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UDDEHOLM STEEL FOR MOULDS 1

TOOLING APPLICATION PLASTIC MOULDING

UDDEHOLM TOOL STEELFOR MOULDS

UDDEHOLM STEEL FOR MOULDS2

This information is based on our present state of knowledge and is intended to provide generalnotes on our products and their uses. It should not therefore be construed as a warranty ofspecific properties of the products described or a warranty for fitness for a particular purpose.

Classified according to EU Directive 1999/45/ECFor further information see our “Material Safety Data Sheets”.

Edition 7, 10.2009The latest revised edition of this brochure is the English version,which is always published on our web site www.uddeholm.com


CONTENTS

Steel affects us in millions of ways 4

Product design 5

Mould design 6

Mouldmaking 10

Moulding 14

Moulding methods – Injection moulding 17 – Compression moulding 17 – Blow moulding 18 – Extrusion 18

The same quality and service available worldwide 20

Product programme for plastic moulding 21 – Chemical composition and properties 22

Mould steel selection – General recommendations 23 – Special recommendations 24

Selecting a tool steel supplier is a key decision for all parties, including the tool maker, the tool

user and the end user. Thanks to superior material properties, Uddeholm’s customers get

reliable tools and components. Our products are always state-of-the-art. Consequently, we have

built a reputation as the most innovative tool steel producer in the world.

Uddeholm produce and deliver high quality Swedish tool steel to more than 100,000 customers

in over 100 countries. Some markets are served by ASSAB (Associated Swedish Steels AB), our

wholly-owned and exclusive sales channel in Asia, Africa and South America. Together we secure

our position as a world-leading supplier of tool steel.

Wherever you are in the manufacturing chain, trust Uddeholm to be your number one partner

and tool steel provider for optimal tooling and production economy.

Quite simply, it pays to go for a better steel.


Plastic moulding is a part of our everyday lives.Car parts, mobile phones, spectacles and compu-ter chassis are all manufactured in moulds.However, the materials needed to make thesemoulds often require unique and demandingcharacteristics. This is why it is crucial to selectthe correct steel grade for your specific mould.

Many of the most well-known brands useUddeholm Tool Steel in their manufacturingprocesses, since plastic moulding is a demandingindustry. Harsh environments put steel underconsiderable stress. The problems are well-known, choosing the right tool steel is thesolution.

A moulder knows that the cost of excessivemould maintenance, e.g. major repolishing,cleaning, replanting and replacing of worn orbroken parts has to be taken into account. Thecosts of production and down time, overtimepayment, late-delivery penalties and loss ofcustomer goodwill also need to be considered.

The moulders also know that they have to solvethe problem of maximizing the life and perform-ance of the production tool, e.g. the mould, toachieve the lowest possible total tooling cost perpart produced. The cost of the tool steel in amould usually represents only 5–10% of the toolcosts. The effect on the total cost will be evenless.

The drive to find new solutions, ongoingdevelopment and research are the hallmark ofUddeholm as a business partner.

Continuous improvements and new productdevelopment are possible because we understandand listen to our customers needs.

Wherever production calls for precision andoptimum performance, Uddeholm’s world leadingtool steel is used.

In this brochure we present all our high qualitymaterial used for production of plastic parts. Wealso focus on important factors that contributeto an economical production.

Steel affects us in millions of ways

Pulse monitor. Uddeholm Stavax ESR and Uddeholm UHB 11 are suitable mould steel for this kind of production.


Product designWe at Uddeholm can help the product designerto ensure that the final moulding matches hisoriginal concept.

Our worldwide marketing organization is ableto provide high quality mould steel to meet everyplastics moulding and extrusion requirement.

Our Technical Support will give competenttechnical advice and information on the selectionof the appropriate steel, heat treatment andapplication techniques.

THE IMPORTANT ROLEOF THE PRODUCT DESIGNER

When setting out to create a new moulded parta product designer faces many criteria that haveto be satisfied.

Apart from its purely functional performance,the moulding is often required to match highstandards of finish and tolerance over a longproduction run.

Whether these requirements are successfullymet or not depends to a large extent on goodcomponent design, good mould design, goodmould-making and the selection of the bestmould steel for the job.

CHOOSING THE BESTMOULD STEEL FOR THE JOB

The product designer is thus involved in a lot ofimportant decisions. Decisions that sooner orlater will relate to the mould steel selected. Hehas to ask himself questions such as:How important is the surface finish?Does it need to be a mirror or opticalfinish?(On page 10 you can see where we can be ofassistance in helping him to answer these ques-tions.)

Will the mould for the part be patternedby photo-etching? Are there severalpatterned parts to be matched, e.g. mould-ings in a car interior?(On page 13 you can see what Uddeholm has tooffer in this field.)

Will the moulding material be corrosive,abrasive or both?(For further information on how we tackle theseproblems see page 22.)

How critical is it that the tolerances areheld within close limits? What quantitieshave to be produced?(The answer is important since the productionquantity will affect the degree of wear resistanceand other properties required in the mouldmaterial.)

AVOID SHARP CORNERSAND STAY OUT OF TROUBLE!

Avoiding sharp corners and edges whereverpossible is one example of how an experiencedproduct designer can improve mould life andmoulding productivity.

Sharp corners in mouldings, and therefore inthe mould, are always potential stress-raisingpoints. Points likely to cause cracking and failureof both moulding and mould.

By increasing the radius of the corners ofmoulded parts a product designer significantlyimproves the impact strength of the mould.

The result is a stronger mould, much betterable to resist high locking and injection pres-sures.

Effect of increasing radius on impact strength.(Steel type: AISI H13 at 46–47 HRC. Sample taken fromsurface, in the longitudinal direction.)

30

25

20

15

10

5

0.25 0.75 1.25 1.75 2.25 mm0.010 0.030 0.050 0.070 0.090 inch

Radius

Impact strengthKV


Mould designThe mould designer can significantly contributeto optimum tooling economy by thinking stand-ard, i.e. using standard steel grades, standard steelsizes and standard machined plates.

THE IMPORTANT ROLEOF THE MOULD DESIGNER

In seeking to produce the best possible mould, amould designer faces several criteria that have tobe satisfied.

Together with the mouldmaker he shares theheavy responsibility of producing a mould thatgives reliable and economical production of thepart conceived by the product designer.

He also endeavours to ensure that the mouldcan be constructed as easily and economically aspossible by the mouldmaker.

Whether these requirements are successfullymet or not depends to a large extent on specify-ing the best mould steel and hardness for themould concerned.

A clever mould designer can also add a valuableservice to all concerned by thinking standard.

TAKE A SHORT CUT TO PRODUCTIVITY BY THINKING STANDARD!

Most mould designers are used to specifying awhole range of standard parts such as guide pinsand bushings, ejector pins etc. Since these partsare available quickly at competitive prices theyhelp the mouldmaker save valuable time.

But there is even more time and money to besaved. Time and cost savings can be further im-proved by extending this standard thinking tostandard steel sizes, machined plates and steelgrades.

In fact, by specifying readily available steelgrades in standard sizes the mouldmaker canensure prompt deliveries while keeping initialmachining costs and material losses to a mini-mum.

CHOOSING THE OPTIMUM MOULD STEELFOR BEST TOOLING AND PRODUCTIONECONOMY

The choice of steel grade and supplier is oftenmade at the design stage in order to simplify andspeed up the delivery of the mould. This meansthat the material and parts can be ordered ingood time and that the work can be betterplanned.


This is not always a simple task. In many cases thechoice of steel grade is a compromise betweenthe wishes of the mouldmaker and the moulder.

The mouldmaker is primarily interested in themachinability of the steel, its polishability, heattreatment and surface treatment properties.

The moulder is looking for a mould with goodwear and corrosion resistance, high compressivestrength etc.

MOST COMMONLY USED MOULD STEELThe steel types most commonly used are:• prehardened mould and holder steel• through-hardening mould steel• corrosion resistant mould steel

(For further information on these steel types andtheir properties see pages 21–23.)

WHEN TO USE PREHARDENEDMOULD AND HOLDER STEEL

These steel are mostly used for:• large moulds• moulds with low demands on wear resistance• extrusion dies• high strength holder plates

The steel are delivered in the hardened andtempered condition, usually within the 270–400 Brinell range. No heat treatment is necessarybefore the mould is put into use.

The surface hardness can be increased in manycases (see “Why Heat Treatment” on page 11).

Prehardened mould steel are generally used forlarge moulds and for moulds with moderateproduction runs.

UDDEHOLM PREHARDENEDMOULD AND HOLDER STEEL

Uddeholm Impax Supreme (AISI P20 modified),which is refined by the vacuum degassing tech-nique, offers good machinability and homogeneity,excellent polishability and consistent photo-etching properties due to a low sulphur content.

Uddeholm Nimax is a low carbon steel withexcellent toughness and weldability. It also hasexcellent machinability for a high hardness pre-hardened steel.

Uddeholm Holdax (AISI 4140 modified), oftenrecommended for high strength holder blocksand large moulds with low requirements onpolishability, offers excellent machinabilityenabling high metal removal rates for deep formsand insert cavity recesses.

Uddeholm Impax Supreme, Uddeholm Holdaxand Uddeholm Nimax are prehardened steel.Uddeholm Impax Supreme and UddeholmHoldax are delivered at 290–330 HB and Udde-holm Nimax at 360–400 HB.

Uddeholm Ramax HH (high hard) and Udde-holm Ramax LH (low hard) (AISI 420 F modified)are pre-hardened stainless holder steel sulphur-ized for improved machinability. The deliveryhardness of Uddeholm Ramax HH is approx.340 Brinell and of Uddeholm Ramax LH approx.290 HB. They are both ideal partners for Udde-holm Stavax ESR, Uddeholm Mirrax ESR,Uddeholm Polmax and Uddeholm Elmax when acompletely stainless mould package is desired.

Uddeholm Ramax LH is a f irst class tool steel for mould bases, Craftsman Tool & Mold, Aurora, Il, USA


WHEN TO USETHROUGH-HARDENED STEEL

These steel are mostly used:• for long productions runs• to resist abrasion from certain moulding

materials• to counter high closing or injection pressures• for high pressure processes like compression

moulding

The steel are delivered in the soft annealedcondition. They are usually rough-machined,stress-relieved, semi-finish machined, hardenedand tempered to the required hardness and thenfinish-machined ground and often polished orphoto-etched.

Through-hardened steel, used for cavity andcore inserts, are usually placed in holder blocksof prehardened steel such as Uddeholm Holdax,Uddeholm Ramax LH or Uddeholm Ramax HH.

By using through-hardened mould or cavityinserts, e.g. in the range 48–60 Rockwell C, you’llobtain better wear resistance, resistance todeformation and indentation and better polish-ability.

Better wear resistance is especially importantwhen filled or reinforced plastic materials areused. Resistance to deformation and indentationin the cavity, gate areas and parting lines helps tomaintain part quality.

Better polishability is important when highsurface finish is required on the moulded part.

UDDEHOLM THROUGH-HARDENING STEEL

Uddeholm Stavax ESR (AISI 420 modified),Uddeholm Mirrax ESR, Uddeholm Polmax (AISI420 modified), Uddeholm Orvar Supreme(AISI H13 improved), Uddeholm Vidar 1 ESR(AISI H11) and Uddeholm Unimax are all typicalthrough-hardening steel.

Our powder-metallurgy tool steel, UddeholmVanadis 4 Extra, Uddeholm Vanadis 6, UddeholmVanadis 10 and Uddeholm Elmax, are our mostwear resistant steel.

WHEN TO USECORROSION RESISTANT MOULD STEEL

If a mould is likely to be exposed to corrosion, astainless steel is strongly recommended.

The increased initial cost of this steel is oftenless than the cost involved in a single repolishingor replating operation of a mould made of a noncorrosion resistant steel.

Plastic moulds and dies can be affected bycorrosion in several ways:

• plastic materials can produce corrosive by-products, e.g. PVC

• corrosion leads to reduced cooling efficiencywhen water channels become corroded orcompletely blocked

• condensation caused by prolonged productionstoppages, humid operating or storage condi-tions, often leads to corrosion

Tupperware plastic boxes produced in a mouldmade in Uddeholm Mirrax ESR.


UDDEHOLM CORROSIONRESISTANT MOULD STEEL

Uddeholm Stavax ESR and Uddeholm Mirrax ESR,are corrosion resistant mould steel offeringexcellent polishability combined with good wearand indentation resistance. Uddeholm Mirrax ESRis developed to meet the increased requirementson good toughness and through hardenability inlarger sections.

Uddeholm Polmax is also a corrosion resistantmould steel specially developed to meet the highdemands on polishability from producers of suchhigh-tech products as CDs, memory discs andlenses.

Uddeholm Elmax is a powder-metallurgy mouldsteel with high wear and corrosion resistance.

Uddeholm Corrax is a precipitation hardeningmould steel with un-matched corrosion resist-ance, easy heat treatment and good weldability.

OTHER MATERIAL

Alumec is recommended for prototype mouldsand for short runs with low demands on strengthand wear resistance. It is also a suitable materialto use for low pressure processes like blowmoulding or foam moulding.

Copper alloys like Moldmax HH andMoldmax XL are used in moulds when highthermal conductivity is needed. Either by itself orin combination with other insert materials.

FINDING THE CORRECT WORKINGHARDNESS FOR THE MOULD

The chosen working hardness for the mould,and the heat treatment method used to achieveit, affect a lot of properties. Properties such astoughness, compression strength, wear andcorrosion resistance.

Generally it can be said that increased hardnessresults in better resistance against wear, pressureand indentation and that decreased hardnessleads to better toughness.

A normal working hardness for a through-hardening steel is 46–60 Rockwell C. The opti-mum working hardness used depends on thechosen steel, the mould size, layout and shape ofthe cavities, the moulding process, plastic materialetc.

For recommended steel grades and workinghardness related to various plastic materials andprocesses, see page 23–25.

For information on heat treating plastic mouldsask for the Uddeholm publication “Heat Treat-ment of Tool Steel”.

Prehardened steel like Uddeholm ImpaxSupreme or Uddeholm Nimax is a good

choice for production of buckets.


IMPAX SUPREMENIMAXSTAVAX ESRMIRRAX ESRPOLMAXORVAR SUPREMEUNIMAXELMAXCORRAX

HOLDAXRAMAX LHRAMAX HHUHB 11FORMAX

MouldmakingA substantial part of the total tooling cost isincurred during the manufacturing of the mould.It is therefore of great importance that themouldmaking process should be as straight-forward as possible.

THE IMPORTANT ROLEOF THE MOULDMAKER

A well equipped machine shop with competentand experienced personnel is an essential part ofthe mouldmaking process.

The significant investment that this processrepresents is ultimately focused on the mouldmaterial. An experienced mouldmaker, therefore,places high demands on his steel supplier and hisproduct when it comes to steel quality andproperties as well as steel finish and availability.

CHOOSING THEOPTIMUM MOULD STEEL

The mouldmaker is looking for a mould steel freefrom defects, easy to machine and polish, stable inheat treatment and suitable in many cases forEDM and/or photo-etching.

WITHOUT DEFECTS

All material supplied by Uddeholm has beensubjected to various external and internal inspec-tion procedures, including ultrasonic testing. Thisensures that high and even quality standards aremet.

GOOD MACHINABILITY—GOOD ECONOMY

The cost of machining, accounts for roughly1/3 of the total cost of mould manufacture. So agood and uniform machinability is of outmostimportance.

Most of Uddeholm’s mould steel are suppliedin the fully annealed condition enabling the bestpossible metal removal rates for the type of steelconcerned.

The only exceptions are the Uddeholm steelImpax Supreme (AISI P20 modified), Holdax (AISI4140 modified), Nimax, Ramax LH and RamaxHH (AISI 420F modified) which are deliveredprehardened.

The Uddeholm steel grades Impax Supreme, Holdax,Nimax and Ramax HH were tested in the prehardenedcondition.

Uddeholmholder steel

Uddeholmmould steel

Increasing machinability

▲

A machinability comparison guide for a numberof grades of Uddeholm steel is shown below.The guide is based on tool wear tests.

Alumec has an excellent machinability, i.e. highcutting speed, which leads to lower mould costand shorter delivery time.

HOW IMPORTANT IS GOOD POLISHING?

Polishing sometimes accounts for up to 30% ofthe total mould cost. Not surprisingly, since it is avery time consuming and expensive process.

The result obtained depends to a large extenton the polishing techniques and a few other fac-tors. The cleanliness of the steel, i.e. the type,distribution, quantity and size of non-metallicinclusions, the homogeneity of the steel, the hard-ness of the steel and, for hardened steel, how theheat treatment has been carried out.

Non-metallic inclusions are reduced to a mini-mum if the steel is vacuum-degassed and/or Elec-tro Slag Refined (ESR process) during production.This ESR treatment results in improved homo-

Compact discs produced in a mould made inUddeholm Polmax.


geneity and minimal amount of inclusionscompared to conventional steel productionprocesses.

DON’T POLISH MORE THAN NECESSARY!

It is pointless to polish beyond a certain leveldepending on the heat treatment process to beused. The table, below, shows the smallest rec-ommended grain size of abrasive to be used in asurface prior to being hardened and tempered byvarious methods.

For further information ask for the Uddeholmpublication “Polishing of Tool Steel”.

Cast Protec-Iron Salt tive

Uddeholm grade Vacuum Chips Bath Gas

STAVAX ESRMIRRAX ESRPOLMAXORVAR SUPREMEUNIMAXRIGORELMAX

SVERKER 21 400 180 60 220–400grain grain or grain grain

coarser

400 180–200 180 220–400grain grain or grain or grain

coarser coarser

Smallest recommended grain size of abrasive to beused prior to hardening and tempering.

WHY HEAT TREATMENT?

The purpose of heat treating a finished tool is toobtain suitable mechanical properties such ashardness, toughness and strength. But there aresome problems associated with heat treatment.Problems like distortion and dimensional changeshave to be solved.

SOLVING THE DISTORTION PROBLEM

The tool should be stress-relieved after rough-machining in order to minimize distortion prob-lems. In this way the stresses induced by themachining-operations are relieved and any distor-tion is then rectified in the semi-finish machiningbefore heat treatment.

When using through-hardening steel at maxi-mum hardness levels, however, the requirementfor minimum distortion may have to be sacrificed.The reason is that higher hardening temperaturesand rapid quenching rates are necessary. This isespecially the case when heavy sections are in-volved. The safest way of avoiding distortion is touse prehardened steel such as Uddeholm ImpaxSupreme or Uddeholm Nimax—for which noadditional heat treatment is required.

Different types of surface treatment can locallyincrease surface hardness.

HOW TO DEAL WITHDIMENSIONAL CHANGES

It is true that some dimensional changes areinevitable during hardening. But it is also possibleto limit and control these changes to a certainextent. For instance by slow uniform heating tothe austenitizing temperature, by using a tem-perature that is not too high, by using a suitablequenching medium or a step-quenching proce-dure.

Uddeholm Stavax ESR, Uddeholm Mirrax ESR,Uddeholm Unimax, Uddeholm Orvar Supreme,Uddeholm Vidar 1 ESR, Uddeholm Polmax andUddeholm Elmax can all be air hardened whendimensional stability is important.

Uddeholm Corrax needs only an aging processat 500–600°C (930–1110°F) and no quenching.This means that no distortion will occur, only alinear and homogenous shrinkage in the order of0.1%. Since it is totally predictable it is easy tocompensate for this shrinkage by adding stockbefore the heat treatment.

SURFACE FINISH PRIOR TO HEAT TREATMENT

Electrolux vacuum cleaner.


TAKE THE SHORT CUT TO PRODUCTIVITY

Purchasing steel in a prefinished form is a smartway of releasing toolmaking capacity for themore skilled machining operations. Many gradesof steel are obtainable in a number of formsand finishes. And many of them have been pre-machined to a greater or lesser degree.

Uddeholm tool steel are available as machinedbars.

It is always possible to find a suitable stock sizefor the work in hand and thus reduce theamount of unnecessary and expensive machining.

In all cases a plus machining allowance is madeon all sizes to allow for final finishing to a stand-ard dimension.

MACHINED BAR

By using machined bar as starting material a tool-maker gets considerable benefits which have aneffect on the total cost of the steel.• Less material by weight can be purchased,

which means that waste is considerablyreduced.

• No machining costs for removal of the de-carburized surface layers are involved.

• The manufacturing time is shortened, whichmakes planning simpler and calculations moreaccurate.

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

When spark eroding cavities, one or two impor-tant points should be noted in order to obtainsatisfactory results. During the operation thesurface layer of the steel is rehardened and con-sequently in a brittle state. This may result incracking and shortened tool life. To avoid thisproblem the following precautions should betaken.

• Finish the EDM operation by fine spark-ing, i.e. using low current and high frequency.

• The affected surface layer should be removedby polishing or stoning.

• If the spark eroded surface texture is to beused in the finished mould it should be retem-pered at a temperature ~25°C below that usedpreviously.

• If the spark eroded surface is to be texturedby photo-etching it is important that all of theaffected surface layer is carefully removed bystoning etc.

For further information see the Uddeholm publi-cation “Electrical Discharge Machining of ToolSteel”.

WIRE EDM’ING

This process makes it easy to cut complicatedshapes from hardened steel blocks for exampleduring manufacturing of extrusion dies. However,hardened steel always contain stresses and whenlarge volumes of steel are removed in a singleoperation, distortion may be caused or evencracking. These difficulties can be reduced byconventionally machining the work piece beforeheat treatment to a shape near the final form.This allows the work piece to adjust to the finalshape and stress pattern during heat treatment.

WHY THE PHOTO-ETCHING PROCESSHAS BECOME SO POPULAR

Plastic mouldings with a textured surface havebecome increasingly popular. And texturing byphoto-etching is frequently used as a finish onmoulding tools instead of polishing.

The photo-etching process gives the productan attractive, easily held surface, relativelyinsensitive to minor scratches and damage.


POINTS TO BE OBSERVEDWHEN PHOTO-ETCHING

The results obtained by photo-etching do notentirely depend on the process technique andthe selected mould material. The way in whichthe tool has been treated during manufacture isalso of great importance. Therefore, the followingpoints should be observed.

• If a number of moulding inserts are included ina tool and these are to be etched with thesame pattern, the mould material and the roll-ing direction should be the same for theseparts (preferably from the same bar or block).

• Complete the machining operation by stress-relieving, followed by finish-machining.

• There is generally no advantage in using finerabrasives than 220 grain on a surface that is tobe photo-etched.

• Spark eroded surfaces should always be groundor polished otherwise rehardened surfacelayers from the spark erosion will cause a pooretching result.

• Flamehardening should be avoided prior tophoto-etching.

• In some cases a welded tool can be photo-etched provided that the same material is used

in the weld as in the tool itself. In such casesthe welded area should be indicated to thephoto-etcher.

• If a tool is to be nitrided this must be doneafter photo-etching.

• The surface area of a mould cavity is greatlyincreased by texturing, which may cause ejec-tion problems. Early consultation with thephoto-etching specialist is recommended todetermine the optimum draft angle for theshape and pattern concerned.

UDDEHOLM MOULD STEELSUITABLE FOR PHOTO-ETCHING

Uddeholm Impax Supreme (AISI P20 modified),Uddeholm Nimax pre-hardened mould steel,Uddeholm Orvar Supreme (AISI H13 improved)and Uddeholm Vidar 1 ESR (AISI H11) through-hardened steel yield particularly good andconsistent results due to their very low sulphurcontents.

Uddeholm Stavax ESR, Uddeholm Mirrax ESR,Uddeholm Elmax, Uddeholm Corrax and Udde-holm Polmax can be photo-etched to the re-quired pattern but will require a slightly differentetching technique, because of their corrosionresistance.

There are several textured parts in a car interior. Photo-etched surfaces.


MouldingBy specifying Uddeholm material, the mouldercan take an important step towards getting areliable and productive tool.

THE DEMANDS OF THE MANUFACTUREROF PLASTIC MOULDINGS

The manufacturer expects his mould to be deliv-ered on time. And he expects it to produce acertain quantity of components at a specifiedquality level and at lowest possible cost. Themanufacturer’s essential demands are:

• a reliable mould delivery date, implying theready availability of suitable mould materials

• a reliable mould performance in terms of auniform, high rate of production, uniformquality of mouldings, long mould life and lowmould maintenance costs

• availability of replacement materials and com-ponents

All these demands can be summarized as toolreliability.

TOOL RELIABILITY

Tool reliability depends on such factors as theready availability of suitable mould material andcomponents, the performance of the mould steeland the interchangeability of mould components.

AVAILABILITY OF MOULD STEEL

The ready availability is determined by localstocks, reliable delivery service and comprehen-sive product and size range.

LOCAL STOCKS

The location of stock is important if gooddelivery service is to be maintained.

With our worldwide marketing organizationwe place great emphasis on matching our stocksize programme and our stock levels to the localneeds of each individual market.

MOULD STEEL PERFORMANCEAND TOOL RELIABILITY

The performance of the mould steel has a deci-sive influence on the reliability of the tool. Mouldcavity and insert materials are therefore selectedaccording to the types of plastics to be moulded,length of production run, moulding process usedand the nature of the product.

The performance of the mould steel dependson wear resistance, compressive strength, corro-sion resistance, thermal conductivity and tough-ness.

We have concentrated our mould steel pro-gramme on a few steel grades, each suited tospecific applications. This assures not only readyavailability but also gives the mouldmaker and themoulder an opportunity to become more readilyfamiliar with the characteristics of each steel (e.g.machinability, heat treatment response etc.) andperformance.

WEAR RESISTANCE

The level of wear resistance required will dependon the type of resin to be used, mould process,amount of additives, length of production, toler-ances etc.

Mould steel cover a wide range of wear resist-ance and compressive strength. In principle, theyfall into two categories: prehardened mould steelfor moderate demands, e.g. Uddeholm ImpaxSupreme, Uddeholm Nimax, Uddeholm Holdaxand Uddeholm Ramax HH and through-hardening

RELIABLE DELIVERY SERVICE

Our widespread network of Uddeholm ware-houses and our complete range of products formthe basis for our delivery service.

Each of our stock locations has a well estab-lished distribution system.

COMPREHENSIVE PRODUCT RANGE

To sum it up, we are able to offer a wide range ofmould and holder steel. To us competent techni-cal advice and printed material on the selection,heat treatment and application of mould materi-als, EDM, polishing and surface texturing of toolsteel are very important aspects of our service.


mould steel for severe demands, e.g. UddeholmStavax ESR, Uddeholm Mirrax ESR, UddeholmPolmax, Uddeholm Corrax, Uddeholm OrvarSupreme, Uddeholm Vidar 1 ESR, UddeholmUnimax and Uddeholm Elmax.

Prehardened mould steel can be surfacetreated to obtain greater wear resistance, forinstance, by nitriding. However, through-hardenedsteel give the best combination of wear resist-ance and compressive strength.

The wear resistance of fully hardened steel canbe further improved by surface treatment orsurface coating, such as nitriding, hard chromeplating, PVD etc.

Such surface treatments are preferably appliedonly after the mould has been fully approved,since further machining can be difficult.

It should be noted that the corrosion resist-ance of Uddeholm mould steel Stavax ESR, Mir-rax ESR, Polmax, Corrax and Elmax is reduced bynitriding.

The powder metallurgy grades, UddeholmElmax, Uddeholm Vanadis 4 Extra, UddeholmVanadis 6 and Uddeholm Vanadis 10, are ex-tremely wear resistant. They are recommendedfor small moulds, inserts and cores subjected toabrasive wear.

CORROSION RESISTANCE

The moulding surfaces should not deteriorateduring production if you want to produce plasticmouldings at a high and constant rate of produc-tion and at a uniform level. Corrosion with aconsequent threat to production efficiency canbe experienced in several ways.

• Certain types of plastics can emit corrosive by-products during production. An example is thehydrochloric acid produced from PVC. Thiseffect can be minimized by not exceeding therecommended moulding temperature for thismaterial, usually about 160°C (320°F).

• The cooling medium can be corrosive. This canresult in a loss of cooling efficiency or even inthe total blockage of the cooling channels.

• Productions in a humid or corrosive atmos-phere or prolonged storage may cause surfacedamage by water, condensation and eventuallyrust in the cavities with loss of surface finish onthe products.

All the problems mentioned above create a de-mand for insert and holder materials with somedegree of resistance to corrosion. UddeholmCorrax, which has the best corrosion resistance,is used wherever corrosion is the main problem,i.e. processing corrosive plastics. UddeholmStavax ESR and Uddeholm Mirrax ESR are corro-sion resistant mould steel with high cleanliness,Uddeholm Polmax can meet the highest demandson polishability combined with corrosion resist-ance. Uddeholm Elmax is combining moderate

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The compressive strength required is determinedby the plastic moulding process, the injectionand closing pressures and the tolerances of thefinished moulding. During moulding compressiveforces are concentrated on the parting faces ofthe tool.

Local hardening, e.g. flamehardening, can givethe required increase in compressive strengthwhen prehardened steel are used.

Toothbrushes produced in a Uddeholm Stavax ESR mould.


THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

The rate of production of a moulding tooldepends mostly on the ability of the mould totransfer the heat from the moulded plastic to thecooling medium.

In highly alloyed steel the coefficient of thermalconductivity is reduced to some degree com-pared to a low alloyed steel. However, investiga-tions clearly indicate that it is the plastic in themoulded part that dominates the heat flux in amould due to its very low thermal conductivitycompared to steel.

However, good corrosion resistance is also ofgreat importance when aiming for a high anduniform production rate. Corrosion resistancehas a beneficial effect on the resultant heat trans-fer properties in the cooling channels. The use ofstainless mould steel such as Uddeholm StavaxESR or Uddeholm Mirrax ESR is often the answer.When mould materials with good corrosionresistance, combined with very high thermalconductivity are required, we can supply severalgrades of copper mould alloys.

Moldmax HH and Moldmax XL are high strengthgrades with high thermal conductivity, goodcorrosion and wear resistance and good polish-ability.

TOUGHNESS

Development of cracks is the worst thing thatcan happen to a mould.

Complicated cavities with small radii, sharpcorners, thin walls and severe changes of sectionare commonplace today. Toughness is thereforeone of the most important properties a mouldsteel should possess.

The fracture toughness of a material is a meas-ure of its capacity to withstand crack propagationfrom stress raisers when subjected to tensilestresses. In practice these stress raisers occur assurface defects from machining operations, in-cipient fatigue cracks, inclusions or as faultystructure due to improper heat treatment.

We are fully aware of the importance of tough-ness. We utilize state of the art metallurgicaltechnology to give the mould steel optimumtoughness. By utilizing such techniques as vacuumdegassing, special refining processes and electro-slag remelting, the toughness properties of all oursteel are the highest currently available. Thisimproved toughness is evident not only at thesurface but also in the centre of the steel.

Injection mould inserts made inUddeholm Unimax for production of rotors.

corrosion resistance with extremely high wearresistance and Uddeholm Ramax LH or HH arecorrosion resistant holder steel with very goodmachinability. By using Uddeholm Ramax gradesfor the holders the stainless properties are ex-tended to the full mould.


Injection mouldingInjection moulding is a moulding procedurewhereby heated and plasticized thermoplastic orthermoset material is injected under high pres-sure into a relatively cool mould cavity forsolidification. Injection moulding is a high produc-tion method. However the moulds can beextremely complicated and expensive.

PERFORMANCE OF MOULDS

The performance of the mould can be effectedby the selection of mould material. The perform-ance can mean different to different people:• mould life• quality of the plastic part• productivity

MOULD LIFE

The mould life may be determined by differentmechanisms such as:• wear• surface defects• deformation• corrosion

Wear may occur because of reinforced plastic orvery long runs, surface defects may already duringmould manufacturing as a result of polishing orEDM defects. Deformation can sometimes be aresult of too high a clamping force. Corrosionmay of course be a problem when mouldingcorrosive resins like PVC, but may also be resultof aggressive cooling water or humid atmos-phere.

QUALITY OF THE PLASTIC PART

The quality of the plastic part is a matter of thelook of the part, but of course also the functionof the part.

Steel selection is important for high polishedmoulds. The steel must be clean and have a verylow amount of inclusions. Tolerances may beeffected because of uneven mould temperatureswhich of course is very much dependent on thecooling channels size and position but also on theselection of mould material. Material like alu-minium or copper alloys, with high thermal con-ductivity, may in some cases be used as mouldmaterial.

PRODUCTIVITY

Even productivity can sometimes be effected bythe selection of mould materials. The mostobvious situation is the selection of high thermalconductivity materials.

MOULD MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

Depending on number of shots, plastic materialused, size of the mould and needed surface finishalso a lot of different materials can be used.Following basic mould material properties mustbe considered:• strength and hardness• toughness• wear resistance• cleanliness• corrosion resistance• thermal conductivity

Compression mouldingCompression moulding is a technique mainly forthermoset moulding in which the mouldingcompound is placed in the open mould cavity, themould is closed and heat and pressure areapplied until the material is cured.

Compression moulding is often used for mould-ing of glass fibre reinforced plastic.

There are several advantages with compressionmoulding for example:• no vaste of plastic material (no gate or runner

system)• minimum of internal stresses in the part• process can be used for very heavy parts• less expensive equipment.

Limitations are:• difficult to mould complex articles with

undercuts or small holes• fair tolerances• flash can be a problem


Important properties are:• wear resistance• strength and hardness

High hardness steel is normally used. When themoulds are big it is common to use prehardenedmaterial with high hardness inserts where theneed for wear resistance is highest.


Blow mouldingBlow moulding is a process for shaping thermo-plastic into a hollow product. A hot thermoplas-tic tube is stretched with air pressure and cooledagainst a mould surface.

A variety of blow moulding techniques exist fordifferent applications:• extrusion blow moulding• injection blow moulding

In extrusion blow moulding a hollow tube(parison) is extruded. The tube is than positionedin a mould and compressed air cause the tube topress against the cool walls and solidifies to themould surface shape. Extrusion moulding existsas continuous extrusion and intermittent extru-sion.

Injection blow moulding involves first formingof a perform, by extrusion or injection moulding,which is later blown to the desired shape.


Mould material requirements are of coursetotally different if talking about the injectionmoulding or extrusion of performs or if talkingabout the blow moulding itself. For requirementson material for extrusion and/or injectionmoulding we refer to the information for eachprocess.

Blow moulding is a low pressure methodwhere strength and wear demands are verymoderate. Some parts of the mould, like shot offareas and/or neck ring, may require higherstrength material. PVC is a common material forbottles and my cause corrosion problems. Blowmoulding is a very high productivity method whycycle times are of great importance.

MOULD MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Important properties are:• moderate strength demands• corrosion resistance• heat conductivity

MOULD MATERIAL RECOMMENDATIONS

The most common material to use in blowmoulds is aluminium alloys, with inserts of higherhardness materials.

Steel is also used and in some cases even in thesoft annealed condition.

ExtrusionA continuous operation in which hot plasticizedmaterial is forced through a die opening thatproduces a profile of the desired shape.

The plastic material is placed into a feedhopper, which feeds the cylinder. A rotating screwcarries the material through the cylinder andforcing it through a die of the proper shape. Theextruded profile is going through a cooling mediaand when cooled sufficiently it is cut to length.Cooling can be done by exposure to air in roomtemperature, passing through a bath held atcontrolled temperature or by compressed air.

Normally a special calibrator unit is used togive the profile its finished size. The cooling is asensitive process in order to keep tolerances andavoid varpage.

DIE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

In the extrusion process many engineering partsare involved.

The calibrator units are often produced inaluminium in order to get quick cooling. The dieis however normally produced in steel. Thestrength requirements are moderate. However,corrosion resistance is needed for extrusion ofPVC profiles and wear resistance for reinforcedprofiles.

Normally prehardened grades have enoughstrength for normal extrusion. The dies aresometimes nitrided for increased wear resist-ance.

..


The PET bottles are produced intwo steps: f irst injection mouldingof the preforms and then blowmoulding of the preforms to thef inished bottle. Uddeholm StavaxESR is a recommended tool steelfor production of the preforms.


COMPLETE LOCAL STOCKS

From our long experience serving the plasticmould industry we have become familiar withthe sizes, grades and tolerances most frequentlyused. We have stocked these in strategicallylocated Service Centers.

OUTSTANDING TECHNICAL SERVICE

Our staff of metallurgists and field specialists canhelp you with material selection at the designstage and later with recommendations on heattreatment, grinding and machining.

Printed material on the selection, heat treatmentand application of mould materials, EDM,

polishing and surface texturing of tool steelare very important aspects

of our service.

WELDING CONSUMABLES

To ensure successful repair welding it is ofoutmost importance to exactly match theconsumables to the mould steel. Especially if thewelded surface is to be photo-etched or pol-ished. We offer welding consumables for Udde-holm Impax Supreme, Uddeholm Nimax, Udde-holm Unimax, Uddeholm Corrax, UddeholmStavax ESR and Moldmax. They are available asTIG-wire.

We also offer laser welding wire for UddeholmNimax and Uddeholm Stavax ESR.

Uddeholm Impax Supreme is also available ascoated electrode for MMA welding.

The same consistent quality steel, the samedependable technical service, available to you worldwide.Only from Uddeholm!

POCKET BOOK

The Uddeholm range of tooling materials

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ONE SOURCE FOR ALL YOURTOOL STEEL NEEDS

Cold work tool steel including precision groundflat stock, drill rod and hollow bar, plastic mouldsteel, die casting die steel and hot work steel.


UDDEHOLMMOULD STEEL

IMPAX SUPREME(AISI P20, modified)

NIMAX

STAVAX ESR / MIRRAX ESR(AISI 420, modified)

POLMAX(AISI 420, modified)

CORRAX

ORVAR SUPREME(AISI H13, improved)

VIDAR 1 ESR(AISI H11)

UNIMAX

RIGOR(AISI A2)

ELMAXVANADIS 4 EXTRAVANADIS 6VANADIS 10

UDDEHOLMHOLDER STEEL

HOLDAX(AISI 4130/35, modified)

RAMAX HH, RAMAX LH(AISI 420F, modified)

ALUMINIUM

ALUMEC

COPPER ALLOYS

MOLDMAX HHMOLDMAX XL

A prehardened Ni-Cr-Mo steel, supplied at 290–330 Brinell, with excellent polishing andphoto-etching properties. Suitable for a wide range of injection moulds, blow-moulds,extrusion dies.

A low carbon steel, delivery hardness 360–400 HB. Excellent toughness, machinabilityand weldability. Good polishing and etching properties.

Through-hardening stainless mould steels with good corrosion resistance and very goodpolishability.

A through-hardening stainless mould steel with good corrosion resistance andextremely good polishability.

A precipitation hardening steel with exceptionally good corrosion resistance, easy heattreatment and good weldability.

A versatile through-hardening 5% Cr mould and die steel with good wear resistance andpolishability.

A 5% Cr mould and die steel with good through-hardening properties. Suitable forgeneral hot work and plastic mould applications, specially large plastic moulds withrequirements on high toughness in combination with very good polishability andtexturing properties.

A steel with very good hardenability, suitable for surface coating. The uniquecombination of toughness and wear resistance makes it suitable for long run mouldingand moulding of reinforced plastics.

A through-hardening steel, recommended for very long production runs of smaller,complicated mouldings.

Powder metallurgically produced mould steels characterized by very good dimensionstability, good polishability and wear resistance. Elmax is corrosion resistant, Vanadis 4Extra has the highest toughness and Vanadis 10 the best wear resistance. Recommendedfor long production runs of smaller and complicated shapes and/or abrasive plastics.

A prehardened steel with very good machinability and high tensile strength.

Prehardened stainless steels with good machinability, high tensile strength and goodcorrosion resistance.

A high strength Al-alloy supplied at ~160 HB. Recommended for prototype moulds andfor short runs with low demands on strength and wear resistance.

High strength copper mould alloys with high thermal conductivity. For applications likepinch offs and neck rings for blow moulds, cores and inserts in injection moulds andinjection nozzles and manifolds for hot runner systems.

Product programme for plastic moulding


SUPPLIEDANALYSIS % HARDNESS

C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo V S Brinell

IMPAX SUPREME 0.37 0.3 1.4 2.0 1.0 0.2 – <0.01 ~310

NIMAX 0.1 0.3 2.5 3.0 1.0 0.3 – – ~380

UNIMAX 0.5 0.2 0.5 5.0 – 2.3 0.5 – 185

ORVAR SUPREME 0.39 1.0 0.4 5.2 – 1.4 0.9 – 180

VIDAR 1 ESR 0.38 1.0 0.4 5.0 – 1.3 0.4 – 185

STAVAX ESR 0.38 0.9 0.5 13.6 – – 0.3 – 215

MIRRAX ESR 0.25 0.35 0.55 13.3 1.35 0.35 0.35 +N 250

POLMAX 0.38 0.9 0.5 13.6 – – 0.3 – 215

CORRAX 0.03 0.3 0.3 12.0 9.2 1.4 – Al 1.6 ~330

RIGOR 1.0 0.2 0.8 5.3 – 1.1 0.2 – 215

ELMAX 1.7 0.8 0.3 18.0 – 1.0 3.0 – 280

VANADIS 4 EXTRA 1.4 0.4 0.4 4.7 – 3.5 3.7 – 230

VANADIS 6 2.1 1.0 0.4 6.8 – 1.5 5.4 – 255

VANADIS 10 2.9 1.0 0.5 8.0 – 1.5 9.8 – 275

UDDEHOLMHOLDER STEEL

HOLDAX 0.4 0.4 1.5 1.9 – 0.2 – 0.07 ~310

RAMAX HH 0.12 0.2 1.3 13.4 1.6 0.5 0.2 0.1 +N ~340

RAMAX LH 0.12 1.0 1.45 14.0 0.36 0.2 0.1 0.13 +N ~290

Normal hardnessHRC (HB) (~310) (380) 58 52 52 52 52 46 58 60 60 62 (~310) (~340) (~290)

Wear resistance 3 4 8 7 7 7 7 5 9 9 9 10 3 4 3

Toughness 9 10 6 6 5 6 5 7 4 3 5 4 4 3 3

Compressivestrength 4 5 8 7 7 7 7 6 9 9 9 10 4 5 4

Corrosionresistance 2 2 3 3 9 9 9 10 7 2 2 2 2 8 8

Machinability** 5 5 7 9 8 8 8 3 3 4 5 3 7 6 7

Polishability 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 8 8 7 8 8 4 4 4

Weldability 6 7 4 4 4 4 4 6 2 2 2 2 6 5 6

Nitriding ability 6 5 8 10 – – – – – 8 8 8 5 – –

Photo-etchbility 9 9 8 8* 8* 8* 8* 8* 8* 5 8 5 3 3 3

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PROPERTIES

The properties of the main mould and holder steel gradeshave been rated from 1–10, where 10 is the highest rating.Such comparisons must be considered as approximate, butcan be a useful guide to steel selection.

Note: It is not possible to make valid “total comparisons” betweensteel grades by adding their respective “points”—it is only intendedthat individual properties be compared.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

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Mould steel selectionGENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

PROCESS/ UDDEHOLM HARDNESS MATERIAL STEEL GRADE HRC (HB)

INJECTION ThermoplasticsMOULDING – Prehardened mould steel ALUMEC (~160)

IMPAX SUPREME 33 (~310)NIMAX ~380RAMAX HH ~340

– Through-hardened mould steel ORVAR SUPREME 45–52STAVAX ESR 45–52MIRRAX ESR 45–50POLMAX 45–52UNIMAX 50–58CORRAX 36–50ELMAX 58–60VANADIS 4 EXTRA 58–62VANADIS 6 60–64

Thermoset plastics UNIMAX 52–58RIGOR, ELMAX 58–60VANADIS 4 EXTRA 58–62VANADIS 6 60–64

COMPRESSIONS/ Thermoset plastics UNIMAX 52–58TRANSFER STAVAX ESR 45–52MOULDING MIRRAX ESR 45–50

ORVAR SUPREME 45–52ELMAX 58–60VANADIS 4 EXTRA 58–62VANADIS 6 60–64

BLOW MOULDING General ALUMEC (~160)IMPAX SUPREME 33 (~310)NIMAX ~380

PVC STAVAX ESR 45–52MIRRAX ESR 45–50RAMAX HH 37 (~340)CORRAX 36–50

EXTRUSION General IMPAX SUPREME 33 (~310)NIMAX ~380

PVC STAVAX ESR 45–52MIRRAX ESR 45–50RAMAX HH 37 (~340)CORRAX 36–50

HOLDER MATERIAL 1. High strength, prehardened, free-machining HOLDAX 33 (~310)

2. As 1, plus corrosion resistance for low- maintenance production runs. Also for “hygenic” operating conditions. No plating required. RAMAX LH ~290

RAMAX HH 37 (~340)


SPECIAL RECOMMENDATIONS

SPECIAL REQUIREMENT UDDEHOLM HARDNESS OR DEMAND STEEL GRADE HRC (HB)

LARGE MOULD SIZE For automotive components, including panels,bumpers, fascias, etc. ALUMEC (~160)

IMPAX SUPREME 33 (~310)NIMAX ~380CORRAX 36–46MIRRAX ESR 36–50ORVAR SUPREME 36–50VIDAR 1 ESR 36–50

As above, with low demands on surface finish HOLDAX 33 (~310)RAMAX HH 37 (~340)

HIGH SURFACE For moulding optical/medical parts, clearFINISH covers/panels STAVAX ESR 45–52

MIRRAX ESR 45–50UNIMAX 50–58POLMAX 45–52ELMAX 58–60VANADIS 4 EXTRA 58–62ORVAR SUPREME 45–52VIDAR 1 ESR 45–52

COMPLEX SHAPES 1. For large automobile/household components IMPAX SUPREME 33 (~310)NIMAX ~380CORRAX 34–46MIRRAX ESR 36–50

2. For small parts with low wear demands IMPAX SUPREME 33 (~310)NIMAX ~380CORRAX 34–46

3. For small parts with high wear demands,e.g. electrical/electronic mouldings RIGOR 60–62

UNIMAX 56–58ORVAR SUPREME 50–52STAVAX ESR 50–52MIRRAX ESR 45–50ELMAX 58–60VANADIS 4 EXTRA 58–62VANADIS 6 60–64

ABRASIVE Reinforced/filled moulding materials; engineering RIGOR 58–62MOULDING resins UNIMAX 56–58MATERIALS ORVAR SUPREME 50–52

STAVAX ESR 50–52MIRRAX ESR 45–50ELMAX 58–60VANADIS 4 EXTRA 58–62VANADIS 6 60–64


SPECIAL RECOMMENDATIONS

SPECIAL REQUIREMENT UDDEHOLM HARDNESS OR DEMAND STEEL GRADE HRC (HB)

LONG For thermoplastic parts, including disposable STAVAX ESR 45–52PRODUCTION cutlery, containers and packaging MIRRAX ESR 45–50RUNS UNIMAX 52–58

ORVAR SUPREME 45–52VIDAR 1 ESR 45–52ELMAX 58–60VANADIS 4 EXTRA 58–62VANADIS 6 60–64

CORROSION 1. For corrosive moulding materials, including PVC STAVAX ESR 45–52RESISTANCE 2. For humid moulding/mould storage conditions MIRRAX ESR 45–50

3. General resistance to surface staining/rusting ELMAX 58–604. Resistance to corrosion of cooling channels RAMAX HH 37 (~340)

RAMAX LH 32 (~290)CORRAX 34–50

PHOTO-ETCHING 1. Prehardened steel IMPAX SUPREME 33 (~310)NIMAX ~380

2. Through-hardened steel ORVAR SUPREME 45–52VIDAR 1 ESR 45–52STAVAX ESR 45–52MIRRAX ESR 45–50UNIMAX 50–58ELMAX 58–60VANADIS 4 EXTRA 58–62VANADIS 6 60–64

HIGH THERMAL For injection and blow moulds, cores and inserts; MOLDMAX HH ~40CONDUCTIVITY parts for hot runner systems. MOLDMAX XL ~30

MOLDMAX® is a trade-mark registered of Brush Wellman Inc., Cleveland, Ohio.

www.assab.com www.uddeholm.com www.uddeholm.com

Network of excellenceUDDEHOLM is present on every continent. This ensures you

high-quality Swedish tool steel and local support wherever you

are. ASSAB is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive sales

channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.

Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier

of tooling materials.


UD

DEH

OLM

091001.1000 / TRYC

KERI KNA

PPEN, KA

RLSTAD

200910007

UDDEHOLM is the world’s leading supplier of tooling materials. This

is a position we have reached by improving our customers’ everyday

business. Long tradition combined with research and product develop-

ment equips Uddeholm to solve any tooling problem that may arise.

It is a challenging process, but the goal is clear – to be your number one

partner and tool steel provider.

Our presence on every continent guarantees you the same high quality

wherever you are. ASSAB is our wholly-owned subsidiary and exclusive

sales channel, representing Uddeholm in various parts of the world.

Together we secure our position as the world’s leading supplier of

tooling materials. We act worldwide, so there is always an Uddeholm

or ASSAB representative close at hand to give local advice and support.

For us it is all a matter of trust – in long-term partnerships as well as in

developing new products. Trust is something you earn, every day.

For more information, please visit www.uddeholm.com, www.assab.com

or your local website.

ASSAB

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