantling allELV vehicles in a year. This figure is unrealistic due to the loss of glass in removal andELVs only suitable for immediate shredding and so with dismantled vehicles and glass tonnages only a
percentage of the total the realistic figure is likely to be significantly higher between 278/tonne and 389/tonne.
Such high prices would require high value end markets often found in the niche market areas such as decorative
aggregates. However, these often only require small tonnages (100s to 1000s) and demand is intermittent.Alternatively, the cost of removing the glass must fall to at least half of the current best case dismantling cost
and that is only if increasing volumes can be removed. More realistically the cost of glass removal must fall to
less than 1/5 of the present day costs to be become viable for the higher priced end markets. But, again, the
problems of contamination in this source often render the cullet only suitable for lower priced end markets such
as use in the aggregates sector as a substitute for gravel, as the glass can be left in the vehicle and separated at a
later stage.
Although the situation remains complex and costly at present there are emerging markets that not only are able
t d hi h l d t b t l l lit ll t O f th k t i th f l k t
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INTRODUCTION
The 1999 CARE Report on Glass Recycling
addresses several issues to establish the situation at
that time for automotive glass recycling. Five years
on, the following report aims to re-address the
situation highlighting developments in technology
associated with glass production and glass
recycling, the change in market structure for
recycled glass, new and potential market entrants
and the up to date situation in the ELV disposal
chain with respect to overcoming the problems
raised in the 1999 report.
The report is in four main sections:
SECTION 1: Focuses on re-establishing the basic
types of glass, glass production processes and
associated volumes in the UK.
SECTION 2: Focuses on glass recycling.
SECTION 3: Focuses on the current market
situation and potential entrants.
SECTION 4: Focuses on the role that ELV glass
can play in the automotive industrys attempt toreach mandatory recycling targets and minimise
disposal.
TYPESOFGLASS
There are several types of glass distinguished by
their chemical composition. The alteration of the
chemical constituents in the glass making mix
ll f t t lt th ti f th
70-74% silica (sand)
12-16% sodium oxide
5-11% calcium oxide
1-3% magnesium oxide (higher in flat glass)
1-3% aluminium oxide
These proportions may alter slightly for the
alternative glass types and in some cases additional
components are added for special effects such as
colouring the glass. For lead glass the calcium
oxide is replace by lead oxide to give the final
product a high refractive index creating the
characteristic sparkle of crystal when cut.
GLASSPRODUCTIONTHEPROCESS
The four basic stages of the glass making process
remain the same in all types of glass production
which are1:
Melting
Refining
WorkingAnnealing
The general glass making process has remained
relatively unchanged in present years. However, it
is necessary to briefly understand the different
mechanical principles behind the production of the
final products that distinguish the form of the final
products.
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1. Melting and refining raw materials enter the
furnace and through a series of complex flow
patterns the molten glass becomes free of inclusions
and bubbles and passes smoothly and continuously
to the next stage.
2. Float bath the molten glass is literally floated
along a bed of molten tin and although the principle
of this process remains unchanged developments
now allow variations in thickness and a marked
improvement in the optical quality of the final
product.
3. Coating - the most significant advance in the
coating process is the on-line chemical vapour
deposition (CVD) that allows a variety of coatingless than a micron thick to be applied to the ribbon
of glass. These can have varying functions
including reflection of light of specified
wavelengths. Further developments in this area
could replace the present day method of carrying
the optical properties of the float glass.
4. Annealing the glass ribbon undergoes
secondary treatment to relieve stresses to avoid
breakage on cutting.5. Inspection advances in the inspection
technology aid the efficiency of the float process
allowing avoidance of imperfections undetectable
by the human eye whilst avoiding excess waste.
6. Cutting to order this helps to minimise waste.
The rolled glass process is used for the manufacture
of patterned flat glass and wired glass. The former
f th t i f d i i l
with the container sector dominating the glass
market with nearly two thirds of the total market
share and the majority of the remainder in the flat
glass sector (Figure 1).
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WASTE GLASS AND GLASS RECYCLING
UK WASTEARISINGS
Household packaging waste forms the dominant
proportion of the UK glass waste stream. Reportsestimate waste glass arisings in the container sector
to be in excess of 2.4million tonnes per year. With
the addition of the commercial waste streams,
automotive arisings estimated at 80,000 tonnes per
year (45,000 tonnes of ELV waste plus 15,000
tonnes of windscreen replacements) and up to
500,000 tonnes per year of flat glass from end-of-
life buildings it appears that waste glass arisings in
the UK have increased from those recorded in the1999 report. This in addition to the 180,000 tonnes
of process scrap per year and glass arisings from
other sources such as lighting, cahode ray tubes and
tableware result in total UK waste glass arisings in
the region of 3.4million tonnes per year.
WHYRECYCLEGLASS?
Glass is a significant contributor to the UKs totalwaste particularly as the majority goes to landfill.
Although glass poses no significant problems in
terms of decomposition it does require significant
amounts of void space which is very limited in the
UK. As one of the less problematic waste streams it
has therefore been a primary target in recycling
strategies to reduce the UKs waste. Voluntary
initiatives have been encouraged in the past but it is
th i i f l i l ti t
which time they will be responsible for recycling
all vehicles regardless of age.
2. It sets recycling requirements as follows:
By January 1st 2006
Reuse and recovery: Min. 85% by weight on
average
Reuse and recycling: Min. 80% by weight on
average
Reuse specifies materials or components for the
same purpose for which they were made; recycling
refers to the reprocessing of the original or analternative use; recovery includes recycling with
energy recovery (i.e. combustion).
By January 1st 2015
Reuse and recovery: Min. 95% by weight on
average
Reuse and recycling: Min. 85% by weight on
average
All vehicles post December 31st 2004 must:
Be reusable and/or recyclable at a minimum of
85% by weight
Be reusable and/or recoverable at a minimum
of 95% by weight
3. It requires the established phase out of certain
heavy metals and those elements exempt from
h t t b l b ll d th t th b
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and deliver to the consumer), although specific
glass waste streams can involve an increased
number of steps e.g. ELV Glass.
The container industry is probably the best
established sector for recycling at present due to thevast network of bottle banks situated across the UK.
These are then routinely emptied and transported by
various companies on a contract basis for delivery
to the glass re-processors. In some cases the waste
glass is re-used in the same plant as the generated
waste or in larger operations primary glass
producers will possess the necessary re-processing
equipment for waste glass therefore excluding the
final delivery stage. However, in some instances thewaste glass may not be suitable for re-use in the
glass sector and so will be transported to other
markets such as aggregates, or if completely
unsuitable, to landfill.
The main companies involved in the collection and
processing are T Berryman & Son and Glass
Recycling UK although some alternative markets
are introducing their own reprocessing capabilities.
WASTEGLASSPROCESSING
Benefits
It is always the case that in the absence of
mandatory legislation the benefits of recycling any
waste product must at least equal the cost of
recycling to make it economically feasible.
However, the benefits of glass recycling are not
l i b t l b fi i l
reduce expense in carbon taxes and to achieve
the standards required by them for carbon
reducing initiatives.
Using recycled materials reduces the burden on
landfills particularly in this case as glass takes
up a considerable amount of void space.
Reduces the use of raw materials and so the
depletion of natural resources and degradation
of the land for each 1 tonne of cullet used an
approximate equivalent of 1.2 tonnes of raw
materials are saved.
Problems associated with recycling glass
The glass recycling process, at first, appears fairly
straightforward. However, there are certain
problems associated with this waste stream that
must be eliminated in order for the final product
(cullet) to be of use. There are three main
problems associated with glass re-processing:
1. Contamination from other waste sources
During the collection process it is easy for non-
glass products including plastics, stones, metals and
ceramics to be included within the glass waste
stream. Although technologies have been developed
to minimise these in the final cullet product any
excess presence can lead to load rejection during
processing and then landfill. However, if the waste
stream is significantly crushed then some
contaminants can be so small that the technologies
for removal can be ineffective and unless a high
d f i b i f h l l f
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Figure 2 Production v recycling: the UKs colour imbalance
Green
Amber
Clear
Colour Production Recycled
Green 328600 302300
Clear 1199400 249350
Amber 270100 65100
Improvements in treatment quality in conjunction
with encouraging clear imports, alternative green
glass markets and the education of consumers in
recent years has resulted in a large increase in the
re-use of the excess green glass during the period
from 1999-2000. At present it is estimated that up
ll i l
3. Glass breakage and glass mix
The greater the degree of breakage the more
difficult it is to assess the degree of contamination
within the waste stream and therefore reflects back
onto the problems associated with non-glass
contamination. In addition to this it is important
h diff f l i d h
Shaded area represents recyclate %
of the respective glass colour
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THE MARKETS
EXISTINGAND POTENTIALMARKETSFORWASTEGLASS
At present there are two potential routes forrecycled glass; primary markets i.e. use back in the
glass making sector and secondary (or alternative)
markets (Figure 3). All of the markets currently
available to the waste glass industry and those
potential markets currently undergoing trials have
particular specifications for the cullet quality that is
of increasing importance as the demand on these
markets to use recycled materials increases.
Figure 3 Potential routes for waste glass
GlassMarkets
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sources and whilst the flat glass sector at present
only uses flat glass sources (of which it presently
uses 40,000t/a and has the potential to increase this
to 70,000t/a) the proportions used by the other two
sectors varies in accordance with the product to be
made and the respective specifications. The
proportions of container and flat glass consumed by
the container and flat glass sectors are illustrated
below (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Present cullet use by glass sectors
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
Sector
CulletUse(ta)
Flat
Container
Flat 110000 70000 40000 10000
Container 617000 0 15000 0
Container Flat Fibre Other
Economics
An average estimated value for the current price of
fl t l ll t i 25/t lth h i
in production results from contaminated sources. It
is for this reason that the primarily flat glass
li i th UK Pilki t ti t th
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Amber Green
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Bunkers 9,000t/a
Golf Course top dressing 111,000t/a
Fairways 160,000t/a
hockey
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Economics
The typical costs of aggregates are between
5/tonne and 10/tonne. In 2002 an Aggregates Tax
of 1.60/tonne was introduced to encourage use of
recycled materials, which also applies to quarriedmaterial. Cullet of low grade (often higher in
contamination) is able to compete with these prices
as reduced quality in cullet reflects on the price
fetched per tonne.
Specifications
The main consideration of the glass cullet used inthese applications is that it can rival or better
traditional aggregates in terms of its mechanical
and chemical properties set out below ().
Table 4 General Aggregate Specifications
Standard Specification Glass substitute Notes
GRADINGSand < 5mm
Gravel 5-70mmNo Problem
Size distribution measured
according to BS812 Section
103
FLAKINESSCuboid/ Rounded
preferred
Larger glass fractions are
likely to be flakier
Refers to particle shape where
a high index is a plate like
particle
SHELL CONTENT No Problem
MECHANICAL
Minimum
50kN-150kN
Ten Percent Fines Value as
specified in BS812 pt. 3:1990
SOLUBLE
MINERALS
Sulphate unlikely to pose a
problem with glass although
chlorides form food stuffs
may be.
NB Although the above highlights the basic property requirements of glass, specifications are often
li i d d d h f i i f h ifi B i i h S d d li bl S
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FILTRATION
Research into the use of glass as a substitute for
sand in filtration systems such as those used for
drinking waster and waste water purification
processes continues to address the feasibility of thismethod on a commercial basis and waste glass is
now being used extensively in these applications. In
addition to basic waste purification, research has
also shown that waste glass provided a suitable
substitute in swimming pool filtration systems and
there is also potential in the aquaculture and fish
farming industries.
Volume PotentialAlthough at present there is only a small market in
this field for glass cullet (current sales of a few
hundred tonnes per year) the volumes of sand used
for which glass might act as a substitute were
estimated to be between 45,000 and 67,000 tonnes
in 2002. However, it is anticipated that the volumes
of glass required for such applications could beeven greater ranging from 175,000 as far as
220,000 tonnes per year.
Specifications
The main specification of critical importance is the
particle size. The other specifications are detailed
below () but generally it is important that the glass
achieve the ultimate results of clean and purified
water to the required standard.
Table 5 Specifications for filtration applications
Standard Specifications
Contamination
limitsAgreed between processor and customer
Particle Size
Grade 0 - 0.63mm (95% passing), 0.25mm (10% passing), 0.25mm (5% passing) Grade
1 - 1mm (95% passing), 0.5-1mm (10% passing), 0.5mm (5% passing) Grade 3 -
2mm (95% passing), 1-2mm (10% passing), 1mm (5% passing)
Particle Shape Aspect ratio of greater than 5:1
Colour SpecsEntirely brown glass with clear and blue
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ABRASIVES
There are a variety of abrasives for which glass
could be used as a substitute. These include blast
abrasives, bonded abrasives and frictionaters. Blast
abrasives are commonly used in the cleaning ofbuildings and masonry and can be either recyclable
or expendable. The major factors for consideration
in using glass as a substitute is that in the areas of
cost (purchase and disposal), cleaning rate and
consumption rate glass can equal or better the
original material. Research has taken place to
evaluate these aspects particularly in comparison to
the expendable abrasive, copper slag. Glass does
equally well and in some cases is better. Thechemical content of copper slag makes it unusable
in environmentally sensitive areas and in this factor
glass is clearly more competitive as it may be used
in such areas. Bonded abrasives use crushed glass
for the production of paper bonded abrasive sheets
particularly by Naylors Abrasives. Frictionaters use
glass for the production of matches and
ammunition.
Volume Potential
The main market players in the blast abrasives
sector include Wolverhampton Abrasives, Minelco
(previously known as Ferguson Wild Ltd.), Scangrit
and Krysteline. The estimated UK market potential
for waste glass is between 10,000t/a and 50,000t/a
although the problems described later (ref: Barriers
to entry) have so far caused resistance to the
formation of a significant market in this area.
However, at present, there is a current market
consumption of approximately 3,500t/a and this
market area is growing.
Economics
If the varying problems are overcome the price of
cullet could be extremely competitive with
abrasives as current glass abrasives for grit blasting
sell at 50-100 per tonne. The cost of conventional
recyclable abrasives is in excess of 200/tonne
whilst although lower in price, expendable
abrasives still fetch a good price of between 50
and 100/tonne. A common expendable abrasiveused is copper slag which although available at
virtually no cost is not available in the UK and as
such costs approximately 70/tonne to import.
Glass abrasives can therefore compete in cost with
the major conventional abrasives used in this
market.
Specifications
The specifications for these materials are similar tothose for container cullet () and as the container
industry accept a wide variety and vast amount of
both flat and container cullet such specifications
must be economically viable from the re-processing
perspective. With specifications such as those
detailed below there is significant market potential
for consuming glass cullet.
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BRICKS & CERAMICS
The inclusion of sodium oxide in most plate and
container glass types allows finely ground crushed
glass to act as a fluxing agent and bind with clay in
the production of bricks and ceramics. This resultsin a reduction of the firing temperature and so has
the energy saving benefits described earlier which
are particularly attractive in this industry. Research
has shown that the inclusion of glass in bricks
results in increased frost resistance, greater
compressive strength and a lower water absorption.
Volume potential
The estimated UK domestic market in ceramics hasthe potential to use up to 20,000t/a of waste glass.
This is in addition to the volumes that could
potentially be used in the brick making industry
(using a figure of 5% glass inclusion in the
economic analysis) make the combined brick and
ceramics markets a significant potential consumerof waste glass.
Specifications
The specifications for glass in order for its use in
this sector (Table 7) are relatively easy to achieve
and in particular the ability of this industry to
consume any colour and both flat and container
glass gives this sector significant potential in the
UKs waste glass market.
Table 7 Brick specifications
Standard Specifications
Particle Size
>106m (
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NICHE MARKETS & OTHER POTENTIALS
There a number of niche markets for recycled glass
that use it for a variety of applications. Although
the total volume potential for these markets is small
in comparison to the others described it is often inthese applications that the selling price is high.
There are a number of other potential markets for
waste glass which include paint filler, zeolites,
foam glass and glass tiles. Paint filler can use finely
ground glass for a specialist exterior paint with a
sand textured finish, whilst foam glass is used in
the construction industry and glass tiles are popularparticularly in the Scandinavian market (Table 8).
Table 8 Niche market company products
Company Name Product Glass use t/a
Crystal architectural Products Resin composite flooring 100
Eight Inch Furniture/worktops 10
Freeform Arts Trust Pavers/blocks 40
GreenGlass UK Wine glasses 450
Recycled Glass CompanyDecorative Aggregates primarily
decorative glass chipping1000
Windmill AggregatesDecorative Aggregates used in the
glass gravel and floral industries1500
William Tracey Decorative Aggregates 1000
The Clean Washington Centre(Research)
Paint Filler Particle size must range between0.2 and 0.4m. Current UK market
is very small
US Research Zeolites
Finer glass is more reactive and
therefore a particle size of
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SUMMARYOFVOLUMEPOTENTIALSANDMARKETROUTES
The following section summarises the development
in markets from 1999 to present and in the future
for the use of glass cullet. In addition to this withthe current waste glass arisings exceeding 3 million
tonnes per year this section summarises the present
total market capacity by sector for waste glass and
the potential capacity for waste glass (taking into
account increases in actual market capacity and
potential market entrants). In 1999 the primary
markets for recycled glass were in the glass sector
itself with the dominant intake in the container
sector. However, the aggregates sector wasemerging in the reuse of glass cullet. The 2002
figures (Figure 5) show that although the container
sector still remains the dominant player in the
recycled glass market the aggregates sector is
increasing steadily in its use of glass cullet. In
addition to this there are emerging markets in the
filtration and abrasives sectors that show increasing
potential as research continues and new markets
emerge. However, there is not only an increasing
potential of current market players to take in greater
loads of recycled glass but advances in research aregiving rise to realise potentials for new market
entrants that could consume significant proportions
of waste glass. If current market players realise
their potential for consuming glass cullet and the
potential entrants realise their potential for
consuming waste glass the market structure could
change significantly (Figure 6). The aggregates
sector would theoretically be the dominant market
player. However, the realistic view is that thechange in market structure although continuing to
develop form the 2002 figures is unlikely to reach
the proposed state in Figure 6. The main barriers to
this are the specifications for each and the
economic feasibility of using glass in low value end
markets such as the aggregates sector.
Figure 5 - recycled glass market current players and market dominance5%
8%
10%
0%
0%
0%
Container
Flat
Fibre
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BARRIERSTO ENTRY
Every sector is subject to a variation of
specifications to which the glass cullet must adhereto be used. However, there are additional barriers to
entry in some sectors and some factors are more
critical than others. The following section
highlights the main factors that pose problems in
the entry of glass cullet into that market.
Container Sector
The main problem faced in this sector is the colour
imbalance although measures have been taken toreduce this and this is now less of a problem than it
was a few years ago.
Flat glass sector
The critical factor for the flat glass sector is the
contamination levels of the glass which from post-
consumer sources are still unpredictable and a
significant barrier to the intake of such cullet by the
flat glass producers.
Fibre glass sector
The quality requirements of continuous re-
enforcement fibre manufacturers is still too
stringent to allow the use of external cullet
however, insulation fibre manufacturers use a
considerable amount of external cullet. The ceramic
content is the particular problem for contaminating
fib l d i d h f d ll
abrasive sector to make use of the alternative but
recently this has become more available. The recent
emergence of a UK Market for recycled glass
however still faces problems such as an apparentweak enforcement of the sand blasting legislation
that limits the benefits of glass in environmentally
sensitive areas. In addition to this the overall
abrasive market is declining although the market
share for glass abrasives is increasing.
Bricks & Ceramics
The main barrier for the UK is the insufficient
grinding capacity to allow the production of therequired particle sizes for the use in the ceramics
sector in particular, but also for brick production. In
the potter industry there must be increasing work to
address the metal contamination levels of external
cullet as these could be detrimental to the glazing
process.
Niche Markets
The main problems faced in these markets are themarkets themselves which are small and therefore
subject to the fluctuation, in supply and demand to
a larger extent. The ability to source the required
materials at the required time are therefore critical.
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GLASS AND THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
WHYGLASS?
Table 9 Composition of an average automobile
Material Average Weight (kg) % Weight
Ferrous Metal 780 68.3
Light Non-Ferrous Metal 72 6.3
Heavy Non-Ferrous Metal 17 1.5
Electrical/Electronics 8 0.7
Fluids 24 2.1
Plastics 104 9.1Carpet 4 0.4
Process Polymers 12 1.1
Tyres 40 3.5
Rubber 18 1.6
Glass 33 2.9
Batter 13 1.1
Other 17 1.5
TOTAL 1142 100
The table above () details the composition of an
average passenger car for 2000.
Materials such as the metal fraction of motor
vehicles are relatively easy to recover and therefore
have been for many years. With the adoption of the
EU Directive on End-of-Life Vehicles in 2000
figures have estimated that the automotive industry
sheets of glass. This acts as an adhesive in the event
that the glass breaks whereby the glass does not
shatter but remains in contact with the PVB.
Another inclusion in the rear windscreens of
automotives is metal in the form of heating
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construction applications (most commonly 6mm).
Flat glass is rejected at production if any optical
defects greater than 0.5mm are found and therefore
it is mandatory that contaminants are less than
0.3mm in size to present production loss.
AUTOMOTIVEGLASSASWASTE
There are three main stages at which automotive
glass can enter the waste steam. The first is at the
production stage. In shaping and forming excess
glass is cut to achieve the final product. This waste
glass and any breakages during the production
phase are able to be recycled as cullet as the sourceis known (downstream processing) and
contamination low. The second is in the window
replacement sector. Such businesses replace the
broken window with a new one and again this is a
fairly low contamination source providing it is not
mixed with other waste sources prior to
transportation to a glass re-processor. Also, many
windscreen replacements are often due to a chip in
the main viewing section of the car windscreen andas such the glass can be removed almost whole
which helps to minimise contamination. This
process is driven by the incorporation of recycling
cost into the replacement cost which is ultimately
born by the consumer or their insurance company
and as such delivers a relatively low contaminated
cullet at virtually no cost to the cullet processor.
The final fate of glass in motor vehicles is at the
End-of-Life stage which could be through the
natural expiration of the vehicle or prematurethrough road incidents. The following sections
address the fate of glass at the ELV stage.
ELV glass
Prior to the ELV Directive and the increasing
government pressures on producer responsibility
the disposal of a motor vehicle at the end-of-its
natural life was the responsibility of the owner at
that time. In the event that the ELV was such due toa road incident or similar then it was most likely
that the ELV would become the responsibility of
the insurance company who would then seek the
relevant disposal routes for that car. However,
following the increasing producer responsibility
regulations and the ELV Directive it is now the
responsibility of vehicle manufacturers to dispose
correctly of all vehicles on the market from 2002
and by 2007 they will be responsible for thedisposal of ALL vehicles regardless of age.
There are two main routes for ELVs (after vehicle
collection) primarily dependent on whether they are
premature or natural (Figure 7).
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Salvage operators work on behalf of insurance
companies in cases where an ELV has been
subjected to an incident of some sort that involves
an insurance claim. After this as with natural ELVs
the vehicle passes to the dismantlers most often forrecovery of used parts.
Dismantling in the UK
In contrast to the 1999 figures, estimates form the
Department of trade and Industry (DTI) in 2002
quote the numbers of dismantling companies in the
UK to be between 2000 and 3500. Under the
Environmental Protection Act 1990 UK operating
dismantlers are required to be authorised orregistered exempt so the apparent reduction in
figures may be due to the increasingly stringent
environmental standards on these companies.
However, as the majority are small family run firms
within only a few (approximately 1000) larger
firms it is unfortunately more likely to be the case
that there are those companies still operating
outside the required standards and therefore not
registered in the above way. At present there are1553 dismantlers and scrap yards affiliated to trade
associations.
If the automotive glass is to be recycled at the
dismantling stage it must first be removed from the
vehicle. The ease of removal is dependent upon the
method of sealing used in manufacture. The use of
a rubberised gasket seal is comparatively easy when
considering removal of the whole window however
crushed and shredded into pieces. These are then
sorted using a variety of methods into product
streams. The main product fraction is shredded steel
which accounts for approximately 70% of the
output whilst the remaining 30% is primaryshredder fluff (25%) and heavy media. The
shredder fluff is comprised mainly of foam in
addition to light weight non-metallic materials
whilst the heavy material is often a variable mix of
materials such as rubber and concrete. Modern
plants use floatation methods for separation of the
materials (Dense Media Separation) and following
separation the heavy fraction can be processed
further at heavy media plants at which stage somematerials such as copper, aluminium, magnesium,
glass and plastics can be removed whilst the
remainder shredder fluff is currently land filled.
There is ongoing research into the possibility of
further separating the materials in shredder fluff.
If the glass is separated sufficiently form the other
materials with contamination below the limits set
out in the glass sector specifications and thealternative markets then it may follow one of these
routes to fetch a reasonable market price. However,
in most cases the concrete contamination is too
significant and the only real market available for
the waste is in the aggregates sector. In the event
that this is still unsuitable the only option left is
landfill.
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minutes/vehicle. The main cost incurred at this
stage is the labour cost of dismantling and the cost
equivalent of this ranges between approximately
2.50 and 3.50 per vehicle.
Toughened glass, which cannot be cut out, isremoved by breaking the glass in situ using a
pointed implement and the subsequent small
fragments are collected. However, even with this
technique much of the glass is lost and there is an
increased chance of contamination with other small
fragments.
The value of the waste glass from ELV is dependent
primarily upon its quality but general market cullet prices can range form as low as 5/tonne up to
45/tonne for clear cullet of sufficient quality.
Appendix 1 details the realistic and potential
revenue of glass cullet from ELVs over the current
market range of cullet prices and greater prices. The
total minimum and maximum costs of dismantling
are calculated using the values of 2.50 and 3.50
per vehicle respectively and the total ELV waste
glass arisings per year. These figures are used tocalculate the net income to the car manufacturers
(only taking into account simple sales and cost
prices and excluding secondary cost such as
transportation and reprocessing). These are
projected upwards for increased cullet values to
determine the market price required to give a net
income rather than net loss.
likely to be the car manufacturers that must absorb
the cost of this process as it becomes necessary to
recycle glass in order to reach ELV Directive
targets at least at present if not for some
considerable time into the future. The solution tothe problem may therefore lie in the manufacturing
stage such that bonding methods are changed and
developed to make glass removal more efficient at
the ELV stage of a cars life cycle.
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KEY REFERENCES
Department of Trade & Industry (2002)End of Life Vehicles (ELV)Waste Arisings and Recycling Rates.
Enviros (May 2004)Recycled Glass Market Study & Standards Review 2004 Update. The Waste & ResourcesAction Programme (Published May 2004).
Glass Recycling Report. (Issue 1) (2002) Glasspac.
Glass Stakeholder Update. (2003). The Waste & Resources Action Programme.
Hurley, J (2003)A Market Survey for Foam Glass. The Waste & Resources Action Programme (Published April2003).
Kollamthodi, S, Bird, A. B., Elghali, L, Johnstone, K, Wayman, M & McColl, V, A N (TRL Limited) (2003)Data Required To Monitor Compliance With The End Of Life Vehicles Directive. Prepared for DEFRA project
report PR SE/483/02.
Kollamthodi, S, Johnstone, K & Elghali, L, (TRL Limited) (2003)Data Required To Monitor Compliance With
The End Of Life Vehicles Directive. Part 2 Report Demonstrating compliance. Prepared for DEFRA project
report PR SE/518/02.
Recovered container glass specification for quality and guidance for good practice in collection (PAS 101)(2003). The Waste & Resources Action Programme.
Smith, Dr. A. S. (CERAM Building Technology 2004) To demonstrate commercial viability of incorporating
ground glass in bricks with reduced emissions and energy savings. The Waste & Resources ActionProgramme (Published March 2004).
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Current situation at current dismantling costs of 2.50-3.50 per vehicle
Market Price () ofcullet/tonne
Realisticrevenue*
Potentialrevenue**
Cost of dismantling () Net income
Min(2.50/vehicle)
Max(3.50/vehicle)
realistic mincost
realistic maxcost
potential mincost
potential maxcost
5 95,000.00 260,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -5,179,917.50 -7,289,884.50 -5,014,917.50 -7,124,884.50
10 190,000.00 520,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -5,084,917.50 -7,194,884.50 -4,754,917.50 -6,864,884.5015 285,000.00 780,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,989,917.50 -7,099,884.50 -4,494,917.50 -6,604,884.50
APPENDIX I
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20 380,000.00 1,040,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,894,917.50 -7,004,884.50 -4,234,917.50 -6,344,884.50
25 475,000.00 1,300,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,799,917.50 -6,909,884.50 -3,974,917.50 -6,084,884.50
30 570,000.00 1,560,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,704,917.50 -6,814,884.50 -3,714,917.50 -5,824,884.50
35 665,000.00 1,820,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,609,917.50 -6,719,884.50 -3,454,917.50 -5,564,884.50
40 760,000.00 2,080,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,514,917.50 -6,624,884.50 -3,194,917.50 -5,304,884.50
45 855,000.00 2,340,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,419,917.50 -6,529,884.50 -2,934,917.50 -5,044,884.5050 950,000.00 2,600,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,324,917.50 -6,434,884.50 -2,674,917.50 -4,784,884.50
55 1,045,000.00 2,860,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,229,917.50 -6,339,884.50 -2,414,917.50 -4,524,884.50
60 1,140,000.00 3,120,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,134,917.50 -6,244,884.50 -2,154,917.50 -4,264,884.50
65 1,235,000.00 3,380,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -4,039,917.50 -6,149,884.50 -1,894,917.50 -4,004,884.50
70 1,330,000.00 3,640,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,944,917.50 -6,054,884.50 -1,634,917.50 -3,744,884.50
75 1,425,000.00 3,900,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,849,917.50 -5,959,884.50 -1,374,917.50 -3,484,884.50
80 1,520,000.00 4,160,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,754,917.50 -5,864,884.50 -1,114,917.50 -3,224,884.50
85 1,615,000.00 4,420,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,659,917.50 -5,769,884.50 -854,917.50 -2,964,884.50
90 1,710,000.00 4,680,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,564,917.50 -5,674,884.50 -594,917.50 -2,704,884.50
95 1,805,000.00 4,940,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,469,917.50 -5,579,884.50 -334,917.50 -2,444,884.50
100 1,900,000.00 5,200,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,374,917.50 -5,484,884.50 -74,917.50 -2,184,884.50
101 1,919,000.00 5,252,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,355,917.50 -5,465,884.50 -22,917.50 -2,132,884.50
102 1,938,000.00 5,304,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -3,336,917.50 -5,446,884.50 29,082.50 -2,080,884.50
142 2,698,000.00 7,384,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -2,576,917.50 -4,686,884.50 2,109,082.50 -884.50
143 2,717,000.00 7,436,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -2,557,917.50 -4,667,884.50 2,161,082.50 51,115.50
277 5,263,000.00 14,404,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 -11,917.50 -2,121,884.50 9,129,082.50 7,019,115.50
278 5,282,000.00 14,456,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 7,082.50 -2,102,884.50 9,181,082.50 7,071,115.50
388 7,372,000.00 20,176,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 2,097,082.50 -12,884.50 14,901,082.50 12,791,115.50
389 7,391,000.00 20,228,000.00 5,274,917.50 7,384,884.50 2,116,082.50 6,115.50 14,953,082.50 12,843,115.50
* Realistic amounts of ELV glass estimated at 19,000 tonnes per year** Potential amounts of ELV glass estimated at 52,000 tonnes per year
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Dismantling costs reduction needed to bring cullet back into range of market pricesRealistic revenue based on realistic glass tonnages available
Market Price () of cullet/tonne
Realistic RevenueCost of dismantling/vehicle Total Cost of dismantling Net income
Threshold (red) Threshold (black) Red Black Red Black
5 95,000 0.05 0.04 105,498 84,399 -10,498 10,60110 190,000 0.10 0.09 210,997 189,897 -20,997 103
15 285,000 0.14 0.13 295,395 274,296 -10,395 10,704
20 380,000 0.19 0.18 400,894 379,794 -20,894 206
25 475,000 0.23 0.22 485,292 464,193 -10,292 10,807
30 570,000 0.28 0.27 590,791 569,691 -20,791 309
35 665,000 0.32 0.31 675,189 654,090 -10,189 10,910
40 760,000 0.37 0.36 780,688 759,588 -20,688 412
45 855,000 0.41 0.40 865,086 843,987 -10,086 11,013
50 950,000 0.46 0.45 970,585 949,485 -20,585 515
Potential revenue based on potential glass tonnages available
Market Price () of cullet/tonne
Potential Revenue Cost of dismantling/vehicle Total Cost of dismantling Net incomeThreshold (red) Threshold (black) Red Black Red Black
5 260,000 0.13 0.12 274,296 253,196 -14,296 6,804
10 520,000 0.25 0.24 527,492 506,392 -7,492 13,608
15 780,000 0.37 0.36 780,688 759,588 -688 20,412
20 1,040,000 0.50 0.49 1,054,984 1,033,884 -14,984 6,116
25 1,300,000 0.62 0.61 1,308,180 1,287,080 -8,180 12,920
30 1,560,000 0.74 0.73 1,561,376 1,540,276 -1,376 19,724
35 1,820,000 0.87 0.86 1,835,671 1,814,572 -15,671 5,428
40 2,080,000 0.99 0.98 2,088,867 2,067,768 -8,867 12,232
45 2,340,000 1.11 1.10 2,342,063 2,320,964 -2,063 19,036
50 2,600,000 1.24 1.23 2,616,359 2,595,259 -16,359 4,741
APPENDIX II